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Geophysics
Radioactive Decay
Periodic Table of Elements
• Periodic table of the elements
by atomic number
Atomic Particles and Isotopes
• Protons: mass = 1; charge = +1
• Neutron: mass = 1; charge = 0
• Electron: mass = 0; charge = ‐1
• Isotope: an isotope of an element has a specific number of
protons that identifies the element; but may have varying
numbers of neutrons
• Atomic Number: sum of the protons in the nucleus of the atom
• Atomic Mass: sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
the isotope
• Example: 39Ar is the isotope of the element argon that has
an atomic mass of 39 (14 Protons + 25 Neutrons)
• Elemental Weight: weighted average of all of the known isotopes
of an element
• Example: K = 39.10 (most K isotopes are 39K but there are
a small percentage of 40K that moves the average mass to
39.1)
Radioactive Decay Systematics
• Certain isotopes spontaneously
decay by the release of radiation
• Alpha Decay: ejection from nucleus
of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
• Beta decay: ejection from a neutron
of an electron
• Gamma decay: release of energy in
the form of gamma radiation via
electron capture (converts a proton
to a neutron
Examples of Decay
• 147Sm > 143Nd (1 alpha particle)
• Atomic mass lowered by 4 (2 protons + 2 neutrons lost)
• Atomic number lowered by 2 (2 protons lost) (Sm=62; Nd=60)
• 87Rb > 87Sr (1 beta particle)
• Atomic mass unchanged by loss of electron
• Atomic number increased by one (Rb=37 ; Sr=38)
• 40K > 40Ar (gamma decay via electron capture)
• Atomic mass unchanged by gain of electron
• Atomic number decreased by one (K=19; Ar=18)
• Quantum mechanics states that it is impossible to predict whether or
not a specific isotope atom will decay, however, the number of parent
isotope atoms that decay to daughter isotopes over large intervals of
time is a constant (i.e. radioactive decay constant)
Decay Systems
Abundances of Radioactive Parent/Daughter Isotopes
used in Radiometric Dating
• Note that all but Nd/Sm are concentrated in felsic to
intermediate rocks
Closure Temperature for Radiometric Systems
• At temperatures above the
closure threshold the system is
“open” and daughter products
are lost
• The radiometric clock does not
start until the temperature is
below the closure threshold
• Note that closure T is within
the realm of metamorphism so
rocks do not have to be melted
to re‐set the radiometric clock
Isochron Diagrams
• Isochron diagram calculates the age of the geological
sample from isotopic analysis
• The slope (t) of the best‐fit line is proportional to the
age
• The Y‐intercept of the isochron (87Sr/86Sr) provides
information about the origin of the material
• 86Sr is not part of a decay sequence‐ it is used for
convenience in measuring isotopic abundance
Isochron Diagram for Rb/Sr
• Isochron is a
statistical best‐fit
(linear regression)
• 86Sr is non‐
radiogenic
• Y‐intercept is
87Sr/86Sr initial
ratio at time of last
homogenization
Practical Measurement of Age from Isochron
• The slope of the isochron is calculated from the slope coefficient
of the linear regression equation (y = mx+b ; m=slope)
• Slope = (et – 1)
• Ln(slope) = t ‐ Ln(1)
• Ln(slope + 1)/ = t {where t = age of sample; = decay constant}
Example Layout of a Isochron Spreadsheet
87Sr/86Sr Growth Curves
• Mantle growth curve for
87Sr/86Sr generates
values <= 0.704
• Crustal growth curves
generate values >= 0.708
U/Pb Concordia Equation
• Uses the 235U>207Pb and 238U > 206Pb systems
• λ235 = 9.85e‐10
• λ238 = 1.55e‐10
Concordia Diagram for 235U/238U
• Ratios 2 systems: 235U>207Pb and 238U>206Pb
• Because 238U decays slower than 235U the “Concordia” curve is concave
down
• Discordant samples indicate 2 separate events
Example Concordia Spreadsheet Layout
Limitations of Radiometric Dating
• All radiometric systems require a starting “homogenization” event:
• Melting
• Metamorphism
• Hydrothermal alteration
• Mineral isochrons date the last homogenization event
• Whole‐rock isochrons date the genetic event
• Sedimentary rocks are rarely dated by isotopic methods:
• Cement
• Chemical/Biochemical sediments
• Detrital zircons may yield minimum age of source rock
• Most systems are specific to intermediate or felsic igneous rocks (U, Th,
Rb, K)
• Mafic/Ultramafic rocks: Sm/Nd
• Most valuable dates come from volcanics because they obey the law of
superposition
Problems with Radiometric Dates
• Contamination
• Above ground nuclear weapons testing produces Pb isotopic
fallout
• U/Th/Pb samples must be processed in “clean rooms”
• K/Ar: daughter product is a gas and may be easily lost
• U/Pb is contained in refractory minerals
• Ion probe can overcome isotopic zonation in zircon/sphene
• Rb/Sr are susceptible to leaching by hydrothermal fluids