UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE BAJA CALIFORNIA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DESIGN OF ELEMENTS IN AIRCRAFT

Name: Nieto Camacho José Fernando.

Teacher: Emmanuel Santiago Durazo Romero.

RESEARCH WORK: Composite Materials and Materials Selection.

Mexicali, B.C Wednesday, October 3, 2018.

CONTENTS

COMPOSITE MATERIALS .......................................... 1

Classifications of Composite Materials by Matrix ......... 2

Polymer matrix composites (PMC) ............................ 3

Metal matrix composites (MMC) ................................ 3

Ceramic matrix composites (CMC) ............................ 3

Forms of Filler Materials .............................................. 4

Types of Filler Materials ............................................. 4

Advantages of Composites. ......................................... 5

Limitations of Composites ............................................ 6

Processing of Composites ........................................... 7

MATERIALS SELECTION ........................................... 8

CONCLUSION ........................................................... 18

REFERENCES .......................................................... 19
PREFACE

The main objective of this research work is to make know what is a composite
material, wich characterize them, how they behave, some types of composite
materials, etc.
TThis research was conducted for those who are studying the behavior of
materials,know everything about composite materials, in order to see what
improvements can be made to the mechanical propierties of a material or alloy.
This research is base don the understanding of composite materials and some
concepts that are involved in the them.
Another function of this work is about the selection of materials, which is a rather
complex task for the design engineer who has such responsability.
You will see the distinctive characteristics of each of the materials mentioned in the
research and graphically see the difference between them.
Look at all the analysis that a design engineer must take into account to choose a
specific material, such as the cost, the mechanical properties of the material, etc.
This work also serves as support for researchers seeking to develop new
technologies with polymers, alloys and more, in order to make more resitant and
durable materials, that is tos ay that they have more time t olive and that support
much stress to which they submit.

We appreciate the contribution of the information that is base on this research work
to the books in mention: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design Ninth Edition
and Applied Strength of Materials, Robert mott 5th edition.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites are materials having two or more constituents blended in a way that
results in mechanical or adhesive bonding between the materials. To form a
composite, a filler material is distributed in a matrix so that the filler reinforces the
matrix. Typically, the filler is a strong, stiff material while the matrix has a relatively
low density. When the two materials bond together, much of the load-carrying
ability of the composite is produced by the filler material. The matrix serves to hold
the filler in a favorable orientation relative to the manner of loading and to the
distribute the loads to the filler. The results is a somewhat optimized composite that
has high strength and high stiffness with low weight.
A virtually unlimited variety of composite materials can be producen by combining
different matrix materials with different fillers in different and in different
orientations. Even wood and concrete, are technically examples of composites.
(Moott 2015,88)

Figure 1: Composites categorized by type of reinforcement

(Budynas and Nisbett, 2008,60)

Examples of Finished Products Made from Composite Materials.

The number and variety of applications for composite materials is large and
growing. The following ítems are but a sampling of these applications.
Consumer products and recreation: Sporting godos such as tennis rackets, snow
skis, snowboards, wáter skis, surfboards, baseball bats, hockey sticks, vaulting
poles, and golf clubs; numerous products having the familiar fiberglass housings
and panels; boat hulls and other onboard equipement; medical systems and
prosthetic devices.

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Ground transportation equipement: Bicycle frames, wheels, and seats; automotive
and truck body panels and support structures, air ducts, air bags, driveshafts,
springs for high-performance sports cars and trucks, floor pans, pickup truck beds,
and bumpers.

Aircraft and aerospace systems: Fuselage panels and internal structural elements,
wings, control surfaces (aileron, spoilers, tails, rudders), floor systems, engine
cowls and nacelles, landing gear doors, cargo compartment structure and fittings,
interior sidewalls, trim, partitions, ceiling panels, dividers, environmental control
system ducting, stowage bins, lavatory structure system and fixtures , airfoils
(blades) in the compressor section of turbine engines, rocket nozzles, helicopter
rotors, propellers, and onboard thanks for storing water and wastewater.

Industrial facilities: Storage tanks and pressure vessels of chemical, agricultural,

and petroleum processing, piping for chemicals and through corrosive
enviroments, septic systems, wastewater treatment facilities, chemical cleaning
and plating system, Pulp and paper making equipment, portable tanks for trucks
and railroad applications, environmental treatment equipment, protective clothing
and helmets, food processing and storage systems, mining, and material hadling
systems.

Electrical and electronic systems: Printed circuit boards, printed wiring boards,
surface mount cards, packaging of electronic components, and switching system
components.

