Vade Mecum

VADE-MECUM
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
Corporate Technical Services

December 2000
(Revision 2002)
© Lafarge Canada Inc., 2000
This manual is the property of Lafarge Canada Inc. and is not to be copied in any manner, in
whole or in part, without the express written authorization of the Vice-president of the Corporate
Technical Services of Lafarge Canada Inc.
It is a valuable and confidential business asset of Lafarge Canada Inc. and is not to be shown or
made available to any person outside the Lafarge Group without the express authorization of the
Vice-president of the Corporate Technical Services of Lafarge Canada Inc.
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Foreword
“Vade-mecum” is a Latin expression that means “Something that goes with me”. The purpose of this
booklet is to provide process engineers with a tool to overcome technical problems. It is not intended to
deeply explain the theory behind the calculations.
The “Vade-mecum” is a support to make good process recommendations. It complements the “Process
Tools” (CTS Process Dept. spreadsheets and software), Cahiers Techniques (e.g. Lafarge Product
Platform) and the Best Practices already available in the network.
Joel Vanderstichelen produced the first issue in 1990. After 10 years, an update was required. Given
the success of this booklet, we decided to keep the same format while expanding sections such as
Statistics, Environment, Quality Control, etc…
The format of this “Vade-mecum” has been chosen so that it can easily be carried in a briefcase and
blank pages were incorporated for personal notes.
We would appreciate any comments, suggestions or corrections for the next edition. Send by fax or
e-mail to:
Director, Process & Environment

Corporate Technical Services
6150 Royalmount Avenue
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
H4P 2R3
Fax: (514) 738-1124
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1- Mathematics
2- Statistics
3- Quality
4- Milling
5- Combustion & Fuels
6- Pyroprocessing
7- Environment
8- Fluid Flow
9- Process Control
10- Thermodynamics and Chemistry Data
11- Unit Conversion
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. MATHEMATICS
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 1 – MATHEMATICS
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Algebra .................................................................................................... 1.1

2. Trigonometry........................................................................................... 1.2
3. Plane Geometry ....................................................................................... 1.3
4. Solid Geometry........................................................................................ 1.4
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. Algebra
a) Exponents a 2 − 2 ab + b 2 = (a − b )2
(a )∗ (a ) = a
m n m+n
(
a3 + b3 = (a + b ) a 2 − ab + b2 )
(a ) = a
m n mn
(
a3 − b3 = (a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 )
(am )∗ (bm ) = (a ∗ b)m e) Logarithms
am
= am−n log x + log y = log( xy )
an x
n log x − log y = log
an a y
= 
bn  b  x * log y = log y x( )
a1 / k = k a 1
log n x = * log x
1
a −n = n
an log10 a = 0.4343 In a
am / n = am
n In a = 2.3026 log10 a
b) Fractions f) Determinants
a c a±c Simultaneous equations: ax + by + cz = d ,
± = ex + fy + gz = h , ix + jy + kz = l
b b b
a c a∗c If:
∗ = a b c d b c
b d b∗d
a c a∗d a d D = e f g D1 = h f g
÷ = = ∗
b d b∗c b c i j k l j k
a d c a b d
c) Radicals
(n a )n = a D2 = e
i
h
l
g
k
D1 = e
i
f
j
h
l
n n
a =a
n a * n b = n ab The solution is:
D1 dfk + bgl + cjh − ( cfl + gjd + khb )
n
a na x= =
= D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
n b
b D 2 ahk + dgi + cie − ( chi + gla + ked )
y= =
d) Factoring D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
ax + ay = a( x + y ) z=
D3 afl + bhi + dje − ( dfi + hja + leb )
=
D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
a 2 − b 2 = (a + b )(a − b )
a 2 + 2 ab + b 2 = (a + b )2
1.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
g) Quadratic Equation b) Right Triangle

ax 2 + bx + c = 0
c
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac a
x= A
2a
If: b
a c
- b 2 − 4 ac > 0 , the roots are real and unequal. sin A = csc A =
c a
- b 2 − 4 ac = 0 , the roots are real and equal.
b c
- b 2 − 4 ac < 0 , the roots are imaginary. cos A = sec A =
c b
h) Power of Ten a b
tan A = cot A =
( p) pico = 10 −12 deka = 101 ( da ) b a
−9
(n) nano = 10 hecto = 10 2
(h) c) Any Triangle
−6
( µ ) micro = 10 kilo = 10 3
(k )
−3 6 C a
( m ) milli = 10 mega = 10 (M )
b
(c) centi = 10 − 2 giga = 10 9 (G ) A B
−1 12
(d ) deci = 10 tera = 10 (T ) c
Law of sines
2. Trigonometry a b c
= =
a) General Relationships sin A sin B sin C
sin 2 A + cos 2 A = 1 Law of cosines
sec 2 A = 1 + tan 2 A a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
csc 2 A = 1 + cot 2 A b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2 ac cos B
1 1
sin A = cos A = c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab cos C
csc A sec A
sin A cos A Law of tangents
tan A = cot A = A− B
cos A sin A tan
sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 2 = a −b where a > b
A+ B a +b
2 tan
sin A = 2 sin A cos A 2
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A B−C
tan
= 1 − 2 sin 2 A , = 2 cos 2 A − 1 2 = b−c where b > c
B+C b+c
A 1 − cos A tan
sin =± 2
2 2
A−C
A 1 − cos A tan
2 = a−c
tan =± where a > c
2 1 + cos A A+C a +c
tan
A 1 + cos A 2
cos = ±
2 2
1.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Newton's formula
c a+b 3. Plane Geometry
=
C A− B a) Rectangle
sin cos
2 2
a Area: a * b
Tangents of half angles
b+c+d
If p =
2 b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2 b) Parallelogram
p
tan =
p−a Area: a * b
a
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2
p
tan = b
p−b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c ) c) Triangle
2
p
tan =
p−c a c Area: 0.5 * a * b
d
Area
S = 2 , p( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
b
a 2 sin B sin C b+c+d
=
2 sin A If p =
2
2
b sin A sin C Area: p * ( p − b ) * ( p − c ) * ( p − d )
=
2 sin B
2
c sin A sin B d) Circle
=
2 sin C s
bc sin A h
=
2
c
r ß
ac sin B Circumference: = πD , = 2πr
=
2
ab sin C
D
=
2
= 0.25πD , = πr
d) Hyperbolic 2 2
Area:
x −x
sinh x = e + e 0.25c 2 + h 2
2 r =
2h
x −x β
cosh x = e + e c = 2 * h * ( D − h ) , = 2rsin
2 2
1.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
i) Polygon
= r − r − 0.25c
2 2
h s
ß
s = πD , = 0.01745 rβ Area = 0.5*n*s*r
360 r
e) Circular Sector
s
Where:
n is the number of sides
r ß 180°
n Area = nr 2 tan
Area = 0.5 rs, = 0.008727 r2ß ( β in °)
n
5 1.7205 s2
6 2.5981 s2
f) Circular Segment
7 3.6339 s2
s 8 4.8284 s2
9 6.1818 s2
10
h
c j) Trapezoid
r ß
Area = 0.5 (rs - c*(r-h))
ß c* ( r − h ) h H
= πr
2
*
360 2
g) Circular Ring c b a
Area = 0.5 [b*(H+h) + ch + aH]
π 2 4. Solid Geometry
Area = ( D − d2 )
d 4 a) Cube
D
h) Ellipse
a
c
a
π b
Area = Aa Volume: = abc
A 4
Surface area: = 2(ab+bc+ca)
1.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b) Cylinder f) Sphere
π
h Volume = D3
D 6
D
Surface area = πD 2
π 2
Volume = D h
4
Surface area: = πDh (without end surface) g) Segment of a Sphere
= πD (0.5D + h) (with end surface)
h
c) Pyramid
c r
s
h  c + 4h 2
h 2
Volume = π h2  − 
 8h 3 

Volume
area of base
= h Sphere surface =
4
(c2 + 4h2 )
π
3
= (c + 8 rh )
perimeter of base π 2
s Total surf
Lateral area = 4
2
d) Cone h) Sector of a Sphere

h 2
π 2 c Volume = π r 2h
Volume = r h 3
3
h π
Total surface = r ( 4h + c )
r Surface area = π r (r 2
+h 2
) r 2
i) Torus
e) Frustum of a Cone
r d
h D
s h
R π2
Volume (compl ring) = D d2
4
π
Volume =
3
(
∗ r + rR + R ∗ h 2 2
) Surface ( " ) = π2 Dd
Surface area = πs ( R + r )
1.5
Rev. 2002
VADE MECUM
2. STATISTICS
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 2 – STATISTICS
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................... 2.1

1.1 Definitions .......................................................................................... 2.1
1.2 Basic .................................................................................................. 2.1
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution .......................................................... 2.1
1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables ............................................................ 2.2
2. Statistical Estimation Tests ..................................................................... 2.3
2.1 Generalities......................................................................................... 2.3
2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal
Population of Random Size, ( n1 , n 2 ) .................................................. 2.3
2.3 Fisher Distribution Table .................................................................... 2.4
3. Correlation Between Data – Regression.................................................. 2.5
3.1 Generalities......................................................................................... 2.5
3.2 Least Squared Lines............................................................................ 2.5
4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables) .............................................. 2.6
4.1 Stationnarity ....................................................................................... 2.6
4.2 Variogram .......................................................................................... 2.6
4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning .................................................................... 2.9
5. Sampling ................................................................................................ 2.10
5.1 Golden Rules .................................................................................... 2.10
5.2 Fundamental Error (FE) .................................................................... 2.10
5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW).......................................... 2.11
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size .......................................... 2.11
5.5 Minimum Number of Observations.................................................... 2.12
5.6 Mechanical Sampling........................................................................ 2.12
5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt .................................................. 2.13
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. Descriptive Statistics
1.1 Definitions
• Statistics is the science of drawing conclusions about a population based on an analysis of sample data from
that population.
• Population: values that can be taken by a variable.
• Sample: drawing of n values of the variable taken from the population.
• Random Variable = X = ( xi ) .
• Probability Distribution = P ( xi ) . It describes the random variable probability of occurrence and is described
by its parameters. (Example: Normal distribution is described by µ and σ , see below).
• Statistic = Any function of the sample data.
• Estimator = An estimator of a parameter is a statistic, which corresponds to the parameter. For instance :
- The sample mean ( x ) is the estimator of the actual population mean µ
- The sample variance ( S 2 ) is the estimator of the actual population variance σ 2
• Interval Estimation: An interval estimation of a parameter is the interval between 2 statistics that includes the
true value of the parameter with a given probability (1- α ).
1.2 Basic
∑x ∑ (x − x)
n n
2
i i
i =1 i =1
• Arithmetical Mean = x = Standard Deviation = S X =
n n −1
• 2
Variance = S X
2 2 2 2 2 2
- SX +Y = S X + S Y and S aX = a ⋅ S X
- a : Coefficient, X = ( xi ) , Y = ( yi ) : two series of independent values.
∑ (x − x )* ( y − y)
i i
• Covariance = Average of the products of paired deviations: COV ( X ,Y ) = i =1
n
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution
• The most often used probability distribution is the Normal probability distribution:
2
1  x − x 
(− )
dZ 1 2  σ 
= e
dx σ 2π
Central Limit Theorem
• For a group of n independent sampling units drawn from a population of mean µ and variance σ 2 , the
∑
n
1 σ2
sampling distribution of x = x i is approximately Normal with mean µ and variance . Said:
n n
i =1
 σ2 
x → Ζ µ, .
 n 
 
2.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables

a) If the Variance σ 2 is Known
• The confidence interval, with a probability of (1- α ), in which for any samples of the population with a given
unknown mean ( µ ) and known variance ( σ 2 ), the average x of the sample should range is given by:
σ σ
x−Ζα ≤ µ ≤ x+Ζα
n n
2 2
b) Normal Gauss Distribution Table
α Zα α Zα
0.25 0.6745 0.0232 2
0.159 1 0.01 2.32
0.10 1.28 0.005 2.57
0.05 1.64 0.00135 3
0.025 1.96 0.001 3.09
Example:
Estimation of the true LHV mean ( µ ) of liquid waste fuel.
An n-size sample (n=100) of different waste fuel shipments gave a mean x = 5.5 MCal/kg. Standard deviation
σ of the waste fuel shipment population (considered infinite) is supposed to be 1Mcal/kg.
Then, according to the Central Limit Theorem, x follows a Normal distribution probability with a variance of
σ2
= 1 / 100 = 0.01 .
n
α
Thus, we are sure at 1 − α = 90% (then = 0.05 ) that the mean ( µ ) is between x ± 1.64 × 0.01 =
2
[5.5 − 0.164 ,5.5 + 0.164] = [5.336 ,5.664] .
Remark:
• If the population from which the sample is taken, is not infinite (let’s say population size=800), then we have
to use a corrective factor of 1 − n = 1 − 100 = 0.935 .
N 800
c) If the Variance σ 2 is Unknown and Sample Size n<30,

• It has to be approximated by the variance S 2 of the sample. The Normal distribution is replaced by a t
distribution (Student distribution). The estimated interval, with a confidence of (1- α ) and n-1 degree of
freedom, is given by:
S S
x − tα ≤ µ ≤ x + tα
, n −1 n , n −1 n
2 2
Example
With the data as above assuming S=1Mcal/kg, then with the same confidence (90%) and say 20 (21 samples)
degrees of freedom, ( µ ) is between: x ± 1.72 × 0.01 = [5.5 − 0.172 ,5.5 + 0.172] = [5.328 ,5.672] .
2.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d) Student Fisher Distribution Table

υ t 0.005 ,υ t0.01,υ t 0.025 ,υ t 0.05 ,υ t 0.10 ,υ t 0.25 ,υ t 0.45 ,υ
1 63.66 31.82 12.71 6.31 3.08 1 0.158
2 9.92 6.96 4.3 2.92 1.89 0.817 0.142
3 5.84 4.54 3.18 2.35 1.64 0.765 0.137
4 4.6 3.75 2.78 2.13 1.53 0.741 0.134
5 4.03 3.36 2.57 2.02 1.48 0.727 0.132
10 3.17 2.76 2.23 1.81 1.37 0.700 0.129
15 2.95 2.60 2.13 1.75 1.34 0.691 0.128
20 2.84 2.53 2.09 1.72 1.32 0.687 0.127
40 2.70 2.42 2.02 1.68 1.30 0.681 0.126
120 2.62 2.36 1.98 1.66 1.29 0.677 0.126
2. Statistical Estimation Tests

2.1 Generalities
• A statistical hypothesis is a statement about the values of the parameters of a probability distribution.
• Null hypothesis (H o ) : A = B , Alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) : A ≠ B .
• To test a hypothesis, we take a random sample from the population under study, compute an appropriate test
statistic and then either reject or fail to reject ( H o ) with a α risk of rejecting H o although H o is true.
2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal Population of Random
Size, ( n1 , n 2 )
(Excel Function FTEST)
Test Description
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 : σ 12 ≠ σ 22
S 12
• We compute the statistic Fo = , where F = Fisher Distribution
S 22
• We reject H o if Fo > Fα or if Fo < F α 
, n1−1, n2 −1 1−  , n1 −1, n2 −1,
2 2
α
• Where Fα and F α 
denote the upper and lower percentage points of the
, n1 −1, n2 −1 1−  , n1 −1, n2 −1 2
2 2
F distribution with n1 − 1 and n2 − 1 degrees of freedom, respectively.
• As the table for the F table gives only the upper tail points of the F, so to find F α 
we must
1−  , n1 −1,n2 −1
2
1
use: F α 
= (be careful about n1 and n2 , which are inverted).
1−  , n1 −1, n2 −1 Fα
2 , n2 −1, n1 −1
2
2.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Example 1: Cement sampling:

We want to determine the best way of sampling cement. We can compare the variances of two sets of samples
collected at the mill discharge by two different ways. The H o hypothesis would be that there is no difference
between both ways of sampling (true variances equal). If the result says that according to the samples, there is
a difference, then the best sampling method could be the one with the lowest variance (one-sided alternative
hypothesis).
SSB measured: #1 way: (4350, 4365, 4850, 4750, 4580, 4600, 4450, 4740),
#2 way: (4500, 4520, 4800, 4420, 4360, 4250, 4400, 4380)
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 :σ 12 ≠ σ 22 (two-sided alternative hypothesis)
∑ (x − 4586 )
8
2
i
i =1
After computing: x1 = 4586 , x 2 = 4454 S12 = = 34796 , S 2 2 = 26598
8 −1
34796
• Fo = = 1.308 < F0.05 = 4.99
26598 ,8 −1,8 −1
2
−1
and F.975 ,7 ,7 = ( F0.025,7 ,7 ) = ( 4.99 ) −1 = 0.20 <1.308
The test yields not to reject H o : the measurements don’t allow us to conclude that #1 way of sampling is
significantly, with 5% confidence, different than #2 (even if S 1 > S 2 ). The excel function is FINV(0.025,7,7).
2.3 Fisher Distribution Table

(Calculated for the upper 2.5% of the F distribution (in our case, when α = 5% )).
F(0.025, n1,n2) Ex: F(0.025,5,10)=4.24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200
1 647.79 38.51 17.44 12.22 10.01 8.81 8.07 7.57 7.21 6.94 6.20 5.87 5.69 5.57 5.42 5.34 5.29 5.25 5.22 5.20 5.18 5.10
2 799.48 39.00 16.04 10.65 8.43 7.26 6.54 6.06 5.71 5.46 4.77 4.46 4.29 4.18 4.05 3.97 3.93 3.89 3.86 3.84 3.83 3.76
3 864.15 39.17 15.44 9.98 7.76 6.60 5.89 5.42 5.08 4.83 4.15 3.86 3.69 3.59 3.46 3.39 3.34 3.31 3.28 3.26 3.25 3.18
4 899.60 39.25 15.10 9.60 7.39 6.23 5.52 5.05 4.72 4.47 3.80 3.51 3.35 3.25 3.13 3.05 3.01 2.97 2.95 2.93 2.92 2.85
5 921.83 39.30 14.88 9.36 7.15 5.99 5.29 4.82 4.48 4.24 3.58 3.29 3.13 3.03 2.90 2.83 2.79 2.75 2.73 2.71 2.70 2.63
6 937.11 39.33 14.73 9.20 6.98 5.82 5.12 4.65 4.32 4.07 3.41 3.13 2.97 2.87 2.74 2.67 2.63 2.59 2.57 2.55 2.54 2.47
7 948.20 39.36 14.62 9.07 6.85 5.70 4.99 4.53 4.20 3.95 3.29 3.01 2.85 2.75 2.62 2.55 2.51 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.42 2.35
8 956.64 39.37 14.54 8.98 6.76 5.60 4.90 4.43 4.10 3.85 3.20 2.91 2.75 2.65 2.53 2.46 2.41 2.38 2.35 2.34 2.32 2.26
9 963.28 39.39 14.47 8.90 6.68 5.52 4.82 4.36 4.03 3.78 3.12 2.84 2.68 2.57 2.45 2.38 2.33 2.30 2.28 2.26 2.24 2.18
10 968.63 39.40 14.42 8.84 6.62 5.46 4.76 4.30 3.96 3.72 3.06 2.77 2.61 2.51 2.39 2.32 2.27 2.24 2.21 2.19 2.18 2.11
15 984.87 39.43 14.25 8.66 6.43 5.27 4.57 4.10 3.77 3.52 2.86 2.57 2.41 2.31 2.18 2.11 2.06 2.03 2.00 1.98 1.97 1.90
20 993.08 39.45 14.17 8.56 6.33 5.17 4.47 4.00 3.67 3.42 2.76 2.46 2.30 2.20 2.07 1.99 1.94 1.91 1.88 1.86 1.85 1.78
25 998.09 39.46 14.12 8.50 6.27 5.11 4.40 3.94 3.60 3.35 2.69 2.40 2.23 2.12 1.99 1.92 1.87 1.83 1.81 1.79 1.77 1.70
30 1001.40 39.46 14.08 8.46 6.23 5.07 4.36 3.89 3.56 3.31 2.64 2.35 2.18 2.07 1.94 1.87 1.82 1.78 1.75 1.73 1.71 1.64
40 1005.60 39.47 14.04 8.41 6.18 5.01 4.31 3.84 3.51 3.26 2.59 2.29 2.12 2.01 1.88 1.80 1.74 1.71 1.68 1.66 1.64 1.56
50 1008.10 39.48 14.01 8.38 6.14 4.98 4.28 3.81 3.47 3.22 2.55 2.25 2.08 1.97 1.83 1.75 1.70 1.66 1.63 1.61 1.59 1.51
60 1009.79 39.48 13.99 8.36 6.12 4.96 4.25 3.78 3.45 3.20 2.52 2.22 2.05 1.94 1.80 1.72 1.67 1.63 1.60 1.58 1.56 1.47
70 1011.01 39.48 13.98 8.35 6.11 4.94 4.24 3.77 3.43 3.18 2.51 2.20 2.03 1.92 1.78 1.70 1.64 1.60 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.45
80 1011.91 39.49 13.97 8.33 6.10 4.93 4.23 3.76 3.42 3.17 2.49 2.19 2.02 1.90 1.76 1.68 1.63 1.59 1.55 1.53 1.51 1.42
90 1012.61 39.49 13.96 8.33 6.09 4.92 4.22 3.75 3.41 3.16 2.48 2.18 2.01 1.89 1.75 1.67 1.61 1.57 1.54 1.52 1.50 1.41
100 1013.16 39.49 13.96 8.32 6.08 4.92 4.21 3.74 3.40 3.15 2.47 2.17 2.00 1.88 1.74 1.66 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.48 1.39
200 1015.72 39.49 13.93 8.29 6.05 4.88 4.18 3.70 3.37 3.12 2.44 2.13 1.95 1.84 1.69 1.60 1.54 1.50 1.47 1.44 1.42 1.32
2.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
3. Correlation Between Data – Regression

3.1 Generalities
• Goal: express a dependant variable ( Y : ( y i )i =1ton ) as a function of one or a series of p independent variables
X j : ( X j = ( x j ,i ) j =1top ,i =1ton ) ).
• Y E = b0 + b1 ⋅ X 1 + .. + b p ⋅ X p
- Y E = estimated dependant variable, X j = independent variables.
- We have n observation for each variable.
3.2 Least Squared Lines
• The method minimizes the deviation E ( Ei ) between the points and the line.
∑ (y − y )
n
y 2
- SST = total sum of square of the variable of interest = i
x B1=y/x
i =1
Y
∑ (E )2
E=Y-YEst
n
YEst - SSE = sum of square of errors = i −E
Y
i=1
B0
- SSR = sum of square explained by the regression line: SST = SSR+SSE
X
• We want to optimize SSR/SSE. Thus we test the hypothesis that the slope B1 equals 0:
H o : B1 = 0 , H 1 : B1 ≠ 0 .
• Under H o , the ratio (SSR/p)/(SSE/(n-p-1)) follows a Fisher distribution with p and n-p-1 degrees of freedom
(excel function FINV (α, p, n-p-1)).
• If Fα is high, then H o is rejected and with a certain significance α , we assume the regression is significant.
Coefficient of Determination R2
• The coefficient of determination R2=SSR/SST gives the proportion of variation in the dependent variable
( Y : ( y i )i =1 ton ) explained by the regression line.
• The coefficient of correlation is defined by: r =sqrt (R2).
Example
H0: there is no correlation
n=5, p=1, SST=0.051+0.019, MSR=0.051/1=0.051, MSE=0.019/3=0.0063, F=0.051/0063=8.05,
.75
.7
.65
R2 = 0.051 / (0.051 + 0.019) = 0.73, r = 0.85
Critical F value (α = 0.025), F1,3,0.025 = 17.44 > 8.05
.6
SO3
.55
.5
The ratio belongs to the F distribution
.45
We cannot reject H0, the regression is not significant.
.4 Y = 2.077 - .032 * X; R^2 = .727
.35
42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
CaO
2.5
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables)

4.1 Stationnarity
• The series X (t ) is stationary if its average X (t ) and its variance S 2 (t ) are constant (over time or over the
region of study) and if the covariance COV ( X (t ), X (t' )) does not depend on t and t' but only on the
difference (distance) t' −t = ∆t (= h ) .
4.2 Variogram
a) Variogram Construction
• A variogram is a plot of the average difference of a selected variable (C3S for example) between pairs of units
selected as a function of time, where the pairs are chosen in whole-number multiples (e.g. every minute, 2
minutes, 1 meter, 2 meters, …).
2
∑ N   with :
x j − x j+h 
j =1   - j : numbering of the sample’s value
γ X (h ) =  
- N: number of pairs of sample with a specific time or
2 ⋅( N − 1) spatial distance (=h) between values of a pair.
Example:
The C3S values of kiln feed samples are:
Sample# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00
C3S (%) 54.2 57.8 59.8 61.2 60.0 56.0 52.0 52.0 52.4 57.0
Then we can calculate the one-hour pair difference:
Pair# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Diff in pair 3.6 2 1.4 -1.2 -4 -4 0 0.4 4.6 Sum
Square diff 12.96 4 1.96 1.44 16 16 0 0.16 21.16 73.7
73.7
Then γ C 3 S ( 1 hour ) = = 4.6
2 ⋅( 9 − 1)
Two rules for variogram construction
• Collect enough units (N) to get a statistical population (at least 30 samples for a short term experiment and 60
samples for a long term); the short term intends to define very precisely the random heterogeneity term (nugget
effect, refer below).
• The number N should reach half the total amount of samples collected (N>n/2).
2.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b) Variogram Interpretation
X
Interpretation of the limit of variogram (h) when h increases
• Whatever the variable is, beyond a certain value of h, the variable ceases to be
correlated with itself. It is because the phenomenon taking place has no longer
any memory of a past long gone (see case 2 and case 3 where the variable level t
off at a sill generally equal to the variance of the variable). Signal is drifting
• This is true for all raw mix analyses, which are limited in terms of the values they γ X(h)
can take.
• However, over a short period of time (a few hours), the signal may well drift.
(See graph below). In such a case, the variogram will tend to increase instead of
stabilizing itself around σ x2 . h
X
The "Nugget Effect" γ x (h) 2 2
σ x = σ xn
• Many variables, especially those obtained from data
measured with a dispersive method (analytical, #1
Nugget effect
sampling errors, etc.), present a slight or marked
degree of strictly random variations from one value t h
to the next. X γ x (h) 2
σ
• As a rule, a variable presenting a "smooth" graph (# x
3) when plotted presents a low to non-existent #2

2
"nugget effect". (i.e. due to variability at a scale Nugget effect σxn
smaller than the sampling distance). t h

• A "noise" (# 1) presents all its variance as a "nugget X γ x (h)
2
σx
effect" ( σ x2 being called the "nugget effect #3
variance"). No nugget effect
t h
Limitations in h value
• If N values of X are available, shifts of more than N/2 should not be considered.
Regionalization and prediction • The span of values of ho for which γx (h) is below σ x2 is
• A very frequent pattern of variogram is
called the "area of regionalization" or the range.
shown as below:
2 • The value of the signal at time t + ho is in fact dependent
γ X (h ) σx of all values taken by X between t and t + ho.
• If all values xb x i +1 , xi + h +1 are known, then xi + h can
2 be predicted much better than by saying that it is
σ xn
randomly distributed with a variance σ x .
2
• In fact, the variance of the prediction, at its best, will be

h
γX
Area of ho close to which is much smaller than σ x2 .
regionalization 2
2.7
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Pseudo-periodicity
X γ x (h)
• The periodic variations can be self-sustained (control
cycle, oscillator, etc.) or induced by a periodic 2
2 σx
phenomenon (buckets of elevator are unevenly distributed,
correction interval of raw meal).
h
• Even if the periodicity is blurred on the graph of the signal Pseudo Periodic signal t
by random noises or variations of the period, the 1 Pseudo-Period

variogram will tend to underline.
γ x (h)
• The variogram will hit a maximum, above the total X
variance σ x2 , for a shift h of exactly 1 period. Maximum

and minimum will repeat themselves and fade away as h
increases. The fading will be quick if the pseudo period t h
Periodic signal
varies much but slow if the signal is truly periodic.
2.8
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning
“Correctogram” is a simple statistics tool which can be used to determine whether over-control or under-control is
occuring in a control loop. For spot checking, a plot of the correctogram can be used.
Plot the cartesian coordinates (x, y) where:
x = values of control parameter – set point, at time t

y = values of control parameter – set point, at time t – ∆t
∆t is the sampling interval:

Example:
Time C3S SP C3S – SP (x , y)
4
2:00 64.1 60 4.1 ––
3
4:00 58.5 60 -1.5 (4.1,-1.5)
2
6:00 58.9 60 -1.1 (-1.5,-1.1)
1
8:00 61.7 60 1.7 (-1.1,1.7)
10:00 56.7 58 -1.3 (1.7,-1.3) 0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
12:00 59.2 58 1.2 (-1.3,1.2) -1
14:00 54.5 58 -3.5 (1.2,-3.5) -2
16:00 60.8 58 2.8 (-3.5,2.8)

-3
18:00 55.1 58 -2.9 (2.8,-2.9)
-4
20:00 58.3 58 0.3 (-2.9,0.3)
-5
22:00 59 58 1.0 (0.3,1.0)
SLOPE INTERPRETATION & CORRECTIVE ACTION
=0 Perfectly tuned control. All off-target values for the control parameter are due to random
variations (materials, feeder accuracy, etc.)
1 > slope > 0 Undercontrolling. Multiply gain by (1 + slope).
=1 No control taking place.
>1 Divergent control: gain value has wrong sign.
0 > slope > -1 Overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).
= -1 Overcontrolling is inducing a cycle with frequency = 2 x sampling interval. Divide gain by 2.
< -1 Divergent cycling due to severe overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).
The method is applicable to control response analysis in general.

It can be incorporated as an internal tuning device in a control algorithm.
Analyses of non linear control response can be performed by using polynomial fit rather than linear regression.
2.9
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
5. Sampling
5.1 Golden Rules
• The MRW.
• The sampling method must allow every particle the same chance of being collected.
5.2 Fundamental Error (FE)

Calculation
• This error can never be cancelled because it is intrinsic to the material. However, we want to collect the right
size (MRW) of the sample based on this Fundamental Error (P. Gy’s theory).
• σ 2 (FE ) = C x d M 3 x
(1 − τ )
m
With:
- d M : Top particle size (95% passing) in cm.
- τ : sampling proportion (usually quite small, then 1- τ = 1)
- m : sample weight in g.
- C : Constant characterizing the material sampled, in g / cm 3
• C = fcl g with
- f = Particle shape factor. (= 0.5 usually, ranges between 0 and 1)
= 1 when cubic, = 0.2 when flat, = 0.5 when spheroidal
- l = liberation factor [0 to 1]
= 0 if homogeneous, = 1 if particles completely distinct, = .001 for homogeneous raw mix, = .2
medium, = .3-8 heterogeneous
- g = factor describing the particle size distribution
• If we call “size range” the ratio d M / d m of the upper size limit d M : (about 5% oversize) to the lower size
limit d m : (about 5% undersize):
- Large size range ( d M / d m > 4): g = 0.25, medium size range (4 to 2): g = 0.50, small size range (< 2): g
= 0.75, uniform size ( d M / d m = 1): g = 1.00
• c = Mineralogical composition factor g / cm 3 ( )

c= ∑p  1 − ai 
i
 ai 
(
 . ρi ai + (1 − ai ) ρ ic )
i
With:
- pi = proportion of material I in the mix (%)
- a i = concentration of the “critical” within the material I (%) in mass ( g of CaO / g of solid )
- pi = (
volumetric weight of the material i g / cm 3 )
- ρ ic = volumetric weight of the “initial” in the material
Usually we take ρ i = ρ ic
2.10
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Example:
Mix is crushed at 12.5 mm of 75% lime and 25% clay, CaO is the critical
Sample weight = 50 kg.
l = 0.3 f = 0.5
CaO lime content = 52%, CaO clay content = 24%
ρCaO = 2.7 g / cm 3 , ρ lime = 2.7 , ρ clay = 2.7, g = 0.25
 1 − 0.52   1 − 0.24 
c = 0.75 x   x 2.7 + 0.25 x   x 2.7 = 1.869 + 2.137 = 4.00 g / cm 3
 0.52   0.24 
Then: C = f l c g = 0.5 x 0.3 x 4.0 x 0.75 = 0.15 g / cm 3
(1.25 )3 x 0.15
And: σ (FE ) = = 2.4 .10 −3 is the fundamental error standard deviation.
50 ,000
Then the 95% probability confidence interval ± 2 σ ( FE ) is 0.0048 and then CaO content confidence interval is:
052.( 1 ± 2σ ( FE )) = 0.52 ± 0.048% CaO . (Considering that 1 − τ ≈ 1 )
5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW)

a) Lafarge Corp Simplified Formula
d3
• MRW = 18. f .ρ . .
σ ( FE ) 2
• In case of material encountered in cement plant, we usually have σ ( FE ) 2 <0.06.
Example 1 estimation of the MRW
For quarry crushed stone with:
f = 0.5 , ρ = 2.6 g / cm 3 , d = 1.75cm , σ ( FE ) 2 = 0.01
MRW = 18 × 0.5 × 2.6 × 1.75 3 / 0.01 = 12.54 kg
b) Estimation of the MRW (P. Gy’s formula)
• (
What is the MRW considering the previous lot C = 0.15 g / cm 3 ? )
Passing 95% = d M = 4.0 cm with σ ( FE ) = 0.04 (be careful, it is a relative standard deviation), then,
3
C .d M 0.15 x 4 3
MRW = = = 6 kg
σ ( FE ) 2 (0.04 )2
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size
• Assuming we want to sample a maximum of 5 kg sample with a tolerate standard deviation of σ = 0.04
3 Mσ 2 5000 x 0.04 2
Then: dM = d M =3 = 3.8 cm
C 0.15
a) Rule of Thumb:
Maximum Particle Size (mm) 10 20 30 40 50 60 75 90
Min sample Coal (ISO1988), kg 0.6 0.8 3
Min Sample Aggregate, ASTM D75, kg 10 25 60 80 100 120 150 175
ASTM for the aggregate industry is very safe.
2.11
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
5.5 Minimum Number of Observations

• Once the right size (MRW) of the sample is calculated, we want to determine how many samples (n) have to
be collected to have the acceptable knowledge (precision P) of the parameter ( X ) we are interested in, with an
afforded risk α .
• The larger the sample size, the closer we can expect the sample mean X to be to the population mean X .
Refer to the ‘Central Limit Theorem’ above. The reliability of X as an estimate of X is measured by the
standard error of the mean which is simply the standard deviation of the sample mean.
σ 2X
• Rule of thumb: n =
σ2
X
where:
- σ 2X is the variance of the material stream and, σ 2 is the variance of the mean (the variability desired in
X
the result).
Remark
• Each sample must have the MRW in order to have a right observation of the parameter that we want to have
estimated.
Example
The small-scale random heterogeneity of the raw mix, expressed in C3S variance, at mill outpout is 10, thus
σ 2X =10.
We would like to decrease this random heterogeneity to 2, thus σ 2 =2,
X
Then to achieve this goal we have to sample 10/2=5 increments. Normally they have to be collected closely to
one another (e.g. 30 second interval).
5.6 Mechanical Sampling

(Sampling ratio 1/1000 to 1/10)
a) Cutter Width and Velocity – Rules of Extraction Correctness
(for flow < 500 m 3 / h ).
- d M = Maximum particle diameter
- W = Actual Cutter opening
- W0 = Minimum theoretical cutter width
b) First rule of Extraction Correctness
- For d M > 3 mm : W ≥ Wo = 3 d M
- For d M ≤ 3mm : W ≥ Wo = 10 mm
c) Second Rule of Extraction Correctness
• Irrespective of d M , if the actual cutter width is W = n Wo (with n ≥ 1 ) then the cutter velocity V should
not exceed Von = (1 + n ) ⋅ 0.3 m / s
• Economical Optimum is : W = W0 and V = 0.6 m / s
2.12
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d) Interval of Time between Increment

