Running Head: Athletic Participation and Its Impact 1

Running head: ATHLETIC PARTICIPATION AND ITS IMPACT 1
Athletic Participation and Its Impact on the Development of High School Girls
Hattie N. Burford
Chadron State College

ATHLETIC PARTICIPATION AND ITS IMPACT 2
Abstract
The review of literature relevant to this study shows positive effects of athletic participation on
high school girls’ self-esteem and femininity, social ties, character and values, educational goals,
test scores, and grade averages. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of
athletic participation on the development of high school girls. In this study, the “development” of
high school girls refers to their self-esteem, socialization, and educational achievement. In order
to determine educational achievement, assessment scores and grade point averages were
compared between female athletes and female non-athletes. Two surveys were given to compare
the self-esteem and socialization between female athletes and female non-athletes. Differences
were then analyzed with relation to assessment scores, grade point averages, and survey
responses, using a two-sample t-test. The test results did show a significant difference in
educational achievement between female athletes and female non-athletes. With regards to the
tests on the survey responses; 12 out of 15 items showed a significant difference in self-esteem,
and 9 out of 10 items showed a significant different in socialization, between female athletes and
female non-athletes.
Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................page 4
Introduction ..........................................................................................................page 5
Statement of the Problems ...................................................................................page 5
Review of Related Literature ...............................................................................page 6
Self-Identity .............................................................................................page 6
Socialization.............................................................................................page 8
Value System ...........................................................................................page 10
Educational Achievement ........................................................................page 12
Methodology ........................................................................................................page 14
Participants/Setting ..................................................................................page 14
Instruments ...............................................................................................page 14
Statement of Hypothesis ..........................................................................page 17
Procedure and Design ..............................................................................page 18
Data Analysis and Findings .................................................................................page 22
Summary ..............................................................................................................page 30
References ............................................................................................................page 32
List of Tables
Table 1 .................................................................................................................page 19
Table 2 .................................................................................................................page 19
Table 3 .................................................................................................................page 19
Table 4 .................................................................................................................page 20
Table 5 .................................................................................................................page 22
Table 6 .................................................................................................................page 22
Table 7 .................................................................................................................page 23
Table 8 .................................................................................................................page 24
Table 9 .................................................................................................................page 25
Table 10 ...............................................................................................................page 25
Table 11 ...............................................................................................................page 28
Athletic Participation and Its Impact on the Development of High School Girls
Introduction
The role of interscholastic athletics in high schools has received much interest over
the last several decades. Researchers, as well as the general public, have discussed the
possible benefits of participating in interscholastic athletics such as academic achievement,
educational expectations, increased self-esteem, and the ability to construct relational
networks. In recent years, competitive sport for females has become increasingly legitimized
in terms of mass participation, expanded programs, and budgetary allocations (Spreitzer,
Snyder, & Kivlin, 1978). This shift in social norms now allows us to look deeper into the
benefits of interscholastic athletics for young female athletes.
There has been a consistent discussion about the belief that participation in sports
socializes students in ways that promote educational success (Broh, 2002). Sports
participation has been argued to develop a strong work ethic, self-esteem, maturity in
working with others, and perseverance. These are skills that are considered consistent with
educational values, and thus, help students achieve in and out of the classroom (Broh, 2002).
Though educational achievement may have many definitions, the research on the topic will
focus on female students’ grade point averages (GPAs), along with assessment scores.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study is to determine whether the relationship between athletic
participation and the development of high school girls exists. The development of female
participants will be defined through self-identity, socialization, and educational achievement.
Does participation in sports have a positive impact on a high school female’s self-esteem? Do
female athlete participants form greater relational networks? Are high school female athletes’
assessment scores and grades greater than their peers who do not participate in athletics?
Review of Related Literature
The literature review is broken into three subsections that discuss the mechanisms
that link participation to the development of high school girls, and a fourth subsection that
discusses the direct effect of participation to academic achievement. The subsections include:
self-identity through self-esteem and femininity, socialization via athletics, the value system
of an athlete that resembles that of the educational system, and the effect of participation on
academic outcomes.