Building construction: Structural shapes, exterior panels, roofing and decking

systems, doors, window frames, equipment housings, gutters and downspouts,
cooling towers, bridges and walkways, piping system, and ductwork.
((Moott 2015,88-91)

Classifications of Composite Materials by Matrix

One method of classifying composite materials is by the type of matrix material.

Three general classifications are used as described next, along with typicalmatrix
materials, uses, and matrix-filler combinations.

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Polymer matrix composites (PMC)

Thermoplastics: polyethylenes, polyamides (nylons), polystyrenes, polypropylenes,

polycarbonates, polyetheretherketones (PEEK), polyphenylene sulfides (PPS),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Thermosets: polyesters, epoxies, phenolics, polyimides (PI), vinyl esters, silicones.

PMCs are used for their high strength and stiffness, low density, and relatively low
cost in aerospace, automotive, marine, chemical, electrical, and Sporting
applications. Common PMC composites include polyester-glass (conventionl
fiberglass), epoxy-glass, polyimide-glass, epoxy-aramid, epoxy-carbon, PEEK-
carbon,and PPS-carbon.

Metal matrix composites (MMC)

Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), magnesium(Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni),
and alloys of these metals with themselves and with molybdenum (Mo), cesium
(Ce), boron (B).
MMCs are preferred for high strength, high stiffness, abrasion resistance,
dimensional stability, electrical and thermal conductivity, ability to operate in high
temperaturas, and toughness and are applied typically in aerospace and engine
applications. Examples of MMC composites include Al-SiC (silicon carbide), Ti-SiC,
Al-B, Al-C (carbón), Al-graphite, Mg-SiC, and Al-𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (aluminum oxide).
Ceramic matrix composites (CMC)

Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, alumina, zirconia, glass-ceramic, glass,

carbon,graphite.
CMCs are preferred for high strength, high stiffness, high fracture toughness
relative to ceramics alone, ability to operate at high temperaturas, and low thermal
expansión and are attractive for furnaces, engines, and aerospace
applications.Common CMC composites include carbon-carbon (C-C), silicon
carbide-carbon (SiC-C), silicon carbide-silicon carbide (SiC-SiC), glass ceramic-
silicon carbide, silicon carbide-lithium aluminosilicate (SiC-LAS), and silicon
carbide-calcium aluminosilicate (SiC-CAS). Where the same basic material is listed

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as both the matrix and the filler, the filler is of different for such as whiskers,
chopped fibers, or strands to achieve the preferred properties. (Moott 2015,91)

Forms of Filler Materials

Many forms of filler materials are used as listed here.

• Continuous fiber strand consisting of many individual filaments bound
together.
• Chopped strands in short lengths (0.75 to 50 mm or 0.03 to 2 in)
• Chopped longer strands randomly spread in the from of a mat
• Chopped longer strands aligned with the principal directions of the load path
• Roving: A group of parallel strands
• Woven fabric made from roving or strands
• Metal filaments or wires
• Solid or hollow microspheres
• Metal, glass, or mica flakes
• Single cristal whiskers of materials such as graphite, silicon carbide and
copper
(Moott 2015,91-92)
Types of Filler Materials

Fillers, also called fibers, come in many types based on both organic and inorganic
materials. Some of the more popular fillers are listed below.
• Glass fibers in five different types:
A-glass: good chemical resistance because it contains alkalis such as
sodium oxide
C-glass: special formulations for even higher chemical resistance tan A-
glass
E-glass: widely used glass with good electrical insulating ability and good
strength
S-glass: high strength, high temperatura glass
D-glass: better electrical properties tan E-glass
• Quartz fibers and silica glass; Good properties at high temperaturas up to
2000ºF (1095ºC).
• Carbon fibers made from PAN-base carbón (PAN is polyacrylonitrile):
approximately 95% carbón with very high modulus of elasticity.

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 • Graphite fibers: greater tan 99%a carbón and even higher modulus of
elasticity tan carbón; the stiffest fibers typically used in composites
• Boron coated onto tungsten fibers: Good strength and higher modulus of
elasticity than glass.
• Silicon carbide coated onto tungsten fibers: strength and stiffness similar to
boron/tungsten but with higher temperatura capability.
• Aramid fibers: a member of the polyamide family of polymers; higher
strength and stiffness with lower density as compared with glass; very
flexible (aramid fibers produced by the DuPont company carry the name
Kevlar).
(Moott 2015,92-93)

Advantages of Composites.