• No more than 5 minutes, usually every 30 seconds.
• Make sure the number of increments making up the sample is in excess of 6 (a best is 30, ASTM 2234
(coal) recommends 15 increments for cleaned and 35 for uncleaned coal).
5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt

a) When the Belt is Stopped
• Sample enough material with regard to MRW.
• Sample over all the width of the belt making sure to collect everything and perpendicular to the belt.
• The length of sampling over the belt should be greater than the width of the belt.
• Make-up the sample with several increments (more than 6 at least) to get the MRW.
b) When the Belt Keeps Running

• Basic rule: extract a full cross-cut section of the flow stream, in several increment if necessary.
• The manual sampling device width must be at least 2.5 times the bulk material top size.
• Interval of time between increment.
- no more than 5 minutes, usually every 30 seconds.
- number of increments in excess of 6.
2.13
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
3. QUALITY
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Chemical Characterization..................................................................... 3.1

1.1 Ignition Loss ................................................................................... 3.1
1.2 Silica Ratio...................................................................................... 3.1
1.3 Alumina-Iron Ratio ......................................................................... 3.1
1.4 Lime Saturation............................................................................... 3.1
1.5 Total Alkalies as Na2O .................................................................... 3.1
1.6 Percent Liquid ................................................................................. 3.2
1.7 Bogue Formulas .............................................................................. 3.2
1.8 Lafarge K 1450 Burnability Index.................................................... 3.2
1.9 Other Indicators............................................................................... 3.4
1.10 57 Clinker Average.......................................................................... 3.4
2. Particles Size Distribution....................................................................... 3.5
2.1 Rosin-Rammler Number.................................................................. 3.5
2.2 Specific Surface Area ...................................................................... 3.5
2.3 Blaine Surface Area......................................................................... 3.6
3. Grindability............................................................................................. 3.6
3.1 BB10 Test ....................................................................................... 3.6
3.2 Bond Formula ................................................................................. 3.7
3.3 Parameters Affecting the Clinker Grindability.................................. 3.7
4. Sulfate...................................................................................................... 3.8
4.1 Clinker Sulfates ............................................................................... 3.8
4.2 Sulfate Addition .............................................................................. 3.8
4.3 Water Spray .................................................................................. 3.10
5. Others Quality Issues............................................................................ 3.10
5.1 Cement Strength............................................................................ 3.10
5.2 Color ............................................................................................. 3.10
5.3 Microscopy ................................................................................... 3.11
6. 10 Basic Facts on Clinker...................................................................... 3.12
7. Raw Mix & Clinker Uniformity ........................................................... 3.13
7.1 TYTP Indicators............................................................................ 3.13
7.2 Lafarge Corp Results ..................................................................... 3.13
8. ASTM Standards .................................................................................. 3.14
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
100C
• KSt I ( Kuhl ) =
1. Chemical Characterization 2.8 S + 1.1 A + 0.7 F
• In the following formulas: where:
S = SiO2, M = MgO, A =Al2O3, K = K2O, - A includes ( TiO 2 + P2 O 5 )
F = Fe2O3, N = Na2O3, C = CaO
when not specified: % is in weight in the raw
100 * ( C + 0.75 M )
mix. • KSt III =
• Raw feed density: 2700g/l. 2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F
- It takes MgO into account (when MgO <
1.1 Ignition Loss 2%).
• Ignition loss = 0.786 * C + 1.092M + combined
H2O+ organic matter.
LSF vs C3S
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 120
y = 0.3367x + 71.6
44 110
- % CO2 = × %CaO R2 = 0.9485
56 100
LSF
1.2 Silica Ratio 90
S
(2.3 to 3.1)
80
• SR =
A+ F 70
- If SR high, hard to burn, low coating (wall 60
losses), poor clinker reactivity, higher SHC.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
1.3 Alumina-Iron Ratio C3S
• AR =
A
(1.3 to 2.0 ) ∆bc vs C3S
F 30
- If AR high with low F then lower liquid 25
phase, poor viscosity. 20 y = -0.2734x + 21.552
2
15 R = 0.9606
1.4 Lime Saturation
(On Raw Mix analyses, except C3S) 10
∆bc
• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F ) 5

∆
0
- It is the potential C3S content of clinker -5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
when the free lime is zero and calculation -10 C3S
LOI=0. -15
- It is the only lime saturation criterion -20
considered in the TYTP.
1.5 Total Alkalies as Na2O
• LSF =
100C • Total as Na 2 O eq = Na 2 O + 0.658 K 2 O
2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F
Rule of thumb
100 * ( 2.8 S + 1.65 A + 0.3 F − C ) • + 0.1% Total Alkalies in clinker : -0.5 to -1MPa
• ∆bc = at 28days.
S + A+ F + C
- It should range between –4 and +4
depending on ashes and quality target.
3.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1.6 Percent Liquid 1.7 Bogue Formulas

a) Calculation (Lea & Parker) (On clinker bases, ref. Les Cahiers Techniques).
The formulas considered in the TYTP are:
@ 1338ºC
a) Formulas
• A/F<1.38:
• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F )
% liquid = 8.2 A − 5.22 F + M + N + K
• C 2 S = 8.6 Ssol 5.07 A + 1.08 F − 3.07 C 1
• A/F>1.38 :
% liquid = 6.1 F + M + N + K • C 3 A = 2.65 A − 1.69 F
• PL at 1338C influences the clinker granulation. • C 4 AF = 3.04 F
with:
@ 1400ºC
- C 1 = CaO − Free CaO − ( 0.7 SO3 )
• % liquid = 2.95 A + 2.25 F + M + N + K
- Ssol= soluble silica (silicate form only)
@ 1450ºC - And F may be modified as:
• % liquid = 3 A + 2.25 F + M + N + K F = Fe 2 O3 − Mn2 O3
• 1450 C is most frequently used within Lafarge. b) SO3 combination
• Optimum at 1450C: 25%.
Step #1:
@ 1470 ºC K 2O
• % liquid = 1.13 C 3 A + 1.35 C 4 AF + M + N + K • If < 1.176 not all SO3 combined as
SO3
b) Liquid phase impact K 2 SO4 then SO3 in K 2 SO4 = 0.85 K 2 O
• If liquid phase too high:
- Clinker porosity ↓ Step #2:
- Grindability ↓ (harder) • Remaining SO3 = SO3 − SO3 in K 2 SO4
- 1-day strength ↓ Na 2 O
• If < 1.176 not all SO3
• If liquid phase too low: SO3 ( remaining )
- C3S formation speed ↓ combined as Na 2 SO4 :
- Clinker granulation ↓ SO3 in Na s SO4 = 1.292 Na 2 O
Liquid Phase Constituent Impact
Step #3:
% free CAO • CaO combined with SO3
C3A C4AF K2O
= 0.7 * (SO3 − (SO3 in K 2 SO4 + SO3 in Na 2 SO4 ))
14
18 % 5 % 1%
12
18 % 5 % 0%
10
5 % 18 % 1 % 1.8 Lafarge K 1450 Burnability Index
8
5 % 18 % 0 % a) Calculation
6
This index is representative of the ability of the raw
4 material to combine. The sample is heated
2 (1000ºC/h) in a lab furnace at 1450 ºC for 30
0 minutes. After burning, the remaining free lime is
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 measured. The ability to combine is determined by
the reaction time of the following reaction:
temperature °C
C 2 S + C → C3 S
3.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
If we accept that this reaction can occur only after 100 < K < 140: Very good burnability
0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

all C 2 S is formed: 140 < K: Excellent burnability
8
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 b) Parameters influencing the Burnability

Heat consumption
6
difference (%)
4 (ref. Cahiers techniques)

2
00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
K1450 change
0
-2 40
-4
-6
0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
-8 -40
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Lafarge K -80
+0.1 % +0.4 % +1 % +1.3 % +0.2 % +3 %
= k [C 2 S ]• [C ]
d[C ] fluor sol. Na2O Ex.SO3 Fe2O3 P2O5 quartz
• equiv. > 63 µ
dt
with:
Rules of thumb
- [C2S] is the C 2 S concentration at t
• K 2 SO4 improves the burnability;
- [C] is the lime concentration at t
- k is a constant (function of temp). • +1% SO3 lower the combination temperature
[C o ]− [C ] = [C 2 S o ]− [C 2 S ]
by 60C;
• +1% K2O increases the combination
•
56 172 temperature bu 35C;
with: • increase from 2 to 3% of silica reject at 63
- [C°] is the concentration of lime at tº microns lower the K1450 by 30 points (cf
graph);
- [C2S°] is the concentration of C2S at tº
• + 0.3% CaF2 addition in the raw mix (or 0.23F
[C ] + ∆c = [C2 S ]
in the clinker) improves the K1450 by 10 to 60
• points, lowering the burning temp by 30 to
56 172 130C. Unfortunately, it lengers the setting time
with: ∆c is the ∆ bc relative at 100% clinker: by 40min +/-20min (for+0.1%F in the clinker).
Impact of fineness
 S + A+ F +C • Free Lime = [C ] − 1.89 + 0.48( LSF − 100 ) +
• ∆ = c
∆ bc. 
 100 − LOI  2.84 (SR − 1.8 ) + 0.27 Q45 + 0.12C125 + 0.12 Aq 45
• K=
1  [C ] + ∆ C 
ln 
c
.
o

[ ] where:
3.07 ∆c  C o + ∆c [C ]  - Q45 = % quartz >45 µm
with: - C125 = % calcite >125 µm
- [Co] = CaO - 1.87 SiO2 - Aq45 = % non quartz, acid insoluble >45
- [C] = The remaining free lime in a lab test µm (excluding dolomite)
in which the raw material is burned for 30
minutes at 1450ºC Rule of thumb:
• %(quartz>63µm)<2%, %(quartz>45µm)<2.5%
Rule of thumb
K < 30: Very bad burnability
30 < K < 45: Bad burnability
45 < K < 70: Medium burnability
70 < K < 100: Good burnability
3.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
% free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects % free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects
6 Quartz type raw mix 6 Marl type raw mix
5 25 % 5
4 4
3 3
2 10 % 2 25 %
1 1
10 %
5%
0 0
1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550
temperature °C temperature °C
1.9 Other Indicators

Burnability Factor Hydraulic Module
C3 S S + A+ F
• BF = • HM =
C 4 AF + C 3 A C+M
- Higher BF, harder to burn Cementation Index
- Generally BF increases with SR 2.8 S + 1.1 A + 0.7 F
• Cl =
C + 1.4 M
1.10 57 Clinker Average

• The results obtained from 57 production clinkers including 2 white cements and 4 Oil-Well cements are
reported below:
Raw Mix S/(A+F) S/(A+F) A/F A/F Liq. phase ∆nc Free CaO
K 1450 Exc. HTS, SB Exc. OW, SB At 1450° % %
Minimum 21 2.1 2.1 0.6 0.7 10.5 -0.8 0.05
Average 75 2.9 2.7 2.0 1.7 24.0 5.3 0.68
Maximum 324 7.8 3.6 11.6 2.9 29.4 10.2 2.2
C3 S Alite Alite/C3S C2 S Belite Belite/C2S C3 A Alum.

% % % % % %
Minimum 43.0 45.6 0.9 1.9 0.7 0.15 0.0 0.7
Average 61.9 66.0 1.07 15.7 15.0 0.93 7.6 5.2
Maximum 75.9 81.1 1.4 31.5 35.0 1.91 12.6 11.0
C4AF Ferrit. MgO Fluor TiO2 P2O5 Mn2O3 kk SO3

% % % % % % % %
Minimum 0.8 0.0 0.39 0.02 0.10 0.01 0.01 0.2
Average 9.3 8.9 1.80S 0.08 0.23 0.12 0.06 0.84
Maximum 16.8 15.0 4.53 0.19 0.39 0.39 0.19 2.5
Total Na2O Sol. Na2O Total K2O Sol. K2O Tot.Na2O eq Sol.Na2O eq Exc.SO3 Exc.SO3
% % % % % % /t. alk. % /s. alk. %
Minimum 0.06 0.01 0.25 0.11 0.27 0.08 -0.63 -0.16
Average 0.17 0.07 0.74 0.54 0.66 0.43 -0.01 0.29
Maximum 0.40 0.19 1.40 1.19 1.00 0.87 1.73 1.86
3.4
Rev. 2002
2. Particles Size Distribution
2.1 Rosin-Rammler Number
• The Rosin-Rammler curve mathematically approximates most powder particle size distributions:
or
- d = particle size (µm)

- R = %retainedatd
- do = particle size (µm) @ R = 100/e, approx. 36.8%
- n = Rosin-Rammler number
• The formula allows PSD data to be represented as a straight line by plotting:
- n can be calculated by the slope of the least squares line.

- The higher the RR#, the steeper the PSD as more particles are found into a narrow size range.
Rules of thumb
• RR# for high efficiency separator cement: 1.1 - 1.2
- RR# for Sturtevant circuit (raw or cement): 0.9 - 1.0
- RR# for open circuit cement: 0.8 - 0.9,
• do = 12-36 mm
• + 0.15 point #RR increases the water demand by 2-3% (ref. Les Cahiers Techniques)
2.2 Specific Surface Area

• The following can calculate the Specific Surface Area (SSA). For particles assumed to be spheres:
•
- Si = the particle surface area

- Mi = the particle weight
- ri = the particle radius
- ρ = the specific density of particles
• For a granulometry with n number of particles
VADE-MECUM
∑ R −R
16
6f j +1
SSA = j
• ρ d +d
j =0 j j +1
- f = Form factor (close to 1) do = 0.1 µm d6 = 4 µm d12= 48 µm

- ρ = Specific density of cement (g/cm3) d1 = 0.3 µm d7 = 6 µm d13 = 64 µm
- R i = % retained at di d2 = 1 µm d8 = 8 µm d14 = 96 µm
- di = Particle size (µm) d3 = 1.5 µm d9 = 12 µm d15 = 128 µm
d4 = 2 µm d10 = 16 µm d16 = 196 µm
d5 = 3 µm d11 = 24 µm
• The 0-3 µm fraction of normal Portland cement accounts for 60% of total surface.
2.3 Blaine Surface Area

• SSB = Blaine Surface Area (in cm2/g). It’s a permeability test. SSB is inversely proportional to the ability to
pass air through a bed of particles. The correlation between calculated SSA and SSB is:
SSA = 807 + 1.2 * SSB
• For cements with n=1 Anselm found:
4 where:
36.8 * 10 - do, n Rosin-Rammler distribution
SSA =
do * n * ρ - ρ = specific density = 3.2 x103 kg/m3
Rules of thumb (Les Cahiers Techniques)

• The Blaine specific surface correlates well (r2 = 0.92) with the % passing 10 µm (same for 8 µm):
+ 1 % passing 10 µm = + 10.8 m2/kg
• + 100 m2/kg SSB
+4 to + 15 MPa (pure cements).
Warning: Cement sulphate addition must be increased with SSB: +100 m2/kg + 0.5 to +0.6% SO3.
• 2% gypsum results in +10m2/kg at 370m2/kg SSB.
3. Grindability
3.1 BB10 Test
Idea:
• Correlate the number of revolutions of a lab mill for a given fineness with the industrial energy to obtain the
same fineness. The material is crushed to everything passing 3.15 mm. The number of mill revolutions is
measured to obtain a given fineness. Revolutions are converted to industrial power consumption.
Lab Mill Characteristics:
Diameter: 40 cm Material load: 1kg
Length: 12 cm Balls: 20-25 mm : 2.5 kg
Speed: 55 rpm 20-35 mm : 3 kg
Ball volume load: 14 % 50 mm : 4.5 kg
Ball weight: 10 kg
3.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Lafarge Data
• 25 Canadian clinkers @ 3500 Blaine averaged 55.7 kWh/t and 35 French averaged 50.7 kWh/t. Typical
results are 48-60 kWh/t.
BB10 for 250 m2/kg for 300 m2/kg for 350 m2/kg for 400 m2/kg
kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t
Minimum 21 30 39 49
Average 29.2 39.8 51.8 65.3
Maximum 43 56 68 83
3.2 Bond Formula

Lab Mill Characteristics
Diameter: 30.5 cm
Length: 30.5 cm
Ball weight: 20 kg
Material quantity: 700 cm3
Speed: 70 rpm
Formula
44.5 dp100 is the sieve with 100% passing feed material
Wi =
  dp80 80% feed material
10 10
d p 100 0.23 • P 0.82 *  − 
 df80 80% finish material
 d p 80 d f 80 
 P is the production (g/rev of mill) of product at the level
the circulating load is requested.
Wi is the Bond work index.
• Developed to predict energy requirements of 2.44m diameter, wet, closed circuit, ball mill at a fineness of
either 65 mesh (220 µm) or 100 mesh(150 µ m).
• Pre-crush feed to #6 (3.35 mm). Maintain 700g sample in test mill. Turn mill 100-150 rev.
• Remove undersize (dp100 – 65 or 100 mesh) and replace with fresh feed (300 – 400 g). 1st cycle is now
completed. Repeat procedure until steady state is reached. Typically 6-8 cycles so that 200 g are removed at
each cycle, which equals 250% circulating load or 30% of “P”.
3.3 Parameters Affecting the Clinker Grindability

• In the statistical study of the 57 clinkers, grinding energy was correlated with different parameters.
1 point increase of produces C3S Exc SO3 /tot.alk. (%)
CaOl D75 alite Alite C3S
a variation of (%) (µm) x100
W250 (kWh/t) -0.3 4 -0.9 0.1
W300 -0.5 4 0.1 -0.1
W350 -0.6 5 0.2 -0.2
W400 -0.7 5 0.2 -0.3
3.7
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
4. Sulfate
4.1 Clinker Sulfates
• Possible forms of sulfates and alkalies:
- as alkali sulfates (small crystals of a few µm) inserted between the clinker phases
- as S and alkalies inserted in the crystal structures of silicate and aluminate phases
Clinker rich in alkalies and…
… poor in sulfates … rich in sulfates
• Little alkali sulfates • Much alkali sulfates
• Uncombined alkalies: • Little uncombined alkalies:
- N and K in orthorhombic C3A - Little K and N in cubic C3A
- K in C2S - Little K in C2S
• Inversed monoclinic C3S • Rhomboedric C3S
• Some sulfur in the uncombined alkalies
S in silicates
and
aluminates
alkali sulfates
N and K in Cubic C3A alkali alkali
orthorhombic sulfates sulfates
C3A orthorhombic
Cubic C 3A Cubic C3 A
C3A
Clinker sulfate content
Workability
problems, Increase of early-age Clinker harder
plastic strengths to grind
shrinkage
• On the basis of the content of sulfur with respect to alkalies, and the relative proportions of
sodium and potassium, alkali sulfates may be found under different forms:
- Thenardite : Na 2 SO4 . This sodium sulfate is rarely seen in clinker.
- Aphthitalite : Na 2 SO4 3 K 2 SO4 . Its composition may vary to (3 Na 2 SO4 K 2 SO4 ) .
- Arcanite : K 2 SO4 . It is observed when the SO3 / K 2 O molar ratio ranges between 1 and 2.
- Calcium langbeinite: 2 CaSO4 K 2 SO4 . This phase is encountered when the SO3 / sodium equivalent*
molar ratio is greater than 2 and the sodium percentage low vis-à-vis potassium.
- Anhydrite: CaSO4 . It shows up only when the SO3 / sodium equivalent* molar ratio is greater than 3.
4.2 Sulfate Addition

• Gypsum and/or anhydrite - sulfates are added to control the setting process of the cement, primarily the rapid
setting of the C3A component.
a) False set:
• Early development of stiffness without the evolution of much heat. It can be dispelled and plasticity
regained by further mixing without the addition of water [also called "grap set", "premature stiffening",
"hesitation set", "rubber set"].
b) Flash set:
• Early development of stiffness usually with considerable evolution of heat. It cannot be dispelled nor
plasticity regained by further mixing without adding water [also called "quick set"]. Reaction is:
C 3 A + nH 2 O + C → C 4 A( H 2 O )n .
3.8
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
c) The Chemistry of False and Flash Set

Components
• Hemihydrate and the anhydrites are the dehydrated forms of gypsum.
- Gypsum CaSO4 . 2 H 2 O
- β -hemihydrate (plaster of Paris) CaSO4 .0.5 H 2 O
- Soluble anhydrite ( CaSO4 .III) CaSO4 . ( 0.001 _ 0.5 ) H 2 O
- Insoluble (natural) anhydrite CaSO4
• They react differently than gypsum when added to cement.
Reactions
4.5
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sulfate solubility
3.5
100
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 Gypsum
Hemihydrate
SO3 solution
2.5 Soluble Anhydrite 80

2 Natural Anhydrite
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
% Dehydr. 60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(g/l)
1.5
40
1
20
0 0 0 0 0
0.
0
0
1 2. 6 1 2 3 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time - Minutes Temp. °C
• Dehydration in the milling process can be thought as beginning at about 80 °C. However, gypsum
dehydration is also a function of the time and % humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. Hemihydrate
reacts differently than gypsum or anhydrite when water is added to cement, due to the differences in
solubility. In the case of too much hemihydrate, which dissolves very quickly and in substantial quantities in
the mix water, false set will occur. While too much hemihydrate will cause false set, not having enough SO3
available in solution will cause much more serious flash set.
Available Hydration time Type
• The following table gives schematic diagrams of sulphate in of
the structure development of cement. The lattice solution 10 min 1 hour 3 hours set
work represents the ettringite crystallization, the Low Low Normal
platelets - tabular monosulphate and the rectangles C3A SO3 set
- secondary gypsum. workable workable set
High High Accelerated

C3A SO3 set
workable set set
High Low Flash

C3A SO3 set
set set set
Low High False

C3A SO3 set
set set set
3.9
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Optimum sulfate
• S = 1.2(% sol Na 2 O equiv.) + 0.2 (% Al 2 O3 ) + 6.2 10 −3 ( BSS ) − 0.7 .
• The sulfate content roughly corresponds to the optimum for 3-day strengths.
4.3 Water Spray
• One method to control the mill temperature and thus gypsum dehydration is through the use of water spray.
For reasons of cement quality (C3S hydration), the water vapor dew-point temperature in the mill air must
not exceed about 70 °C. The decomposition enthalpy of crystalline water in gypsum is much less (628
kJ/kg) than the evaporation enthalpy of water (2257 kJ/kg).
• Thus theoretically one can:
- Reduce Preliminary Hydration - use anhydrite (no crystalline water) instead of gypsum and keep the
water spray constant. This will decrease the water content of the air. The mill outlet temperature will
increase in this case.
- Reduce The Mill Outlet Temperature - use anhydrite and increase the water spray, keeping the dew-point
constant. The preliminary hydration will remain the same because the water content of the air remains
constant.
- Reduce Temperature and Preliminary Hydration - use anhydrite and substitute some, but not all, of the
crystalline water for more water spray.
5. Others Quality Issues

5.1 Cement Strength
• Theoretical water required to totally hydrate the cement: 35% weight of cement.
Warning: Here, MPa are French standard (1.45 French MPa= 1 US/Can MPa)
Parameters influencing the cement strength

A variation of? Mpa 1-d fc 2-dfc 7-d fc 28-d fc Compressive strength (MPa)
Strength is produced by (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 80
C3S
an increase of 1 point of: 70
60 C2S
Sol Na2Eq (%) 10 10
Tot Na2Eq (%) -10 50
C3S (%) 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 40

Hydration of pure phases
C2S(%) 0.5 according to Boque and Lerch
30
C3A (%) 0.5 0.3 0.7
C4AF (%) -0.5 20
C12A7
MgO (%) -1.1 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 10 C3A
SO3/totAlk Excess 1.1 1.3 1.5 C4AF
FcaO (%) 1.1 0
7 28 90 180 360 days
D75Belite (µm) -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3
5.2 Color
• If % Fe 2 O3 is combined with Blaine specific surface (m2/kg), it is possible to explain 97% of the observed
color variations.
3.10
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
5.3 Microscopy
a) Interpretation
Case Observations
1) Raw Mix
Raw mix fineness Siliceous rejects Belite ring around empty pores
Shaly rejects Belite ring around pores filled with celite
Calcareous rejects Tight-grain free lime patches
Raw Mix Heterogenous Wide patches of belite that can exceed 500 µm
Homogeneity Homogenous Alite and belite side by side, without belite patches
Lime saturation Overdosage High free lime content with no or little belite
Of raw mix Underdosage Little or no free lime, high belite content
Raw mix chemistry Alkalies Orthorhombic C3 A in needles if alkalies in crystal structure.
Cubic C3 A if alkalies in alkalie sulfate form.
2) Burning
Under burning Low Temperature High porosity (homogenous), much free lime dispensed, poorly
shaped minute alite crystals.
Rapid Zone Passage Heterogeneous porosity, belite separated from lime by a thin alite
streak.
Over burning High Temperature Low porosity, large alite and small pointe alite crystals,
ferroaluminate needles, amoeboid belite
Slow zone passage at Large fused alite crystals (cannibalism)
high To
Atmosphere Reduced Ferroaluminate inclusions in alite, and lime on pore edges.
3) Cooling
Cooling rate Very high (quenching) Aluminates and ferroaluminates highly intermingles, fissured
belite, and periclase in small crystals.
Slow Good separation between aluminates and ferroaluminates, belite
borders around alite.
Very slow Belite shredded, spongy and mono striated, belite and periclase
linkage even in clinker having less than 2% MgO.
b) Parameters Having an Impact on the Crystal Size

Diameter reduction (µm ) alite : belite :
10
0
+ 0,4% 1 -1%1 Norm1 al +1
1% +14%
Sol.Na O Exc SO 3 ./ hard Free CaO C 3A
2
Equiv. T ot. alk. burning
3.11
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
6. 10 Basic Facts on Clinker

Warning: Here, MPa are French standard (1.45 French MPa= 1 US/Can MPa)
1) Raw mix rejects The reduction of raw mix rejects reduces the burning temperature and the cement
grinding energy:
100 µm R in raw mix: 20% 10% ➠ - 4 kWh/t on both raw mix & cement
grinding.
This is particularly the case for siliceous rejects. This action is also rather favorable
to strengths.
2) Heat profile A short profile helps grindability and strength development. Slow cooling adversely
affects strengths and workability.

Clinkering level: 30 min. 60 min. ➠ - 3 to - 10 MPa in the laboratory.
3) Burning Production uniformity requires an oxidizing atmosphere because a reducing
atmosphere atmosphere promotes volatilization ➠ "cyclic" operation, sulfate and alkali
fluctuations, thus a non uniform clinker:
SO3 variation in clinker from 1 to 4 % ➠ variation in % alkali sulfates ➠
possibility of large strength variations at 1 day.
4) Free lime content An increase in clinker free lime content reduces both initial and final setting times
+ 1 % free CaO ➠ - 50 min on average (- 10 à - 100 min depending on
clinker).
Similarly, the addition of lime shortens both initial and final setting time.
5) Clinker C 3 S An increase in clinker C 3 S content (to the detriment of C 2 S ) improves strengths at
content 1, 2, 3 and 7 days:
+ 10% C 3 S ➠ + 2 to + 5 MPa
At 28 days, the increase is less noticeable since there is also a contribution from
C2 S .
6) Clinker C 2 S At constant Blaine specific surface, grinding energy increases with C 2 S content.
content Inversely it reduces with an increase in C 3 S :
+ 10 % C2S ➠ + 5 kWh/t for 350 m2/kg SSB
7) Clinker alkali Alkalies always work against 28-day strengths no matter what form they are:
content + 0.1 % Na2O equiv. ➠ - 1 MPa
8) Clinker alkalies At optimum sulfate content for early ages, soluble alkalies, in particular in the form
and sulfates of sulfates, improve early strengths:
+ 0.1 % Na2O equiv. ➠ + 0.5 à 1.5 MPa
Strengths improve with an increase in the C 3 A content.
9) Alkali saturation Alkali molar saturation by clinker SO3 facilitates control over workability:

Alkali saturation ➠ water demand and fluidity and early-age fc.
10) Excess Sulfate / If clinker SO3 is increased beyond alkali molar saturation, a clinker fineness and
alkalies grinding energy increase can be observed.
+ 1 % excess SO3 ➠ + 4 to 5 kWh/t.
3.12
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
7. Raw Mix & Clinker Uniformity

7.1 TYTP Indicators
∑ (C S − C S
N
• KFUI =
1
3 i 3 T )2 Target: Lafarge Corp < 10, Group < 14
N
i =1
∑ (C S − C S
N
• CUI .(clkC 3S ) =
1
N
3 i 3 average )2 Target < 16
i =1
σ SO3
• KSUI = × 100 Target < 10
1 + x SO3
σ fCaO
• fCaO.UI = Target < 1
0.1 + 0.2 × x fCaO3
- KFUI measures the ability to follow a raw mix C3S target. Clinker uniformity indicators measure the
variation from an average.
- Use first scheduled “grab” sample per day, with no calculation if there is less than 10 days production.
Exception: Lafarge Corp. recommends KFUI calculation based on all samples.
- Indicators are calculated on a monthly and annual (12-month rolling average) basis for kiln main product
only. The 12MRA KFUI is an average of the monthly results weighted by clinker tonnage, while clinker
12MRAs use 12-month variances and averages (C3S, SO3, f-CaO).
- Combining indices for an aggregate plant index is done by weighting clinker tonnage.
7.2 Lafarge Corp Results

Kiln Pf>98% SUI <2.0 KFUI <10 KSUI <10 Idx F.L. <1.0 CUI <16
1998 1999 1998 1999 1998 1999 1998 1999 1998 1999 1998 1999
BTH 86.1 82.3 1.8 1.4 12.0 11.8 14.1 13.0 0.7 0.9 17.9 12.3
BFD 87.7 95.1 1.5 2.8 14.0 12.4 9.5 10.3 2.8 0.9 15.3 21.4
ESW 94.7 100.2 1.6 1.9 8.2 6.8 7.1 7.2 1.0 1.2 4.8 4.9
KAM 91.5 95.4 2.5 2.1 19.9 13.3 6.2 11.1 4.4 2.1 4.9 6.5
RMD 79.0 82.6 2.2 1.9 7.7 18.3 13.2 10.3 3.4 2.2 16.0 17.9
SEA 93.5 19.2 17.8 3.3 23.3
STC 90.6 91.9 1.0 1.4 7.6 12.6 15.0 17.2 1.4 1.3 15.0 7.1
WSK 91.1 89.0 1.7 1.5 6.9 5.7 12.2 12.3 1.5 1.6 5.8 6.7
All CDN 89.0 92.8 1.6 1.6 9.8 11.5 12.0 11.9 1.4 1.4 12.5 10.6
ALP 94.8 96.2 1.8 2.0 14.0 11.6 19.1 19.7 2.5 2.0 23.4 11.9
DAV 87.7 98.1 2.1 2.0 11.2 9.5 11.8 14.4 0.9 0.9 15.4 16.0
FDA 101.0 101.4 2.9 2.5 10.0 14.3 15.5 15.5 2.6 2.5 11.4 15.9
JPA 95.8 88.0 2.2 2.7 10.1 20.8 27.8 24.1 2.3 1.9 18.8 23.7
PDG 85.8 92.1 2.0 3.2 4.1 5.4 19.9 22.2 2.1 2.6 13.7 16.7
SCK 90.9 88.3 3.4 2.7 13.3 18.7 23.4 27.4 4.1 3.6 24.5 41.4
WHL 95.8 98.0 2.9 2.0 8.9 7.6 16.1 17.4 1.4 1.5 9.3 5.7
All U.S. 93.3 94.8 2.2 2.3 11.4 12.4 19.0 19.8 2.2 2.0 18.4 16.4
All N.A. 91.6 93.9 2.0 2.0 10.8 12.0 16.2 16.3 1.9 1.7 16.1 13.8
3.13
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
8. ASTM Standards
Comparison of Portland Cement Specifications
Updated - Nov. 21, 2000 NORMAL MODERATE (II/20) HIGH EARLY (III/30) LOW HEAT SULFATE RESISTAT
(I/10) (IV/40) (V/50)
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA (a) ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA
Si02, min., % 20.0 20.0

Al203, max., % 6.0 6.0
Fe203, max., % 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5
Mg0, max., % 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0
S03, max. % when:
C3A is 8% (7.5% for CSA) or less 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.5
C3A is more than 8% (7.5% for CSA) 3.5 3.5 3.5 (g) (g) (g) 4.5 4.5 4.5 (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
Loss On Ignition, max., % 3.0 3.0 3.0 (e) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 (e) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Insoluble Residue, max., % 0.75 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.7 0.75 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.7
C3S, max., % 55 35 (h) 35 (h)
C2S, min., % 40 (h) 40 (h)
C3A, max., % (d) 8 8 7.5 15 15 7 (h) 7 (h) 5.5 5 (k) 5 (k) 3.5
(C4AF+2(C3A), or
(C4AF+C2F) as applicable, max., % 25 (k) 25 (k)
Na20+0.658 K20, max. % 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b) 0.60 (b)
Limestone, max., % 5 (a) 5 (a)
–
Comparison of Portland Cement Specifications
Updated - Nov. 21, 2000 NORMAL MODERATE HIGH EARLY LOW HEAT SULFATE RESISTAT
(I/10) (II/20) (III/30) (IV/40) (V/50)
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA (a) ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA
Wagner Turbidimeter (n):

Min. value, any one sample, 160 150 160 150 160 150 160 150
m2/kg
Max. value, any one sample, 230 230 230 230
m2/kg
Air Permeability Test (n):
Min. value, any one sample, 280 260 280 260 280 260 280 260
m2/kg
Max. value, any one sample, 420 420 420 420
m2/kg
Average value, min., m2kg 280 280 280 280
3.14
VADE-MECUM
Average value max., m2/kg 400 400 400 400