The number of female participants in high school sports has increased a significant
amount over the last several decades. Female participation increased from .25 million in
1970-1971 to 2.36 million in 1995-96 (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). According to the National
Federation of State High School Associations, a survey taken in 2014-2015 showed that
female participation in high school sports increased to 3.29 million. The change in the
number of females engaging in interscholastic sport has essentially been attributed to Title IX
of the Education Amendments of 1972 (Troutman & Dufur, 2007). This amendment
prohibited any institution receiving federal funding from practicing gender discrimination in
educational programs or activities (Troutman & Dufur, 2007). With interscholastic sports
becoming a more prominent pursuit for females, there has been an abundance of research that
explores the effects of participation in sports in the development and academic success of
female students. Recent studies have discovered that young females who participate in
interscholastic sports experience some unique benefits (Troutman & Dufur, 2007).
Self-Identity
Though a significant increase of female participation in sports can be seen in the last 30
years, there are still many questions about which sports are “socially acceptable”, how young
female participants respond to the general attitudes towards the female athlete, and how female
athletes’ self-identity is affected. According to Spreitzer, Snyder, and Kivlin (1978), the order of
sports that enhance feminine qualities ranks swimming most desirable, followed by tennis,
gymnastics, softball, basketball, and track in descending order. Despite established negative
perceptions of female athletes, college women who were seriously involved in sports tended to
report higher morale, life satisfaction, and overall happiness than their non-athletic counterparts
(Spreitzer, Snyder, & Kivlin, 1978).
In fact, Spreitzer, Snyder, and Kivlin (1978) go on to say:
Our findings do not reveal negative associations between female sports participation
and our measures of self-identity. On the contrary, slight to moderate positive
relationships emerged in the opposite direction. (p. 19)
Females’ social involvement in sports allows them to come together; creating a sense
of unity, identification, and personal identity (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Self-confidence in a
student’s abilities comes from the feeling of recognition and accomplishment often resulting
from success in sports. The increase in self-esteem and a feeling of recognition compels them
to achieve success in other areas, such as academics (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Repeated
successful experiences in sports, such as learning new skills or winning a competition, are
thought to develop self-confidence and maturity, which also carry over into educational
pursuits (Broh, 2002).
Despite the growing number of girls participating in sports, athletics continue to be a
male dominated extracurricular activity (Videon, 2002). In the Unites States, sports are
commonly viewed as a social institution created by men to mirror traditional male
stereotypes of dominance and aggression (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). The traditional gender
construction of families, schools, and communities encourages boys to be outgoing,
aggressive, independent, and analytic (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). These are the characteristics
that are thought to be important for success in subjects such as science (Hanson & Kraus,
1998). Meanwhile, girls are encouraged to be passive, dependent, and nurturing, which
introduces the question of interest: whether participation in the nontraditional arena of
interscholastic athletics is a resource that gives young females an edge in academic subjects
such as science. (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).
Nonetheless, the past research that has indicated girls’ experienced role conflict
between expectations for being a female and being an athlete may be obsolete (Videon,
2002). The transformation in cultural ideals suggest that previous findings may not reflect the
experiences of more recent cohorts of female athletes. These changes are evident in the
increase of the positive visibility of athletic women (Videon, 2002). For example, NBC
declared the 1996 Summer Olympics “the year of the woman” and world renown Mia Hamm
and the 1999 World Cup women’s soccer team drew attention from all sectors of society
(Videon, 2002). Additionally, contemporary research suggests that participation in sports has
increasingly become a route to prestige for adolescent girls (Videon, 2002).
Socialization
Most sports are a collective activity in which all individuals share wins and losses
(Videon, 2002). As more employers emphasize the importance of teamwork, these skills will
become increasingly more valuable (Videon, 2002). Therefore, the peer groups and social
ties that are formed through participation in sports enhance the female athletes’ potential
achievement in academics (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).