Designers typically seek to produce products that are safe, strong, stiff, lightweight,
and highly tolerant of the environment in wich the product Will operate. Composites
often Excel in meeting these objectives when compared to alternative materials
such as metals, Wood, and unfilled plastics. Two parametersthat are used to
compare materials as specific strength and specific modulus, defined as,
Specific strength is the ratio of the tensile strength of a material to its
specific weight.
Specific modulus is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of a material to its
specific weight.
Advantages of composites can be summarized as follows:
1. Specific strengths for composite materials can range as high as five times
those of high strength steel alloys.
2. Specific modulus values for composite materials can be as high as eight
time those for either steel, aluminum, or titanium alloys.
3. Composite materials typically perform better tan steel or aluminum in
applications where cyclic loads are encountered leading to the potential for
fatigue failure.
4. Where impact loads and vibrations are expected, composites can be
specially formulated with materials that provide high toughness and a high
leve lof damping.
5. Some composites have much higher wear resistance tan metals.
6. Careful selection of the matrix and filler materials can provide superior
corrosión resistance.

5
 7. Dimensional changes due to changes in temperatura are typically much les
for composites tan for metals.
8. Because composite materials have properties that are highly directional,
designers can tailor the placement of reinforcing fibers in directions that
provide the required strength and stiffness under the specific loading
conditions to be encountered.
9. Composite structures can often be made in complex shapes in one piece,
thus reducing the number of parts in a product and the number of fastening
operations required. The elimination of joints typically improves the reliability
of such structures as well.
10. Composite structures are typically made in their final form directly or in a
nearnet hape, thus reducing the number of secondary operations required.
(Moott 2015,93-94)

Limitations of Composites

Designers must balance many properties of materials in their designs while

simultaneously considering manufacturing operations, costs, safety, life, and
service of the product. The following list gives some of the major concerns when
using composites.
1. Material costs for composites are typically higher than for many alternative
materials.
2. Fabrication techniques are quite different from those used to shape metals .
New manufacturing equipment may be required along with additional
training for production operators.
3. The performance of products made from some composite production
techniques is subject to a wider range of variability than for most metal
fabrication techniques.
4. The operating temperatura limit for composites having a polymeric matrix is
typically 500ºF (260ºC). (But ceramic or metal matrix xomposites can be
used at heigher temperaturas, up yo 1500ºC(2700ºF), as found in engines).
5. The properties of composite materials are not isotropic. This means that
properties vary dramatically with the direction of the applied loads.
Designers must account for these variations to ensure safety and
satisfactory operation under all expected types of loading.
6. At this time, many designers lack an understanding of the behavior of
composite materials and the details of prediciting failuremodes. While major

6
 advancements have been made in certain industries such as the aerospace
and recreational equipment fields, there is a need for more general
understanding about designing with composite materials.
7. The analysis of composite structures requires the detailed knowledge of
more properties of the materials tan would be required dor metals.
8. Inspection and testing of composite structures is typically more complicated
and les precise tan for metal structures. Special nondestructive techniques
may be required to ensure that thereare no major voids in the final product
that could seriously weaken the structure. Testing of the complete structure
may be required rather tan testing a sample of the material because of the
interaction of different parts on each other and because of the directionality
of the materials properties.
9. Repair and maintenance of composite structures is a serious concern.
Some of the initial production techniques requirespecial environments of
temperatura and pressure that may be difficult to reproduce in the field when
damage repair is required. Bonding of a repaired área to the parent
structure may also be difficult.
(Moott 2015,94-97)

Processing of Composites

One method that is frequently used to produce composite products is first to

place layers of sheet-formed fabrics on a form having the desired shape and
then to imprégnate the fabric with wet resin. Each layer of fabric can be
adjusted in its orientation to produce special properties of the finished
article. After the lay-up and resin impregnation are completed, the entire
system is subjected to heat and pressure while a curing agent reacts with
the base resin to produce cross-linking that binds al lof the elements into a
three-dimensional, unified structure. The polymerbind to the fibers and holds
them in their preferred position and orientation during use.
An alternative method of fabricating composite products starts with a
process of preimpregnating the fibers with the resin material to produce
strands, tape, braids, or sheets. The resulting form, called a prepreg, can
then be stacked into layers or wound onto a form to produce the desired
shape and thickness. The final step is the curing cycle as described for the
wet process.