Minimum Passing 45um Sieve, % 72 72 72
Soundness (autoclave expansion), 0.80 0.80 1.0 0.80 0.80 1.0 0.80 0.80 1.0 0.80 0.80 1.0 0.80 0.80 1.0
max.,%
Time of Setting (o):
Vicat Test -
Minimum not less than, min. 45 45 45 45 45 60 45 45 45 45 45 90 45 45 60
Maximum not more than, min. 375 375 360 375 375 360 375 375 250 375 375 360 375 375 360
Gillmore Test -
Int. set, not less than, min. 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Fin. set, not more than, min. 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
Air Content of Mortar (i), max., 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
volume %
Comressive Strength, psi (MPa):
1-day minimum 1740 1800 (12.4) 13.5 MPa
(12.0)
1-day maximum 36 MPa (v)
3-day minimum 1740(12.0 1800 (12.4) 14.5 1450(10.0) 1500(10.3) 14.5 3480(20.0) 3500 (24.1) 24.0 MPa 8.5 MPa 1160(8.0) 1200 (12.3) 14.5 MPa
MPa MPa
3-day maximum 32.5 32.5 43.0 MPa 32.5 MPa
MPa MPa (v) (v)
7-day minimum 2760(19.0 2800 (19.3) 20.0 2470(12.0) 2500 (17.2) 20.0 1020(7.0) 1000 (6.9) 2180(15.0) 2200 (15.1) 20.0 MPa
MPa MPa
7-day maximum 40.0 40.0 40.0 MPa
MPa MPa (v)
28-day minimum 26.5 26.5 38.0 MPa 2470(17.0) 2500 (17.2) 25.0 3050 3000 (20.7) 26.5 MPa
MPa MPa MPa (21.0)
28-day maximum 51.0 51.0 60.0 MPa 51.0 MPa
MPa MPa (v) (v)
28-day, C.V., max., % 8 8 8 8
91-day minimum 33.0
MPa
Heat of Hydration:
7-day, max., kJ/kg 290 (70) 290(70) (p) 300 (s) 250 (60) 250 (60) 275
(cal/g) (p) (q)
28-day, max., kJ/kg 290 (70) 290 (70)
(cal/g) (q)
Paste False Set (early stiffening), 50 (x) 50 (x) 50 (x) 50 (x) 50 (x) 50 (v) 50 (v) 50 (v) 50 (v) 50 (v)
min., %
Sulfate Expansion, (j):
14-day, max. % 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
Sulfate Resistance:
14-day, max., % 0.050 (s) 0.040 (t) 0.040 (t) 0.035
3.15
VADE-MECUM
Foot notes on Comparison of Portland Cement Specifications
(a) CSA A5 recognizes the existence of an optimum carbonate addition for some Portland cements. Therefore, a maximum of 5% addition of
limestone is permitted for Type 10 and Type 30 cement.
(b) This optional limit may be specified when the cement is to be used in concrete with aggregates that may be deleteriously reactive.
(d) For C3A calculation, ASTM, AASHTO and CSA use Al2O3 only without TiO2 and P2O5.
(e) A loss on ignition of 3.5% is allowed for Type 10 and Type 30 Portland cements provided that such cements when tested in accordance with
the CSA Standard, but at a furnace temperature of 550oC, show a loss in mass of no more than 3.0%.
(f) The optional limit for heat of hydration shall not be requested when this optional limit is specified.
(g) Not applicable.
(h) Does not apply when the heat of hydration limit is specified.
(i) ASTM & AASHTO allow 16-22% air in Types IA, IIA, IIIA.
(j) Required if SO3 exceeds the table limits.
(k) Does not apply when the sulfate resistance limit is specified.
(n) Either of the two alternative fineness methods may be used at the option of the testing laboratory. However, in the case of ASTM, the
turbidimeter is the referee method; average value shall be determined on the last consecutive five samples from a source.
(o) The purchaser should specify the type of setting time test required. In case he does not so specify, the requirements of the Vicat test only
shall govern; CSA only specifies Vicat test.
(p) The optional limit for the sum of the C3S and C3A shall not be requested when this optional limit is requested. These strength requirements
apply when either heat of hydration or the sum of C3S and C3A requirements are requested.
(q) When heat of hydration limit is specified, it shall be instead of the limits of C3S, C2S and C3A.
(s) The requirement of either heat of hydration or sulfate resistance may be specified at the option of the purchaser.
(t) Optional, it shall be instead of the limits of C3A and C4AF+2C3A.
(v) This value indicates requirement to be specified at the option of the purchaser.
CTS - Products and Quality,
Nov. 21, 2000
3.16
VADE-MECUM
ASTM Optional Physical Requirements

Cement Type I Ia II IIa III IIIa IV V
Fineness Max for AASHTO **
Wagner 4000 4000 4000 4000
Blaine 2200 2200 2200 2200
False set final penetration min (%) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Heat of hydration
7 days max (Ical/g) - - 70 70 - - 60 -
28 days max (cal/g) - - - - - - 70 -
Compressive strength min (psi)
28 days 4000 3200 4000 3200 - - - -
3200* 2560*
Sulphate expansion 14 days max (%) - - - - - - - 0.045
* Apply when either the heat of hydration or C3S + C3A are specified.
** American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
ASTM Standard Physical Requirements

Cement Type I Ia II IIa III IIIa IV V
Air content of motar Max % 12 22 12 22 12 22 12 12
Min % - 16 - 16 - 16 - -
Fineness min
Turbidimeter (m2/kg) 160 160 160 160 - - 160 160
Air permeab (m2/kg) 280 280 280 280 - - 280 280
Compressive strength min (psi)
1 day - - - - 1800 1450 - -
3 day 1800 1450 1500 1200 3500 2800 - 1200
1000* 800*
7 days 2800 2250 2500 2000 - - 1000 2200
- - 1700 1350
28 days - - - - - - 2500 3000
Setting time
GilmoreInitial set min (min) 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Final set max (h) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
VicatInitial set min (min) 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
Final set max (h) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
* When optional heat of hydration or chemical limit on C3S + C3A is specified.
ASTM Optional Chemical Requirements
I II III IV V
Cement Type Remarks
Ia Iia IIIa Iva Va
C3 A - - 8 - - Moderate sulphate resistance
C3 S - - 5 - - High sulphate resistance
C3 A + C3 S - 58 - - - Moderate heat of hydration
Na2O + 0.658 K 2O 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 Low-alkali cement
3.17
VADE-MECUM
Comparison of Blended Hydraulic Cement Specifications

ASTM C-1157-94a and C-595-94a, AASHTO M240-92, and CSA-A362-93
10/27/94 ASTM C-1157-94a ASTM C-595-94a AASHTO M240-92 CSA-A362-93

CEMENT TYPE GU HE MS HS MH LH L(SM) IS S L(PM) IP P I(SM) IS S L(PM) IP P 10SM 10S 10FM 10F 10SF
Slag content, % <25 25-70 >70 <25 25-70 >70 <25 25-70
Pozzolan content, % <15 15-40 >40? <15 15-40 >40? <15 15-40
Silica fume content, % <10
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS
SiO2, min., % c c c c c c c c c c c c
Al 2O3, max., % c c c c c c c c c c c c
CaO, max., % c c c c c c c c c c c c
MgO, max., % 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
SO3, max., % a a a a a a 3.0 (d) 3.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 3.0 (d) 3.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 4.0 (d) 3.0 (e) 3.0 (e) 3.0 (e) 3.0 (e) 3.0 (e)
Sulfide S, max, % 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0
Loss On Ignition, max., % 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.5 6.0 3.5
Insoluble Residue, max., % 1.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 1.0
Water Soluble Alkali, max., % 0.03 (l) 0.03 (l)
3.18
VADE-MECUM
Comparison of Blended Hydraulic Cement Specifications (continued)


PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
Air permeability test: b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0
Max. retained on 45µm Sieve, % b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
Autoclave contraction, max., % 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Autoclave contraction, max., % 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Time of Setting:
Vicat test -
Minimum not less than, min. 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
Maximum not more than, h. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 8 6 8 6
Air content of mortar, max., volume b b b b b b 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
%
Compressive Strength, min., MPa
(psia):
1-day 12
(1740)
3-day 12 24 10 8 7 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.0 9.0 12.0 9.0 12.0
(1740) (3480) (1450) (1160) (1015) (1800) (1800) (1800) (1800) (1800) (1800) (1800) (1800)
7-day 20 17 15 12 7 19.3 19.3 4.1 19.3 19.3 10.3 19.3 19.3 4.1 19.3 19.3 10.3 18.0 15.0 18.0 15.0 13.0
(2900) (2465) (2175) (1740) (1015) (2800) (2800) (600) (2800) (2800) (1500) (2800) (2800) (600) (2800) (2800) (1500)
28-day 28 28 20 22 17 24.1 24.1 10.3 24.1 24.1 20.7 24.1 24.1 10.3 24.1 24.1 20.7 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0
(4060) (4060) (2900) (3190) (2465) (3500) (3500) (1500) (3500) (3500) (3000) (3500) (3500) (1500) (3500) (3500) (3000) (j) (j)
(m) (m) (m)
Heat of hydration:
7-day, max., kJ/kg (cal/g) 290 250 293 293 293 293 251 293 293 293 293 251
(70) (60) (70) (70) (70) (70) (60) (70) (70) (70) (70) (60)
(f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f)
287-day, max., kJ/kg (cal/g) 290 335 335 335 335 293 335 335 335 335 293 300 300
(70) (80) (80) (80) (80) (70) (80) (80) (80) (80) (70) (g) (g)
(f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f)
Paste false set (early stiffening),
min, %
Water requirement, max, wt.% of 64 64
cement
Drying shrinkage, max., % 0.15 0.15
3.19
VADE-MECUM
Comparison of Blended Hydraulic Cement Specifications (continued)


PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
Mortar expansion(I):
14-day, max. % 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
8-week, max. % 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.060
Sulfate resistance at 6 months:
Moderate resistance, max., % 0.10 0.10(k 0.10(k 0.10(k 0.10(k 0.10(k
) ) ) ) )
High resistance, max., % 0.05 0.05(k 0.05(k 0.05(k 0.05(k 0.05(k
) ) ) ) )
Sulfate resistance at 1 year:
Moderate resistance, max., %
High resistance, max., % 0.10
(a) Any amount of SO3 up to the maximum amount that causes an expansion of 0.020% at 14 days of water immersion when tested by C 1038.
(b) No limit, but test results shall be reported on all certificates requested from the manufacturer.
(c) If the purchaser has requested the manufacturer to state in writing the composition of the blended cement purchased, the composition of the cement furnished shall conform to that shown in the statement within the
tolerances of +/-3% for SiO2 and CaO, and +/-2% for Al2O3.
(d) When optimum SO3 tested by C563 exceeds a value 0.5% less than the specified limit, and additional amount of SO3 is permissible provided that, when the cement with the additional calcium sulfate is tested by
C265, the calcium sulfate in the hydrated mortar at 24+/-0.25 h, expressed as SO3, does not exceed 0.50g/L. When the manufacturer supplies cement under this provision, he will, upon request, supply supporting data
to the purchaser.
(e) This limit may be exceeded provided that the cement exhibits expansion not in excess of 0.020% at 14 days when tested in accordance with Clause 7.5.5 of CSA-A5.
(f) Applicable only when moderate (MH) or low (LH) heat of hydration is specified, in which case the strength requirements shall be 80% of the values shown in the table.
(g) Applicable at the purchaser’s option, when moderate heat of hydration is required, the heat of hydration shall be determined in accordance with ASTM C186. Errors in C186 test can occur when testing blended
hydraulic cements, due to the effect of oxidation of sulfides in slags or loss on ignition or due to incomplete solubility of fly ash or silica fume in nitric acid. The magnitude of these errors is unknown at this time.
(i) To be applied only at the purchaser’s request and should not be requested unless the cement will be used with alkali-reactive aggregate.
(j) When moderate heat of hydration is required, the minimum 28-day strength requirements shall be 80% of the value shown and the 91-day strength shall be a minimum of 26.0 MPa.
(k) Applicable at purchaser’s option. The sulfate resistance shall be determined in accordance with ASTM C1012. If expansion is greater than 0.05% at 6 months but less than 0.10% at one year, then the cement will
be considered to be high sulfate resistance.
(l) Applicable only when the cement is specified to be nonstaining to limestone.
(m) Optional.
CTS – Products and Quality, October 27, 1994
3.20
VADE-MECUM
4. MILLING
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Mill ....................................................................................................... 4.1

1.1 Ball Mill General .......................................................................... 4.1
1.2 Ball Charge and Internals.............................................................. 4.3
1.3 Ball Charge Design (Finish Mill)................................................... 4.6
1.4 Grinding Laws.............................................................................. 4.9
2. Separator............................................................................................ 4.12
2.1 Circulating Load......................................................................... 4.12
2.2 Tromp Curve.............................................................................. 4.12
2.3 Indicators for Cement Milling and Typical Values ....................... 4.14
2.4 Sturtevant/O'Sepa (Bath #B mill) ................................................ 4.15
2.5 Recommended Steps for Sizing a HES ........................................ 4.16
3. Heat and Water Balance .................................................................... 4.17
4. Grinding Aid ...................................................................................... 4.18
5. Sieve ................................................................................................... 4.19
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. Mill
1.1 Ball Mill General
a) Mill design
General L/D ratio
• Raw mills: 1.5 < L/D < 3.2
• Finish / cement mills: 2.8 < L/D < 3.2
Length of first Compartments relative to total mill length
• Raw mills: First compartment length equals 35 – 45% of total mill effective length.
• Cement mill: First compartment length equals 30 – 35% of total mill effective length.
• When L/D>1.5, classifying liners might be used.
• The lower the L/D, the higher the circulating load needs to be (see below).
b) Percent loading of mill
2π
αr 2 − r sin α (h − r )
0.9
h/d
• % volume load = 360 0.8
πr 2
where: 0.7
- r is the radius
0.6
- h is the free height
h−r
- α = arccos 0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50%
r % volume load
- α in degrees π = 3.14
Rules of thumb
• % vol. Load = 111.87 – 123.98 (h/d), 25 – 50%: error max 0.6%.
• It is estimated that material increases the actual ball filling ratio by about 2%.
• Another method (quick but not as accurate) consists in counting the number of visible shell liner plates (n) and
to divide by the total number of shell liner plates per circumference (N): Angle α = n x 360 / N.
Values of angle h/d ratio in relation to the ball load (% filling degree)
Ball load (%) h/d n/N Ball load (%) h/d n/N
20 .7459 .667 31 .6516
21 .737 32 .6434 .590
22 .7281 .653 33 .6352
23 .7193 34 .627 .580
24 .7106 .639 35 .6189
25 .702 36 .6109 .569
26 .6926 .625 37 .6028
27 .685 38 .5948 .558
28 .6765 .611 39 .5868
29 .6682 40 .5789 .549
30 .6598 .601 41 .5709
42 .563 .539
4.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
c) Mill Critical Speed

Gω 2 r
C • C = mω 2 r =
g
m
where:
000000000000000000000000000000000000
P
r - G = Weight of grinding ball in kg
- ω = angular velocity of mill tube (rad/sec)
Ž
G - D = inside mill diameter (m)
- n = rev per minute
- C = centrifugal power kg
- D1 = inside mill diameter (ft)
• P = G * sin ∂
(P is the resulting force of gravity)
• To maintain the ball in this position on the mill wall, it is
necessary that C ≥ P.
60 2 g 42.3 76.6
• Mill critical speed: nc = = (= ), with D in meters ( D1 in feet)
4 π2 r D D1
% Critical speed:
• Practically, mill speed between 68and 80% of critical speed.
• % critical speed is the mill actual speed in RPM divided by nc.
Example:
3.98 meter mill with rotational speed of 15.6 rpm then nc = 21.2, % critical speed = 73.6 %.
d) Retention Time
Rules of thumb:
• Retention time: Open circuits: ≥12 min
Closed circuits: ≥5 min
• The feed is pushing the material through the mill so that, If mill throughput increases: retention time decreases:
C
8 < < 12 where: C is the ball charge weight, M is the material weight
M
Fluoresceine test:
• 2g/t of mill production. Prepare the fluoresceine with 800-ml alcohol and impregnate 2 kg of mill feed
material (in a plastic bag).
• Put the material at mill inlet, start the time and sample every 30 s during 30 min. (others use salt).
e) Mill Throughput
• Using elevator power and after calibrating we have:
(kW − kW0 ). 3600 .η where:
• A= - A = Material flow (mtph)
9,81. H - kW = Actual elevator power ( in kW)
- kW0 = Elevator power empty
- η = Elevator efficiency
- H = Inter axis elevator height
4.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
f) Required air velocities for mill ventilation

Rules of thumb
• Recommended 1.5 m/s above the ball charge:
- inside the trunnion: 22-25 m/s.
- partitions: 8-14 m/s (<20 m/s).
- hood: <5 m/s to prevent dust from being sucked up (dust pick-up is proportional to speed^2).
- dropout box: <2 m/s.
• 0.3-0.5 Nm3/kg ck
0.6-0.8 Nm3/kg raw mix
• Wet bulb temperature should be 30oC below the dry bulb temperature.
g) Optimum filling ratio:
• U= (volume of powder in the mill)/ (volume of voids in the charge): between 60% and 110%, optimum around
90%.
• In practical terms, material level should equal ball level.
1.2 Ball Charge and Internals

a) Biggest Ball
Bond Formula
- K is a constant (350 for a dry mill open or close circuit,
d Wi ρ 300 for wet)
• d KMAX = 20.17 20 .3
K Ψ. Du - ρ is the specific mass of material (g/cm3)
where: - Wi is the Bond work index (kWh/t)
- d KMAX is the biggest ball diameter (mm) - Du is the mill inside diameter (m)
- d 20 is the sieve dimension (µ) with 20% - Ψ is the ratio between the actual / critical speed (%)
retained
Quick evaluation Grinding Ball vs Clinker Size

• For clinker: 100
Optimum Ball Diameter (mm)
B = 24 d 80
(Other formula exist that result in value differences
of ± 5%)
- B = ball dimension (mm)
- d 80 is the sieve with 80% passing
10
.1 1 10 100
Clinker Size d80
Rowland Formula
d 80  ρ . Wi 
• B = 25.4 .  d 80 is the sieve with 80% passing

K  100 . Ψ . 3.281 Du 

4.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Material bulk density and Bond index

Wi kWh/st ρ (g/cm3) Bulk density g/l or kg/m3 lb/ft3
Clinker: 13.49 3.09 Sand 1387 86.6
Limestone 10.18 2.68 Sand 1679 104.9
Shale 16.40 2.58 Iron 2629 164.2
Slag 15.76 2.93 Bauxite 1980 123.6
Sand stone 11.53 2.68 Brick 1502 93.8
Silica sand 16.46 2.65 Gypsum 1677 104.7
Coal 11.37 1.63 Fluid coke 926 57.8
Clay 7.10 2.23 Limestone (crushed) 1803 112.6
Gypsum 8.16 2.69 Silica fume 1024 63.9
Kiln feed 10.57 2.67 Bottom Ash 1241 77.5
Cement T I-II 1234 77.1
T 10 1207 75.4
T III 1054 65.8
Clinker 1575 98.4
Clinker 1400 87.4
(underburnt)
Raw mix 1041 65.0
b) Grinding Balls Data
Grinding Ball dimensions
Diameter Weight Surface Number of balls per Weight of 1 m3 of Specific surface

mm inch (g) (cm2) metric tons balls (kg) (m2 / mt)
100.00 ± 4" 4,001.153 314.159 250 4560 7.854
90.00 ±3½" 2,916.841 254.469 343 4590 8.728
80.00 2,048.590 201.062 488 4620 9.812
77.00 ±3½" 1,826.658 186.265 548 10.207
70.00 1,372.396 153.938 729 4640 11.222
64.00 ±2½" 1,048.878 128.680 954 12.276
60.00 864.249 113.097 1,157 4660 13.085
50.00 ±2" 500.144 78.540 2,000 4708 15,708
40.00 256.074 50.265 3,905 4760 19.628
38.00 ±1½" 219.551 45.365 4,555 20.664
35.00 171.549 38.485 5,830 22.437
31.75 ±1¼" 128.061 31.669 7,809 24.730
30.00 108.031 28.274 9,257 4850 26.173
25.00 ±1" 62.518 19.635 15,996 4894 31.408
23.00 48.682 16.619 20,542 34.139
22.22 =7/8" 43.895 15.511 22,782 35.337
20.00 ±3/4" 32.009 12.566 31,242 4948 39.259
17.00 ±5.8" 19.658 9.079 50,870 4989 46.185
(Unit weight and specific surface of MAGOTTEAUX grinding media)
Quick calculation:
• Ball diameter (mm) = 3 250 P (P = weight in g)
785 2
• Specific surface of balls of diameter = m / mt (d = diameter in mm)
d
4.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Wear rates:
Ball diameter mm Wear GT ball Wear / Ball Wear ∂ diam
g/h.T g/100h mm/100h
100
90 12.9 38.6 0.4
80 14.4 30.4 0.4
70 16.7 23.6 0.4
60 19.3 17.2 0.4
50 23.1 11.9 0.4
40 28.9 7.6 0.4
30 38 4.22 0.4
25 46.5 2.98 0.4
20 58.5 1.92 0.4
17 68.2 1.38 0.4
Bulk density for ball load
(coarse to medium ball size distribution):
• In first compartment; 4.3 –4.5 metric tonnes per tonne of balls (3.0 to 2.0 inch balls would be fine).
• In second compartment; 4.5 – 4.65 metric tonnes per tonne of balls (2.0 to 0.75 inch balls would be considered
medium to fine).
• In single compartment: 4.5 – 4.55 metric tonnes per tonne of balls.
c) Others internals
Partitions
• Total slot area: 10 to 20 cm2/tph production:
Slot Size Central Part Discharge Part
FM 7 mm ± 1 mm 9 mm ± 1 mm Max: ½ min ball size
RM 10 mm ± 1 mm 12 mm ± 1 mm
Liners
• Liners must be changed when 60% of their effective lifting height has worn away:
- -8 to –10 % production
- reference points to measure lifting height are the lowest point on the liner to the highest release point
(contact points between grinding ball and liner plate)
• American Lorrain pattern: diameter (ft)*2=# bolt holes/row, 18.8” center to center.
• DIN pattern: diameter (m)*10== # bolt holes/row, 31.4 cm center to center.
• Classifying liners if L/D>1.5 and volume load<35%.
• Without classifying liners, keep a maximum of 3-4 ball sizes.
4.5
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d) Mill Internal Inspection Sheet

Points to audit Ball Charge Remarks
Shell Liner Thickness Ball Coating Remarks
Shell Liner Lifter Thickness Ball Classification Remarks
Shell Liner Remarks Discharge Grate Slot Size-Average
Inlet Head Liner Thickness Discharge Grate Slot Size-Maxim.
Inlet Head Liner Remarks Discharge Grate Metal Thickness
Inlet Opening Remarks Discharge Grate Percent Blinded
Height Liner, to Balls - Average Discharge Center Screen Percent Blinded
Width Across Balls - Average Material Position in Mill
Calculated Percent Fill
1.3 Ball Charge Design (Finish Mill)

a) Recommended volume loading
(see BP Ball Charge Management)
Recommended Volume Loading
st
1 Compartment 2nd Compartment 3rd Compartment
Minimum kWh/t1 26 – 28% 28 – 30% 28 – 30%
Maximum Production 32 – 34 % 34 – 36% 34 – 36%
(Ball level in the trunion should not be higher than 2 to 3 inches.)
b) Polysius Design
• As a rule of thumb, it suits raw mills and especially monochambers very well, especially if no classifying
liners are used.
 D 
ln 
9.6 
• D = 9.6 e−013.x ⇔ x =  
− 0.13
where:
- D = Ø ball (cm)
- x = effective mill length (m)
• Process step-by-step, calculating each effective length starting from the input and with the largest ball:
1. Calculate effective lengths and the ball sizes you plan to use.
2. Double the first effective length which is both the first interval width and the first cumulative length.
3. Calculate each succeeding interval width by taking the effective length and substract the preceding
cumulative length and doubling it. Add this value to the previous cumulative length to get the new one.
4. If an interval overlaps with the partition divide the interval at the point of overlap. The excess is carried
over to the next compartment. At the end of the mill, the interval is truncated at the point of overlap.
5. Once the intervals have been adjusted for compartment lengths as described in step (4), divide the adjusted
interval by compartment length and multiply by 100. This is the percent weight for each size to be used in
the compartment.
c) Slegten Model
1
The recommended volume loading for minimum kWh/t is based on an acceptable compromise with production. For minimum kWh/t
the volume loading can be as low as 22%.
4.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
• Compatible mostly with classifying linings in the second compartment.
4.7
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
First Compartment – Crushing

• Same number (n) of balls in each size range.80, 70 and 60 mm Ø and then add some 90 mm Ø to deal with
oversize clinker. This equilibrium charge will not change as you add 90 mm Ø make-up balls to maintain
volume load.
Ø Ball (mm) % of Weight (x) % of Weight Number/ 10 t of Charge
90 100-5x 20.0 670
80 2-4x 38.4 1820
70 1.6x 25.6 1820
60 x 16.0 1820
- x = is taken to be the number of balls in the last size.
• In recent years, Slegten has favored a 3-ball size distribution in first compartments over a 4- ball size as shown
in table above.
Transition Zone
• This is at the beginning of the second compartment and basically its job is to clean up anything which
penetrated the partition that is oversize for the second compartment charge to fracture.
• The design for this area is to use "n" balls of 50 and 40 mm.
Ø Ball (mm) Number/ 10 t of Charge
50 1820
40 1820
• The transition zone is made of the largest ball size used in this transition zone is sometimes identical to the
smallest ball size used in the first compartment.
Second Compartment – Fine Grinding
• The envelope curve for the balls smaller than 40 mm follows the following formula:
• D = 3.3e −010.x where:
- D = Ø ball (cm)
- x = distance from transition zone finish (m)
• The 30 mm balls start at the completion of the transition zone and the exponential curve follows.
Rule of thumb:
• The smallest ball size should, as a minimum, be at least twice the width of the slots in the grates (ex. ≥16 mm
balls if slots are ≤8 mm wide). For this reason, it is generally recommended to use ¾” (19 mm) balls as the
smallest size in Finish mills. 5/8” balls are fine when the grates are new but often become problematic as the
grate slots enlarge.
d) Example: Comparison Slegten/ Polysius
1st compartment useful length = 3.81 m, 2nd compartment useful length = 7.66 m
Using an average ball weight of 1.65 kg per ball and 3 ball sizes in the first compartment for the Slegten model.
Ball size and % compartment load Polysius design Slegten design
1st compartment 3 ½” 31.0% 32.1%
3” 31.2% 43.1%
2 ½” 37.8% 24.8 %
2nd compartment 2” 2.31% 7.67% Transition
1 ½” 23.73% 2.94% zone
1 ¼” 34.05% 10.08%
1” 2.57% 48.18%
¾” 37.34% 31.13%
5/8” - (Some)1
4.8
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
A limited amount of 5/8” balls should theoretically be added but the designer decided to use ¾” as the smallest ball size.
e) Fineness in Finish Mills:
In the first compartment before intermediate diaphragm
• 95% passing of 2.365 mm (2360 µ or 8 mesh) for the material leaving the first compartment 33% of energy.
• Particle size distribution recommended on other sieves:
- 86 – 92 % passing 1.0 mm (1000 µm or 18 mesh)
In the second compartment before discharge diaphragm
• 95% passing 0.5 mm (500 µm or 35 mesh)
• 70- 80 % passing 0.2 mm (212 µm or 70 mesh)
1.4 Grinding Laws

a) Absorbed Power of a Mill
• Only 5-10 % of the energy is used for grinding, 90% is wasted into heat, wear…
• With similar ball charge gradation and similar liners' lifting effect, the absorbed power is related to:
- Tonnage of balls
- Mill rpm
- % volume load
- Mill diameter
Slegten formula
1.27
 rpm  π
• P = W *  

* K j * K Fr and W= * Fr 2 * L * J * d
 V cr  4
where:
- P : the motor absorbed power (kW) - J : the ratio between the apparent ball
- W : the weight of the load (T) volume and the internal volume
- Fr : internal diameter (inside liners) (m) - rpm: is mill speed (rpm)
- d is the apparent density of load (t/m3)
#1 comp : d = 4.5
#2 comp : d = 4.65, if fine ball size distribution (say with average ball weight < 40 g)
d = 4.6, if coarser ball size distribution (average ball weight > 40 g)
Average : d = 4.6
 42.3 
- Vcr is the critical speed inside liners=   , L : the useful length of mill (m)
  Fr
 
K j = 1.36 − 1.2 J , K Fr = C .Fr
0.379
-
- K Fr is the influence of the location of the center of gravity for the moving ball charge vs. the mill center
(C is a constant depending on the material and the liners).
- C= 11.262 for Clinker mill closed circuit with Slegten equipment
10.7 for clinker + slag, 12.16 for raw mix, 10.1 for slurry
4.9
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1.27
 rpm  π
• P = L *  

* J*K j* * Fr2.379 * d * C
 Vcr  4
Simplified formula
 RPM  100 Fr
• P =T * * *Kj * * 9.5
 V cr  75 1.366
Kj Function of Volume Load
Volume load Kj
40% 0.9
30% 1
20% 1.1
Rules of Thumb
• One metric ton of balls increases the mill power draw by 10kW.
• Usually, 8 to 12 kWh/t is absorbed in the first compartment for clinker grinding.
b) Grinding Laws
General Law: Charles
• dW = cx −n dx
- If W = Comminution work, x = Size of
particles (initial, final)
Value of n
Energy Law Value of n: Applies well over range of:
Rittinger 2 10 – 1000 µm
Kick 1
Bond 1.5
Normalized Blaine fineness equation

• Fineness equation, generally accepted within Lafarge Corp:
n
 Blaine 1
W2 = W1  
 Blaine 2
- n = 1.4 for high efficiency separator (HES) circuit, n = 1.6 for Sturtevant separators, bearing in mind
that 16’ and 18’ Sturtevant separators are more efficient than the larger 20’ and 22’ Sturtevant.
- W: communition work, W is proportional to production rates.
• Proposed by Polysius: C2 = C1 * e0.43( Blaine 1− Blaine 2 ) / 1000
where C2 and C1 are production capacities
• Rene’s Study: +1% passing at 10µm: +10.8 SSB
Rules of thumb
• Raw material: 10-16 kWh/t (target fineness: passing 200µm>99%, passing 100µm>90%)
4.10
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
• Clinker: 45 ± 15 kWh/t at 3500 SSB
4.11
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
2. Separator
2.1 Circulating Load
a) Junction with Three Streams
A • A, R, F are the feed, reject and fine of the separator
- ai , ri , f i are the cumulated % passing at a defined sieve(i).
- da, dr, df are the % retained corresponding to the sieve interval dx.
- A= R+F
- A da = Rdr + Fdf
R F
R df − da F dr − da
With: da = ai + 1 − ai , = , =
A df − dr A dr − df
b) Drawing c) CL calculation
• Plot ( f i − a ) vs ( f i − ri ) • Using the least square line calculations,
If the mill circuit is steady, the graph has to be a with α = 0
straight line:
( f − a) = α + β( f − r ) d) Quick CL calculation
- α should be close to 0 • With one set of results of sieving:
R R f −a
- β is the most probable value of =
A F a−r
R β
- The circulating load is defined as: =
F 1− β
2.2 Tromp Curve

a) Tromp Curve
• On the Gausso-logarithmic paper, let's plot the probability for a given particle of a certain size entering the
dr( x )* R
separator to go to the rejects = with:
da( x )* A
∑ ( f − a )( f − r )
n
i i i i
R i =0
=
∑( f − r )
A n
2
i i
i =0
• The Tromp curve can be divided into two straight lines:

- The right one (higher sieves) has a slope which is representative of the separator efficiency (a perfect one
would be vertical).
- The left one (smaller sieves) is flat.
4.12
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b) Imperfection
• I = d75 − d 25
where:
2 * d 50 - d25 is the size of the particle which has 25 % chance of going to rejects
- d50 is the size of the particle which has 50 % chance of going to rejects
- d75 is the size of the particle which has 75 % chance of going to rejects
I= 0.4 -0.5 for a high efficiency separator
0.6 - 0.7 for a Sturtevant
0.45 - 0.6 for a Raymond separator
Imperfection vs Circulation Load
0.44
Imperfection
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36
0 100 200 300 400
Circ. load (%)
c) Acuity Limit
• AL is the abscissa of the intersection of the two Tromp curve lines.
• It’s the size at which selection is initiated
Rule of thumb
• Cement mill = Acuity limit: 20-30 µm, Raw mill = Acuity limit: 30-60 µm
d) Bypass
Definition:
• By-pass is the ordinate of the intersection of the two Tromp curve lines.
• The bypass is the lowest percentage of feed that will go to the separator rejects.
Bypass vs. feed rate – Sturtevant Bypass vs. feed rate O’Sepa/Sturtevant
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00000 00 00 00 00 00 00000 00 00 00 00 00 00000 00 00 00 00 00 00000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

• The following graph shows the Bypass of an
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

18’Sturtevant versus its feed rate. 80
100
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
70
Sturtevant
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60
80
Bypass (%)
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
50
Bypass (%)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

30
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
40 20
O-Sepa
10
20 0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0 Qf/Qa (kg feed/m3 separator sweep)
50 100 150 200 250 300
Feedrate to Separator (t/h)
4.13
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
00 00 00
QF/Qa vs. bypass
40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
• If Qf is the separator feed rate (kg/h) and Qa the
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
30
Bypass (%)
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
separator ventilation (m3/h),
• Qf/Qa is an important ratio for the separator 20
efficiency.
 Qf 
10 00 00 00
0 0
 − f1 

Qa 
• Bypass = 1 + e 
0
- f1: coefficient for the separator 0 1 2 3 4
Qf/Qa (kg/m3)
e) Rosin Rammler Number RRnumber vs. Feed to Air Ratio

0 0 0 0 0
• The steeper the size distribution (RR# high) the
more efficient the grinding and separating
1.20
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Rosin-Ramler Number (n)

1.15
process.
Cement Mill RR#
Open Circuit 0.75 – 0.85
1.10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1.05
Raymond Sturtevant 0.85 – 1.00
2nd general HW 1.00 – 1.20 1.00
High Efficiency Separator 1.10 – 1.40 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Qf/Qa (kg/m3)
• Raw mix RR# are usually lower

Separation Performance
• Rate of recuperation in the fines of particles smaller than a given dimension.
F f
r= *
A a
2.3 Indicators for Cement Milling and Typical Values
IMLt > 37 (laser / sieve)
IMLm: in the 17 –19 range
100/c: 63 – 91 % range
100/c C1: 60 –85 % range
100/c C2: 80 –110 % range
NRR fines: 1.1 – 1.4 for HES
0.85 – 1.0 for 1st generation separators (Sturtevant, Raymond)
1.2 for second generation separators
% recovery, 45 µm: 55% for HES
Acuity: 20 – 30 µm
Imperfection: 0.4 – 0.5 for HES
0.45 – 0.6 for Raymond separators
0.6 –0.7 for Sturtevant separators
Bypass: 5 – 10% range for HES
Circulating load: 150 –200 % with HES
HES Qf/Qa: 1.5 – 2.0 range
% Passing 45 µm: 93% minimum (45 µm = 325 mesh)
4.14
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
2.4 Sturtevant/O'Sepa (Bath #B mill)

Data before (22' Sturtevant)-after (O'Sepa)
T10 T1
Before After Before After
Prod(T/H) 81 93.3 71 79.4
kWh/t total 42.6 40.3 48.6 47.1
Mill+elev+sep 42.1 36 48.0 42.4
Mill 38.3 34.9 43.7 41.0
Blaine 380 358 380 361
45µ 89 91.6 90 94.7
Strength 3d (MPa) 24.3 24.8 25.2 24.7
7d (MPa) 28.4 28.9 29.7 29.2
28d (MPa) 34.5 34.4 35.2 35.2
Water dem (% for NC) 24.8 25.8 25.3 26.4
Flow@ 48%W/C 113 107 121 113
Gypsum dehydrant(%) 65% 25 65 25
Setting time VIS(min) 120 120 117 124
VFS(min) 218 225 218 231
Blaine vs 325 40.6 39.0
Circuit characteristics
Mill Separator
Diameter: 3.96 m O'Sepa N-2000
#1 comp length: 5.04 m eff Airflow design: 2000 m3/mi
#2 comp length: 9.72 m eff Pressure drop: 8"
Power Connect: 3581 kW Rotor speed: 100-230 rpm
Lining #1 comp: Lifting Feed capacity: 420 tph
Lining #2 comp: Classifying Power: 200 HP AC var. freq
Partition slots: 8mm-1
Discharge slots: 8mm+1
Ball charge (B mill)
Before After Temp Press Flow Flow
comp 3"1/2 20% 20% ºC "WG m3/h Nm/h
3" 60% 60% Mill sweep 78.3 -11 34101 25781
2"1/2 20% 20% Separator
Volume load 33% 33% Primary 15 0 66487 63024
comp 2"1/2 7% 3% Aux 1301
2" 4% 6% Secondary 15 0 24079 22825
1"1/2 8% 9% Tertiary 15 0 13814 13095
1"1/4 9% 9% TOTAL 100245
1" 12% 22% Outlet fan 61 0 143381 117156
3/4" 60% 51%
Volume load 34% 36%
Power kw 3100 3260
4.15
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Separator sp = 174 RPM Mill out temp = 84 °C