Young girls’ friendship circles are generally small, intense, and based on building and
maintaining relationships. However, athletic participation stresses competition,
independence, and achievement, which are not traits that are encouraged in girls’
socialization practices (Videon, 2002). Furthermore, sports participation offers student
athletes a higher peer status, primarily consisting of college-oriented, high achievers that in
turn, facilitates higher academic performance (Broh, 2002). This “leading crowd” hypothesis
is supported by evidence that athletes are more likely to be associated with a college-oriented
peer group than are non-athletes (Broh, 2002). The social interaction between college-
oriented adolescents and mutual influence contributes to the symmetry of their future plans
(Snyder & Spreitzer, 1977). Snyder and Spreitzer (1977) found that education expectations of
close friends is a slightly better predictor of education expectations than grade average for
adolescent girls.
Not only do female athletes benefit from peer influences, but also from the
connection to adults, specifically parents and teachers. The increased opportunities for these
specific social interactions, create and strengthen female students’ ties to their parents and
teachers. These interactions act as a source of social control that encourages students to
comply with school norms and expectations, and in turn, generates greater success in school
(Broh, 2002). According to research done by Broh (2002), playing sports significantly
increases how often students talk with their parents about school related issues, and increases
students’ contact with teachers outside of class. Playing interscholastic sports is positively
related to how much parents have contact with the school, as well as with other parents. The
creation and intensification of these social ties can be advantageous to students’ educational
pursuits (Broh, 2002).
Value System
Females who participate in interscholastic sports have a stronger sense of control over
their lives, and a value system that is concordant with the American educational system
(Broh, 2002). By learning to live by and believe in this value system, female student athletes
are more likely to be considered to have a strong work ethic, and a valued character. The
emphasis in sports on the goals of winning and success, together with the values of hard
work, deferred gratification, planning, competition, and organization, are thought to prepare
student athletes for success in other areas such as academics (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).
Moreover, participation in sports allows young females to practice the attitudes, skills, and
values that are important for future success (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Unlike the mentality in
men’s sports, female athletic contests place a greater emphasis on improving one’s own
ability, cooperation, and feeling good, which lead to greater character development among
female athletes (Videon, 2002).
In the past, the world of competition in sports and other areas of life have excluded
women (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). The goal attainment section of sports functions as a
valuable resource for young women who are wanting to expand their opportunities. Women
who are athletes have been found to be considered more achievement oriented, independent,
self-confident, and inner controlled than those who are not (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).
According to Hanson and Kraus (1998):
Girls are called on less in mathematics and science classes, and women scientists are
seldom included in key networks and power groups in science occupations. This
treatment is not so much a result of females’ deficits in technical skills as of their
perceived failure to act in ways that follow the male tradition of science. Young girls
who are given an early opportunity to be involved in a male domain like sports may
well be less intimidated and more prepared for this male culture in science classrooms
and work settings. (p.106)
However, it is noted that the effects of sports on science achievement may be more
indirect through course taking and attitude than that of anything else (Hanson & Kraus,
1998).
Likewise, the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS)
believes that sports promote citizenship, sportsmanship, pride in the community, and teach
lifelong lessons of teamwork, self-discipline, and facilitates the development of youth
(Yeung, 2015). These are all qualities of young females that are sought after in today’s
society to become responsible and productive adults. This is considered the spillover effect of
athletics that has been labeled by Broh (2002) as the “developmental model”, which enables
female athletes to become “well rounded”, and achieve academic success (Yeung, 2015).
Also, research indicates that involvement in interscholastic sports is particularly relevant for
the development of leadership skills in female athletes (Videon, 2002).