7
 Polyester-based composites are often produced as sheet-molding
compounds (SMC) in wich preimpregnatedfabric sheets are placed into a
mold and shaped and cured simultaneously under heat and pressure. Large
body panels for automotive applications can be produced in this manner.
Pultrusion is a process in wich the fiber reinforcement is coated with resin as
it is pulled through a heated die to produce a continuous form in the desired
shape. This process is used to producerod, tubing, structural shapes (1-
beams, channels, angles, and so on), tees, and hat sections used as
stiffeners in aircraft structure.
Filament winding is used to make pipe, pressure vessels, rocket motor
cases instrument enclosures, and odd-shaped containers. The continuous
filament can be placed in a variety of patterns, includding helical, axial, and
circumferential, to produce desired strength and stiffness characteristics.
(Moott 2015,98-99)

MATERIALS SELECTION

As stated earlier, the selection of a material for a machine part or structural

member is one of the most important decisions the designer is called on to make.
The actual selection of a material for a particular design application can be an easy
one, say, based on previous applications (1020 steel is always a good candidate
because of its many positive attributes), or the selection process can be as
involved and daunting as any design problem with the evaluation of the many
material physical, economical, and processing parameters.
There are systematic and optimizing approaches to material selection. Here, for
illustration, we will only look at how to approach some material properties. One
basic technique is to list all the important material properties associated with the
design, strength, stiffness, and cost. This can be prioritized by using a weighting
measure depending on what properties are more important tan others. Next, for
each property, list all available materials and rank them in order beginning with the
best material; for strength, high-strength steel such as 4340 steel should be near
the top of the list. For completeness of available materials, this might require a
large source of material data. Once the lists are formed, select a manageable
amount of materials from the top of each list.
The materials in the reduced lists can be graded within the list and then weighted
according to the importance of each property.

8
M. F. Ashby has developed a powerful systematic method using materials
selection charts. This method has also been implemented in a software package
called CES Edupack. The charts display data of various properties for the families
and classes of materials listed in Table 1. For example, considering material
stiffness properties, a simple bar chart plotting Young’s modulus E on the y axis is
shown in Fig. 2. Each vertical line represents the range of values of E for a
particular material. Only some of the materials are labeled.
Now, more material information can be displayed if the x axis represents another
material property, say density. Figure 3, called a “bubble” chart, represents
Young’s modulus E plotted against density ρ. The line ranges for each material
property plotted two-dimensionally now form ellipses, or bubbles. Groups of
bubbles outlined according to the material families of Table 1 are also shown. This
plot is more useful than the two separate bar charts of each property.
(Budynas and Nisbett,2008,61).

Tabla 1: Material families and classes.

(Budynas and Nisbett,2008,61-62)

9
10
Figure 2: Young’s modulus E for various materials.
(Budynas and Nisbett,2008,63)

Now, we also see how stiffness/weight for various materials relate. The ratio of
Young’s modulus to density, E/ρ, is known as the specific modulus, or specific
stiffness. This ratio is of particular interest when it is desired to minimize weight
where the primary design limitation is deflection, stiffness, or natural frequency,
rather than strength. Machine parts made from materials with higher specific
modulus will exhibit lower deflection, higher stiffness, and higher natural frequency.
In the lower right corner of the chart in Figure 3, dotted lines indicate ratios of 𝐸𝛽 /𝜌.
Several parallel dotted lines are shown for 𝛽 = 1 that represent different values of
the specific modulus E/ρ. This allows simple comparison of the specific modulus
between materials. It can be seen, for example, that some woods and aluminum
alloys have about the same specific modulus as steels. Different values of β allow
comparisons for various relationships between stiffness and weight, such as in
different loading conditions. The relationship is linear (β = 1) for axial loading, but
nonlinear (β = 1/2) for bending loading. Since the plot is on a log-log scale, the

11
exponential functions still plot as straight lines. The β = 1 lines can also be used to
represent constant values of the speed of sound in a material, since the
relationship between E and r is linear in the equation for the speed of sound in a
1
material, c =(𝐸⁄𝜌) ⁄2. The same can be shown for natural frequency, which is a
function of the ratio of stiffness to mass. To see how β fits into the mix, consider
the following. The performance metric P of a structural element depends on the
functional requirements, the geometry, and the material properties of the structure.
That is,
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑃 = [( ),( ),( )]
𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝐹 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝐺 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑀
or, symbolically,
𝑃 = 𝑓 (𝐹, 𝐺, 𝑀)

Figure 3: Young’s modulus E versus density ρ for various materials.