Mill feed = 79.2 t/h Elevator = 34 kW
Mill #1 sound = 78.2 Mill = 3101 kW
Mill #2 sound = 62.5 Type 10
Tromp curve (A mill)
R/A) mean = 0.656 Bypass =8%
CL = 191% Imperfection = 0.39
Acuity limit = 12 µm Rosin-Rammler(fine) = 1.15
2.5 Recommended Steps for Sizing a HES

a) Estimate new production rate
• Assume a specific power consumption for an optimized ball mill with HES (37 kWh/t TI @3700 Blaine)
• Back calculate the production rate based on the available motor power
• Use the standard Blaine adjustment formula (Prod1/Prod2 = [Blaine2/Blaine1]^1.4).
b) Fix the Qf/Qa target with the circulating load
• Decreasing Qf/Qa (kg feed per Am3 of air) increases the separator efficiency but also increases the capital and
the operating costs.
• The CTS process target is Qf/Qa = 1.6 @ CL (R/F) = 150%; Qa @ 65C; 3800 Blaine.
• The CTS upper limit is Qf/Qa = 2.0. Lower than this only marginally improve the separator Imperfection and
Bypass of 2-5% and therefore has no effect on production or product quality
Other suppliers’ rules of thumb:
• Fuller typically sizes at a Qf/Qa = 2.0-2.5 @ CL = 180%.
• Christian Pfeiffer
- Finish mill:
Qf/Qa = 1.8 @ CL = 200%; Qa @ 90C; 3500 Blaine; Qp/Qa (kg fines per m3 of air)
3000 Blaine 0.75-0.80 kg/Am3
4000 0.55-0.60
5000 < 0.50
- Raw mix:
Qf/Qa = 2.2 @ CL = 200%; Qa @ 90C; 12-14%R 90 µm., Qp/Qa: 0.55 kg/m3.
- Slag: Christian Pfeiffer sizes slightly larger for slag circuits due to lower density and higher CL, as does
Polysius.
c) Fan and Bag House Sizing
• Use the new production rate (T/h), Qf/Qa (kg/ Am3) and circulating load (%) to specify the air flow.
• Most separators can operate at +/- 20% of nominal.
• Only a margin of 5 - 8% above the separator airflow is recommended for the BH.
• Margin of 5-10% is recommended on top of the BH for the fan.
• Correctly specifying the static pressure:
- Pressure drop can be estimated by the dP of the separator (8-12"), D/C (4-8"), ducting. (3-6") and if
present, silencer (1-2").
- The recommendation is 26 in WG with a minimum of 24 in WG.
• Include in the circuit design, the possibility to recirculate from 0-80% of the separator airflow.
4.16
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
3. Heat and Water Balance

a) Water
Gypsum dehydration
• Water generated = 0.156977*M*K*D
where:
- M = kg/h of SO3 source excluding clinker,
- K = % pure CaSO4(2H2O)
- D = % dehydration (from DSC)
Spray cooling with water
• Water flow(kg/h) = Q*Cp*(Tf-Ti)/((100-Tw)+538.9*f)
where:
- Tf and Ti are the temperatures of material or gas before and after cooling (in C)
- Cp (kcal/kg) is the specific heat of material or gas and Q its flow rate (kg/h)
- Tw is the water temperature (C) and f is the % water evaporated.
Rule of thumb
• Usually, water flow ranges from 0 to 3 % of the mill production
b) Heat balance
Mill heat generation
• Kcal/h = kWh (power measured)*factor*860
- Factor = 0.75 for vertical mill and 0.9 for ball mill
Furnace wall losses
• About 5kcal/kg fuel
c) Mill heat balance sheet

Mill Product Rate (STPH) Percent H2O in Separator Rejects %
Feed Temperature ___________ Percent H2O % Product %
Mill Diameter_ Ft. Mill Length____ Ft. Mill Motor HP Mill Discharge %
Mill Liner Thickness ________in Ball Charge % Percent Recirculating Load %
Separator Ventilator Volume ACFM Percent Leakage Into Separator (CFM) %
Temperature F Maximum Separator Inlet Temperature F
Pressure in.H2O Ambient Temperature F
Mill Ventilator Volume ACFM Percent Relative Humidity %
Temperature F Plant Altitude FT
Pressure in.H2O Fuel Type Heat
Baghouse Ventilator Volume ACFM Value
Temperature F Separator Rejects Temperature F
Pressure in.H2O Product Temperature F
Auxiliary Ventilator Volume ACFM Baghouse Cloth Area FT2
Temperature F Number of Compartments
Pressure in.H2O Number of Compartments Cleaning Together
4.17
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
4. Grinding Aid
Type of Products
• Surface active agents tend to saturate the free valence and inhibit the pack-set. Typical surface-active agents
are:
- ligno-sulphonates
- polyoils
- amines
- organic acids
• Polar compounds (water, ammonia) are known to have some action on such bonds through their polar moment.
However, their practical use as surface agents is limited by their other impacts on the cement properties.
• Other agents, particularly coal dust, have been used in the past.
• Commercial products available as grinding aids are essentially (60-800 g/t ck):
- Triethanolamine
- Polypropyleneglycols and polyethylene
• HEA2, DDA& and other products cause a definite reduction of pack-set but do not prevent agglomeration or
lump-formation problems that are caused by:
- Alkalis ( K 2 SO4 )
- Moisture
The effect of grinding aid on milling process:
- Enhances the flowability and prevents agglomeration
- Prevents coating on liners and grinding media- Decreases the "Blaine: Passing 325" ratio
- Is lLowers effect on coarser product (below 320 m2/kg)
- Reduces contraction
Example Bath
• HEA2 on the feeding belt, Range: 0.1-0.2 kg/t of kk
• Specific gravity: 1.195 kg/l, % active agent: 70%
0.15
• Price: 1.31 $/l, Cost: * 1.31 = 0.234 $/t kk
0.7 * 1.195
• At kWh/t cte, 200g/t of glycol: +80 SSB
• Production increase and pack set decrease. Mixed with water (3/1) and injected in #1 comp
HEA2 (Grace) HEA2/rm (Grace)
0.025% weight per weight of kk 0.078% weight per weight of kk
2.02$/kg 1.48$/kg
6% production increase for a higher setting time (20 min)
reduce cracks
4.18
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
5. Sieve
Sieve Screen Micron Iso alter Screen Micron Iso alter
#400 37 38 #14 1400
#325 44 45 #12 1700
#270 53 53 #10 2000 2000
#230 63 63 #8 2360
#200 74 75 #7 2800
#170 88 90 #6 3350
#140 105 106 #5 4000
#120 125 125 #4 4750
#100 149 150 #3.5 5600
#80 177 180 1/4" 6350 6300
#70 210 212 5/16" 8000 8000
#60 250 250 3/8" 9510 9500
#50 297 300 7/16" 11200 11200
#45 354 355 1/2" 12700 12500
#40 420 425 5/8" 16000 16000
#35 500 500 3/4" 19000 19000
#30 595 600 7/8" 22600 22400
#25 707 710 1" 25400 25000
#20 850 1"1/4 32000 31500
#18 1000 1000 1"1/2 38100 38100
#16 1180 2" 50800 50000
4.19
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
5. COMBUSTION & FUELS
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 5 – COMBUSTION & FUELS
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Fuel Theory.......................................................................................... 5.1

2. Solid Fuel.............................................................................................. 5.2
2.1 Coal ............................................................................................. 5.2
2.2 Coke............................................................................................. 5.4
3. Fuel Oil................................................................................................. 5.4
3.1 Main Characteristics..................................................................... 5.4
3.2 Viscosity ...................................................................................... 5.4
4. Waste Fuel............................................................................................ 5.5
5. Natural Gas.......................................................................................... 5.6
6. Flame Theory ....................................................................................... 5.7
6.1 Definition..................................................................................... 5.7
6.2 Flame Speed................................................................................. 5.7
6.3 Flame Radiation ........................................................................... 5.7
6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature .................................. 5.7
7. Burner Pipes ........................................................................................ 5.8
7.1 Number of Air Circuits................................................................. 5.8
7.2 Primary Air .................................................................................. 5.8
7.3 Transport air................................................................................. 5.9
7.4 Specific Impulse........................................................................... 5.9
7.5 Swirl .......................................................................................... 5.10
7.6 Examples of Burner Tip.............................................................. 5.10
8. Fuel Grinding and Dosing ................................................................. 5.12
8.1 Solid Fuel Grindability ............................................................... 5.12
8.2 Solid Fuel Fineness .................................................................... 5.12
8.3 Dosing........................................................................................ 5.13
8.4 Safety Considerations ................................................................. 5.13
8.5 Fuel Grinders ............................................................................. 5.13
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. Fuel Theory
a) Low Heating Value
• LHV is calculated from the Higher Heating Value (obtained by bomb calorimeter)
• Considering that :
- Water created by the combustion doesn’t condense
- The reaction takes place under constant pressure
LHV = HHV - 567W (at std. Temp = 25oC) in metric units
LHV = HHV – 1020W (std. Temp = 60oF) in english units
- LHV, HHV in kcal/kg (BTU/lb)

- W in kg (lb) water vaporized per kg (lb) or fuel
W= H2O contained in the fuel + H2O created by the combustion
H2O created by the combustion : 2H + ½ O2 -> H2O
W= % (H2O)+ 9*% (H) where % expressed in weight in the fuel
• The difference between the HHV and the LHV will vary with fuel type. The greater the proportion of
hydrogen in a fuel, the lower the resulting LHV:
Fuel %H HHV LHV LHV LHV as a
(Btu/lb) (Btu/lb) (kcal/kg) % of HHV
Coal 5 12,000 11,540 6410 96
Coke 4 14,000 13,630 7570 97
Waste Fuel 10 9,000 8,070 4480 90
Fuel oil 10 19,000 18,070 10040 95
Nat. gas 25 23,000 20,680 11490 90
Rule of thumb:
• One cubic foot of air (+stochiometric amount of NG or oil) releases 100 Btu of heat (for fuel), 1m3 air
releases about 900 kcal.
b) Volatile Matter
• Volatile matter is the loss in weight, corrected for moisture, of a sample heated to 950oC in the absence of
air.
Ignition
Temperature C
300
% VM
5.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
c) Ash
• Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after burning coal heated to 750oC in an oxidizing atmosphere until
there is not weight change. It is composed chiefly (95-99%) of oxides of Si, Al, Fe, and Ca; Mg, Ti, S, Na,
K, and trace elements can also be present.
d) Fixed Carbon
• Fixed carbon is the residue left after the volatile matter is driven off and is calculated as:
F.C. = 100 – (% ash + % moisture + % volatile matter)
e) Flammability
Limit flammability in air Temp auto flame
Inf limit (%) Sup limit (%) in air (°C)
H2 4 75 570
CO 12.5 74 610
CH4 5 15 580
C2H6 3 12.5 490
C3H8 2.2 9.5 480
C4H10 1.7 8.5 420
f) Combustion Reaction Time

Coal Heavy oil Light oil Gas
0.1to 1 second 0.1 0.01 to 0.001 0.001
In second, at atmospheric pressure
2. Solid Fuel
2.1 Coal
a) Main Coal Characteristics
Approximate Analysis and bulk density for Various Coals
Group Fixed carbon (%) Volatile matter (%) Heat value (Btu/lb.) Kg/m3
≥ than < than > than < than ≥ than
Anthracite 800-930
Meta anthracite 98 2
Anthracite 92 98 2 8
Semi anthracite 86 92 8 14
Bituminous 670-910
Low-vol 78 86 14 22
Med volatile 69 78 22 31
High vol A 69 31
High vol B 13,000
High vol C 11,500
Subbituminous
A 10,500
B 9,500
C 8,300
Lignitic 640-860
A 6,300
B
5.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b) Combustion Calculation for Coal

Proximate Analysis Ultimate Analysis (Dry Basis)
% weight nb moles/kg
Volatile 22.19 % dry Carbon 74.87 C: 62.33
Free carbon 64.29 % dry Hydrogen 3.78 H2: 18.75
Moisture 6.5 % Sulfur 2.24 S: 0.70
Ash 12.5 % dry Nitrogen 1.93 N2: 0.69
HHV 7.259 kcal/kg coal dry Chlorine 0.08 Cl:
LHV = HHV – 5218 H (kcal/kg) @ 25° C, Oxygen 3.53 O2: 1.10
or Ash 13.57
LHV = HHV – 93.9196*H (Btu/lb)
Where: H is the mass fraction of hydrogen in the fuel.
Combustion Equations
• C + O2 → CO2 + 7 ,829 kcal / kg C • S + O 2 → SO2 + 2 ,213 kcal / kg S
1
• H 2 + O2 → H 2 O + 2 ,8641 kcal / kg H
2
- the oxydation of coal is very quick: 0.1 to 0.3 seconds
Heat Value Calculation
• If (x) is the ponderal % of x, the heat value can be calculated with the following formula:
- LHV (kcal/kg) = 80.8(C ) + 22.45(S ) + 287 * (H ) −
 (O )  − 6W , where W is H O content of the fuel
8 
2

- HHV = 80.8(C ) + 22.45(S ) + 339.4(H ) − 35.9(O )
Neutral Combustion Air for Coal
22.4  (C ) (S ) + (H ) − (O ) 
• Input in mass % V= * +
21 12.01 32.06 4 *1.01 2 *15.99 
Rule of thumb
• 7.6 Nm3/kg of dry coal
Neutral Combustion Products
Nm3/kg Kg/kg %vol %weight
Combustion CO2 1.306 2.564 17.4 25.3
H2O 0.393 0.316 5.2 3.1
SO2 0.015 0.042 0.2 0.4
N2 5.721 7.152 76.1 70.5
Moisture H2O 0.081 0.065 1.1 0.7
Total 7.515 10.138
5.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
2.2 Coke
• Coke is the solid, cellular, infusible material Delayed Coke Fluid Coke
remaining after carbonization of coal, pitch, LHV MJ/t 34,300 31,000
petroleum residue and other carbonaceous %C 88 – 90 87 – 88
materials. Thus, its oxydation takes more %H 3.9 – 4.5 2–3
C/H Ratio 21 35
time: 1 to 2 seconds.
%S 2–6 5–8
ASH content (%) 0.5 – 1.5 2–8
Volatile matter (%) 10 – 15 5 – 10
Granulometry (mm) 0 – 50 0–8
Moisture content (%) 7 – 10 5 – 10
Ignition Temperature 220 - 250 230 – 250
Hard Grove (HGI) 90 – 100 10 - 30
3. Fuel Oil
3.1 Main Characteristics
Comp Nº1 Nº2 Nº4 Nº6 FO Nº6
C 86.4 87.3 86.47 87.26 84.67
H 13.6 12.6 11.65 10.49 11.02
O 0.01 0.04 0.27 0.64 0.38
N 0.003 0.006 0.24 0.28 0.18
S 0.09 0.22 1.35 0.84 3.97
Ash <0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.04 0.02
C/H ratio 6.35 6.93 7.42 8.31 7.62
Specific Gravity 0.849 0.902 0.965
− 131.5 ( for SG < 1)

141.5
• Api Gravity =
Specific Gravity
3.2 Viscosity
Theory
• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is the opposite of fluidity.
- abs visc is absolute viscosity, µ measured in cp (centipoise);
- kin visc is kinematic viscosity, C measured in cs or cSt (centistokes)
- abs visc in cp = kin visc cs * specific gravity
1 poise = 100 cp = 1 dyne.s/cm2+ = 1 g/s*cm, 1 stoke = 100 cs = 0.000 1 m2/s
Viscosity - temperature information for selected fuel oils
• The far right-hand columns list temperatures required to reduce the oil viscosity to levels often required for
easy pumping (440cSt) and for atomization (20.7cSt).
• Required:
- Viscosity: 20-25cSt, filtration<125µm (abrasion and clogging: 3-stage filtration at 35, 60 and 120#)
- Variation at the pump should not be higher than 5cSt
5.4
VADE-MECUM
Type of oil Viscosity (ν) at 38C (cs) Oil temperature (in C)

required for
pumping Atomisation
#6 max 2200 59 129
#6 min 220 28 91
#5 max 165 22 83
#5 min 32.1 -7 50
#4 max 20.7 -17 38
#4 min 6.9 -59 -3
#2 max 3.5 -17
Other Viscosities
At ºC Water Air Natural gas
µ (cp) 1.124 0.0180 0.011
ν (cs) 1.130 14.69 14.92
• Approximate viscosity of water at 21C is 1 cp and 1 cs
4. Waste Fuel
a) Waste Fuel Specification
Heat Content < 23 GJ/T (9900 Btu/lb) ASTM D-240-76 range 28-32 GJ/T (12000-13800
Btu/lb)
Ash content < 7%
Specific gravity < 1.2 kg/L
Suspended solids < 30% (after being screened through a 30 mesh sieve)
Water < 1% (as separated phase)
Total halogens < 2%
Sulphur < 3%
Nitrogen < 1%
Inorganic acids and bases Extractable pH of 4 of 11
Barium < 3000 ppm
Chromium < 300 ppm
Lead < 3000 ppm
Zinc < 3000 ppm
Vanadium < 200 ppm
PCB and PBB < 50 ppm
Benzene < 0.5%
Odor Characteristic of solvents as per ASTM 1296-69
5.5
VADE-MECUM
b) Approximate Properties of some By-product and Waste Fuels

• Different moisture contents may change these values considerably.
% Ash / Density Gross Heat Value
By Product or Waste Moisture Lb/ft3 Kg/m3 Btu/lb Kcal/kg
Animal fats 50-60 801-961 17,000 9,445
Brown paper 1.0/5 7 112 7,250 4,028
Corn cobs 3/5 10-15 160-240 8,000 4,445
Paint 8,000 4,445
Rubber waste 20/30 62-125 993-2000 10,000 5,556
Waste, type 0, trash 5/10 8-10 128-160 8,500 4,723
Waste, type 1, rubbish 10/25 8-10 128-160 6,500 3,611
Waste, type 2, refuse 5/70 15-20 240-320 4,300 2,389
Waste, type 3, garbage 5/70 30-35 481-561 2,500 1,389
Waste, type 4, pathological 5/85 45-55 721-881 1,000 556
Waste, type 6, compact 35-50 561-801 7,500 4,167
Wood 3/10 20 320 9,000 5,000
• Tires are usually high volatile content and high S and Fe/Zn content (if steel belts are not removed).
• Biomass fuels contain usually high level of moisture and O2 and may have a higher char reactivity than coal.
5. Natural Gas
a) Gas Characteristics
Typical example Content (%) LHV (Kcal/Nm3) Sp weight (kg/Nm3)
CH4 93.93 8,556 0.7143
C2H6 2.42 15,223 1.3393
C3H8 0.26 21,795 1.9643
C4H10 (ISO+N) 0.002 28,336 2.589
C5H10 (ISO+N) 0 32,123 3.2143
S 0
CO2 0.34 1.9643
N2 3.05 1.2500
H2 0 0.0893
He 0 0.1339
O2 0 1.4286
Total 8462 0.7533
b) Combustion
Combustion Equations for Natural Gas
• CH 4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H 2 O • C 5 H 12 + 8 O2 → 5 CO2 + 6 H 2 O
7 1
• C 2 H 6 + O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H 2 O • H 2 + O2 → H 2 O
2 2
• C 3 H 8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H 2 O • S + O2 → SO2
13
• C 4 H 10 + O 2 → 4 CO2 + 5 H 2 O
2
5.6
VADE-MECUM
Neutral Combustion Air for natural gas

• If [x] is the volume fraction of x, the neutral combustion air is:
*  2 * [CH 4 ] + * [C 2 H 6 ] + 5 * [C 3 H 8 ] + * [C 4 H 10 ] + 8 * [C 5 H 12 ] + * [H 2 ] + 1 * [S ] − [O2 ]
1  7 13 1 
0.21  2 2 2 
Rule of thumb
• 9.412 Nm3/Nm3gas (for the example)
Neutral Combustion Products for natural gas
Nm3/Nm3 gas kg/Nm3 gas % volume % weight
CO2 0.999 1.962 9.58% 15.25%
SO2 0.000 0.000 0.00% 0.00%
H2O 1.962 1.576 18.81% 12.25%
N2 7.466 9.332 71.60% 72.51%
Total: 10.426 12.871
Natural Gas Heat Value
• kcal / m 3 = 90.3 [CH 4 ] + 159.2 [C 2 H 6 ] + 229 [C 3 H 8 ] .
6. Flame Theory
6.1 Definition
• The oxidation reaction is an exothermic reaction, which can be developed either slowly or quickly: The fast
reaction leads to the flame.
6.2 Flame Speed
• In stable burner flames, the flame front appears to be stationary because the flame is moving toward the
burner at the same speed that the fuel air mixture is coming out of the burner.
• Thus risk of blow off if mixture speed>flame speed.
• Natural gas flame speed in air: 0.3m/s and in Oxygen: 4 to 5m/s.
6.3 Flame Radiation
• R = σ ε T4 - ε: flame intensity:
- σ = Boltsman constant ≈ 1 solid fuel
- T = Flame temperature ≈ 0.8 – 0.95 heavy oil
≈ 0.25 – 0.70 gas
6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature
( net heat value of the fuel ) − ( effect of disssociation )
• T=
( weight of comb product ) * ( specific heat of comb prodct )
• An increase of flame temperature can be obtained by:
- Increasing combustion air temperature (ex: air temp: (200, 500, 900F) gives flame temp (3510, 3630,
3800)
- Decreasing inerts:
⇒ Avoid high excess air
⇒ O2 enrichment (ex: % O2 (21, 25, 29) gives flame temp (3650, 3900, 4150) in case of coal, air
preheated at 510F)
5.7
VADE-MECUM
- Completeness of combustion (full low heat value to be obtained):

⇒ Optimum excess air
⇒ High rate of mixing fuel and combustion air
• Water vapor in the flame decreases the flame temperature.
• Flue Gas.
Fuel Requirements Temperature Impact
• To provide 1 000 000 Btu of available
heat (fuel is CH4 and excess air=2%)
Fuel Requirement, Million Btu hhv

then for instance with air (21% O2) it
% 02preheat temperature, F
requires 4.6/2.3=2 times as much fuel
when preheat temp=500F as when
preheat is 1500F when flue gas
temperature is 3000F
7. Burner Pipes
• The flame should be centered along the kiln axis.
7.1 Number of Air Circuits
• For solid fuels, the number of air circuits determines the degree of control on the flame shape.
Single Circuit Burner Pipe
• Minimal control.
• The solid fuel has to be carried with the air.
• High velocities: Higher fan pressure requirement, higher wear in the circuit.
• Required burner tip velocity is of the order of 80 m/s.
Two-circuit Burner
• Swirl + high velocity transport air.
• Additional control due to swirl but the problems of high pressure fan and high wear rate remain.
Three-circuit Burner
• (swirl + high velocity axial + low velocity transport air).
• The most versatile one. The solid fuel does not have to be brought at a high velocity.
• Clearance of top guide vanes is critical since it will control eccentricity of flame.
7.2 Primary Air
Indirect System
• The primary air is usually controlled at below 12 % of the total combustion air.
Direct system
• No recirculation of mill exit air, the primary air can be as high as 30 to 35 % of total combustion air. All of
the air exiting the mill system enters the pyro-process.
5.8
VADE-MECUM
Semi-direct system
• Primary air quantity varies (usually 18 to 25 %), depending upon the incoming fuel moisture.
• To keep a constant flow (10 to 15 % of total combustion air), it is possible to send the "overflow" to the kiln
hood (for the direct or semi-direct system).
Primary air impact on heat consumption
Indirect Semi-direct Direct
Primary air 12% 20-25% 30-35%
kcal/kg 4-5 20-25 50
Tip velocity:
axial air swirl air transport air gas
80 to 250 m/s 50 to 250 m/s 20 to 40 m/s 200 m/s
Pressure drop within burner pipe:
For a three-circuit burner: Blower Design Pressure
• 700 to 1000 mm H2O for axial air; 3000 - 7000
• 150 to 600 mm H2O for swirl air; 200 - 2000
• 600 to 1000 mm H2O for transport air (up to 1200 mm 2000 - 3500
H2O for a modified three-circuit burner).
7.3 Transport air

Velocity
• The steadiest possible (25-35 m/s).
• Sufficient to prevent pulsations: 3-5 kg of coal/Nm3 air, up to 7 kg/m3.
Geometry
• Rising parts vertical and not diagonal.
• As short as possible.
Liquid fuel injection: use of injectors :
• MY type: 40 bars: when operation is stable.
• ZV2 (assisted pulverization): between 2 and 20 bars: when wide range of flow variation.
7.4 Specific Impulse
• Is = Characterizes approximately the primary/secondary air ratio irrespective of the kiln. Usually two thirds
or more of the primary air (non included transport air).
• Momentum impulse:
M *V where:
Is =
Q - Q = ki ln ( heat power )inGJ .h −1
- M = primary airflow ( in the axe ) in kg .s −1
- V = Air Speed in m.s −1
Rules of thumb
Specific impulse Long Kilns Short Kilns
Fuel Oil 1,2 N.h.GJ-1 1,2 N.h.GJ-1
Coal 1,5 N.h.GJ-1 1,5 N.h.GJ-1
Coke 1,8 N.h.GJ-1 1,8 N.h.GJ-1
5.9
VADE-MECUM
7.5 Swirl
• Swirl is the ratio of the tangential component produced by the rotational air to the sum of the axial
components Ix produced by the various primary air and gas circuits.
• It improves the stability by forming toroidal recirculation zones that recirculate heat and species (when
Sw>0.3).
Rotational moment / axial moment ratio
where:
Vry
- I θr = I xr t g α
Rot. circ. velocity: Vr
- Iθ : tangential impulsion
Vrx
- I xr : rotational circuit axial impulsion
Iθ r r g α : swirl angle (usually between 20 and 35
rg SW = -
I x . De degree: smaller for long dry kiln)
where: I θ r = Qmr . Vry • The gyration radius defines, on the basis of the
Ix = Σ I respective radius of the rotational circuit at the
i xi
burner pipe tip.
- rg = 2/3 (re3 – ri3) / (re2 – ri2)
- re = external radius
- ri = internal radius
• The equivalent diameter of the flow is given by: where:
2Qm - Qm = The total mass flowrate of the air injected
De = Ιχ - ρ m = The average specific gravity of the air
Πρ mΙχ
- Ιχ = The total axial impulse
Rules of thumb
swirl Long Kilns Short Kilns
Fuel, coal, coke 0,02 to 0.08 0,12 to 0.15
Gas 0,05 0,05
7.6 Examples of Burner Tip
air gun
Pillard Standard
Axial
Transport axial air holes
Swirl
Gas Tip velocity 100 m/s rotational circuit
10% of primary air 2 expansion seals
Lafarge Burner coal conveying

circuit
Axial
Transpor
t
Swirl central air
Gas Axial Tip velocity: 250 m/s (flame catcher)
< 12% primary air
5.10
VADE-MECUM
Burner Calculation (LAFARGE)

SWIRL AND MOMENTUM DETERMINATION Version 2.2
Original: CLV / S.THIERS Apr-95 PLANT :
Update: CTS / W.Oliveira Sep-99 Date : 24/02/2000
(Inputs are in bold characters) Name
COMMENTS :
TIP CROSS SECTION AREAS Diameters : % cross section reduction Dext : 355.6
(mm) thk : 9.525
AXIAL AIR 320.7 2667 mmWG
Holes 1, Vanes 2 : 1 218 m/s 291.7 71.6% 23 m/s 2360 Nm³/h
3963 mm² Dext : 273.1
247.7 thk : 12.7
TRANSPORT AIR 36 m/s 223.1 31 m/s Dext : 219.1
9096 mm² thk : 8.179
196.7 2500 mmWG
SWIRL AIR 212 m/s 172.8 56.2% 26 m/s 1437 Nm³/h
2491 mm² Dext : 141.3
thk : 6.553
DETAILS OF THE TIP Swirler Number slots groove width radial gap radius
angle (o) of vanes width(mm) (mm) vanes(mm) raccord.
Swirl 35 20 12.0 9.800 0.5 1
Axial (if vanes) -
Axial (if holes) Number of holes : 24 Diameter : 14.50
GENERAL DATA
Kiln TYPE : AS PRODUCTION (T CK /d ) : 2630.00
NP : no preca, AT : air through, AS : air seperat. Specific heat consumpt.kJ/kg CK : 3486.00
FUEL ANALYSIS , AS FIRED (DRY BASIS) Swirl Air: F=Fan; B=Blower B
%C 70.26 %O 5.43 Percent of heat at backend : 65.00

%S 2.03 NCA
%H 3.09 Nm³/kg fuel 6.96 Shell internal diameter (m ) : 4.14
Total combust. air ( Nm³/hr) : 99400.21

SPECIFIC HEAT CONSUMPTION Throughput L.H.V. Therm.power
AT THE BLAST PIPE kg/h KJ/kg GJ/h
COKE/COAL 25/75 4760 28087 133.70
0.00
0.00
0.00 Recalculated SHC :
Total (GJ/h ) : 133.70 3486 kJ/kg CK
GAS FLOW MEASUREMENTS Axial Swirl Transport

Static pressure in the tip (mm WG) 2667 2500 -
Temperature in the pipe ( deg C) 100 100 100
Theoretical flow rate ( Nm³/h) 2360 1437 - Fuel to air ratio:
Bias coefficient : 1.00 1.00
Accepted flowrate ( Nm³/h) 2360 1437 860 4.05 kg coal/m³
Axial / Swirl distribution 62% 38%

RESULTS
FLOW VELOCITIES Axial Swirl Transport Is Swirl
Nature of flow subsonic subsonic velocity N.h/GJ
Release tip velocity (m/s) 218 212 36 2.14 0.18
Primary air rate, axial 6.78% Targets: Fuel-Oil 1.2 0.15

: swirl : 4.13% Coal 1.5 0.15
transport : 2.47% Coke 1.8 0.15
Axial + Transport: 9.26%
Primary air rate 13.39% THERMAL LOAD (MW/m² ) : 3.16
5.11
VADE-MECUM
8. Fuel Grinding and Dosing

8.1 Solid Fuel Grindability
• The Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) indicates the ease of grinding solid fuel.
• A standard coal in the cement industry has a HGI of 65 or 76.
• HGImix = x * HGI coal + y * HGI coke.
Bowl Mill (Raymond) Capacity
100
80
Fuel Grindability (Hardgrove)
60
Passing 75um (#200)

40
90% Raymond
85% Raymond
80% Raymond
75% Raymond
20
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Mill Capacity Factor
• 0.10 mill capacity factor for 5 HGI

8.2 Solid Fuel Fineness
Fineness S / A < 1.2 S /A > 1.2
70 Mesh >99% >99.9%
200 Mesh 98 – 0.7 * % VM 98 – 0.6 * % VM
• S/A (molar ratio) =%SO3/80*(1/(%Na2O/62+%K2O/94))
where: % are expressed in weight, VM = Volatile Matter, S = Sulfur, A = Alkali Equivalent (in the mix and
fuel ashes).
• When S/A (molar ratio) > 1.2, risk of volatilization: need better combustion.
Rules of thumb
• 5% more passing at 200# yields to 15-20% less mill capacity.
• Addition of HES: 5% production increase at constant fineness.
Relationship: Burning Time & Particle Size
10
Burning Time (seconds)
Combustion Temp.
= 900°C
Combustion Temp.
= 1500°C
.1
.01 .1 1
Diameter of coal particle (mm)
5.12
VADE-MECUM
8.3 Dosing
• Dosing should insure a regular and steady feeding of the burner. The targeted precision should be in the
range of 1% (see Les Cahiers Techniques Combustion). Coal concentration up to 7kg/m3 of air.
8.4 Safety Considerations
• Process has to deal with safety.
Recommendations
(to be adjusted plant by plant)
Sensor Threshold Sensor Threshold
Storage temperature, external, unpacted 50C Filter outlet temp (coke) 105C
Raw silo (lower base) 50C Temp difference (outlet-inlet) 10C
Raw silo (top) CO 1500 ppm Temp difference variation 10C
Grinding mill outlet temp (coke) 120C Filter outlet CO 2000ppm
Grinding mill outlet temp (Coal) 65C Filter hopper temp (coke) 85C
Mill inlet temp: (High VM : 40%) 200C Pulverized hopper CO 1000ppm
Mill inlet temp: (Low VM : 20%) 360C Pulverized hopper temp 85C
Filter outlet O2 (coke) 15% Fired fuel into the kiln (%H2O) 0.5-1.5%
Filter outlet (coal) 13% Transport air (non inert/inert) temp (Coal) 65/85C
(sources: PyroI, modified 2000, RdeB)
8.5 Fuel Grinders
• Feed size: 0-50mm, moisture content: 10-15%, exhaust gases dust load: 500-600g/m3.
• Hot gases temperature 250-400C, dew point: 20-70C, exhaust gases temperature: 80-100C.
• Moisture content in the blasted fuel below 1%.
Type of grinder Hammer mill Tube mill Roller mill Ring ball mill (Babcock)
kWh/t 20-30 25-30 10-13
Lifetime wear part 500-1000h Liners: 25-40000h 3-5000 h 9-12000h
Drying capacity 0-15% H2O 0-15% H2O 0-20% H2O
Tube mill Wear rate (g/t) Life (h) Rollermill Wear rate (g/t) Life (h)
Balls 80-200 Roller liners 5-20 4-9000
Liners 8-20 25-40000 Table liners 4-10 4-12000
Diaphragms 8-20 10-20000 Casting liners 3-5 2-12000
Rules of thumb:
• Mill sweep : 1.7 to 2.2 Nm3/kg fuel
• Drying efficiency : average 1200kcal/kgH2O for a residual moisture of 0.5 to 1.5%
5.13
VADE-MECUM
6. PYROPROCESSING
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 6 – PYROPROCESSING
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Kiln Typical Values .............................................................................. 6.1

2. Quick Overview Kiln Exit Gas Calculation ......................................... 6.1
2.1 Calculation of Various Components .............................................. 6.1
2.2 Typical Fuels Composition............................................................ 6.2
2.3 Kiln Exit Gases for Different Fuels ............................................... 6.2
3. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone....................................................... 6.3
3.1 Evaporation Zone ......................................................................... 6.3
3.2 Dehydration Zone ......................................................................... 6.3
3.3 Decarbonation Zone...................................................................... 6.3
3.4 Clinkering Zone ............................................................................ 6.4
3.5 Cooling Zone................................................................................ 6.4
4. Cyclone................................................................................................. 6.4
4.1 Pressure Drop............................................................................... 6.4
4.2 Thermal Efficiency ....................................................................... 6.5
4.3 Trapping Efficiency ...................................................................... 6.5
4.4 Calculation of Material Flow ........................................................ 6.5
5. Chains................................................................................................... 6.5
5.1 Guideline...................................................................................... 6.5
5.2 Lafarge Corp Data........................................................................ 6.6
6. Cooler................................................................................................... 6.8
6.1 Compartments .............................................................................. 6.8
6.2 Fans ............................................................................................. 6.8
6.3 Cooler Efficiency Coefficients....................................................... 6.9
6.4 Typical Heat Balance Davenport Cooler...................................... 6.11
7. Kiln Heat Balance............................................................................... 6.12
7.1 Theoretical Heat for Clinker Formation ....................................... 6.12
7.2 Wall Losses ................................................................................ 6.12
7.3 Kiln Residence Time................................................................... 6.13
7.4 Water Spray ............................................................................... 6.15
7.5 Heat Balance Example................................................................ 6.15
8. Volatile ............................................................................................... 6.17
8.1 Properties of Volatile Elements ................................................... 6.17
8.2 Volatilization Process ................................................................. 6.19
8.3 SO2 - SO3.................................................................................. 6.20
8.4 Build-up and Rings ..................................................................... 6.22
8.5 Volatile Balance Example : Davenport 1997................................ 6.23
8.6 Circulation in Preheater (Port-la-Nouvelle).................................. 6.25
9. Lafarge Corp Typical Ratios ............................................................. 6.26
10. 57 Clinker Reactivity Study (P. Barriac) ........................................... 6.27
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. Kiln Typical Values