In an article written by Yeung (2015), he describes the relationship between athletic
leadership and academic achievement. The leadership quality that he describes is naturally
learned from sports, and teaches valuable teamwork and facilitation skills, of which may be
useful in group activities in the classroom. According to research done by Yeung (2015),
athletic leaders score significantly better than non-leaders in reading, math, science, and
vocabulary.
Yeung (2015) goes on to say:
The gains to athletic leadership are larger than the gains of athletic participation,
suggesting leadership has a benefit over and above the benefit of athletic
participation. While serving as a leader of an athletic team, students may learn
valuable teamwork, time management, and organization skills that improve their level
of achievement in the classroom. (p. 382)
These findings are relevant when we are considering female participants in sports that
develop the role of a team captain or leader on their team.
Educational Achievement
Hanson and Kraus (1998) found that many girls begin to lose interest and do less well
in science (defined as science, mathematics, and engineering) in the high school years. A
theme that is shared to many explanations for this gender gap is that science is a male domain
with rules and expectation that create obstacles for women, much like the sports arena in the
United States (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). However, Hanson and Kraus (1998) argue that young
women who compete well in one of these domains, learn to develop skills, networks, and
attitudes that help them in the other.
Young women’s participation in sports had a significant positive effect on the access
and attitudes towards science in their sophomore and senior years of high school (Hanson &
Kraus, 1998). Broh in 2002 found that participation in interscholastic sports is positively
associated with students’ math and English grades. In line with Hanson and Kraus’s findings,
sports further boost students’ achievements in the classroom and on standardized math tests
(Broh, 2002). Furthermore, students who participate in sports have better attendance records,
lower rates of discipline referrals, are more likely to be in a college preparatory curriculum,
and aspire to, enroll in, and graduate from college (Videon, 2002). Another study found that
females who engaged in interscholastic high school sports had higher odds of completing
college than do non-athletes (Yeung, 2015).
Videon (2002) also concluded that a comparison of educational outcomes indicated
that sports participants have moderately better outcomes than do their non-participating
peers. Girls have significantly better educational outcomes, fewer unexcused absences, take
more core courses, have higher grade point averages, and have higher expectations to go to
college than boys do (Videon, 2002). However, Videon (2002) found that the beneficial
effect of sports participation is significantly less for female athletes’ unexcused absences and
academic expectations than for male athletes. Additionally, Videon (2002) found suggestive
evidence that athletics may have a more positive impact on boys’ grades than girls’.
Nonetheless, when comparing female athletes to their non-athletic counterparts,
female athletes tend to have higher grade averages and higher educational goals (Spreitzer,
Snyder, & Kivlin, 1978). Spreitzer, Snyder, and Kivlin (1978) also compared the differences
in the effects of participation in sports and music, and found that girls involved in both had
higher grade averages and educational goals than girls involved in solely sports, or solely
music. Additionally, their study showed that athletes tended to report slightly higher
educational goals, but had slightly lower grade averages. This study was significant to
highlight that sports participation and music participation are two separate entities in their
effects of the development of young females.

Methodology
Participants/Settings
The participants of this study were sophomore and senior female students in Scottsbluff
High School. A sample of 50 participants was selected, 25 sophomore or senior female athletes
who are currently involved in a fall sport, and 25 sophomore or senior female non-athletes.
Scottsbluff High School is located in Scottsbluff, NE, population 15,039, positioned in the
Nebraska Panhandle. Scottsbluff is the largest city in the Nebraska Panhandle, and the 13th
largest city in Nebraska. It is home to the U.S. National Park, Scotts Bluff National Monument,
and is adjacent to the North Platte River. The Scottsbluff School District manages an early
childhood learning center, four elementary schools (K-5), one intermediate school (6-8), and one
high school (9-12). The district also offers alternate options for high school students, such as
CHOICES and RECONNECT. These are considered for students who are lacking credits, or
prefer a smaller learning environment. Scottsbluff Senior High School has a make-up of
approximately 872 students, 39% eligible for free lunch, 8% eligible for reduced lunch, 51%
female to 49% male, 52% Caucasian, 42% Hispanic, 3% American Indian, 2% two or more
races, and the remaining 1% Asian. The school’s diversity score is .56, compared to the state
average of .26. Scottsbluff High School has a student to teacher ratio of 16:1.