(Budynas and Nisbett,2008,64)

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If the function is separable, which it often is, we can write as:
𝑃 = 𝑓1(𝐹) · 𝑓2(𝐺) · 𝑓3(𝑀)
For optimum design, we desire to maximize or minimize P. With regards to
material properties alone, this is done by maximizing or minimizing 𝑓3 (M), called
the material efficiency coefficient. For illustration, say we want to design a light,
stiff, end-loaded cantilever beam with a circular cross section. For this we will
use the mass m of the beam for the performance metric to minimize. The
stiffness of the beam is related to its material and geometry. The stiffness of a
beam is given by 𝑘 = 𝐹⁄𝛿 , where F and δ are the end load and deflection,
respectively. The end deflection of an end-loaded cantilever beam is given in
Table 2, beam 1, as 𝛿 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐹𝑙 3 )⁄(3𝐸𝐼), where E is Young’s modulus, I the
second moment of the area, and l the length of the beam. Thus, the stiffness is
given by:

𝐹 3𝐸𝐼
𝑘= = 3
𝛿 𝑙

the second moment of the area of a circular cross section is:

𝜋𝐷4 𝐴2
𝐼= =
64 4𝜋

where D and A are the diameter and area of the cross section, respectively.
Substituting, we obtain:

4𝜋𝑘𝑙 3 1⁄
𝐴=( ) 2
3𝐸

The mass of the beam is given by

𝑚 = 𝐴𝑙𝜌

Substituting:

𝜋 1 5 𝜌
𝑚 = 2√ (𝑘 ⁄2 ) (𝑙 ⁄2 ) ( 1 )
3 𝐸 ⁄2

13
 𝜋
The term 2√ is simply a constant and can be associated with any function, say
3

𝜋 1
𝑓1 (F). Thus, 𝑓2 (F) = 2√ (𝑘 ⁄2 ) is the functional requirement, stiffness; 𝑓2 (G) =
3
5
(𝑙 ⁄2 ), the geometric parameter, length; and the material efficiency coefficient

𝜌
𝑓3 (𝑀) = 1⁄
𝐸 2

is the material property in terms of density and Young’s modulus. To minimize m

we want to minimize 𝑓3 (M), or maximize:
1
𝐸 ⁄2
𝑀=
𝜌
1
where M is called the material index, and β = 2. Returning to Fig. 3, draw lines of
various values of as shown in Fig.4. Lines of increasing M move up and to the
left as shown. Thus, we see that good candidates for a light, stiff, end-loaded
cantiléver beam with a circular cross section are certain woods, composites, and
ceramics. Other limits/constraints may warrant further investigation. Say, for
further illustration, the design requirements indicate that we need a Young’s
modulus greater than 50 GPa. Figure 5 shows how this further restricts the
search region. This eliminates woods as a possible material. Another commonly
useful chart, shown in Fig. 6, represents strength versus density for the material
families. The ratio of strength to density is known as specific strength, and is
particularly useful when it is desired to minimize weight where the primary design
limitation is strength, rather than deflection. The guidelines in the lower right
corner represent different relationships between strength and density, in the form
𝛽
of 𝑆 ⁄𝜌. Following an approach similar to that used before, it can be shown that
2
for axial loading, 𝛽 =1, and for bending loading, 𝛽 = . Certainly, in a given
3
design exercise, there will be other considerations such as environment, cost,
availability, and machinability, and other charts may be necessary to investigate.
Also, we have not brought in the material process selection part of the picture. If
done properly, material selection can result in a good deal of bookkeeping. This
is where software packages such as CES Edupack become very effective.

(Budynas and Nisbett,2008, 61-67)

14
Figure 4: A schematic E versus ρ chart showing a grid of lines for varios
𝟏⁄
values the material index M = 𝑬 𝟐⁄
𝝆. (Budynas and Nisbett,2008,66).

15
Figure 5: The search region of Fig. 3 further reduced by restricting

E ≥ 50 GPa. (Budynas and Nisbett,2008,66).

16
Figure 6: Strength S versus density ρ for various materials. For metals, S is
the 0.2 percent offset yield strength. For polymers, S is the 1 percent yield
strength. (Budynas and Nisbett,2008,67)

17
CONCLUSION
A composite material is that formed by two or more components, the shape of
the properties of the final material are superior to the components separately,
and that is why they are more resistant.

The composite materials are a good variable for the materials. The construction
industry and improvements in materials and more durable too, they areclassified
in different ways, as well as in the way we can use them, composite materials
are a great innovation that has made the human being and can further improve.

Composite materials are very important for the aeroespace industry because the
use of polymers and fibers that make up the plane makees it more resistant, in
addition to being lighter and more economical than some other materials.

In addition, the use of technologies in materials will make in the future have
better mechanical properties than those already existing.

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REFERENCES

- Richard G. Budynas, J. Keith Nisbett. 2008. Shigley’s Mechanical

Engineering Design. 9th edition, EUA, NY: McGraw-Hill.

- Mott, Robert L., P.E. 2015. Applied Strength of Materials. 5th edition, EUA
NW: Taylor and Francis Group.

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