Process Type Long Dry Long Dry 1-stage 4-stage 4-stage 4-stage
Units Wet <1000 T/D >1000 T/D Preheater Preheater Precal AT Precal AS
Ratios to Kiln Dimensions
Production per unit volume MTPD/m3 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.6 1.9 2.3 2.9
Production per unit brick surface MTPD/m2 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.8 2.6 3.1
Production per unit BZ c/section MTPD/m2 8.1 113 108 104 132 166 172
Kiln slope degrees 1.3 1.8 2.2 1.7 2.3 2.3 2.3
Chain load T/MTPD 0.1 0.12 0.12 0.06
Length/diameter ratio 37 38 37 33 17 15 13
Enlarged section vs total length percent 0 0-20 25 25
Kiln speed rpm 1 1.4 1.4 1.5 2.5 3 3
Shell circumferential speed m/min 12 15 20 22 32 32 40
Total material retention time min 231 123 96 102 24 17 15
Fuel and Gas Flow
Specific heat consumption - base kcal/kg 1250 1000 950 900 800 775 750
Burning zone gas flow Nm3/kg 1.7 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.3
Calcining zone gas flow Nm3/kg 2.0 1.4 1.4 1.3 N/A N/A N/A
Kiln exit gas flow Nm3/kg 2.8 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.5
Preheater exit gas flow 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1
Conditioning water flow Nm3/kg 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Stack gas flow @ 7% O2 Nm3/kg 4.0 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.8
Stack gas density kg/Nm3 1.22 1.30 1.30 1.37 1.39 1.39 1.50
Burning zone thermal load Gcal/m2/hr 4.2 4.7 4.3 3.9 4.4 4.3 2.2
Heat Outputs from Kiln/Cooler/Preheater
Cooler vent gas %SHC 2.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 15.0 13.0 13.0
Solid fuel drying gas %SHC 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Kiln/preheater exhaust gas %SHC 14.0 29.0 27.0 25.0 20.0 19.0 18.0
Shell radiation %SHC 10.0 11.6 12.2 10.0 6.0 6.0 5.0
Preheater vessel radiation %SHC 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Heat of formation of clinker %SHC 33.0 41.8 44.0 46.4 52.3 53.9 55.7
Drying of raw meal or slurry %SHC 36.0 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.6
Clinker sensible heat exit cooler %SHC 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.0
Unaccounted 1.0 0.9 0.0 0.6 -0.6 0.6 0.7
Total %SHC 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Incremental loss per % dust wasted kcal/kg 20 4 4 4

Incremental loss per % bypass kcal/kg 4 3.6 2
2. Quick Overview Kiln Exit Gas Calculation

2.1 Calculation of Various Components
a. CO2 from Calcination (LOI) b. H2O from Slurry Moisture
0.786 C + 1.092 M SM
• LOI = kg / kg dry RM • H2O = kg / kg dry RM
100 100 − SM
SM 100
0.786 C + 1.092 M 100 * kg / kgkk
= * kg / kgkk 100 − SM 100 − LOI
100 100 − LOI
• Typical value: 0.865 kg/kgkk
• Typical value: 0.533 kg/kgkk 1.08 Nm3/kgkk
0.35 kg/kg RM
0.272 Nm3/kgkk
6.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
c. H2O from Water Spray d. Excess Air

• WS liters/kgkk = WS kg/kgkk • EA =
KEGN * OXY
21 − OXY
• Typical value: 0.10 kg/kgkk
0.124 Nm3/kgkk • Typical value: 0.105*KEGN Nm3/kgkk
2.2 Typical Fuels Composition

Coal Mass% (dry basis) Oil Mass% Gas Volume%
C 65.0 C 86.0 CH4 97.25
H 5.0 H 11.0 C2H6 0.98
O 5.0 O 0.5 C3H8 0.03
S 2.0 S 2.0 N2 1.33
Ash 23.0 N 0.5 CO2 0.4
LHV 27214 MJ/t LHV 41320 MJ/t LHV 35.51 MJ/Nm3
2.3 Kiln Exit Gases for Different Fuels
Coal Nm3/kgkk % volume
CO2 H2O N2 O2
Preca 1.37 31 5 61 2.8
Long dry 1.47 30 6 61 1.9
Wet 3.06 17 39 42 1.2
Oil Nm3/kgkk % volume

CO2 H2O N2 O2
Preca 1.38 30 7 60 2.8
Long dry 1.48 29 8 61 1.8
Wet 3.07 16 49 42 1.2
Natural Gas Nm3/kgkk % volume

CO2 H2O N2 O2
Precal 1.45 25 13 59 2.6
Long dry 1.57 24 14 59 1.7
Wet 3.2 13 44 41 1.1
Oxygen vs. Excess Air Excess at (% of neutral comb gas)

%O2 in KEG Process Coal Oil Gas
1.0 Precal 6.4 6.3 6.0
Long dry 6.1 6.0 5.8
Wet 5.7 5.6 5.4
2.0 Precal 13.4 13.2 12.6
Long dry 12.9 12.7 12.1
Wet 12.1 11.9 11.3
3.0 Precal 21.2 20.8 19.9
Long dry 20.4 20.1 19.2
Wet 19.1 18.8 17.9
4.0 Precal 29.9 29.4 28.1
Long dry 28.8 28.4 27.1
Wet 26.9 26.5 25.2
6.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
3. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone1

100
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
masses
H2O clays
CO2
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
80
%
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
100
60 Ca CO3 CaO
C33S 80
40
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 C2S
60
40
20
Quartz α Quartz β Cristob. 20
Clays Liqu.
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 T °C
Fe2O3 C2(A,F) C12A7 C4AF C 3A
3.1 Evaporation Zone

• Between 100 and 400ºC: H2O (l) + heat → H2O (g), ∆H = 44.2 kJ/mol
3.2 Dehydration Zone

Between 350ºC and 650ºC
• Clay starts to lose its water of crystallization:
2 SiO2 . Al 2 O3 . 2 H 2 O Heat → 2 SiO 2 . Al 2 O3 + 2 H 2 O , ∆H = + 202 kJ/mol
At 400ºC
• Magnesium carbonate’s decomposition pressure reaches atmospheric pressure at this temperature:
MgCO3 + Heat → MgO + CO2 , ∆H = + 117 kJ/mol
• Vaporization and oxidation of organic compounds and sulfides:
7
2 FeS 2 + O2 → Fe2O3 + 4 SO3
2
º
At 550 C
• CaCO3 starts to decompose at this temperature. However, acidic environment favours the deformation of the
molecules of CaCO3.
3.3 Decarbonation Zone

At 900ºC
• This is the zone where CaCO3 decomposes rapidly into CaO and CO2 because of its decomposition pressure
at this temperature:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 , ∆H = + 178.2 kJ/mol
• Much free lime is produced and starts to react:
2CaO + SiO 2 → 2CaO . SiO 2 , ∆H = -125.9 kJ/mol
2CaO + Al 2 O3 → 2CaO . Al 2 O3 ,
1 Each enthalpy of reaction is given @25°C, according to G.Seidel, H.Huckauf and J.Stark: “Technologie des Bindebaustoffe Brennprozess und Brennanlagen”
6.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
2CaO + Fe 2 O3 → 2CaO . Fe 2 O3 , ∆H = -31 kJ/mol
• Free CaO combines with SO3 to give anhydrite:

CaO + SO3 → CaSO4
• This anhydrite reacts with the alkalies from clay to give alkali sulphates:
CaSO4 + Na 2 O → CaO + Na 2 SO4
CaSO4 + K 2 O → CaO + K 2 SO4 or 3 K 2 SO4 . Na2 SO
• The quantity of SO3 is generally insufficient to combine with the alkalies:
Na 2 O + C 3 A → NaC 8 A3 K 2 O + C 2 S → KC 23 S 12
3.4 Clinkering Zone

At 1200ºC
• Belite ( C 2 S ) formation completed: 2CaO + SiO2 → 2CaO . SiO2 , ∆H = -125.9 kJ/mol.
C12 A7 becomes enriched in lime and changes to C 3 A
C 2 A and C2 F form a solid solution : C4 AF , ∆H = -50.4 kJ/mol
Between 1250ºC and 1450ºC
• C 3 A and C4 AF liquefy and constitute the flux. C 2 S combines with free CaO to form C 3 S in the presence
of flux, forming nodules: CaO + C 2 S → C 3 S , ∆H = +8 kJ/mol.
• The alkali sulfates decompose, liberating alkalies and SO2 :
R2 SO4 + Heat → R 2 O + SO 2 ↑ + 1 / 2 O 2 ↑
• Anhydrite decomposes into CaO and SO2 :
CaSO4 + Heat → CaO + SO2 ↑ + 1 / 2 O2 ↑ , ∆H = +490 kJ/mol.
• Ferric oxide, in a reducing atmosphere, changes to ferrous oxide:
Fe 2 O3 → 2 FeO + 1 / 2 O2 ↑
3.5 Cooling Zone

At 1400ºC to 1250ºC,
• The α 1 form C 2 S crystallizes to the more hydrolizable β C 2 S form.
• The C 3 A and C 4 AF crystallize and finally the molten sulfates crystallize.
4. Cyclone
4.1 Pressure Drop
• The Dp through a cyclone for a family of where:
similar cyclones: - Dp is the pressure drop through the cyclone
- r is the fluid density
Q2 - Q is the gas flow
Dp = cst ∗ r ∗
D4 - D is the diameter of the cyclone
6.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
4.2 Thermal Efficiency

T go− Tmo where:
• hth= 1 − - T go is the temperature of gas at cyclone outlet
T go
- T go is the temperature of material at cyclone discharge
• A normal value for thermal cyclone efficiency is above 95%. This definition is commonly used but the name
"Thermal efficiency" can be considered misleading because the useful heat gained by the material at the
cyclone discharge is also related to the cyclone trapping efficiency.
4.3 Trapping Efficiency
Di − Do where:
• ht = - Di is the dust load of gas at cyclone inlet
Di
- Do is the dust load of gas at cyclone outlet
• The current value for the trapping efficiency of the top cyclone is around 95%. It was commonly accepted in
the past that the bottom cyclones had a lower efficiency (75-85%) but series of measurements and tower
simulation showed a higher efficiency for these cyclones (around 90%).
4.4 Calculation of Material Flow
• With the two following equations expressing where:
the total flow conservation and the tracer - FKD : The kiln dust flow (LOI=0)
flow (i.e. K2O), the recirculation level can be - FKL : The kiln load flow (LOI=0)
assessed. - Fkk : The clinker flow (LOI=0)
- Fkk + FKD = FKL + FCA
- FCA : The coal ash flow (LOI=0)
- Fkk ∗ K kk + FKD = FKL ∗ K kk + FCA ∗ KCA
- K kk : Tracer concentration in clinker
- K KD : Tracer concentration in kiln dust
- K KL : Tracer concentration in kiln inlet
- K CA : Tracer concentration in coal ash
(if ash has to be added)
5. Chains
5.1 Guideline
Zone Target (wet) Dry kiln
Free zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 1.0 to 1.5 1.0 to 1.5
Dust M2/m3 11.0 to 15.0 11.0 to 15.0
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) <75% <75%
Plastic zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 1.0 to 4.0 N/A
M2/m3 5.0 to 8.0 N/A
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) 60% to 70% N/A
Preheat lower section zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 0.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 2.5
M2/m3 7.0 to 10.0 7.0 to 10.0
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) 70% 70%
Preheat upper section zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 0.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 2.5
M2/m3 6.0 to 8.5 6.0 to 8.5
6.5
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Zone Target (wet) Dry kiln

Radiation zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 1 1
M2/m3 8.5 to 11.0 8.5 to 11.0
Global m2/mtpd 2.5-2.8 2.3 – 2.6
Global kg/mtpd 110-130 105-110
Global length Ratio to kiln diameter 6-10 5–8
Global length % kiln length 18-25% 17 – 22%
(sources: Marc Brunelle)
• Chain surface: 19m2/t for oval chains vs. 22-25 m2/t for round chains.
• For small kilns, ratios are always lower than for larger kilns.
• Ratios are higher for dry kiln compared to wet kiln.
• Chainless sections are applied along chain zone aiming to:
- equalize gas temperatures
- serve as a buffer area to equalize varying rates of material transportation
- precipitate kiln dust
- allow for installation of thermocouples
Other Rules of Thumb
• 1500 m of installed chains reduces the exit chain gas temperature by 100oC.
• A properly designed chain system can lower the SHC by 300 kcal/kg ck.
• heat exchange rate: 8.75 kcal/h/m2/C.
• pressure per one meter of chain: 1-2 mm H2O for curtain chain and 2-3 for Gartand chain (note: Garland
chains are abandoned due to practical considerations in maintaining hanging pattern).
• For Gartand chain, the thermal effect is 1.5 time higher than curtain chain.
• Wear rate: 80-120 g/t ck for wet kiln and 100-150 for dry kiln.
5.2 Lafarge Corp Data
Kiln Type Impact Chain densities
updated Feb 99 plates Specific Area Gross Area Area Ratio Specific Weight Gross Weight Weight Ratio
M.Brunelle (CTS) m2/m3 m2/m3 m2/mtpd kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/mtpd
C1-C2 C2 C1-C2 C2
(less FE void) (plus all voids) Nominal Prod. (less FE void) (pluss all voids) (Nominal Prod.)
BTH K1(1999) 1SPH 6.46 4.39 1.36 260.12 176.77 54.79
BTH K1(1998) 1SPH 6.44 4.38 1.17 260.26 176.77 47.14
JPA K2 (1998) 1SPH 6.33 4.93 2.57 242.82 189.32 98.46
Averages 6.39 4.65 1.87 251.54 183.05 72.80
STC K1 Dry 4.90 4.18 1.76 303.00 258.57 109.18

(cros)
BFD K2 (1998) Dry 5.70 4.70 1.50 269.30 221.90 71.00

ESW K4 (1999) Dry 7.46 5.44 2.96 303.21 220.92 120.37
ESW K4 (1998) Dry 7.42 5.36 3.08 301.27 217.89 125.02
STC K2 (1998) Dry 6.96 6.48 2.44 317.93 296.23 111.57
SCK K1(1998) Dry 8.21 6.34 2.10 309.56 238.92 79.14
SCK K2 (1998) Dry yes X1 7.79 6.16 2.21 274.44 216.96 77.90
Averages 7.26 5.75 2.38 295.95 235.47 97.50
6.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Kiln Type Impact Chain densities

updated Feb 99 plates Specific Area Gross Area Area Ratio Specific Weight Gross Weight Weight Ratio
M.Brunelle (CTS) m2/m3 m2/m3 m2/mtpd kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/mtpd
C1-C2 C2 C1-C2 C2
(less FE void) (plus all voids) Nominal Prod. (less FE void) (pluss all voids) (Nominal Prod.)
FDA K1(1998) Wet yes X2 4.95 4.36 2.72 280.57 246.86 154.36
FDA K2 (1998) Wet yes X1 5.90 5.13 3.00 333.31 289.84 169.66
RMD K1(1998) Wet 7.16 6.23 2.68 283.75 247.01 106.16
RMD K2 (1998) Wet yes X1 6.54 5.28 2.62 291.05 234.90 116.66
SEA (1998) Wet 4.82 4.07 2.72 189.23 159.84 106.76
Averages 5.88 5.01 2.75 275.58 235.69 130.72
6.7
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
6. Cooler
6.1 Compartments
Compartments number
<800 tpd: 4 compartments 2000-3000 tpd: 7 compartments
800-1200 tpd: 5 compartments 3000-4000 tpd: 8 compartments
1200-2000 tpd: 6 compartments >4000 tpd: 9 compartments
• To the middle of the cooling zone, the ratio between compartment area will be 1.4 (except for the #2).
Recuperation zone
Q
• I= .
1440 ∗ ρ ∗ H ∗ k ∗ N ∗ C
where:
- l: cooler width
- Q: clinker flow (t/day)
- ρ: Clinker apparent density (t/m3) generally 1.25
- H: bed depth (m)
- k: grate efficiency (0.70 for flat grates)
- N: number of stroke per minute (usually 10 to 14spm)
- c: the grate course (m)
• N has to be chosen to allow 1.6 * N in case of push.
• The length of the recuperation zone will be set with an air density between 1.45 Nm3/m2*s (Fuller) and 1.55
(IKN) and a heat consumption 800 kcal/kg and 0.85 Nm3/kgkk for the combustion air.
Cooling zone
• The cooler loading will be the factor determining the cooling zone length:
- 40 t/m2/day dry process (high pressure fans thick bed depth (60 cm))
- 35t/m2/day wet process (high pressure fans)
- 28 t/m2/day all processes (low pressure fans, thin bed depth (30 cm))
Rules of thumb
• Air velocity above clinker bed: 5 to 7m/s.
• 6 to 10 strokes per minute, cooler stroke length around 5”, clinker speed around 1 to 1.2 m/min.
• Clinker granulometry: passing 0.5mm:<15% , remaining at 25mm<10%.
• Void volume: about 0.4 to 0.5.
• Clinker bulk density: 89 to 120 lb/ft3.
• Grate cooler: 5-10 kWh/ t, target should be below 5 kWh/t w/o vent air fan.
6.2 Fans
Recuperation zone
• Maintain the flow during a kiln push: the fan maximum pressure has to be 30% higher than the nominal. At
constant flow, 15% of security to absorb the pressure variation. It is also a good security to keep 30% of flow
reserve between the peak of the curve and the nominal.
• In the kiln, minimum cooling rate between 1450 and 1300C: 20C/min.
6.8
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Cooling zone
• They should be able to go from 2.5 to 3 Nm3/kg during a push. Their curve should be flatter and their
maximum pressure 30% above the functioning point. 20% increase in flow has to keep 15% safety margin on
pressure. Minimum is 30 mbar for single-stage cooler.
Rules of thumb
• Grate plate resistance is directly related to the air flow and represents about 15% of total air resistance.
• Basic operating principles:
- Maintain a constant air to clinker ratio
- Maintain a constant bed depth
- Remove all excess cooling (vent) air
• The longer the air/clinker contact time, the cooler the clinker.
• The higher the velocity air, the colder the clinker surface, the higher the heat transfer rate from center to edge
of the clinker but the lower the between air and clinker edge.
• Average cooling air flow (Lafarge Corp): 3.7 kg/kg kk, 2.9Nm3/kg kk.
• Average grate loading: 30 mt/m2/d (the older the lower usually).
3250.( 347 − K )
• Secondary air temperature: T = .
SHC .n
where: K: heat loss of the cooler in kcal/kgck, SHC in kcal/kgck, n: excess air (ex:1.1)
• Airflow:
Chamber # 1 2 3 >=4
Nm3/(m2.s) 2.0-3.5 1.2-1.8 1 <1
6.3 Cooler Efficiency Coefficients

a. Recovery Efficiency (ρ):
• ρ = heat gained by recovered gases = hsa + hta
total usable heat input m + mta
hck ,in + hca sa
mca
where :
- msa=mass of secundary air in kg/h and hsa is the enthalpy of secondary air in kcal/h
- mta=mass of tertiary air in kg/h and hta is the enthalpy of tertiary air in kcal/h
- mca=mass of cooling air in kg/h and hca is the enthalpy of cooling air in kcal/h
• This efficiency depends highly on the quantity of air recovered by combustion. It is higher for wet kilns
(∼90%) than for dry kilns (∼70%).
b. Cooling Efficiency
heat lost by clinker hck,in - hck,out
• η= =
heat input in clinker hck,in
c. Recovery Factor (k)

ln (1 − ρ )
• k= or ρ = 1 - e -k ( m sa + mta )
m sa + mta
- k = 0.9 ⇒ bad cooler - k = 1.3 ⇒ good cooler
- k = 1.1 ⇒ poor cooler - k = 1.6 ⇒ excellent cooler
6.9
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d. Cooler Loss
• Cooler loss = all heat not recovered by combustion air.
• Cooler loss = heat content of clinker leaving cooler ( hck ,out ) :
+ heat content of vent air + heat content of coal mill air
+ heat content of raw mill air + wall heat losses
e. Typical Values
(Lafarge Corp data) min max Av. min max Av.
k 0.83 1.67 1.25 η 92% 97.2% 95%
Cooler loss (kcal/kgkk) 60 180 120 ρ 51% 85.7% 70%
6.10
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
6.4 Typical Heat Balance Davenport Cooler

Cooler heat & mass balance Davenport cooler Final balance
Date:Sept 16 to 18, 97
Clinker (T/d): 2537
Clinker (kg/h): 105725 Ref. temperature: 0°C
IN volume volume mass mass Temp. Heat Heat

Nm³/h Nm³/kg ck kg/kg ck kg/h ºC kcal/h kcal/kg ck
Cooling air 225671 2.13 2.76 291643 37 2613673 24.7
Hot clinker 1.00 105725 1350 36638913 346.5
Total 225671 2.13 3.76 397368 39252586 371.3
OUT
Secondary air 23016 0.22 0.28 29745 974 7540626 71.3
Tertiary air 71770 0.68 0.88 92751 874 20901034 197.7
Raw mill take-off
Coal mill take-off 16232 0.15 0.20 20978 317 1623430 15.4
Vent air 114652 1.08 1.40 148170 167 5976961 56.5
Cold clinker 1.00 105725 143 2916855 27.6
Wall loss 293680 2.8
Total 225671 2.13 3.76 397368 39252586 371.3
Difference: 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.0

0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
ρ: 75.37%(recovery ratio) k: 1.56

η: 92.04%(cooling efficiency) Cooler loss: 102.26kcal/kgck
Tertiary air Vent

0.68 Nm³/kg ck 1.08 Nm³/kg ck
0.22 Nm³/kg ck 874°C Coal mill 167°C
974°C 0.15 Nm³/kg ck
Secondary air 317°C
Clinker
105725 kg/h
1350°C
Cooling air Clinker

2.13 Nm³/kg ck 105725 kg/h
37°C 143°C
6.11
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
7. Kiln Heat Balance

7.1 Theoretical Heat for Clinker Formation
Perray
• From clinker analysis: Q (kcal / kg ck ) = 4.11 Al 2 O3 + 6.47 MgO + 7.64 CaO − 5.11 SiO2 − 0.60 Fe 2 O3
Lafarge Model
 172  160
• Exothermic reaction QE =  C 2 S + C 3 S ∗
 228  100
• Decarbonization QD = 437.5 + 0.66 10 −2 ∗ T − 0.22 10 −4 ∗ T 2
where:
- QE in kcal/kgkk
- QD in kcal/kg CaCO3
- T is the decarbonatation temp (ºK)
• Qtheo = QD - QE
7.2 Wall Losses

a. General Formula
• WL = αS ( T 2 − T 1 )
where:
- WL is the losses in kcal/h
- S is the area in m2
- T2 is the wall temperature (ºC)
- T1 is the ambient temperature (ºC)
- α is defined in the following graph
65
60
α
55
50
v = 14 m/s wind
45
13
W/M2C 40 12
11
35 10
9
30 8
7
25 6
5
20
4
v =3 0 m/s (free convection)
15
2
1
10 Wind:0m/s S = 0.9
S
5 Ambient T° - 20°C
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
T - T° (C)
6.12
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b. Radiation
 tp + 273 4 4
   te + 273 
• Loss =∈ *4.96 *   −   kcal / m2 h with: tp: wall temperature, te: external temp. (in C)
 100   100  
 
Emissivity: ∈
material ∈
bricks 0.8
steel 0.95
For oxidized steel ∈ =0.996-2.88*10-4.(tp-100)
For dusty kiln shell ∈ =0.96-5.2*10-4.(tp-100)
For silica bricks ∈ =0.81-6.08*10-4.(tp-200)
Other data tp ∈ tp ∈
Iron oxide 500C 0.78 Steel oxide 40C 0.94
Zinc galvanized sheet bright 28C 0.23 Steel oxide 370C 0.97
Iron polished 425C 0.144 Steel polished 770C 0.52
Steel dense shinny oxide layer 25C 0.82 Steel pipe 200 0.8
Emissivity Error measurement: Example
Read temperature=65C, emissivity choosen: 1 instead of actual: 0.4
True temperature= t = ( 273 + 65 ).4 1 / 0.4 = 425 K = 152C
Loss calculated with read temperature=290kcal/h/m2, Loss with true temperature=510 kcal/h/m2
c. Convection
• Loss = α * ( tp − te )1.25 kcal / m2 h
α : coef exchange
2.6 for vaults
2.2 vertical surfaces
7.3 Kiln Residence Time
Rules of thumb:
• Long kiln: 2-4 hours (Lafarge Corp. average: 155 min), short kiln:40 to 60 minutes.
• RPM from 1.5 to 2.5 (short kiln), Long Kiln: 1.2 to 1.8, Lafarge Corp. average: 1.34.
• Le Teil (1998): 1.5 to 2.3RPM improved clinker granulometry: Retained at 20mm: 7.2 to 13.5%, R10mm:
25to 37%
Perray with:
0.19 ∗ L - L Kiln length (m)
• T= - N Kiln speed (rpm)
N ∗d ∗S
- d kiln diameter (m)
- S Kiln slope (m/m)
Material speed
• Lafarge model in calcination zone: with:
Ts + Tf - Vm: the speed at m
Tm −
N ∗d ∗S 2
- Tm: mat temp at m
Vm = ∗ - Ts: temp where calcination begins
0.19 Tf − Ts - Tf: temp where calcination ends
6.13
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
6.14
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
7.4 Water Spray

w.s.(T1 − T2 )
• Flow needed = kg / h = where: T1 and T2: uncooled and cooled temp (C) of the gas, w:
(100 − t2 ) + 538.9. f
gas rate (kg/h), s: specific heat of gas (kcal/kg), t2:water temp. (in C), f :% water evaporated (decimal).
• Lafarge corp : from 0 to 0.26kg water/kg clinker, average: 0.14.
7.5 Heat Balance Example

a. Davenport 1997 Flow Sheet
6.15
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b. Precalciner Heat Balance

plant Davenport kiln Kiln 1 date 13/11/97
Precalciner specific heat consumption

584 kcal/kg ck
Temp Temp
heat in %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck heat out %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck
Air 99617 712 181.98 18127832 172.52 Tower Exit Gas 188391 358 100.84 18997182 180.80
Primary air 1 2.00% 1992 10 2.40 4788 0.05 O2 2.13% 4013 81.97 328920 3.13
Primary air 2 2.00% 1992 10 2.40 4788 0.05 CO2 45.82% 86313 83.08 7170647 68.24
Inleakage 1 10.00% 9962 10 2.40 23938 0.23 H2O 2.18% 4103 759.59 3116709 29.66
Inleakage 2 0.00% 0 10 2.40 0 0.00 SO2 0.18% 338 59.90 20229 0.19
Tertiary air 86.00% 85670 823 211.21 18094318 172.20 N2 48.87% 92067 90.06 8291338 78.91
Preheater feed 190500 61 11.84 2256252 21.47 Ar 0.83% 1558 44.51 69337 0.66
H2O 0.00% 0 61.04 0 0.00 Bypass Gas 21000 440 126.82 2663285 25.35
Kiln Dust 0 300 68.65 0 0.00 O2 2.00% 420 102.07 42869 0.41
Return Dust 0 350 81.80 0 0.00 CO2 32.14% 6749 104.95 708259 6.74
Coal/Coke 8334 60 16.57 138056 1.31 H2O 2.84% 596 800.12 476879 4.54
Combustion 7361.60 61349445 583.86 SO2 3.77% 791 75.39 59662 0.57
H2O 1.34% 112 60.04 6705 0.06 N2 58.27% 12237 111.49 1364285 12.98
Natural Gas 0 80 43.21 0 0.00 Ar 0.99% 207 54.74 11332 0.11
Combustion 0 0 0.00 Bypass Dust 3810 400 85.46 325607 3.10
H2O 0.00% 0 80.15 0 0.00 Kiln Feed 112921 850 197.04 22249876 211.75
WDF 0 80 44.98 0.00 0.00 Heat of Formation 412.02 46526066 442.79
Combustion 0.00 0.00 0.00 Tower Exit dust 22000 340 79.13 1740957 16.57
H2O 0.00% 0 80.15 0 0.00 Wall Losses 22.00 2484260 23.64
Kiln Gases 49672 904 258.36 12833217 122.13
total in 348122 94711507 901.37 total out 348122 94987233 904.00
difference 0 275726 2.62

0.00% 0.29% 0.29%
c. Kiln Heat Balance

plant Davenport kiln Kiln 1 Date 13/11/97
kg/hr kg/kg ck
fuel kg/hr Temp (°C) LHV (kcal/kg) Tot. kcal/kg Clinker 105075 1.00
Coke/Coal 3572 60 7362 26354660 Kiln Feed 112921 1.07
Natural Gas 0 15 0 0.00 Return Dust 0 0.00
Waste Derived Fuel 0 0 0 0.00 Waste Dust 0 0.00
total combustion air %vol Nm3/hr %mass kg/hr Temp (°C) neutral combustion air %mass kg/hr
Total Combustion Air 29600 38254 Neutral Combustion Air 35852
O2 23.15% 8300
Primary Air 1 4.78% 1415 4.78% 1828 27 CO2 0.04% 14
Primary Air 2 6.21% 1837 6.21% 2374 25 H2O 0.00% 0
Inleakage 1 10.00% 2960 10.00% 3825 25 SO2 0.00% 0
Inleakage 2 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 25 N2 75.53% 27079
Secondary Air 79.01% 23388 79.01% 30226 1065 Ar 1.28% 459
total kiln gas %vol Nm3/hr %mass kg/hr Temp (°C) neutral combustion gas %mass kg/hr
Total Kiln Gas 34667 49672 904 Neutral Combustion Gas 39195
O2 2.01% 696 2.00% 993 O2 0.00% 0
CO2 23.45% 8130 32.14% 15963 CO2 25.71% 10076
H2O 5.06% 1754 2.84% 1410 H2O 3.60% 1410
SO2 1.89% 655 3.77% 1872 SO2 0.31% 121
N2 66.80% 23158 58.27% 28944 N2 69.22% 27130
Ar 0.79% 275 0.99% 490 Ar 1.17% 459
excess air kg/hr water spray kg/hr Temp (°C)
Excess Air 2402 H2O spray 0 10
6.16
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d. Kiln Summary
plant Davenport kiln Kiln 1 date 13/11/97
Kiln specific heat consumption

250 kcal/kg ck
Temp Temp
heat in %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck heat out %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck
Air 38254 846 221.92 8489285 80.79 Total Gas 49672 904 258.36 12833217 122.13
Primary air 1 4.78% 1828 27 6.50 11884 0.11 O2 2.00% 993 221.81 220355 2.10
Primary air 2 6.21% 2374 25 6.01 14256 0.14 CO2 32.14% 15963 239.69 3826133 36.41
Inleakage 1 10.00% 3825 25 6.01 22974 0.22 H2O 2.84% 1410 1049.74 1479875 14.08
Inleakage 2 0.00% 0 25 6.01 0 0.00 SO2 3.77% 1872 168.70 315788 3.01
Secondary Air 79.01% 30226 1065 279.23 8440171 80.33 N2 58.27% 28944 239.63 6935970 66.01
Kiln Feed 112921 850 609.06 68775942 654.54 Ar 0.99% 490 112.52 55097 0.52
H2O 0.00% 0 0.00 0 0.00 Clinker 105075 1358 349.49 36723000 349.49
H2O Spray 0 10 9.97 0 0.00 Heat of Formation 420.00 44131394 420.00
Return Dust 0 300 68.65 0 0.00 Exit dust 0 400 95.32 0 0.00
Coal/Coke 3572 60 16.57 59167 0.56 Wall Losses 75.00 7880606 75.00
Combustion 7362 26292619 250.23
H2O 1.34% 48 60.04 2873 0.03
Natural Gas 0 15 7.70 0 0.00
Combustion 0 0 0.00
H2O 0.00% 0 14.97 0 0.00
WDF 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Combustion 0 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00% 0 0.00 0 0.00
total in 154747 103619887 986.15 total out 154747 101568217 966.63
difference 0.00 -2051671 -19.53

0.00% -2.02% -2.02%
8. Volatile
8.1 Properties of Volatile Elements
a. Basic Volatile Properties
• The raw mix comes with some minor elements (potassium, sodium, sulphur and chlorides) called volatiles.
Element Compound Formula Molecular Melting Boiling Heat of Formation
Weight Point °C Point °C - ∆H°f kJ/mol
Oxide Na2O 62.0 820 d 416
HydroxideNaOH 40.0 322 1390 427
Na Carbonate
Na2CO3 106.0 851 d 1131
Sulfate 142.0 884 — 1385
Na2SO4
Chloride 58.4 801 1465 411
NaCl
Oxide K 2O 94.2 887 d 362
Hydroxide KOH 56.1 410 1327 426
K Carbonate K2CO3 138.2 891 d 1146
Sulfate 147.3 1069 1689 1434
K2SO4
Chloride 74.6 776 1410 1436
KCl
Oxide CaO 56.1 2580 2850 636
Hydroxide Ca (OH)2 74.1 d — 987
Ca Carbonate CaCO3 100.1 d — 288
Sulfate 136.1 d≈ 1280 (1450) — 1430
CaSO4
Chloride 111.0 772 1600 795
Fluoride CaC12 78.1 1380 — —
CaF2
d=Decomposes, s=Sublimates
6.17
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
b. Eutectic
• In a multicomponent-system the melt formation is governed by eutectics. Eutectic is a mixture of two or more
substances that have a melting point lower than any of the substances of the mixture.
Eutectic Melting
System Concentration Melting point
(% mole) (°C)
Na2SO4 — CaSO4 52 — 48 900
K2SO4 — CaSO4 58 — 42 867
K2SO4 — Na2SO4 23 — 77 823
K2CO3 — CaCO3 60 — 40 750
K2CO3 — Na2CO3 42 — 58 710
K2SO4 — KCl 40 — 60 690
KCl — CaSO4 68 — 32 688
KCl — NaCl 50 — 50 640
NaCl — Na2SO4 65 — 35 630
KCl — CaCl2 25 — 75 600
NaCl — CaCl2 50 — 50 500
c. Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure for Volatile Compounds at Different Temperatures
mm Hg
760
NaOH
700 KCl
600 KOH
NaCl
500
Na 2CO3 Caution: This graphic is for trend indication only.
400 We have no indication of the precision of the
Na 2SO4
300 curves. Do not use for calculation.
Thus, for instance, K is more volatile than Na.
200 K2 CO3 K2 SO4
100
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 °C
d. Typical Chemical Reaction

Me n (SO4 )m ↔ n MeO + m SO2 +
m
• O2 where: Men can be: Ca, K2,Na2
2
• The equilibrium constant of that reaction has this formula: K =

[MeO]n [SO2 ]m [O2 ]m / 2
Men (SO4 )m
6.18
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
e. Parameters Influencing the Volatilisation Process

Influence of kiln gases on the volatility of the circulating elements
Kiln atmosphere Sodium Potassium Sulphur Chloride
vapor pressure v v v v
CO2 ⇑ ⇓ ⇓ ⇑
H2O ⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑
O2 ⇓ ⇑ ⇑⇑
SO2 ⇑ ⇓
Effect of fineness on v at 1300°C

K2O Na2O SO3
v v v
1.7% > 200 µm 0.89 0.42 0.63
21.8 % > 90 µm
< 90 µm 0.89 0.46 0.63
< 60 µm 0.93 0.45 0.65
8.2 Volatilization Process

• Volatiles will start to volatilize (evaporate) from the liquid phase as soon as the temperature increases.
• A fraction of those elements (or compounds) will be vaporized in the burning zone and get entrained with the
gases toward the back of the kiln. The vapors will cool down together with the gas stream and recondense
before leaving the kiln or in the dust collector. The condensation takes place on any cool surface, mostly on
the dust carried by the gas.
- Fi : flux of volatile component i brought by fuel (g/kg ck)
- Mi : flux of volatile component i brought by raw mix (g/kg ck)
- Ci : flux of volatile component i going out with the clinker (g/kg ck)
- Li : flux of volatile component i lost with gas and dust (g/kg ck) ( loss)
- Ki : flux of volatile component i in the kiln load (g/kg ck)
- Gi : flux of volatile component i in the gas stream (g/kg ck)
a. Volatile Recirculation Model
tF +M
• Kiln load: K =
1 − vt
Exit gas Gas & dust Fuel
& dust
1−v
Trapping Volatilization
• Clinker: C = (tF + M )
1 − vt
Raw mix Kiln load Clinker
vM +F
• Gas stream: G =
1 − vt
1−t
• Losses: L = (vM + F )
1 − vt
6.19
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Typical volatilization and trapping coefficients

Type of kiln SO3 K2O Na2O Cl-
v t v t v t v t
Wet kiln without dust wasting 0.59 0.76 0.45 0.81 0.12 - 0.99 -
Wet kiln with dust wasting 0.72 0.63 0.53 0.51 0.24 0.68 0.99 -
Long dry kiln 0.65 0.87 0.65 0.81 0.21 0.45 0.99 -
Preheater kiln 0.80 0.90 0.69 0.96 0.26 0.79 0.99 0.99
Precalciner kiln 0.55 0.96 0.49 0.98 0.55 0.60 0.99 0.99
(Prepared from average volatile balances made within Lafarge)
Typical concentration factors of volatiles in the kiln load
(kiln load / raw mix ratio)
Na2O and K2O 2 to 10
SO3 4 to 20
Cl - 20 to 100
b. Evolution of Volatiles During Transitions

• If M(θ) is a step at θ = 1 then:
K ( θ ) = K + (K − K )(vt )θ / T
1 0 1
where:
- K0 : previous kiln load composition
- K1 : new kiln load composition
- θ : time (to avoid confusion with t, the trapping coefficient)
- T : the time required by a given mass of volatile to complete a cycle
- M(θ) : flux of volatile from the raw mix at time θ
- F(θ) : flux of volatile from the fuel at time θ
- K(θ) : flux of volatile in the kiln load at time θ
Rules of thumb
• Circulating kiln load : 1.7 to 2.1 kgload/kg clinker.
• Generated dust: Lafarge Corp average for LD kilns:0.6, from 0.2 to 1.34 (BFD).
• Generated dust: short kiln: 100 to 150g/kgck, Lepol Grate: 50g/kgck.
c. Volatile Cycle
t
• C=
1−v
- t is the time between the trapping and the
burning zone Chlorine: v = .99 5-6 days
- v is the volatilization coefficient SO3 : v = .6 5-7 hours
- C is the cycling time
8.3 SO2 - SO3
a. General
• Sulfur is found in:
- Clinker raw material (combined form of sulfur or sulfate).
- Combustibles (S in the form of organic components).
6.20
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Sulfur Behaviour
Sulfur Input Locations to Precalciner
Feed: as SO4 , 90-95% capture

as FeS 2 , 35-60% capture
30-40%
capture
Fuel
RM Fuel: as SO 4 or S,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

90-95% capt
100
Formation in the Burning zone
H2SO4 SO3 SO2
• The following is the thermodynamic
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0
80
% of total sulphur
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
equilibrium of sulfur species in a 10% excess 60
air flue gas. The principal product formed in
the burning zone will be SO2 . 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
20
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature (ºK)
b. What Affects the SO2 Generation in the Burning Zone?