Instruments
The effects of athletic participation on participants’ self-identity, socialization, and
educational achievement were measured through surveys, assessments, and grade point averages.
The survey for measuring self-identity was given one time through google forms, where the
participant was asked to answer 1, 2, 3, or 4 if they strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, or
strongly disagreed, respectively. The Likert scale of 1-4 was chosen to force the participants to
answer one “direction” over the other. For example, a Likert scale of 1-5 may result in many
participants choosing the neutral or undecided option. The purpose of the survey was to track the
participants’ self-esteem and identity throughout their involvement, or non-involvement, in
interscholastic athletics. The following items made up the self-identity survey that was given:
1. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on equal basis with others.

2. I can do well or better than others at school.
3. I am happy with who I am.
4. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
5. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
6. I have a good understanding of the things I learn in school.
7. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
8. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
9. My skills are weaker than other people in my classes.
10. I feel useless at times.
11. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
12. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
13. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
14. At times, I think I am no good at all.
15. I am sure I will be able to reach my goals.
Survey item numbers 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 14 will be analyzed differently than the other items, due
to the nature of the statements. The results of each item on the survey will be analyzed based off
of the Likert responses of 1-4.
The survey for measuring socialization was given one time through google forms, where
the participant was asked to answer 1, 2, 3, or 4 if they strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, or
strongly disagreed, respectively. The purpose of the survey was to track the participants’
socialization with friends, family, and teachers throughout their involvement or non-involvement
in interscholastic athletics. The following items made up the socialization survey that was given:
1. I have a group of friends that I like hanging out with.

2. I know how to start a conversation with someone new.
3. I talk to my parents about school often.
4. I do not talk to my parents about school at all.
5. I have several friends that share the same values as me.
6. I feel accepted by my friends.
7. I have several friends that want to further their education.
8. I talk to my teachers outside of class often.
9. I have friends that are involved in the same things as I am.
10. I feel like I have a lot of good friends.
Survey item number 4 will be analyzed differently than the other items, due to the nature of the
statement. The results of each item on the survey will be analyzed based off of the Likert
responses of 1-4.
For each participant, assessment scores from quarter one, across all classes, were
collected and recorded on a spreadsheet. The number of assessments taken varied between the
participants, with some participants having more scores than others.
Additionally, for each participant, class grades from quarter one, across all classes, were
collected and recorded on a spreadsheet. The number of classes a participant is enrolled in
varied, depending on their enrollment in college classes and their grade level. For instance, all
students who are enrolled in a college course are allowed one open, per course, in their
schedules. Seniors may take an additional open if they wish. This results in some students having
a limited number of classes at Scottsbluff High School. Using the quarter grades, the students’
grade point averages were found and recorded. These four instruments will be used to collect
data for the study.
Statement of Hypothesis
The literature supports the inference that young female students who participate in
interscholastic sports benefit individually, socially, and academically. The hypotheses of the
study for self-esteem, for items 1-4, 6-7, 11, 13, and 15, were as follows:
Ho: There is no significant difference between the value of the mean of the athletes’
response and the value of the mean of the non-athletes’ response.
Ha: The value of the mean of the athletes’ response is less than the value of the mean of
the non-athletes’ response.
A significantly lower mean value will show that the athlete sample demonstrates a higher self-
esteem than the non-athlete sample. The hypotheses of the study for self-esteem, for items 5, 8-
10, 12, and 14, were as follows:
Ha: The value of the mean of the athletes’ response is greater than the value of the mean
of the non-athletes’ response.