The composition of the kiln load
• Sulfur is preferably linked with alkalies which have a higher stability and a greater chance of being found as
alkali sulfate in the clinker ( K 2 SO4 , Na2 SO4 ) themselves being part of bigger compounds. So if the kiln load
composition has a molar excess of K 2O − Na2O available (not combined with chlorine) vs SO3 , the SO 2
generated from the load will be lower (sulfur, alkali, molar ratio < 1.2).
The burning zone temperature
• At lower temperature, less CaSO4 or alkali sulfates will decompose to form SO 2 and the SO3 level in the
clinker will be higher.
The O2 level
2000 v SO 3
1.0
S
O2 1500 1400°C
pp 0.8
m 1000
0.6
500 0.4
0 0.2 1200°C
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1000°C
0
Oxygen % 0 1.0 2.5 5.0 %O 2
The residence time in the burning zone

• The longer the time the material stays in the burning zone, the higher the chance for SO 2 to volatilize.
Back-end
• If the raw mix contains sulfur compounds (i.e. FeS 2 = pyrite), the combustion of these compounds generates
SO 2 .
6.21
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
c. SO3 Volatilization in Calciner 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

0 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0
90
SO3 volatilization (%)
80
70 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0
60
50
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
40
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Combustion efficiency (%)
00 00 00 00 00
d. Trapping
• SO2 is stable above 900ºC but starts to be Lab experience (H. Ritzmann, Neubeckum).
0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
80
trapped by CaCO 3 and CaO at lower
SO2 trapped (% of total)

0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
temperatures. There is a large excess of 60
CaCO 3 in the preheater, which explains a
0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0

40
high trapping coefficient (95% "dry"
scrubbing).
0 0 0 0 0
20
0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature (ºC)
• CaCO3 + SO 2 + 1 / 2 O2 → CaSO4 + CO2 .

• In a precalciner kiln, the decarbonated limestone captures more actively SO 2 , especially with a high level of
Oxygen and the following equilibrium is shifted to the left: CaSO4 ↔ CaO + SO2 + 1 / 2 O2 .
• For this reason, precalciner kilns are able to absorb rather high concentrations of SO 2 in the gas coming from
the kiln.
8.4 Build-up and Rings
• After condensation and before solidification of the volatiles, the dust particles will be sticky and tend to
agglomerate on solid objects: kiln walls, chains or lower cyclones of preheater tower.
• The sulphur build-up usually occurs where the temperature is between 800°C and 1100°C: kiln walls and
chains for a long kiln, smoke chamber and lower cyclone for a preheater kiln. In those build-ups, the following
sulfates are most commonly found: Arcanite (K2SO4), Anhydrite (CaSO4), Glaserite (K3Na (SO4)2), Ca-
Langbeinite (K2Ca2 (SO4)3) and sulfate spurrite (Ca2 (SiO4)3 CaSO4).
• In a long kiln, the build-ups are formed below the internal exchanger. This takes place in the kiln load so the
build-ups formed this way are naturally destroyed in the majority of the cases. In small diameter kiln,
however, a sulfate ring can appear.
• Chlorine will condense in the 600°C to 700°C zones, that is in the chains for a long kiln.
• Operational difficulties when the concentration of circulating elements in the load material exceeds the
following levels (on clinker basis):
- Na2O + K2O = 3–5 %, SO3 =3–5 %, Cl- =1.2–1.6 %
6.22
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
8.5 Volatile Balance Example : Davenport 1997

Flow Loss of ign Moisture SO3 K2O Na2O Cl
t/h % * % % % % %
Raw mix 168.500 35.410 0.000 0.897 0.500 0.090 0.001
Clinker 105.075 0.000 0.000 0.610 0.710 0.130 0.010
Kiln load - 5.210 0.000 2.450 1.099 0.760 0.101
Recirculated dust 22.000 5.000 0.000 1.440 0.580 0.100 0.001
Injected prod 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Waste dust 3.810 5.200 0.000 11.230 2.073 0.493 0.255
Flow Ash Moisture S K2O (ash) Na2O (ash) Cl

t/h (as rec) % (as rec) % (as rec) % % % (as rec) %
Coal 8.680 10.460 5.570 1.020 2.100 0.290 0.000
Coke 3.720 0.510 4.590 3.040 1.100 2.780 0.000
Flow SO2 Dust (dry) Dust SO3 Dust K2O Dust Na2O Dust Cl Loss of ign
kg/h kg/h % % % % % *
Stack 908.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mass Balance
Flow CO2 Flow CO2=0

dry t/h % t/h
Raw mix 168.5 35.4 108.83
Recirculated dust 22.0 5.0 20.90
Coal 8.2 - 1.13 ««| (Coal; Flow CO2=0: Ash + S converted to SO3 + Cl)
Coke 3.55 - 0.30 ««| (LWF; Flow CO2=0: Ash + S converted to SO3 + Cl)
Injected prod 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total inlet - - 131.17
Clinker 105.08 0.00 105.08
Recirculated dust 22.00 5.00 20.90
Waste dust 3.81 5.20 3.61
Stack 1.14 0.00 1.135 (Stack; Flow CO2=0: Dust + SO2 converted to SO3 + Cl)
Total outlet - - 130.72 ¯ Inlet-outlet: 0.44 (st/h LOI=0)
Flow Rate Adjustment
Weighting Flow Flow dry Flow CO2=0 Flow CO2=0 note - data entry
t/h kg/kgkk t/h kg/kg kk • Enter weighting factors
Raw mix 0.50 168.2 1.60 108.61 1.03 in boldface
Recirculated dust 0.00 22.0 0.21 20.90 0.20 • total must equal 1.0
Coal 0.00 8.7 0.08 1.13 0.01 • all positive values 0-1
Coke 0.00 3.7 0.03 0.30 0.00
Injected prod 0.00 .0 0.00 0.00 .000
Total inlet - - 130.94 1.24
Clinker 0.50 105.3 1.00 105.30 1.00
Recirculated dust 0.00 22.0 0.21 20.90 0.20
Waste dust 0.00 3.8 0.04 3.61 0.03
Stack 0.00 1.1 0.01 1.14 0.011
Total outlet 1.0 - - 130.94 1.24
note - data entry on "Ignition loss"

*Ignition loss at: %CO2 °C • Concerns LOI determination; impacts the CO2=0 mass balance
• if %CO2; LOI is only CO2 loss
• if 1050; LOI is CO2 & moisture loss
• if 1400; LOI is CO2 & moisture & volatile loss
6.23
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Kiln Audit November 1997

Volatile Balance
kiln load = 1.30 kg/kg

hypothesis clinker
SO3
Waste Dust 4.063 17.304 31.362 Combustible 5.154
= =
Stack = 10.231
Return Dust Trapping = Volatilization =

= 3.009 14.058 26.208
Raw Mix = 14.783 17.792 Kiln Load =31.850 Clinker = 5.642
Total Trapping Coefficient 0.544 Volatile Coefficient = 0.823

=
K2O
= =
Stack = 0.000

= 1.212 5.240 7.029

=
kiln load = 1.30 kg/kg

hypothesis clinker
Na2O
= =
Stack = 0.000

= 0.209 8.228 8.586

=
Chlorine
= =
Stack = 0.000

= 0.002 1.216 1.257

=
6.24
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
8.6 Circulation in Preheater (Port-la-Nouvelle)

a. Kiln Parameters
- Clinker production: 58.33 tph - Kiln exit gas: 1.286 Nm3/kk
- Raw mix: 88.4 tph - C1 exit gas: 1.412 Nm3/kk
- Coal: 8.035 tph
- Tower exit gas: 1.505 Nm3/kk
- Heat consumption: 833 kcal/kk
- Dust tower exit: 4.2 tph
- O2 kiln out: 2.5% - Kiln exit temp: 1200 ºC
- O2 tower out: 3.5% - C1 exit temp: 835 ºC
• The dust from ESP and conditioning tower are mixed after the raw mix feeder.
• In the following diagrams, the ESP dust + conditioning tower dust are called E-P dust.
b. Kiln Volatile Balance

SO3 K2O Na2O Cl
Volatilization (%) 68.5 77.5 18.4 99.0
Trapping (%) 100 100 100 100
c. Flow Calculation in Exchanger

• Equation 1: @LOI=0 Mat C2 + Kiln dust = Mat C1 + C1 dust
• Equation 2: [K 2 O]C 2 + [K 2 O]Kdust = [K 2 O]C1 + [K 2 O]dustC1
Cyclone Efficiency
C4 95%
C3 94%
C2 94%
C1 89%
d. Flux per Cyclone

Cl SO3 Na2O
C1 Inlets 24.15 22.2 2.78
Outlets 25.61 21.5 2.84
∂ rel -6% +3% -2%
C2 Inlets 11.92 8.02 2.27
Outlets 11.4 16.97 2.58
∂ rel +4.4% -112% -14%
C3 + C4 Inlets 3.32 4.59 1.51
Outlets 2.45 5.54 1.74
∂ rel +23% -21% -15%
• The relative difference inlet/outlet is higher for the top stage:
- only 1 measurement
- smaller volatile content
• The SO3 balance for stage 2 is explained by the SO2 trapping in material (lower in C1) SO 2 is stable above
700º. The volatile elements are trapped principally in the 2 bottom stages (75%).
6.25
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
9. Lafarge Corp Typical Ratios
1998 data
Kiln by plant Rated Capacity Thermal load Specific loading Cooler loading
Process Metric tonnes Gcal/hm2 MTPD/M3 MTPD/m2
Long wet Richmond 1 830 5.7 0.6 -

Richmond 2 823 6.0 0.6 -
Woodstock 1 794 4.1 0.6 -

Woodstock 2 839 4.4 0.6 -
Fredonia 1 446 3.4 0.5 22.3

Fredonia 2 650 5.7 0.5 31.7
Paulding 1 687 6.1 0.6 22.8

Paulding 2 687 6.1 0.6 22.8
Long dry Brookfield 1 650 4.1 0.5 25.1

Brookfield 2 855 4.4 0.8 35.8
Exshaw 4 1272 3.5 0.5 34.6
Kamloops 617 4.0 0.6 23.8
St-Constant 1 1510 3.9 0.6 33.8

St-Constant 2 1540 4.0 0.6 37.5
Alpena 19 1119 6.2 0.7 47.1

Alpena 20 1105 6.1 0.6 32.2
Alpena 21 1102 5.8 0.6 32.1
Alpena 22 1649 5.1 0.5 34.0
Alpena 23 1657 5.6 0.5 34.2
Joppa 1 1574 6.2 0.6 28.9
Sugar Creek 1 705 4.6 0.7 23.4

Sugar Creek 2 804 4.7 0.7 22.3
Single stage Bath 3267 4.6 0.6 41.1

Preheater
Joppa 2 1845 5.4 0.6 29.4
S Preheater Whitehall 1 1344 4.3 1.7 57.7

Whitehall 2 947 3.7 1.8 52.4
AS Preca Exshaw 5 2459 5.3 4.1 57.0
Davenport 2751 2.7 3.4 40.0
Richmond 3 3000 3.1 4.7 38.9
6.26
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
10. 57 Clinker Reactivity Study (P. Barriac)

Ranges studied: R. quartz on Sol. Na2O eq.: Ex. SO3/tot. alk.: - C3A perc.: 0% to C3S perc.: 43% to C2S perc.: Free CaO Underburning
63µ: 0.5% to 0.1% to 0.9% 0.6% to +1.7% 12.6% 76% 2% to 31.5% perc.: 0.05% to
5.3% to 2.2% overburning
If we want: Siliceous raw % of soluble Excess SO3/tot. % of C3A % of C3S % of C2S % of free Moderate
⇓ mix reject alkalies alkalies CaO burning with:
burning
R.1 or 2-d (easier
% alkalies (with Ex. SO3/total at the expense of at the expense of in favour of with lime zone length
combination and/or clinker alk. ≤1% to limit %C4AF (strong %C2S (and/or with %C3S saturation (in particular
⇒ : small alite % SO3 (to have alite size) impact if high % %C4AF and factor to keep rate of
and belite size) a molar ratio sol. alk.) %MgO) C3S = Ct temperature
≥1) rise)
burning
R.28-d. (easier
% total alkalies (with Ex. SO3/total at the expense of with %C4AF with zone length

(we can
combination (almost of all alk. ≤1% to limit %C4AF and %MgO %C4AF and free CaO to ( rates of
⇒ : small alite alkalies are alite size) %MgO %C3S) temperature
rise and
and belite size) soluble at 28 d)
cooling)
burning
(easier (with Ex. SO /total at the expense of
with %C AF with zone length

R. 1, 2 and 28-d. 3 4
combination alk. ≤1% to limit %C AF and %MgO %C AF and ( rates of
⇒
4 4
: small alite alite size) %MgO temperature
and belite size) rise and
cooling)
burning
kWh/t (easier (keeping a molar at the expense of at the expense of in favour of zone length
combination ratio at least equal %C4AF %C2S (and/or with %C3S (in
⇒ : small alite to 1) %C4AF and particular
and belite size) %MgO) rate of
temperature
rise)
Note: To establish this table, we have taken all the results of the statistical study into account, plus some other results taken from Influence du Profil
thermique – Comparison de 4 études de laboratoire – P. Barriac, June 6, 1995.
Presentation: italics: explaining comments – normal letters: comments on application (method, limits).
Clinker Reactivity – supplement to the 10 Basic Facts.
6.27
VADE-MECUM
7. ENVIRONMENT
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. NOx ....................................................................................................... 7.1

1.1 NOx Generalities.......................................................................... 7.1
1.2 NOx Formation in the Kiln ............................................................ 7.1
1.3 NOx Formation in the Precalciner .................................................. 7.3
1.4 NOx Abatement Methods .............................................................. 7.4
2. SO2 ....................................................................................................... 7.5
3. Dust ...................................................................................................... 7.6
3.1 What Affects the Dust Production ................................................. 7.6
3.2 ESP.............................................................................................. 7.6
3.3 Baghouse...................................................................................... 7.8
3.4 CKD ............................................................................................ 7.9
4. CO2 ..................................................................................................... 7.10
5. Others................................................................................................. 7.10
5.1 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions.................................. 7.10
5.2 Conversion from ppm to mg/m3 of Pollutant ................................ 7.10
5.3 Emission Ranges from European Cement Kilns ........................... 7.10
5.4 Analysers.................................................................................... 7.10
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
This section covers NOx, SOx, CO2, CKD, alternative materials, waste fuels and to some extent, PMx. SOx which
have been partially addressed in section 6.7.3 (SO2 / SO3). More and more plants are required to have CEMS
(Continuous Emission Monitoring System) which are different from the process analysers, especially for dilution
purpose. You may have to convert some results for standard conditions. Standards (as %O2) vary worldwide (see
section 7.4).
1. NOx
1.1 NOx Generalities
• Gross NOx emissions are typically in the range of 500 to 1,500 ppm being closely related to kiln combustion
conditions.
• In the cement industry normally, 95% of NOx formed is nitric oxide (NO). This gas is colourless and is readily
transformed into NO2 in air.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas and is the principal component of smog. The toxic effects of
NO2 are not completely known, but an exposure to 15 ppm NO2 causes eye and nose irritations and 25 ppm
causes pulmonary discomfort.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O) represents <1% (typically 10 - 20 ppm) of NOx produced in a cement kiln. It is very
stable and is considered to play a role in the destruction of ozone.
1.2 NOx Formation in the Kiln

a. Thermal NOx Formation Mechanisms
• Thermal NOx is defined as that portion of the oxides of nitrogen that originate from fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. The principal reactions for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen are generally recognised as follows
(Zeldovich mechanism):
O + N 2 → NO + N
N + O2 → NO + O
N 2 + O2 → 2 NO
• In an oxidising atmosphere NO is formed. ALL steps listed above are reversible in a reducing atmosphere,
depending on exact temperature and partial pressure conditions at a given point in the flame.
• Thermal NO formation kinetics are slow compared with fuel oxidation reactions and may be disassociated
from the combustion process. Thus final NO concentrations never reach levels predicted by thermodynamic
equilibrium at temperatures used.
• Note that some studies (Fenimore, Bowman,...1971) found that the rates of thermal NOx formation in the
primary flame zone were considerably higher than those in the post flame zone. This “fast NO” formation
occurred at rates greatly exceeding the rate predicted by the O, N atom equilibrium mechanism. Some NO is
formed before the O atom has equilibrated with O2 (second hypothesis).
• Prompt NO is the breaking of N2 bonds by “CH” hydrocarbonaceous radicals instead of O2. No discussion of
NO formation is complete without discussing Prompt NO, but in practical terms the amounts are negligible.
b. Fuel NOx
• Many fuels contain significant quantities of chemically bound nitrogen. Some oils can have nitrogen in excess
of 2-4% N and many liquid hazardous wastes may have nitrogen much higher than that. The solid fuel
nitrogen content can be between .5 and 3%.
• The “fuel NOx” is due to the nitrogen conversion in the flame during the combustion. Nitrogen is mainly
contained in aromatic compounds.
7.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
• The following diagrams show the ratio between the different sources of NOx in a lab furnace. The lower curve
was measured in an atmosphere without nitrogen and shows the fuel source of nitrogen oxide.
400
Air
NO (ppm)
300
NO thermal Ar/O2
200
NO combustible
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
Excess air
Rule of thumb
• 0.2 to 2% N in fuel may yield 60 to 2100 ppm NO
c. What Affects the NOx Formation in the Kiln?
The Oxygen Level
• O2 level affects the formation of both fuel 1
Nox reduction in natural gas flame
NA combustion book, p164
and thermal NOx which is explained by the
fact that NOx formation requires a free 0.8
Nox/Nox ambient air
oxygen atom. Therefore an excess of 0.6

oxygen induces a shifting of the formation
0.4
equation to the right.
• Even if NO is formed, reducing conditions 0.2
Oxidant oxygen level (%)
(even local) and high temperature can 0
produce NO separation into N2 and O2 – 21 20 19 18
lowering total NO produced. This is
readily apparent when CO levels rise due to
local reducing conditions, causing a
corresponding drop of NO.
Combustion air temperature
• The following figure is the same graph with 600
air preheated to 275ºC and other conditions 500 Air
staying the same.
NO, ppm
400
Thermal NOx
300
Ar/O2
200
100 Fuel NOx
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Excess air
• Comparison of this figure with the previous one shows that the preheated air is effective on thermal NOx but
not on the fuel NOx mechanism.
• In fact, the formation of thermal NOx is strongly dependent on the flame temperature and a few factors can
affect it.
Material temperature in the load
• The heat transfer in the flame area is dominated by radiation (flame – wall – material).
7.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
( )
Q2 = K 2 * SKG * T f4 − Tm4 , with
- Q2: the quantity of heat exchanged - Tf: the gas temperature
- K2: the exchange coefficient gas/lining (≅ - Tm: the material temperature
-7
0.15*10 kcal/h ºC m2) - SKG: Boltzman constant
• This heat transfer equation shows that the higher the material temperature, the lower the exchange and that the
higher the flame temperature, the higher the thermal NO formation. Conversely when the load temperature is
low, flame temperatures will be cooler, resulting in less NO formed.
• This is one of the fundamental basis for kiln control. A “push” of under-prepared material into the burning
zone causes the NO formation rate to drop. NO formation is one of the leading indicators that describe the
onset of a change in the kiln’s burning zone – hot or cold.
Flame Shape
The hotter the flame, the higher the NOx emission so the burner pipe settings affecting the flame shape also
have an impact on the NOx emission: i.e. primary air, combustible fineness, volatiles content...
Nitrogen Fuel
• About 60% of the fuel nitrogen is converted into NOx in a PH/PC tower so the nitrogen content is also an
important factor in NOx generation (cf. Davenport Kiln audit 1997, 64%).
1.3 NOx Formation in the Precalciner

• During the combustion process, the NOx generated in the calciner is mainly fuel related. Thus we’d rather use
low N content fuel.
a. What Affects the NOx Generation in the Precalciner?
CO Level
• The CO presence (even ppm level) indicates reducing atmospheres which affects NO formation. Low-NOx
precalciners create reducing atmospheres to reverse NO formation. However, large amounts of CO are
produced and thus require a low temperature post burn to control the quantity of CO emitted. Rule of thumb:
3 sec. residence time (Richmond FLS – ILC). Some FLS designed ILC in South America also employ 3
circuit burners, which are claimed to contribute to lower NO formation. It is possible to create reducing
atmospheres in a calciner by relocating the fuel injection point, (Davenport Fuel Oil Trials, 1999-2000).
Oxygen Level
• The fuel nitrogen needs oxygen to be transformed into NOx so that the NOx level will increase with the oxygen
level. This is true for conventional precalciner designs. This is not true for Low-NOx precalciners, since O2
levels include the excess air required for post burn.
Temperature
• Some tests were performed by FLS1. An increase of the precalciner flame temperature seems to reduce the
NOx emission but this phenomenon is not yet well understood.
1 Emission from cement kilns of Nitrogen Oxides (FLS)
7.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1.4 NOx Abatement Methods

a. Methods
Process Modifications
1) Improve KFUI: reduces the number hot/cold cycles and permits the operator to burn consistently at a
lower temperature.
2) Improve mix burnability: lower clinkerization temperature.
3) Improve clinker cooler stability: Minimize secondary air temperature fluctuations that can affect flame
temperatures. For air separate precalciners, it stabilizes the tertiary air temperature.
4) Avoid over burning: Points 1, 2. Also examine burning practices or the employment of LUCIE.
Combustion Modifications
5) Lower Fuel Nitrogen: If economically feasible or you are renegotiating your supply contract. Also some
precalciner plants are able to consider a low nitrogen fuel in the tower, different from the kiln fuel.
6) Reduce excess air: Depends where you are on the curve, however generally this is a proven technique.
7) Reduce Primary air: Lowers the amount of oxidation at the flame front.
8) Install a Low-NOx burner: They attempt to create a small reducing atmosphere zone in the flame.
9) Shorten the flame (high nitrogen fuels)/tight flame front to burner: Inconclusive – not recommended for
low nitrogen fuels. Reported examples of this technique do work.
10) Inject water in or near blastpipe: Creates reducing atmospheres. Works but impacts clinker quality and
SHC.
11) Whole tire injection (preheater kiln): Creates reducing atmospheres, lower flame temperature.
12) Injecting fuel at feed end housing: Inject low into housing to maximize retention time and works best with
low nitrogen fuels. Generally applicable to preheaters and precalciners. Consider mid-kiln fuel injection
on long kilns. See also discussion in Les Cahiers Techniques, Gaseous Effluents, Chapter 4-2 section 3.2:
staged combustion.
Post-combustion control technologies
13) Ammonia or Urea Injection (SNCR): Selective Non- Catalytic Reduction. Uses injection of NH3, NH4OH
or Urea at a point as close to 970C as possible. Successfully employed in trials on long kilns as well as
PH/PC. Can cause NH3 emissions at high injection rates.
14) Treat Exhaust Gases using NH3 and catalyst (SCR): Selective Catalytic Reduction - very expensive.
Injects NH3 at lower temperatures (300-400C) with a catalyst in a reactor. Requires post re-heating to
oxidize SO2 to SO3 to be captured in a condenser.
15) Treat Exhaust Gases using NH3 and activated charcoal: Polysius method intended for SO2 reduction, but
works for NO by adding NH3 reagent.
b. Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for NOx Emissions
(see IPPC, Feb 2000, EC)
Technique Kiln syst app Red effic. Reported Reported Operating Investment
emissions mg/m3 emissions kg/tkk cost in $/tkk in M US$
Flame cooling All 0-50% 400- 0.8- 0-0.5 0-0.2
Low-NOx burner All 0-30% 400- 0.8- 0 0.15-0.8
Staged comb Preca/preheat 10-50% < 500-1000 <1.0-2.0 0 0.1-2/1-4
Mid-kiln firing Long 20-40% 0.8-1.7
Easy to burn All 10-15%
SNCR Preca/preheat 10-85% 200-800 0.4-1.6 0.5-1.5
SCR (one plant) All 89-95% 100-200 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4 2.5-4.5
SNCR : selective non catalytic reduction
7.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
2. SO2
(see also chapter Volatile in section pyroprocessing)
• 1% sulfur in heavy fuel oil yields 700 ppm SO2 in the dry stoichiometric product of combustion.
Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for SO2 emissions
(see IPPC, Feb 2000, EC)
Technique Kiln Red effic. Reported Reported Operating Investment
syst emissions emissions cost in in MUS$
app mg/m3 kg/tck $/tck
Absorbant addition All 60-80% 400 0.8 0.1-0.4 0.2-0.3
(limestone or lime)
Dry scrubber Dry Up to 90% <400 <0.8 1.4-1.6 11
Wet scrubber All >90% <200 <0.4 0.5-1.0 6-10
Activated Carbon dry Up to 95% <50 <0.1
C4 lime reinjection
Fuller’s patent PH/PC 30% 0.2 0.2
7.5
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
3. Dust
3.1 What Affects the Dust Production
• During the process into the kiln, the
material is moving toward the flame while
the gas is moving in the opposite direction
to the cold end carrying dust. The dust is
then captured by the dust collectors and
returned to the kiln or wasted. Design of
the kiln, PH/PC, design of the feeding, gas
velocity, speed of rotation, raw mix
composition, volatile, temperature and
other factors can affect the dust generation.
When the dust is wasted, it is called CKD
(Cement Kiln Dust). After the Dust
Collector, the dust still in the gas will go
out the stack and be part of PMx and
opacity.
• Dust generation within Lafarge Corp.
ranges between 0.2 to 1.34 kg dust/kgkk ,
averaging 0.6.
3.2 ESP
(Sources: Air Pollution Engineering manual, A.J. Buonicore, W.T.Davis)
a. Principles of operation
• The ESPs perform by applying proper electrical forces in the space between the high voltage system and
ground of each gas passage. These electrical inputs involve a voltage level based on gas passage spacing and
gas and particle characteristics. The flow of electric current through this space will depend on the resistance it
encounters before reaching ground potential, identified as the collecting surface or plate. The electron flow
through the gas passage is known as corona current and will impact a negative charge bias to the particles
carried in the flue gas causing these particles to migrate toward positive side.
Rules of thumb
• Operating voltage: 30 to 70 kV, dependent on design factors
• Operating current density: 5 to 50 mA/cm2
• Dust layer thickness: ½ to 1 in.
b. Load and particle size
• The higher the voltage, the better the collection. Usually, the first field will collect the biggest particles and
consequently, the finest will be found in the last field. Alkalis have a tendency to settle on fines and preferably
you want to waste your CKD from the last field.
7.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Rule of thumb: For a four field ESP with 80% collection efficiency, you will get an overall efficiency of 99.8%.
Field # Entering Collected Cumulative

(kg) (kg) Collection
Efficiency
1 100.0 80.0 80.0 %
2 20.0 16.0 96.0 %
3 4.0 3.2 99.2 %
4 0.8 0.6 99.8 %
%
,
Y
C Typical curve showing efficiency as a
N
E
IC function of particle size for an ESP
IF collecting fly ash.
F
E (permission granted by APCA)
N
O
I
T
C
E
LL
O
C
0.5
c. Collection efficiency
Rules of thumb
• Gas velocity impacts treatment time and power density (range from 0.6 – 1.5 m/s).
• Specific collecting area (SCA) in ranges from .017 to .051 m2/Rm3/h (300 – 920 ft2/kCFM).
• Migration velocity W (Lafarge NA cement kilns) : 30 to 110 cm/s.
Collection Efficiency
• Eff. = 1 – (exp – {(A/Q)*W}0.5), where
where
- Q is the gas flow through precipitator, compute the migration velocity W,
- A is the Collection area and SCA is usually - 0.5 is an empirical factor
calculated to reach the efficiency problem to
Process Range of migration velocity Range of SCA*
(cm/s) m2/Rm3/h (ft2/kCFM)
Wet Kilns 30 – 80 .017 - .031 (300 – 560)
Dry Kilns 30 – 60 .022 - .051 (400 – 920)
PH/PC Kilns 45 – 110 .018 - .032 (320 – 590)
*To get units in m2/(m3/s), multiply by 3600. To get them in ft2/kCFM, multiply by 5.019 and then 3600. 100 ft2/kCFM is a small SCA, 400 is medium and
900 is considered large.
7.7
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d. Gas moisture impact

• Gas moisture controls the ability to maintain power input (watts)
• Power increases with moisture at elevated temperatures up to an optimum one
• Moisture allows conductance of electrons through dust layer allowing surface voltage to decrease (i.e., higher
effective kV) and suppresses space charge effects of fine particles (i.e. reduces sparking)
• Volume of moisture required is not constant and changes with temperature, particle size chemistry, loading
and ESP design (i.e. , site specific)
10
10
) )
m
c. m
c
M m
h
9
10
H
O
( O
(
Y yt
T iv
I it 8
10
V
I si
T
S
se
I R
S
ER 7
10 Resistivity Curve for Dust at
Inlet to Cement Precip.
(25% H2O and 4,000 volts)
200 400 600

TEMPERATURE F o Temperature ºF
3.3 Baghouse
(see Priority Study for more information)
a. Principles of operation
• Dust gas flows through a fiber filter media. Clean air gets out and dust is caught at the surface of the media as
a dust cake. This cake is then removed by cleaning the surface bag by either shaking, reversing the air flow or
sending a pulse jet that extend the filter media for a short period of time.
b. Filter media
• There are two types of filter media:
- Woven
- Felt
7.8
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
• Cloth type and weight are selected, based on temperature, moisture (because of hydrolysis) and resistance
(acid, alkali, oxydation and abrasion). Mostly used in cement industries are:
Generic name type Trade name type Max. temp. on Application Lifetime guarantee
continuous op. (years)
(ºC)
Polypropylene Herculon 125 General 2
Polyester Dacron 130 General, mills 2
Glass Fiberglass 260 Kiln, cooler 3
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Teflon 250 Kiln, cement 4
Expanded PTFE Rastex, Gore-tex 250 Kiln 3–4
Expanded PTFE/Glass Superflex 250 Kiln 5–6
Aromatic Aramid Nomex 190 Kiln, cooler 2–3
Polymide P 84 240 Kiln 2–3
Air/Cloth (A/C) ratio (or filtration velocity)
Configuration Recommended Net A/C Pressure drop

Styles m/min (ft/min) ∆P
Dedusting Mills Kiln Coolers mm Hg (“wg)
Shaker type 0.6 – 0.8 (2 – 2.5) 0.6 (2) – – 7.5 – 11 (4 – 6)
Reverse air 0.6 – 0.8 (2 – 2.5) 0.6 (2) 0.45 – 0.55 (1.5 – 0.5 – 0.6 (1.8 – 2) 7.5 – 11(4 – 6)
1.8)
Pulse-jet 1.2 – 1.8 (4 – 6) 1.2 (4) 0.9 – 1.1 (3 – 3.5) 1.0 – 1.3 (3.3 – 4.3) 9 – 19 (5 – 10)
3.4 CKD
• CKD has to be wasted in NA for some plants (9 out of
15 plants). The drivers for wasting CKD are product Lafarge NA data
quality and process stability. In both cases, we waste (9 plants out of 15 waste CKD)
CKD in order to lower the alkalis or sulphur content into % Dust Wasting
the kiln that would either build up or be too high in the PLANT 1999 1998 1997
clinker otherwise. Since alkalis and sulphur compounds Alpena* 8.4% 12.3% 11.1%
attach to the dust particles, the amount will be reduced Bath* 2.9% 3.2% 4.7%
as they are extracted along with CKD. Brookfield* 16.8% 13.0% 12.6%
• We withdraw CKD from the dust collector (Dry or Wet
Davenport* 2.6% 3.9% 4.2%
Process) and from the by-pass for PH/PC. CKD is
Exshaw* 1.7% 2.6% 1.7%
considered reactive when it contains free-lime.
• Higher concentration of alkalis and sulphur are found in Fredonia* 11.7% 9.8% 8.6%
the finest particles where you have more surface area. Joppa 5.8% 4.7% 8.6%
This fact can be used in ESP where you have particle Paulding* 10.3% 15.3% 20.6%
segregation from bigger size in the first field to finest in Seattle 12.9%
the last. The baghouse doesn’t have such advantage.
7.9
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
4. CO2
• The greenhouse gases are becoming a major concern for the cement industry. CO2 comes from three sources:
1- Decarbonation 2- Combustion of the carbon content in the fuel and 3- Same as #2 but from the Power plant
which provide our power needs.
• Since 1990, Lafarge NA has emitted 1,0 tCO2/t kk for total emission (0,9 tCO22/t cement), which is : 0,5
tCO2/t kk coming from decarbonation, between 0,3 – 0,4 tCO2/t kk from fuel and between 0,0 – 0,2 tCO2/t
kk from power (indirect calculation, CO2 is generated at the Power plant).
5. Others
5.1 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions
Measurements: 450 ppm NO [O2 ]1 : 0.08 [NO]2 : ?