A significantly greater mean value will show that the athlete sample demonstrates a higher self-
esteem than the non-athlete sample. The hypotheses of the study for socialization, for items 1-3,
and 5-10, were as follows:

Ha: The value of the mean of the athletes’ response is less than the value of the mean of
the non-athletes’ response.
A significantly lower mean value will show that the athlete sample demonstrates better
socialization than the non-athlete sample. The hypothesis of the study for socialization, for item
4, was as follows:
Ha: The value of the mean of the athletes’ response is greater than the value of the mean
of the non-athletes’ response.
A significantly greater mean value will show that the athlete sample demonstrates better
socialization than the non-athlete sample. The hypotheses of the study for educational
achievement were as follows:
assessment scores and the value of the mean of the non-athletes’ assessment scores.
Ha: The value of the mean of the athletes’ assessment scores is greater than the value of
the mean of the non-athletes’ assessment scores.
grade point averages and the value of the mean of the non-athletes’ grade point averages.
Ha: The value of the mean of the athletes’ grade point averages is greater than the value
of the mean of the non-athletes’ grade point averages.
Procedure and Design
All sophomore and senior female students in Scottsbluff High School were eligible for
the study. A random sample of 50 participants was selected using a random number generator
and the students’ ID number; 25 female athletes and 25 female non- athletes were chosen.
Consent forms were given to those selected, and all 50 consent forms were returned.
The assessment scores from quarter one, across all classes, were collected from the
female athlete and female non-athlete samples. These scores were recorded and organized into
Table 1 by their summary statistics.
Table 1: Summary Statistics of Assessment Scores in First Quarter

Sample n Mean Variance Std. dev. Std. err. Median Range Min Max Q1 Q3
Athletes 596 90.3894 162.16 12.7342 0.52161 94 120 0 120 85 100
Non-Athletes 460 78.7753 546.62 23.3799 1.09009 85 102 0 102 70 97
Additionally, class grades from quarter one, across all classes, were collected from both samples,
and recorded on a spreadsheet. Using the quarter grades, the grade point averages were recorded
for female athlete and female non-athlete samples. The grade point averages were then organized
into Table 2 by their summary statistics.
Table 2: Summary Statistics of Grade Point Averages in First Quarter

Sample n Mean Variance Std. dev. Std. err. Median Range Min Max Q1 Q3
Athletes 197 3.5177665 0.56728478 0.7531831 0.053662074 4 3 1 4 3 4
Non-
182 2.7912088 1.8567179 1.3626144 0.1010037 3 4 0 4 2 4
Athletes
The results from the self-identity and socialization surveys were collected from athletes and non-
athletes and organized into Table 3 and Table 4 by item, and by summary statistics.
Table 3: Self Identity Survey-Summary Statistics by Item

Sample n Mean Variance Std. dev. Std. err.
AthleteI1 25 1.68 0.81 0.9 0.18
Non-AthleteI1 25 1.96 0.37333333 0.61101009 0.12220202
AthleteI2 25 1.88 0.44333333 0.66583281 0.13316656
Non-AthleteI2 25 2.2 0.5 0.70710678 0.14142136
AthleteI3 25 1.64 0.65666667 0.81034972 0.16206994
Non-AthleteI3 25 2 0.75 0.8660254 0.17320508

AthleteI4 25 1.56 0.84 0.91651514 0.18330303
Non-AthleteI4 25 2.08 0.49333333 0.70237692 0.14047538
AthleteI5 25 3.36 0.74 0.86023253 0.17204651