8% O2
Standard condition: 6% O2
 0.21 − [O2 ]2 
Question: What is the corresponding NO with the [NO]2 =  x[NO ]l
 0.21 − [O 2 ]1 

6% O2 dilution (instead of 8%)?
[NO]1 : 450 ppm [O2 ]x2 : 0.06 [NO]2 = 519 ppm

For other elements and/or compounds
5.2 Conversion from ppm to mg/m3 of 1 ppm = M/0.02445 mg/m3 @25 ºC
Pollutant where M is the molecular weight
Conversion table at 760 mm Hg

5.3 Emission Ranges from European Cement
Temp
Kilns
(ºC)
1 ppm of SO2 = 2.62 mg/m3 @ 25
mg/Nm3 Kg/tonne clinker
SO2 2.86 0
CO 1.15 25 NOx as NO2 <200-3000 <0.4-6
CO2 1.8 25 SO2 <10-3500 <0.02-7
NO 1.23 25 Dust 5-200 0.01-0.4
NO2 1.88 25 CO 500-2000 1-4
NO2 2.05 0 CO2 400-520 g/Nm3 800-1040
SO2 3.27 25 TOC 5-500 0.01-1
HCl 1.5 25 (based on Cembureau, 1997)
5.4 Analysers
• Two types of analysers : CEMS (continuous emission monitoring system) for Environment and Process
analysers.
7.10
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Backend analyzers ( kiln feed-end ) Installed Analyzers as of 08/16 2000

Plant / Kiln CO Combustibles O2 NO SO2
Alpena - K19 Uras 14 - Magnos 17 Uras 14 -
Alpena - K20 Uras 3G - Magnos 7G Radas 1G -
Alpena - K21 Uras 3G - Magnos 7G Radas 1G -
Alpena - K22 - - Magnos 6G - -
Alpena - K23 - - Magnos 7G - -
Bath Uras 3G - Magnos 7G Radas 1G -
Brookfield Servomex 700B - Servomex 700B - -
Davenport Uras 14 - Magnos 17 Uras 14 -
Exshaw K4 Uras 4 Uras 10P (methane) Magnos 7G Radas 2 Radas 2
Thermox
Exshaw K5 Uras 4 Uras 10P (methane) Magnos 7G Radas 2 Radas 2
Fredonia K1/K2 Uras 14 Uras 14 (methane) Magnos 16 - -
Joppa K1/K2 - TAI-9710-20-2x TAI-9710-20-2x - -
Kamloops Uras 3G - Magnos 7G Radas 1G Uras 14
Uras 10P
Paulding K1/K2 ZRF - Magnos 7 ZRF -
Richmond K3 Uras 14 - Magnos 17 Uras 14 Uras 14
Seattle Ultramat 22P (also - Leeds & Northrup - -
CO2) 803-G2-R005-D
St. Constant K1 Rosemount - Rosemount 3001NH - -
88003702010
St. Constant K2 Sick GM950 - Rosemount 3001NH - -
Sugar Creek II Ultramat 6 - Oxymat 6 Ultramat 6 Ultramat 6
Whitehall Ultramat 21P - Thermox WDG III Thermo Western Research
K2 / K3 Environmental 10 AR 721 AT
Woodstock K1 Uras 14 Thermox WDG IV Magnos 17 Uras 14 Uras 14
Thermox WDG IV
Woodstock K2 Uras 4 Thermox WDG IV Magnos 7G Radas 2 Radas 2
Thermox WDG IV
Hagan 240R2
Notes: 1. Uras, Magnos, and Radas are Hartmann & Braun models; 2. Ultramat, Oxymat are Siemens models; 3. TAI-9700 series is a Teledyne model;
4. Hagen is a Rosemount model; 5. ZRF is a California Analytical model
7.10
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
CEMS analyzers (Stack emission analyzers) Installed as of 08/16 2000

Plant CO O2 NOX SO2 THC HCl flow monitor opacity DAS version Front end
Alpena - RG14 Uras 10E Radas 1G N/A JUM VE-7 USI 100 N/A Cirrus v. 3.04.09 A-B PLC-5
Alpena - RG15 Uras 10E Radas 1G N/A JUM VE-7 USI 100 N/A Cirrus v. 3.04.09 A-B PLC-5
(3)
Alpena - K19 MIR 9000 Ametek CEM/IQ MIR 9000 MIR 9000 MIR 9000 N/A USI 500C Cirrus v. 3.04.09 A-B PLC-5
(3)
(3)
(6)
Alpena - K22 MIR 9000 Ametek CEM/IQ MIR 9000 MIR 9000 MIR 9000 L&N Cirrus v. 3.04.09 A-B PLC-5
(6)
Alpena - K23 MIR 9000 Ametek CEM/IQ MIR 9000 MIR 9000 MIR 9000 L&N Cirrus v. 3.04.09 A-B PLC-5
(5)
Alpena K22/K23 USI 500C Cirrus v. 3.04.09 A-B PLC-5
Bath USI 500C
Brookfield USI 500C
Davenport Uras 4 Magnos 6 Radas 2 Radas 2 N/A USI Ultraflow USI 500C Fluor Daniel A-B PLC 5
100
Exshaw K4 / K5 N/A N/A Radas 2 Radas 2 N/A USI Ultraflow USI 550C, Cirrus v. 3.5 Quantum
100 L-S 541, 140CPU
Dynatron 1100
Fredonia K1/K2 Uras 3G Magnos 6G Uras 10P Compur USI Ultraflow USI 500C Cirrus v. 3.03 RS3
MultiFID 100 100
Joppa K1/K2 N/A N/A N/A Uras 4 N/A USI Ultraflow USI 500C Cirrus v. 3.03 A-B PLC 5
100
Kamloops USI 500C
Paulding K1/K2 Uras 14 Magnos 16 N/A N/A N/A USI Ultraflow USI 500C Cirrus v. 3.04 TI 555
100
Richmond Uras 3G Magnos 6G Radas 1G Uras 3G N/A USI 500C
Seattle N/A Magnos 6G Radas 1G Uras 3G N/A N/A USI 500C Anarad
(11)
St. Constant K1 Rsmnt 3001NH Lear Siegler Lear Siegler USI 500C
SM8100 SM8100
(11)
St. Constant K2 Uras 3G Rsmnt 3001NH Uras 3G Uras 3G
& Magnos 7G
(7)
Sugar Creek II Ultramat 6(8) Oxymat 6(8) Ultramat 6(8) Ultramat 6(8) USI Ultraflow USI 550 Cirrus v. 3.5 Quantum
100 140CPU-53414
Whitehall K2 / K3 N/A N/A Thermo- Western N/A USI Ultraflow USI 500C Fix app GE Series 90-70
electron Research 100
10AR 721AT
Woodstock Rsmnt 2000A
Notes: 1. Uras, Magnos, and Radas are Hartmann & Braun models; 2. N/A; 3. ID Fan; 4. N/A; 5. K22 / K23 Common stack; 6. Breech; 7. Scheduled for installation 1Q2001; 8. Ultramat and Oxymat are
Siemens models; 9. MIR 9000 is a Environnement S.A. Gas Filter Correlation analyzer; 10. Ametek CEM/IQ is a zirconium oxide O2 analyzer; 11. Gas analyzers downstream from ESP
7.11
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
8. FLUID FLOW
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. General Formulas - Definition.............................................................. 8.1

1.1 Basics........................................................................................... 8.1
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses.................................................................. 8.1
2. Pitot Measurement ............................................................................... 8.3
3. Fans ...................................................................................................... 8.5
3.1 Power ........................................................................................... 8.5
3.2 Fan Laws...................................................................................... 8.6
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. General Formulas - Definition

1.1 Basics
Avogadro Law
• Equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain the same number of molecules.
• Avogadro’s number N: The number of molecules in one gram-mole of a gas, N = 6.023 x 1023.
Ideal Gas Law
• PV = nRT:
- P: Absolute pressure (Pa ) - R: Universal Gas Constant = 8.31434
- V: Volume J/gmole.ºK
- n: Number of moles in V (m3 ) - T: Absolute Temperature (K )
• In metric units:
1 gmole of any ideal gas at normal conditions (0ºC, 1 atm) occupies a volume of 22.414 litres.
• In US units:
1 lbmole of any ideal gas at normal conditions (32ºF, 1 atm) occupies a volume of 359.05 ft3.
Bernoulli
• For a steady, one-dimensional incompressible flow without losses:
ν2
P + ρgz + ρ = Cst
2
where:
- P: static pressure in N/m2 (=Pa) - z : the elevation in m
- ρ : density in kg/m3 - v: the fluid velocity in m/s
- g : 9.81m/s2
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses

a. Generality
Formula
• Circular pipe, constant area. The pressure drop is:
λ v2
∆P = ρ ∆Χ
D 2
with:
- ∆P The pressure drop (Pa) - ρ Fluid density (kg/m3)
- λ Coefficient of pressure drop - v Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- D The diameter of the pipe (m) - ∆x Distance (m)
Coefficient of Pressure Drop

64
• Laminar flow (Re < 2000), λ = , Re = Reynolds Number
Re
1
• Turbulent flow (Re > 4000), for a smooth pipe, λ =
(1.8 log Re− 1.64 )2
8.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Reynolds Number
v ∗ D ρ * v* D
• Re = = unit: dimension less
ν µ
with:
- ν the kinematic viscosity (m2/s), v: Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- D the diameter of the pipe (for a rectangular pipe 2 * a * b )
a+b
- µ the absolute viscosity (Pa.s)
Roughness
• Roughness (E): the mean distance between high and low points of the surface, measured in meter (m).
• Galvanized iron duct: E# 0.005’.
Kinematic Viscosity of Air
ν ft2/s mm2/s *105
°C @ 1 atm @ 100 PSI @ 1 atm @ 100 PSI
-10 0.00013 0.000016 1.208 0.149
0 0.00014 0.000018 1.300 0.167
10 0.00015 0.000020 1.339 0.185
20 0.00016 0.000022 1.449 0.204
50 0.00018 0.000025 1.672 0.232
100 0.00025 0.000033 2.322 0.307
200 0.00037 0.000050 3.437 0.464
500 0.00080 0.000100 7.43 0.929
Average velocity in industrial design
Cold air (higher for larger size) 30 to 50 feet/s
Hot air 60 to 75 fps
NG 30 (3/4inch pipe) to 100fps (4 inch pipe)
Water 1/e ft of head per 100 ft pipe
Water general services 4 to 10 fps
Viscous oil 1 to 2 on pump suction and 3 to 5fps on discharge
Slurries 5 to 7 fps for 20 to 200 micron particles
b. Piping Pressure Losses
Piping pressure losses for oils in laminar flow
• ∆p = 0.00000454 * L * cS * spgr * gph / D4
where (see section combustion and fuel for data):
- L is the length of the pipe in feet, D the internal diameter in feet, cS the kinematic viscosity in centistokes,
spgr is the specific gravity of oil relative to water at 60F and gph is oil rate in gallon per hour.
Piping pressure losses for water at 60F per 100 feet of pipe
Water gpm 2 6 6 10 20 30 30 60 60 100 100 500
Pipe D in inch ½ ½ ¾ ¾ 1 1 2 2 4 2 4 4
∆P in PSI 2.3 18.5 4.3 10.5 11.1 23.9 0.8 2.96 0.11 7.51 .28 5.73
Water gpm 1000 500 1000 2000 1000 2000 3000
Pipe D in inch 4 6 6 6 8 8 8
∆P in PSI 21.9 .74 2.63 10.1 0.64 2.41 5.32
8.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Piping pressure losses for low pressure air (stp) per 100ft or 30m
Air m3/h 3 10 20 50 50 100 200 200 500 500 800
Pipe D in inch ½ ½ 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
∆P in mmH2O 88 808 200 723 92 144 523 71 404 103 245
- Losses may be 3 to 8% higher for clean galvanized pipe, up to 30% higher for heavy riveted or refractory-lined pipe.
Restriction, elbow...
Length of straight pipe (of same size) that would produce the same pressure drop as the fitting, elbow… expressed
in L/D
Nominal pipe size (D) 1/2” 1” 2” 5”
90 elbow r/D=8 1.24 2.10 4.13 10.1
Nominal pipe size 1” 6” 14” 30”
90 elbow r/D=1 2.1 10.1 22.5 49
Mitered 45 ell 1.4 7.58 16.9 36.7
Pipe exit 3.8 33.7 86.5 213
Pipe entrance 3.04 27 69.2 170
Enlargement 0.5 2.13 18.9 48.5 119
Contraction 0.5 1.33 11.8 30.3 74.5
r= pipe radius, D=inside pipe diameter(see NA combustion hand book, p179)
Equivalent Orifice
v2 q v2
• ∆P = ξ * ρ * = ξ *ρ * = k qV2 1
2 2* S
Examples
• Airflow through a liquid pool: ∆p = cte ,
• Airflow through filter bag: ∆p = hv , v is the velocity
• Airflow through a fan system: ∆pP = hv 2 , airflow through a grain bin: ∆p = hv 1.5
2. Pitot Measurement
a. Formula
2.∆p where:
V =k - V = Gas velocity in m/s
ρ - k = Pitot tube correction factor (eg. “S” tube = 0.85)
- ∆p = Average velocity (dynamic) pressure in Pa
- ρ = density in kg/m3
b. Density Correction
Temperature and Pressure
273.15 101325 + Ps - Ps = Static pressure (Pa WG)
• ρ = ρo .
( )
273.15 + T C )o
.
101325 - ρ o (air ) = 1.293 kg.Nm −3
Water and Chemistry: example

• Gas: CO 2 = 20% , H 2 O = 10% , O2 = 15% , N 2 = 100 − (20 + 10 + 15 ) = 55%
x 0.55  = 1.375kg .m −3
 44   18   32   28 
• ρ = x 0.2  +  x 0.55  +  x 0.15  + 
 22.4   22.4   22.4   22.4 
! : Usually, gas composition is on dry gas.

1
k is a constant if r is constant and the circuit geometry constant
8.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Dust
• The formula does work only for clean gas. Thus, for dusty gas, density in [kg/m3] of gas has to take into
account the amount of dust:
ρ = ρgas + dust concentration (in kg/m3)
• In the previous example dust concentration =0.3kg/m3, then ρ =1.375+0.3=1675 kg/m3 (assuming dust does
not take room in the airstream).
• In case of dusty gas, Straucheib tube is used instead of L-Tube (see coefficient correction below).
Effect of Elevation
−5
pressure elevation ( −1.6196 +10 x)
• = 10 where: x = elevation in feet
pressure sea level
c. Measurement Locations (See AMCA 203-90)
• The idea is to have the same surface area for each measurement. Methods include Centroid and Log-linear.
(Centroid method) Total traverse points per diameter
# point 4 6 8 10 12 14 20 22
#1 .062 .044 .033 .025 .021 .018 .013 .011
#2 .250 .147 .105 .082 .067 .057 .039 .035
#3 .750 .295 .194 .146 .118 .099 .067 .060
#4 .938 .705 .323 .226 .177 .146 .097 .087
#5 .853 .677 .342 .250 .201 .129 .116
#6 .956 .806 .658 .355 .269 .165 .146
#7 .895 .774 .645 .366 .204 .180
#8 .967 .854 .750 .634 .250 .218
#9 .918 .823 .731 .306 .261
#10 .975 .882 .799 .388 .315
#11 .933 .854 .612 .393
#12 .979 .901 .694 .607
#13 .943 .750 .685
#14 .982 .796 .739
#15 .835 .782
#16 .871 .820
#17 .903 .854
#18 .933 .884
#19 .961 .913
#20 .987 .940
#21 .965
#22 .989
Averaging the dynamic pressure:
2
∑(
 
 pv ) 
 
 N 
• ∆p = where p v = traverse readings
N
Correction coefficient
• If any, the corrective coefficient for the pitot tube (for instance k=0.84) is applied directly on the velocity as
calculated.
8.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d. Standard Pressure Conditions

• Standard day sea level pressure :
- 760mm Hg 29.92 in. Hg 10332 mm WG
- 101.325 kPa 14.696 psi (lb/in ) 2 406.8 in. WG
• Normal Conditions : Standard sea level pressure 0oC.
3. Fans
3.1 Power
a. Useful Power
Total
Pressure • Wu = ∆Pt * qv
- Wu: Useful power (Watt)
- ∆Pt : Total (Fan) pressures (Pascal)
∆Pt
- q v : Volume flow (m3/s)
Wu
qv Flow (m3/s)
Total
b. Power Efficiencies Pressure
• Fan power ∆Pt
- The actual power transmitted to the fluid and Turbine
power
the turbine power are different because of skin
friction, fluid turbulences... Wt
- Usually, the supplier gives that power vs. flow:

qv Flow (m3/s)
• The ratio Total
Wu ∆Pt * qv η
Pressure
= = h
Wt Wt ∆ Pt
Fan
efficiency
is the hydraulic efficiency of the fan at a given
point.
η
h
qv 3
Flow (m /s)
Power at fan shaft Electrical power at motor

• 1.02 * W t ≤ W fs ≤ 1.05 * W t • 1.05 * W ms ≤ W em ≤ 1.3 * W ms
Power at motor shaft Substation power
• 1.05 * W fs ≤ W ms ≤ 1.15 * W fs for belt drive • 1.01* W em ≤ W sp ≤ 1.03 * W em
c. Fan part impact

(see Cantagalo plant)
8.5
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
• Straight radial fan: 60-75% efficiency (fan shaft) • Airfoil: up to 85% (clean gas).
max. • Cone condition: up to 3-4%, Inlet duct flow
• Curved radial: up to 82 % (for dusty gas). guide: up to 2%.
3.2 Fan Laws

a. Influence of Density on Curve
(Fans are constant volume machines)
• Related to:
- Chemical composition, water, combustion gases
- Temperature
- Absolute static pressure: P = Pa + Ps, where:
Pa: atmospheric pressure
Ps: relative static pressure
Density Variation in the Circuit and in the Fan
(ρ 1 → ρ 2 )
ρ
• ∆Pt = f 1 (q ) → ∆Pt = f 2 (q ) with f 2 ( q ) = 2 f 1 ( q )
ρ1
ρ
• Equivalent orifice curve: k 2 = k 1 2
ρ1
• Operating point (∆H 2 , ∆P2 ) is such as: ∆H 2 = ∆P2
ρ2 2 ρ 2 k 1 q12 = f 1 (q1 ) (operating point ∆P1 , q1 at
f 1 (q )
-
- ∆H 2 = k 1 q =
ρ1 2 ρ 1 ρ1 )
- k 1 q 22 = f 1 (q 2 ) - q 2 = q1 ⇒ No change in the flow expressed in
m3 / s
Total Fan power

∆H = k * q v 2
Pressure
Fan
A ∆Pt efficiency
∆Pt = f(qv)
A
A' A'
η
A = η A'
qv Flow (m3/s)
Flow (m3/s)
8.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Equivalent orifice
b. Influence of the Fan Speed parabola cst
• Fan speed goes from N rpm to N1 rpm , air density ( ρ ) ∆Pt
and circuit remain unchanged.

• What would be the variation of [A] if the fan rpm goes ∆PtA'
A'
from N to N1. ∆PtA

N' rpm
• Only the fan curve is modified.

A h ( qv) g (qv)
∆Pt = h( qv ) → ∆Pt = g( qv )
N rpm
m3/s
qvA qvA'
qv
Operating point A → A1
qv A1 N1
• Volume is directly proportional to fan speed: = .
qv A N
2
∆Pt A1  N 1 
• Pressure is proportional to the square of the fan speed: =  .
∆Pt A  N 
• Circuit equation: ∆H A = k qv2 → ∆H 1 = k qv2 .

A
1 3
N 
• Fan power: WA → WA1 = WA   .
N 
• Efficiency Power
No change for [A1] but the curve does change:
2 Efficiency
N'  N'
qv A .∆Pt A   WA'
q .∆P q 1 .∆Pt A1 N N
η A = v A t A → η A1 = v A = 3
= ηA ηA' = ηA WA
WrA WrA  N '
WrA  
N
• Mass flow: qm A = ρqvA → q 1 = ρq 1
mA vA
 N1 
therefore: q =  q qvA qvA'
mA1  N  mA
m3/s
 
c. Fan Law Summary

↓ Is Proportional to → RPM Eq orifice Density ρ Width
at power :
qυ 1 3 0 1
∆Pt 2 2 1 0
W 3 5 1 1
8.7
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
d. Comparative Fan Efficiency

100
90
80
70
Inlet d am pe r
O utle t
60
% Power
d am pe r
Inle t va nes
50
40
30
V ariab le
20
sp ee d
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% F lo w
e. Others
Inleakage through round orifice
• For low pressure air and at 60F
Pressure drop (mmH2O) 2 2 2 2 2 10 10 10 10 10 50 50 50 50
Orifice dia. inch 1/4 1/2 1 2 5 1/4 1/2 1 2 5 1/4 1/2 1 2
cfm 2 7.5 31 115 750 4.5 17 70 260 1600 10 38 180 600
Sound pressure level
• Induced draft fan
- At 3 ft below the air cooler bundles
- dBa = 63 + 30logV + 10logHp+ 20logD
• Forced draft replace 63 with 66
8.8
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
9. PROCESS CONTROL
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
1. Process Characteristics ........................................................................ 9.1

1.1 Definitions.................................................................................... 9.1
1.2 Order............................................................................................ 9.1
1.3 Lag Time...................................................................................... 9.1
1.4 Static Gain ................................................................................... 9.2
2. Basic Control Loops............................................................................. 9.2

2.1 Open Loop.................................................................................... 9.2
2.2 Feed Forward Control................................................................... 9.2
2.3 Feed Back Control ........................................................................ 9.2
3. Feed Back Controller, PID................................................................... 9.3

3.1 General......................................................................................... 9.3
3.2 Description of PID Function ......................................................... 9.3
3.3 Tuning.......................................................................................... 9.6
Index - i
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1. Process Characteristics
x1(t) y1(t)
1.1 Definitions x2(t) System y2(t)
• A process, a system can be considered as a x3(t) y3(t)
black box, which transforms manipulative Transfer function yp(t)
xn(t)
variables (input variables which can be
modified by the operator) into output
variables.
• The dynamics of a process is the time
p1(t) p2(t) pm(t)
dependent behavior of the process.
• Processes and their dynamics can be
characterized by different properties.
• Stable: variables converge to some steady state when disturbed.
• Unstable: disturbances cause the variables to go to infinity.
1.2 Order
• If the system is described by an ordinary differential equation (one input, one output) with derivatives of order
N, the system is called Nth order:
d n y( t ) d n −1 y( t ) dy( t )
x( t ) = a n + a n −1 + ... + a1 + a0 y( t )
n n −1 dt
dt dt
dy( t )
- First order system: x( t ) = T + y( t )
dt
d 2 y( t ) dy( t )
- Second order: x( t ) = T 2 + 2ξT + y( t )
dt 2 dt
• With such a mathematical description of the system, it is possible to assess the dynamic response of the
system.
1.3 Lag Time

• The lag time is the period of time that elapses 1.6
between the moment a change is introduced 1.4

PU of
into an input of the system and the output response 1.2
begins to change. 1.0
• The following is the response of a first order 0.8
system with a lag time to a step change in 0.6

input. 0.4
0.2
0.0
lag T
-0.2
-1 0 10 20 30 40
time
9.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
1.4 Static Gain

• The gain is the ratio between the change in unit's output and input.
∆ output
Gain =
∆ input
2. Basic Control Loops

• A regulator is expected to make the system operate at the set point requested by the production in the face of
load disturbances.There are also different ways of control:
2.1 Open Loop

• Based on experience, the inputs are set to achieve the good target on output.
• This kind of control does not react towards the perturbations that can happen in the inputs or in the process.
Example
In a mill open circuit, the quantity of feed to give the good cement fineness.
2.2 Feed Forward Control

• A measurement of the inputs is made
and, with abacus, rules of thumb,
modeling, ... changes are made on the Disturbances
Feed forward
actuators to obtain the good target of the
controller
output. Manipulative Controlled
• It does not take into account the unmeasured variable
Process
variable
perturbations.
Examples
Water injection quantity in the first compartment based on the clinker temperature.
Gypsum addition based on SO3 in Gypsum and clinker.
2.3 Feed Back Control

• A measurement of the variable to be Disturbances
controlled (output) is made and
compared with a set point. If a difference Manipulative Controlled
exists between the measured and the Process
variable variable
setpoint value, corrections are made on
the inputs to get the correct value.
Feedback Output
controller setpoint
Examples
Water injection controlling the mill discharge temperature.
Feed rate controlling the circulating load.
9.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
3. Feed Back Controller, PID

3.1 General
• The job of the controller (usually PID controller) is to compare the process output (from a transmitter) with
the set point and to send the appropriate input to the system to meet the output target.
Perturbations
Definitions:
• Overshoot: The amount of swing past the set point
• Rise time (speed of response): The time it takes the
Input Output process to come up from 10 to 90% the new set
Process
(to control)
(To be point.
controlled) • Decay ratio: the ratio of maximum amplitudes of
successive oscillations.
• Setting time: the time it takes the amplitude of the
Regulator
oscillation to decay to some fraction (0.05) of the
change in set point.
• Different responses of output to a change 2

(step) in setpoint are represented in the
PU of step response
following graph (at right).

1
Overshoot 00 0 0
00 0
.9
.1 Rise time
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time
3.2 Description of PID Function

a. Proportional function
• This function is a simple multiplication.
• The output (Y) is "proportional" to the input (X)
X Y
K • The normal proportional action is: Y = Kp * X
p
Kp is called the gain of the controller.
• This adjustment can also be called "proportional
y = Kp * x band" (PB) which is defined by the following
100
relationship: =Kp
PB
9.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
P controller
• X the value to be controlled, S the set point, Y the new value for the process input, Kp is the gain and is
normally adjustable on the controller.
Measurement to be
controlled
X X-S +
+
- Kp + Y = Y0 + Yi
S ( X - S) * Kp = Yi Y0
Setpoint
• The X-Y values are NOT proportional: the proportional-only feedback controller changes its output signal in
direct proportion to the error signal.
• The gain of the controller can be positive or negative (switch on the controller or direction plate).
• The proportional-only controller is very rarely used. The output of such a controller changes only if the error
signal changes: they are not able to bring the variable to control back to the set point. They leave what is called
a steady state error: Offset.
b. Integral function
t2
• The integral action moves the controller based on the time integral ∫ x dt of input signal.
t1
x (%) 2 6
S1 = ∫ x dt = 10 %min, S2 = ∫ x dt = 20 %min
10 X 1 4
S1 S2
t (min)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• The basic purpose of the integral action (reset action) is to drive the process back to its set point.
• The longer and the bigger the error, the bigger the action.
PI Controller
Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ∫ ( X − S ) dt
Ti
• The term Ti increases or decreases the influence of the integral. It is expressed in min and is called the integral
or reset time.
• Most controllers are calibrated in minutes/repeat, a term which comes from the time to ramp up the controller
output (gain taken into account) for a step change (1 unit) in set point.
• The PI controller is more commonly used in plants.
• The integral action eliminates the Offset and brings the system to its set point.
• The smaller the reset time ( Ti ), the faster the correction of error (if too small, the loop can give overshoot or
become unstable).
9.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
c. Derivative function
• The derivative is the slope of the tangent of the curve (x vs. t). It occurs whenever the measurement signal
changes.A derivative-only controller would have the following definition:
dX
Y = Y0 + Td , Td is the rate action (min)
dt
• The purpose of the derivative action (rate X
action) is to try to anticipate the control S
action by looking at the time rate of the error
change (the derivative). Y
Y0
Time
PID controller
Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ( X − S ) dt ± K p Td dX
∫
Ti dt
• In theory, the derivative action should always X
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
improve the system response. But, it is
necessary to give a particular attention to this S
term because there is not perfect derivative
action, and if the signal is very noisy, the 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Derivative
action Yo
derivative action amplifies the noise,

producing fluctuation in the control.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Proportional
action
Resulting Y
Integral
action action
Time
d. Sampled-data system
• In a sampled system, the signals are non-
continuous or discrete. The process variable is
sampled every scanning cycle and the value is
kept constant between two cycles. Sampled
• A typical example of this kind of system is the signal
Field
Direct Digital Control: all the control signal
calculations are done in a digital computer,
which directly commands the actuators in the
field. Sampler
• The control function of a DDC loop consists of
calculating the new value of the actuator Time
through an equation (algorithm) which
describes the three functions of the analogic
(continuous PID controller).
e. Continuous controller
9.5
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Kp d(X − W )
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − W ) ± ∫ X dt ± K p Td
Ti dt
f. Incremental DDC controller
( X t +1 − W )* ∆t ± K p * Td ∆( ∆x )
Kp
Yt +1 = Yt ± K p [( X t +1 − Wt +1 ) − ( X t − Wt )] ±
Ti ∆t
3.3 Tuning
On-line trial error
• Proportional action:
- Set integral and derivative action at O action (maximum Ti , minimum Td ).
- Set K p at a low value (.5).
- Put the controller in auto.
- With a small change in set point, the controller reaction will be very sluggish.
- Double the proportional coefficient until the loop becomes oscillatory.
- After reaching this ultimate gain, set the K p half of the ultimate K p .
• Integral action:
- With the controller in auto and the proportional band fixed, start to reduce Ti by factor 2, with small
changes in set point after each step.
- Find the value of Ti that makes the system oscillatory, underdamped and set Ti double of that.
• Derivative action:
- Increase the derivative term until the system noise starts to appear on the controller output.
- Set the Td at half of this maximum value.
Ziegler-Nichols Method
• The basis of this method is to find the ultimate value of K p ( K u ) and to assess the corresponding period of
oscillation of the signal ( Tu ).
• The Ziegler-Nichols controller settings are given in the following table:
P PI PID
Kp Ku Ku Ku
2 2.2 1. 7
Ti Tu Tu
1. 2 2
Td Tu
8
• The Ziegler-Nichols coefficient should be considered as a reasonable first estimate of the controller coefficient,
which could have to be adjusted.
• Due to the similarity between the DDC algorithm and the continuous function, tuning procedures for DDC
loops are the same as for the continuous loops.
9.6
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
9.7
Rev. 2002
VADE MECUM
10.THERMODYNAMICS AND CHEMISTRY DATA
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
Table of Contents
1. Thermodynamic Properties ...............................................................10.1

1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy ........................................................10.1
1.2 Cp and Cpm and Approximation .................................................10.1
2. Data.....................................................................................................10.2
Index - i
Rev. 2002
1. Thermodynamic Properties
1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy
Heat capacity
• It is function of the system conditions:
 ∂H   ∂U 
At constant pressure: C p =   At constant volume: Cv =  
 ∂T  p  ∂T  v
Enthalpy
• No absolute value, only changes in enthalpy can be calculated. Integrating over the temperature change:
T2
∆H = H ( T2 ) − H ( T1 ) = ∫ C p (T) dT
T1
Mean heat capacity Cp m
• It is the enthalpy change divided by the temperature difference:
T2
∫ Cp (T) dT
H 2 − H 1 T1
Cp m = = ,
T2 − T1 T2 − T1
• In the more familiar form used in heat and mass balances: Q = mCp m ∆T
1.2 Cp and Cpm and Approximation
• In the 1st table, the a, b, c, d values are given for different gases and materials at various temperature ranges
temperature. At a defined temperature (Kcal/kg.ºK):
Cp( T ) = a + b.T + c.T 2 + d .T −2 , Cp “point value”
• As previously given, the average or Cp mean between T and a reference T0:
 T 2 − T02 T 3 − T03 1 
a * (T − T0 ) + b * + c* − d *  −
1


 2 3  T T0 

Cp m ( T ) =
(T − T0 )
- T0 = 273.15K (0 ºC)
• Similarly with 2nd table Cp m must be used within their temperature range limits. The table values use
T0 = 273.15K (0 ºC), as the reference value or bottom value of the range.
Btu cal kcal
• = =
lb.° F g.(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K ) kg .(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K )
10.1
Rev. 2002
Reaction Heat
C + ½ O2 → CO + 26.8 Kcal/mole
C + O2 → CO2 + 94.4 Kcal/mole
CO + 1/2/O2 → CO2 + 67.6 Kcal/mole
S + O2 → SO2 + 8.9 Kcal/mole
SO2 + ½ O2 → SO3 + 106 Kcal/mole
S + 3/2 O2 → SO3 + 91.8 Kcal/mole
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O + 57.7 Kcal/mole (LHV)
67.6 Kcal/mole (HHV)
CaO + CO2 → CaCO3 + 42.5 Kcal/mole
2. Data
Chemical Properties
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC MASS FUSION EVAP. TEMP.
# (g) (g/cm3) TEMP.(C°) (°C)
Actinium Ac 89 (227) 10.0 1600 3200
Aluminum Al 13 26.9815 2.694 660.46 2467
Americium Am 95 (243) 11.7 1200 2607
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 6.7 630.75 1750
Argon Ar 18 39.948 17832e-3 -189.2 -185.7
Arsenic As 33 74.9225 5.73 815 (36 at) 613(sub)
Astatine At 85 (210)
Barium Ba 56 137.34 3.59 725 1640
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.0122 1.84 1278+5 2970
Bismuth Bl 83 208.98 9.80 271.3 1560
Boron B 5 10.811 2.45 2300 2550 (sub)
Bromine Br 35 79.909 (Br2)3.119e-3 (Br2)-7.2 58.78
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 8.64 320.9 765
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1.55 839+2 1484
Californium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.01115 (grap) 2.25 3652-3697 4827
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 6.78 798 3257
Cesium Cs 55 132.905 1.87 28.4 678.4
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 3.214 e-3 -100.98 -34.6
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 7.507 1857+20 2672
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 8.7 1495 2870
Copper Cu 29 63.54 8.94 1083.4 2567
Curium Cm 96 (248)
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 8.56 1409 2335
Einsteinium Es 99 (254)
Erbium Er 68 167.26
Europium Eu 63 151.96 5.24 820 1700
Fermium Fm 100 (253)
Fluorine F 9 18.9984 (F2)1.696e-3 -219.62 -188.14
Francium Fr 87 (223)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 7.95 1313 3233
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 5.9 29.78 2403
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 5.46 937.4 2830
Gold Au 79 196.967 19.3 1064.43 2807
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 13.08 2227 4602
Helium He 2 4.0026 1.785 e-4 -272.2 (26atm) -268.93
Holmium Ho 67 164.93
Hydrogen H 1 1.00797 (H2) 8.99 e-5 -259.14 252.87
Indium In 49 114.82 7.28 156.61 2080
Iodine I 53 126.9044 (I2)4.94 113.5 184.35
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 22.64 2410 4130
10.2
Rev. 2002
Chemical Properties
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC MASS FUSION EVAP. TEMP.
# (g) (g/cm3) TEMP.(C°) (°C)
Iron Fe 26 55.847 7.9 1535 2750
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 3.708 e-3 -156.6 -152.31
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 6.16 920 3430
Lead Pb 82 207.19 11.343 327.5 1740
Lithium Li 3 6.939 .53 180.5 1347
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97
Magnesium Mg 12 24.312 1.74 648.8 1090
Manganese Mn 25 54.938 7.2 1244 1962
Mendelevium Md 101 (256)
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 13.594 -38.87 356.8
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.2 2617 4612
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 7.07 1010 3127
Neon Ne 10 20.183 .9002 e-3 -248.6 -246.08
Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Nickel Ni 28 58.71 8.9 1453 2732
Niobium Nb 41 92.906 8.57 2468 4742
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 (N2)1.2505e-3 -219.86 -193.8
Nobelium No 102 (254)
Osmium Os 76 190.2 22.48 3045 5027
Oxygen O 8 15.9994 (O2)1.429e-3 -218.4 -182.962
Palladium Pd 46 106.4 12.02 1552 3140
Phosphorus P 15 30.9738 2.34 590 (42 atm)
Platinum Pt 78 195.09 21.45 1772 3827
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 19.74 639.5 3454
Polonium Po 84 (210)
Potassium K 19 39.102 .86 63.65 774
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.907 6.78 931 3212
Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Radium Ra 88 (226) 5 700 1140
Radon Rn 86 (222) 9.73 e-3 -71 -62
Rhenium Re 75 186.2 20.5 3180 5630
Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 12.4 1966 3727
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4 1.532 39 6887
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 12.3 2310 3900
Samarium Sm 62 150.35 7.52 1077 1791
Scandium Sc 21 44.956 2.989 1539 2832
Selenium Se 34 78.96 4.81 217 685
Silicon Si 14 28.086 2.32-2.34 1410 2355
Silver Ag 47 107.87 10.49 961.93 2112
Sodium Na 11 22.9898 .97 97.8 882.9
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 2.6 769 1384
Sulphur S 16 32.064 2.07 112.8 444.67
Tantalum Ta 73 180.948 16.6 2996 5425
Technetium Tc 43 (99)
Tellurium Te 52 127.6 6.25 449.5 990
Terbium Tb 65 158.924 158.924
Thallium Tl 81 204.37 11.85 303.5 1457
Thorium Th 90 232.038 11.7 1750 4790
Thulium Tm 69 168.934
Tin Sn 50 118.69 7.18 231.96 2270
Titanium Ti 22 47.9 4.5 1660 3287
Tungsten W 74 183.85 19.35 3410 5660
Uranium U 92 238.03 19.05 1132.3 3818
Vanadium V 23 50.942 5.96 1890 3380
Xenon Xe 54 131.3 5.887e-3 -111.9 -107.1
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 39 88.905 4.469 1523 3337
Zinc Zn 30 65.37 7.14 419.58 907
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 6.49 1852 4377
10.3
Rev. 2002
Approximation for Typical Components
CHEMICAL MOLECULAR VOLUMIC FUSION EVAPORATION

FORMULA WEIGHT (g) MASS (g/cm3) TEMP. (C°) TEMP. (C°)
Al2O3 101.96 3.9655
BaO 153
BaSO4 136
C3S 228
C2S 172
C3A 270
C4AF 486
C2F 272
CaC03 100.09 2.93 1339 898 (decomp)
CaO 56.08 3.25-3.8 2580 2850
CaSO4 136.14 2.61 >200
CaSO4 (2H2) 172.17 2.32 128 (-1.5H2O) 163 (-2H2O)
CO 28.01 1.25e-3 -199 -191.5
CO2 44 1.977e-3 -56.6 -78.5
CR2O3 151.99 5.21 2435 4000
Fe2O3 160
FeO 71.85 5.7 1420
H2O 18.015 1.00 0.00 100.0
K2O 94
K2SO4 174.27 2.662 1069 1689
KCl 74.56 1.984 776 1500 (sub)
MgCO3 84
MgO 40
Mn2O3 158
Na2O 62
Na2SO4 142.04 2.68 884
NaCl 58.44 2.165 801 1413
P2O5 144
SiO2 60.08 2.26 1703 2230
SO2 64.06 2.927e-3 -72.7 -10
SO3 80.06 1.97 16.83 44.8
TiO2 79.9 3.84 1830-1850 2500-3000
Slag, blast furnace 0.36
10.4
Rev. 2002
Oxyde and Other Definitions
Formula Short Form Mineral Name or Technical Name

Free CaO - Free lime
Ca (HO )2 - Portlandite
3 CaO .SiO2 C2 S Dicalcium silicate, belite, larnite
3 CaO .SiO2 C3 S Tricalcium silicate, alite
3 CaO .Al 2 O3 C3 A Tricalcium aluminate
11 CaO .7 Al2 O3 .CaX C 12 A7 12/7-calcium aluminate, mayenite
2 CAO .( Al2 O3 .Fe2 O3 ) C 2 ( A, F ) Aluminate ferrite
2 CAO.Al 2 O3 .SiO 2 C 2 AS Gehlenite
CaSO4 - Calcium sulphate, anhydrite
CaCO 3 - Calcium carbonate, calcite
2 (2CaO .SiO2 ). CaCO3 - Spurrite
2 (2CaO .SiO2 ). CaSO4 - Sulphate spurrite, sulpho-spurrite
K 2 SO4 - Potassium sulphate, arcanite
(K , Na )2 SO4 - Alkali sulphate
K 2 SO4 2 CaSO4 (0 ) - Calcium langbeinite
(K , Na )2 SO4 .2CaSO4 - Alkali calcium sulphate

KCI - Potassium chloride, sylvine
K 2 O .Al 2 O3 .2 SiO 2 KAS 2 Kalsilite
Na 2 SO4 .3 K 2 SO4 C 4 AF Brown millerite
(0) = Calcium langebeinite will react with the atmosphere to form K 2 Ca (SO4 )2 .H 2 O .
10.5
Rev. 2002
“Point” or Average Cp (mean) in Kcal/kg.°K
Temperature Cp mean Top

Material Limit a b c d
Range Limit
O2 298 to 999°K 1.66341E-1 1.52333E-4 -5.93194E-8 1.14618E+3 0.2408
1000 to 3299°K 2.51162E-1 1.77998E-5 -6.07722E-10 -7.85447E+3 0.2736
3300 to 6000°K 2.83126E-1 1.27044E-5 -9.60847E-10 -1.30952E+5 0.2928
N2 298 to 799°K 2.32210E-1 2.14938E-5 2.76050E-8 6.53840E+2 0.2553
800 to 2199°K 2.42450E-1 5.44079E-5 -1.05755E-8 -7.11335E+3 0.2838
2200 to 6000°K 3.20296E-1 1.05070E-7 2.16255E-10 -5.84722E+4 0.3079
H2 298 to 999°K 3.71752E+0 -6.54182E-4 5.30928E-7 -1.34162E+4 3.4904
1000 to 2099°K 2.11603E+0 1.38511E-3 -2.23797E-7 3.03508E+5 3.7051
2100 to 6000°K 3.79977E+0 2.54376E-4 -8.12917E-9 -8.44345E+5 4.3278
CO2 298 to 799°K 1.49625E-1 2.42420E-4 -9.77776E-8 -1.01938E+3 0.2446
800 to 1799°K 2.60434E-1 6.27757E-5 -1.38167E-8 -1.43928E+4 0.2858
1800 to 3999°K 3.32286E-1 3.92911E-6 -9.13715E-11 -4.80845E+4 0.3158
4000 to 6000°K 3.58571E-1 -5.30873E-6 7.85626E-10 -1.07169E+5 0.3267
CO 298 to 799°K 2.20543E-1 5.60021E-5 8.37651E-9 9.48925E+2 0.2575
800 to 2199°K 2.55445E-1 4.61682E-5 8.98815E-9 9.24077E+3 0.3259
2200 to 6000°K 3.17217E-1 1.74111E-6 3.30179E-11 4.64873E+4 0.3276
SO2 298 to 799°K 9.79544E-2 2.00701E-4 -9.82007E-8 -2.45323E+1 0.1749
800 to 2599°K 2.06945E-1 9.10368E-6 -1.25453E-9 -1.13897E+4 0.2044
2600 to 6000°K 2.17009E-1 2.34333E-6 -6.36079E-13 -1.79038E+4 0.2172
NO 298 to 1199°K 1.81362E-1 1.28289E-4 -4.08850E-8 1.92938E+3 0.2566
1200 to 6000°K 2.92103E-1 3.55985E-6 -1.76784E-10 -2.64192E+4 0.2918
H2O (vap) 298 to 1199°K 3.75618E-1 1.68470E-4 4.13071E-10 1.72986E+3 0.5052
1200 to 2599°K 4.14544E-1 1.91743E-4 -2.78523E-8 -3.59274E+4 0.5997
2600 to 6000°K 7.48058E-1 1.29251E-5 -3.91557E-10 -4.02480E+5 0.7009
SiO2 298 to 846°K 1.74571E-1 1.54435E-4 0.00000E+0 -3.84423E+3 0.2444
847 to 1078°K 2.34315E-1 3.99401E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 1.3490
1079 to 1994°K 2.89399E-1 5.15389E-6 0.00000E+0 -1.64753E+4 0.7851
1995 to 2200°K 3.42819E-3 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.7015
Al2O3 298 to 599°K 1.58181E-1 3.16316E-4 -1.99797E-7 -4.40115E+3 0.2295
600 to 1599°K 2.70931E-1 3.61871E-5 -4.81287E-9 -9.75318E+3 0.2784
1600 to 2327°K 3.56484E-1 -2.66895E-5 7.55563E-9 -5.22846E+4 0.2929
2328 to 4000°K 3.92311E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3375
Fe2O3 298 to 499°K 2.62773E-1 -2.71539E-4 3.64815E-7 -5.24040E+3 0.1754
500 to 799°K 1.93927E-1 1.68039E-5 5.79035E-8 -4.88997E+3 0.0898
800 to 1099°K 9.36550E+0 -1.24510E-2 4.70597E-6 -1.39500E+6 0.1423
1100 to 1599°K 2.27310E-1 -1.91821E-5 8.86418E-9 -7.56606E+3 0.1691
CaO 298 to 1399°K 2.11063E-1 2.41220E-5 -2.70785E-9 -3.42270E+3 0.2201
1400 to 3199°K 2.09137E-1 2.15260E-5 -7.61534E-10 0.00000E+0 0.2412
3200 to 4000°K 2.67475E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.1894
MgO 298 to 899°K 2.56115E-1 8.67130E-5 -3.47648E-8 -5.23329E+3 0.2725
900 to 4000°K 2.92535E-1 1.98752E-5 -3.78829E-11 -8.79060E+3 0.3274
10.6
Rev. 2002
“Point” or average Cp (mean) ) in Kcal/kg.°K (cont’d)

Temperature
Material Limit a b c d
C p mean Top
Range Limit
K2O 298 to 499°K 1.72260E-1 3.18402E-4 -3.33239E-7 -2.24501E+3 0.2276
500 to 799°K 7.41409E-2 3.14076E-4 -1.12686E-7 9.04108E+3 0.2417
800 to 2000°K 1.87709E-1 9.96111E-5 1.09170E-9 -4.40135E+2 0.3025
Na2O 298 to 599°K 1.04965E-1 5.91884E-4 -3.72410E-7 1.61265E+3 0.2988
600 to 1023°K 3.12327E-1 8.43466E-5 -2.18119E-8 -8.84785E+3 0.3287
1024 to 1405°K 3.18377E-1 4.76363E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3447
1406 to 3500°K 4.03356E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3828
CaCO3 298 to 1200°K 2.49575E-1 5.23529E-5 0.00000E+0 -6.19443E+3 0.2692
MgCO3 298 to 599°K 1.90758E-1 2.12990E-4 -1.43661E-10 -3.39798E+3 0.2628
600 to 799°K 1.34623E-1 3.85987E-4 -1.47945E-7 -1.38980E+3 0.2879
800 to 1000°K 1.25484E-1 4.04459E-4 -1.53722E-7 -2.64523E+3 0.3081
K2SO4 298 to 599°K 1.58125E-1 1.54102E-4 -3.18000E-8 -1.89092E+3 0.2074
600 to 856°K -7.13991E-1 1.36132E-3 -3.64171E-7 9.43877E+4 0.2331
857 to 1341°K -3.72465E-1 4.47300E-4 -2.64252E-10 1.88203E+5 0.2556
1342 to 3000°K 2.69999E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2643
Na2SO4 298 to 521°K 1.38524E-1 2.59737E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2417
522 to 979°K 2.44072E-1 9.18685E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2879
980 to 1156°K 2.40087E-1 9.98029E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2997
1157 to 3500°K 3.32160E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3233
CaSO4 298 to 1400°K 1.23255E-1 1.73351E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2683
+ ½ H2 O 298 to 1000°K 1.16776E-1 2.68688E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2878
+ 2 H2 O 298 to 1000°K 1.26844E-1 4.41399E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.4078
KCl 298 to 699°K 1.61827E-1 1.89934E-5 2.40342E-8 -4.62219E+2 0.1747
700 to 1043°K 4.60282E-1 -5.38732E-4 3.19498E-7 -2.63462E+4 0.1862
1044 to 2000°K 2.35949E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2138
NaCl 298 to 1073°K 2.29593E-1 -5.18511E-5 8.87734E-8 -1.37371E+3 0.2350
1074 to 1499°K 5.09687E-1 -3.28475E-4 1.14261E-7 0.00000E+0 0.2499
1500 to 2500°K 2.73785E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2606
CaCl2 298 to 599°K 1.66077E-1 6.89417E-6 2.86392E-9 -1.02094E+3 0.1634
600 to 1044°K 1.95989E-1 -7.99550E-5 7.04763E-8 -1.79242E+3 0.1708
1045 to 3000°K 2.20815E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2067
CaF2 298 to 599°K 3.29378E-1 -2.80694E-4 2.60932E-7 -5.23867E+3 0.2269
600 to 1423°K 1.74378E-1 9.21586E-5 6.35505E-9 3.01806E+3 0.2635
1424 to 1690°K 3.30558E-1 3.20184E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2855
1691 to 3500°K 3.05840E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2969
C3S 298 to 2600°K 2.18324E-1 3.77524E-5 0.00000E+0 -4.44532E+3 0.2663
C2S 298 to 969°K 2.02438E-1 5.65457E-5 0.00000E+0 -3.63425E+3 0.2238
970 to 1709°K 1.86705E-1 6.39768E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2488
1710 to 2403°K 2.84470E-1 8.22990E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3156
C3A 298 to 2500°K 2.21910E-1 2.77202E-5 0.00000E+0 -4.36714E+3 0.2540
C4AF 298 to 2500°K 1.84143E-1 3.58039E-5 0.00000E+0 -1.79020E+2 0.2335
10.7
Rev. 2002
Cp mean – reference 0ºC

kcal/kg°C 20°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C 800°C 900°C 1000°C
O2 0.2190 0.2206 0.2236 0.2271 0.2306 0.2340 0.2372 0.2401 0.2428 0.2451 0.2473
N2 0.2487 0.2485 0.2492 0.2506 0.2525 0.2547 0.2572 0.2597 0.2623 0.2648 0.2671
H2 3.4073 3.4304 3.4453 3.4541 3.4610 3.4681 3.4767 3.4872 3.5000 3.5144 3.5308
CO2 0.1977 0.2077 0.2183 0.2275 0.2356 0.2428 0.2493 0.2550 0.2602 0.2649 0.2891
CO 0.2489 0.2488 0.2500 0.2519 0.2542 0.2568 0.2644 0.2719 0.2780 0.2834 0.2882
SO2 0.1466 0.1522 0.1587 0.1644 0.1695 0.1739 0.1777 0.1810 0.1839 0.1864 0.1886
NO 0.2385 0.2374 0.2383 0.2403 0.2429 0.2456 0.2483 0.2510 0.2536 0.2560 0.2583
H2O 0.4450 0.4471 0.4519 0.4580 0.4648 0.4721 0.4796 0.4873 0.4951 0.5031 0.5111
Air 0.2418 0.2420 0.2433 0.2452 0.2474 0.2499 0.2525 0.2562 0.2578 0.2602 0.2625
SiO2 0.1703 0.1868 0.2025 0.2154 0.2267 0.2372 0.2455 0.2491 0.2524 0.2557 0.2586
Al2O3 0.1768 0.1962 0.2137 0.2286 0.2366 0.2444 0.2509 0.2563 0.2609 0.2650 0.2687
Fe2O3 0.1497 0.1620 0.1729 0.1347 0.1066 0.0923 0.1093 0.1286 0.1401 0.1480 0.1544
CaCO3 0.1870 0.2057 0.2212 0.2322 0.2407 0.2476 0.2536 0.2589 0.2637 0.2681
Raw 0.1835 0.2018 0.2172 0.2277 0.2359 0.2431 0.2496 0.2549 0.2596 0.2639
Slag 0.211 0.211
CaO 0.1749 0.1850 0.1932 0.1989 0.2032 0.2057 0.2096 0.2121 0.2143 0.2162 0.2180
C3S 0.1735 0.1869 0.1980 0.2059 0.2120 0.2170 0.2213 0.2251 0.2286 0.2318 0.2347
C2S 0.1731 0.1851 0.1954 0.2032 0.2094 0.2148 0.2196 0.2240 0.2275 0.2309 0.2344
C3A 0.1752 0.1880 0.1985 0.2057 0.2113 0.2157 0.2195 0.2228 0.2257 0.2283 0.2308
C4AF 0.1920 0.1940 0.1961 0.1982 0.2001 0.2020 0.203 0.2058 0.2076 0.2095 0.2113
Clinker 0.1780 0.1881 0.1985 0.2069 0.2137 0.2190 0.2233 0.2289 0.2302 0.2334 0.2370
kcal/kg°C 1100°C 1200°C 1300°C 1400°C 1500°C 1600°C 1700°K 1800°C 1900°C 2000°C
O2 0.2493 0.2511 0.2528 0.2545 0.2560 0.2574 0.2588 0.2602 0.2614 0.2627
N2 0.2694 0.2715 0.2735 0.2754 0.2772 0.2789 0.2805 0.2820 0.2834 0.2847
H2 3.5490 3.5685 3.5892 3.6107 3.6327 3.6549 3.6772 3.6994 3.7213 3.7430
CO2 0.2729 0.2764 0.2795 0.2825 0.2852 0.2876 0.2899 0.2920 0.2940 0.2958
CO 0.2927 0.2969 0.3011 0.3051 0.3091 0.3130 0.3170 0.3209 0.3249 0.3261
SO2 0.1906 0.1924 0.1939 0.1954 0.1967 0.1979 0.1900 0.2000 0.2010 0.2019
NO 0.2604 0.2623 0.2641 0.2668 0.2673 0.2687 0.2701 0.2713 0.2724 0.2735
H2O 0.5191 0.5269 0.5346 0.5420 0.5492 0.5562 0.5629 0.5694 0.5757 0.5817
Air 0.2647 0.2668 0.2687 0.2706 0.2723 0.2739 0.2755 0.2770 0.2783 0.2796
SiO2 0.2611 0.2634 0.2655 0.2673 0.2690 0.2706 0.2720 0.2605 0.2469 0.2348
Al2O3 0.2720 0.2749 0.2777 0.2802 0.2826 0.2847 0.2867 0.2886 0.2904 0.2921
Fe2O3 0.1597 0.1643 0.1682 0.1717 0.1748 0.1776 0.1801 0.1825 0.1847 0.1868
CaO 0.2197 0.2212 0.2227 0.2241 0.2254 0.2267 0.2279 0.2291 0.2303 0.2314
C3S 0.2375 0.2402 0.2428 0.2453 0.2478 0.2502 0.2525 0.2548 0.2570 0.2592
C2S 0.2377 0.2411 0.2444 0.2477 0.2565 0.2676 0.2779 0.2875 0.2966 0.3051
C3A 0.2331 0.2353 0.2373 0.2393 0.2413 0.2431 0.2449 0.2467 0.2485 0.2502
C4AF 0.2131 0.2150 0.2168 0.2186 0.2204 0.2222 0.2240 0.2258 0.2276 0.2294
Clinker 0.2412 0.2464 0.2529 0.2610 0.2711 0.2836 0.2987 0.3167 0.3382 0.3632
10.8
Rev. 2002
VADE MECUM
11.UNIT CONVERSION
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 11 – UNIT CONVERSION
VADE-MECUM
Time:
The fundamental unit of time t is the second [s ] whose definition is based on an invariant property of cesium
133.
Mass:
International System of Unit ISU : [kg]. 1 kg is the mass of a cylinder of platinum alloy kept at Sèvres, France.
To Obtain
troy hundred sh hundred
Multiply By kg g t lb sht grain ounce
ounce weight weight
kg 1 1000 0.001 2.2046 1.102E-03 15432 32.151 35.274 0.0197 0.022
g 0.0001 1 1E-06 0.0022 1.1E-06 15.4323 0.0322 0.0353 1.97E-05 2.20E-05
t 1000 1E+06 1 2204.6 1.10231 1.5E+07 32151 3.5274 19.684 22.046
lb 0.4536 453.59 0.0005 1 0.0005 7000 14.583 16 0.0089 001
sht 907.19 907185 0.9072 2000 1 1.40E+07 29167 32000 17.857 20
grain 6.48E-05 0.0648 6E-08 0.0001 171E-08 1 0.0021 0.0023 1.28E-06 1.43E-06
troy ounce 0.0311 31.104 3E-05 0.0686 3.4E-05 480.00 1 1.0971 0.0006 0.0007
ounce 0.0283 28.35 3E-05 0.0625 3.1E-05 437.499 0.9115 1 0.0006 0.0006
hundred weight 50.802 50802 0.0508 112 0.056 783994 1633.3 1792 1 1.12
sh hundred weight 45.359 45359 0.0454 100 0.05 699996 1458.3 1600 0.8929 1
Length
(ISU : [m] ; 1 meter = wavelength of orange-red light)
To Obtain
miles miles
Multiply By m m km in ft yd
(stat) (naut)
m 1 100 0.001 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 0.000621 0.00054
cm 0.01 1 0.00001 0.393701 0.032808 0.010936 6.21E-06 5.4E-06
km 1.00E+03 100000 1 39370.08 3280.84 1093.613 0.621371 0.539665
in 0.0254 2.54 2.54E-05 1 0.83333 0.027778 1.58E-05 1.37E-05
ft 0.3048 30.48 0.000305 12 1 0.333333 0.000189 0.000164
yd 0.9144 91.44 0.000914 36 3 1 0.000568 0.000493
miles (stat) 1609.344 160934.4 1.609344 63360 5280 1760 1 0.868507
miles (naut) 1853 185300 1.853 72952.76 6079.396 2026.465 1.151401 1
Area
(ISU : [m 2 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By m2 cm2 km2 hectare in2 ft2 yd2 miles2 acre (US)
m2 1 10000 1E-06 0.0001 1550.003 10.7639 1.19603 3.86E-07 0.00025
cm2 0.0001 1 1E-10 1E-08 0.155 0.00108 0.00012 386E-11 2.47E-08
km2 1.00E+06 1.00E+10 1 100 1.55E+09 1.1E+07 1196029 0.3861 247.105
hectare 1.00E+04 1.00E+08 0.01 1 1.55E+07 107639 11960.3 0.00386 2.47105
in2 0.00065 6.4516 6.5E-10 6.5E-08 1 0.00694 0.00077 2.49E-10 1.59E-07
ft2 0.0929 929.03 9.3E-08 9.3E-06 143.9999 1 0.11111 3.59E-08 2.30E-05
yd2 0.8361 8361 8.4E-07 8.4E-05 1295.958 8.99971 1 3.23E-07 0.00021
miles2 2590000 2.59E+10 2.59 259 4.015E+09 2.79E+07 3097716 1 640.003
acre (US) 4046.85 4.05E+07 0.00405 0.40469 6272637 43560 4840 0/00156 1
11.1
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Volume
(ISU : [m 3 ] )
To Obtain
m3 cm3 inch3 ft3 US UK yd3 fION
Multiply By l US gallon barrel gallon
m3 1 1000000 1000 61024 35.3147 264.171 6.28978 219.974 1.30794 33783.8
cm3 1E-06 1 0.001 0.06102 3.53E-05 0.00026 6.29E-06 0.00022 1.31E-06 0.03378
l 0.001 1000 1 61.024 0.03531 0.26417 0.00629 0.21997 0.00131 33.7838
inch3 1.6E-05 16.387 0.01639 1 0.00058 0.00433 0.0001 0.0036 2.14E-05 0.55361
ft3 0.02832 28316.8 28.3168 1728 1 7.48047 0.17811 6.22895 0.03704 956.649
US gallon 0.00379 3785.43 3.78543 231.002 0.13368 1 0.02381 0.83269 0.00495 127.886
US barrel 0.15899 158988 158.988 9702.08 5.61462 42 1 34.9732 0.20795 5371.22
UK gallon 0.00455 4546 4.546 277.415 0.16054 1.20092 0.02859 1 0.00595 153.581
yd3 0.76456 764560 764.56 46656.5 27.0002 201.974 4.80892 168.183 1 25829.7
fION 2.96E-05 29.6 0.0296 1.80631 0.00105 0.00782 0.00019 0.00651 3.87E-05 1
Speeds
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By m/s m/s km/h ft/min miles/h knots ft/s
m/s 1 60 3.6 196.8504 2.237136 1.942795 3.2808
m/min 0.016667 1 0.06 3.28084 0.037286 0.03238 0.05468
km/h 0.277778 16.66667 1 54.68066 0.621427 0.539665 0.911333
ft/min 0.00508 0.3048 0.018288 1 0.011365 0.009869 0.016666
miles/h 0.447 26.82 1.6092 88 1 0.86843 1.466518
knots 0.514722 30.88333 1.853 101.3233 1.151504 1 1.688701
ft/s 0.304804 18.28822 1.097293 60.00073 0.681887 0.592171 1
Flow Rates
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By m3/s m3/min m3/h l/m ft3/s ft3/m gal US/min
m3/s 1 60 3600 60000 35.31472 2118.883 15850.25
m3/min 0.016667 1 60 1000 0.588579 35.31472 264.1708
3
m /h 0.000278 0.016667 1 16.66667 0.00981 0.588579 4.402846
l/m 1.67E-05 0.001 0.06 1 0.000589 0.035315 0.264171
ft3/s 0.028317 1.699008 101.9405 1699.008 1 60 448.8283
3
ft /m 0.000472 0.028317 1.699008 28.3168 0.016667 1 7.480471
gal US/min 6.31E-05 0.003785 0.227126 3.78543 0.002228 0.133681 1
European standard conditions: dry gas @ 273K, 101 kPa, 10%O2
11.2
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Concentration
(ISU : [kg .m −3 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By kg/m3 g/cm3 g/m3 mg/l grain/UKgal grain/ft3 lb/ft3 lb/UKgal
kg/m3 1 0.001 1000 1000 0.07015673 436.9961 0.062428 0.010022
g/cm3 1000 1 1000000 1000028 70.15673 436996.09 62.42782 10.02241
g/m3 0.001 0.000001 1 1.000028 0.070157 0.4369961 6.24E-05 1E-05
mg/l 0.001 1E-06 0.999972 1 0.070155 0.4369839 6.24E-05 1E-05
grain/UKgal 14.254 0.0143 14.2538 14.2542 1 6.228855 8.9E-4 0.000143
grain/ft3 2.29E-3 2.29E-06 2.2884 2.2884 0.1605 1 1.43E-04 2.29E-05
lb/ft3 16.0185 0.016019 16018.5 16018.95 1123.806 7000.022 1 0.160544
lb/UKgal 99.7764 0.099776 99776.4 99779.19 6999.986 43601.90 6.228823 1
Pressure
(ISU : 1[Pa] = 1[N .m −2 ] )
To Obtain
mmHG
Multiply By kgf/cm2 mbar Pascal mmWG PSI hWG inHG ATA ATU
(torr)
kgf/cm2 1 980.66 98066 10000 735.56 14.223 393.7 28.959 0.96784 74.6269
mbar 0.001 1 100 10.197 0.7501 0.0145 0.4015 0.0295 0.00099 0.0761
Pascal 1.020E-05 0.01 1 0.102 0.0075 0.0001 0.004 0.0003 9.87E-06 0.00076
mmWG 1.00E-04 0.0981 9.8065 1 0.0736 0.0014 0.0394 0.0029 9.68E-05 0.00746
mmHG 0.0014 1.3332 133.32 13.595 1 0.0193 0.5352 0.0394 0.00132 0.10146
PSI 0.0703 68.947 6894.7 703.08 51.715 1 27.68 2.036 0.06805 5.24679
inWG 0.0025 2.4909 249.09 25.4 1.8683 0.0361 1 0.0736 0.00246 0.18955
inHG 0.0345 33.864 3386.4 345.32 25.4 0.4912 13.595 1 0.03342 2.57699
Atmosphere 1.0332 1013.2 101325 10332 760 14.696 406.78 29.921 1 77.1067
ATU 0.0134 13.141 1314.1 134 9.8566 0.1906 5.2756 0.3881 0.01297 1
1 Newton/m2 = .01 millibar = 10 A/cm2
1 Pieze = 10 millibar = 10000 dyne/cm2
1kgf/m2 = 1 mmWG
Heat, Work
(ISU : 1[J ] = 1[N .m]; 1 cal = 4 ,1868[J ]) used to be defined as the quantity of heat, which must be transferred
to one gram of water to raise its temperature one centrigrade).
To Obtain
Multiply By Joule Calorie kJ kcal BTU Thermie Therm kgfm ft-poundf kWh hph
Joule 1 0.2388 0.001 0.0002 0.0009 2.39E-07 9.48E-09 0.102 0.7376 2.78E-07 3.73E-07
Calorie 4.1868 1 0.0042 0.001 0.004 1.00E-06 3.97E-08 0.4269 3.088 1.16E-06 1.56E-06
kJ 1000 238.85 1 0.2388 0.9478 0.0002 948E-06 101.97 737.56 0.0003 0.0004
kcal 4186.8 1000 4.1868 1 3.9683 0.001 3.97E-05 426.93 3088 0.0012 0.0016
BTU 1055.1 252 1.0551 0.252 1 0.0003 1E-05 107.59 778.17 0.0003 0.0004
Thernie 419E+06 1.00E+06 4186.8 1000 3968.3 1 0.0397 426935 3.09E+06 1.163 1.5596
Therm 1.06E+08 2.52E+07 105506 25200 100000 25.2 1 1.08E+07 7.78E+07 29.307 39.302
kgfm 9.8067 2.3423 0.0098 0.0023 0.0093 2.34E-06 9.29E-08 1 7.233 2.72E-06 3.65E-06
ft-poundf 1.3558 0.3238 0.0014 0.0003 0.0013 3.24E-07 1.29E-08 0.1383 1 3.77E-07 5.05E-07
kWh 3.60E+06 859845 3600 859.85 3412.1 0.8598 0.0341 367098 2.66E+06 1 1.341
hph 2.68E+06 641187 2684.5 641.19 2544.4 0.6412 0.0254 273745 1.98E+06 0.7457 1
1 Joule = 1 Newton-metre
11.3
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Calorific Value (Gas Basis)

[ ]
(ISU: J .m −3 at 273.15oK and 101375 Pa)
To Obtain
J/m3 kcal/m3 kcal/m3
Multiply By 0°C 0°C 15°C
760 mmHg 760 mm Hg 760 mmHg BTU/ft3
J/m3 1 0.238846 0.226406 0.025018
kcal/m3 4.1868 1 0.947917 0.104745
kcal/m3 4.416844 1.054945 1 0.1105
BTU/ft3 39.97138 9.547 9.04976 1
Liquid Calorific Value

[
(ISU: J .m −3 ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By Joule/m3 Joule/1 kcal/1 Therm/UK gal BTU/US gal
Joule/m3 1 0.001 0.000239 4.31E-08 3.59E-06
Joule/1 1000 1 0.238846 4.31E-05 0.003588
kcal/1 4186.8 4.1868 1 0.00018 0.015022
Therm/UK gal 23208688 23208.69 5543.3 1 83.27002
BTU/US gal 278716 278.716 66.57018 0.012009 1
Calorific Value (Mass Basis)

[
(ISU: J .kg −1 ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/kg J/g kcal/kg BTU/lb BTU/st Therm/t
J/kg 1 0.001 0.000239 0.00043 0.859158 9.63E-06
J/g 1000 1 0.238846 0.429923 859.1579 0.00963
kcal/kg 4186.8 4.1868 1 1.8 3597.122 0.04032
BTU/lb 2326 2.326 0.555556 1 1998.401 0.0224
BTU/st 1.16393 0.001164 0.000278 0.0005 1 1.12E-05
Therm/t 103839 103.839 24.80152 44.64273 89214.1 1
Specific Heat (Gas Basis)

[ ] [
(ISU: J /( m 3 .o K ) = J / m 3 .o C ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/m3*°C kJ/m3*°C kcal/m3*°C BTU/ft3*°F
J/m3*°C 1 0.001 0.00023885 1.4911E-05
kJ/m3*°C 1000 1 0.2388459 0.01491066
kcal/m3*°C 4186.8 4.1868 1 0.06242796
BTU/ft3*°F 67066.1 67.0661 16.0184628 1
11.4
Rev. 2002
VADE-MECUM
Specific Heat (Mass Basis)

[ ][
(ISU: J /( kg .o K ) = J /( kg .o C )]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/kg*°C kJ/kg*°C kcal/kg*°C BTU/lb*°F
J/kg*°C 1 0.001 0.00023885 0.00023885
kJ/kg*°C 1000 1 0.2388459 0.2388459
kcal/kg*°C 4186.8 4.1868 1 1
BTU/lb*°F 4186.8 4.1868 1 1
Force
[ ]
(ISU : kg .m.s − 2 = 1 [N ] Newton )
1 Newton is the force which when applied to a one-kilogram mass will produce an acceleration of one meter per
second).
Newton dyne gf sthene poundal poundforce
Newton 1 100000 101.9716 1.00E-03 7.233011 0.224809
dyne 0.00001 1 0.00102 1E-08 7.23E-05 2.25E-06
gf 0.009807 980.665 1 9.81E-06 0.070932 0.002205
sthene 1000 1E+08 101971.6 1 7233.011 224.809
poundal 0.138255 13825.5 14.09809 0.000138 1 0.031081
poundforce 4.44822 444822 453.5922 0.004448 32.17403 1
Temperature
• The Celsius scale is defined as the ice point (freezing point of water salined with air at standard atmospheric
pressure = 1 atm = 101 325 Pa) is 0oC and the steam point (boiling point of pure water at 1 atm = 101325 Pa)
= 100oC.
• Fahrenheit: (oF)=32+1.8*( oC).
• Kelvin: (oK)=( oC)+273.15.
• Rankine: (oR)=( oF)+459.67.
11.5
Rev. 2002

Vade Mecum

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vade Mecum

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VADE-MECUM

CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING

Corporate Technical Services

Director, Process & Environment

1. Algebra .................................................................................................... 1.1

g) Quadratic Equation b) Right Triangle

d) Cone h) Sector of a Sphere

1. Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................... 2.1

1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables

c) If the Variance σ 2 is Unknown and Sample Size n<30,

d) Student Fisher Distribution Table

2. Statistical Estimation Tests

Example 1: Cement sampling:

2.3 Fisher Distribution Table

3. Correlation Between Data – Regression

4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables)

3) when plotted presents a low to non-existent #2

smaller than the sampling distance). t h

• In fact, the variance of the prediction, at its best, will be

by random noises or variations of the period, the 1 Pseudo-Period

variance σ x2 , for a shift h of exactly 1 period. Maximum

4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning

Plot the cartesian coordinates (x, y) where:

x = values of control parameter – set point, at time t

∆t is the sampling interval:

14:00 54.5 58 -3.5 (1.2,-3.5) -2

16:00 60.8 58 2.8 (-3.5,2.8)

SLOPE INTERPRETATION & CORRECTIVE ACTION

The method is applicable to control response analysis in general.

5.2 Fundamental Error (FE)

• c = Mineralogical composition factor g / cm 3 ( )

Then: C = f l c g = 0.5 x 0.3 x 4.0 x 0.75 = 0.15 g / cm 3

5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW)

5.5 Minimum Number of Observations

5.6 Mechanical Sampling

d) Interval of Time between Increment

5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt

b) When the Belt Keeps Running

1. Chemical Characterization..................................................................... 3.1

• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F ) 5

1.6 Percent Liquid 1.7 Bogue Formulas

0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 b) Parameters influencing the Burnability

4 (ref. Cahiers techniques)

1.9 Other Indicators

1.10 57 Clinker Average

C3 S Alite Alite/C3S C2 S Belite Belite/C2S C3 A Alum.

C4AF Ferrit. MgO Fluor TiO2 P2O5 Mn2O3 kk SO3

- d = particle size (µm)

• The formula allows PSD data to be represented as a straight line by plotting:

- n can be calculated by the slope of the least squares line.

2.2 Specific Surface Area

- Si = the particle surface area

- f = Form factor (close to 1) do = 0.1 µm d6 = 4 µm d12= 48 µm

2.3 Blaine Surface Area

Rules of thumb (Les Cahiers Techniques)

3.2 Bond Formula

3.3 Parameters Affecting the Clinker Grindability

4.2 Sulfate Addition

c) The Chemistry of False and Flash Set

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2.5 Soluble Anhydrite 80

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

High High Accelerated