Non-AthleteI5 25 2.96 0.54 0.73484692 0.14696938
AthleteI6 25 1.84 0.47333333 0.68799225 0.13759845
Non-AthleteI6 25 2.24 0.44 0.66332496 0.13266499
AthleteI7 25 1.68 0.72666667 0.85244746 0.17048949
Non-AthleteI7 25 2.32 0.47666667 0.69041051 0.1380821
AthleteI8 25 3.36 0.65666667 0.81034972 0.16206994
Non-AthleteI8 25 2.52 0.67666667 0.82259751 0.1645195
AthleteI9 25 3.12 0.44333333 0.66583281 0.13316656
Non-AthleteI9 25 2.64 0.65666667 0.81034972 0.16206994
AthleteI10 25 2.72 1.1266667 1.0614456 0.21228911
Non-AthleteI10 25 2.04 0.62333333 0.78951462 0.15790292
AthleteI11 25 1.68 0.72666667 0.85244746 0.17048949
Non-AthleteI11 25 2.24 0.60666667 0.7788881 0.15577762
AthleteI12 25 2.44 0.84 0.91651514 0.18330303
Non-AthleteI12 25 2.2 0.66666667 0.81649658 0.16329932
AthleteI13 25 1.8 0.5 0.70710678 0.14142136
Non-AthleteI13 25 2.24 0.85666667 0.92556289 0.18511258
AthleteI14 25 2.76 1.0233333 1.0115994 0.20231988
Non-AthleteI14 25 2.2 0.66666667 0.81649658 0.16329932
AthleteI15 25 1.48 0.59333333 0.77028133 0.15405627
Non-AthleteI15 25 1.96 0.70666667 0.84063468 0.16812694
Table 4: Socialization Survey-Summary Statistics by Item

Sample n Mean Variance Std. dev. Std. err.
AthleteI1 25 1.28 0.29333333 0.54160256 0.10832051
Non-AthleteI1 25 1.76 0.77333333 0.87939373 0.17587875
AthleteI2 25 1.36 0.24 0.48989795 0.09797959
Non-AthleteI2 25 2.44 1.0066667 1.0033278 0.20066556
AthleteI3 25 1.72 0.54333333 0.73711148 0.1474223
Non-AthleteI3 25 2.44 0.92333333 0.96090235 0.19218047
AthleteI4 25 3.4 0.66666667 0.81649658 0.16329932
Non-AthleteI4 25 2.8 0.91666667 0.95742711 0.19148542
AthleteI5 25 1.48 0.34333333 0.58594653 0.11718931
Non-AthleteI5 25 2.32 0.64333333 0.80208063 0.16041613
AthleteI6 25 1.36 0.32333333 0.56862407 0.11372481

Non-AthleteI6 25 1.92 0.74333333 0.86216781 0.17243356
AthleteI7 25 1.32 0.39333333 0.62716292 0.12543258
Non-AthleteI7 25 2.04 0.95666667 0.97809338 0.19561868
AthleteI8 25 2.32 0.39333333 0.62716292 0.12543258
Non-AthleteI8 25 3 0.75 0.8660254 0.17320508
AthleteI9 25 1.36 0.32333333 0.56862407 0.11372481
Non-AthleteI9 25 2 0.91666667 0.95742711 0.19148542
AthletI10 25 1.6 0.5 0.70710678 0.14142136
Non-AthleteI10 25 1.96 1.04 1.0198039 0.20396078
An independent, two-sample t-test with a confidence level of 95% was used to analyze the
assessment scores, grade point averages, and items on both surveys. This test was performed
using Statcrunch software. The two-sample t-test was chosen to analyze the grade point averages
and assessment scores because we could assume that the data was sampled from a normal
distribution, the samples were randomly selected, they were independent of each other, both
samples were less than thirty, and the standard deviations of the means were unknown.
Therefore, the parametric test was used, measuring two unpaired data sets. The data for the
survey items were scores from the Likert scale, 1-4. Though this data is nonparametric in nature,
there were several arguments found that supported using a two-sample t-test over a
nonparametric test, such as the Mann Whitney test. The two-sample t-test was ultimately chosen
because each data set for the survey items had a sample size of 25, which was considered a
relatively large enough sample size to use the two-sample t-test.
In order to perform the test, the variances of each sample were used to determine whether
the data was pooled or non-pooled. To make this determination, the ratio of the larger variance to
the smaller variance was calculated. When looking at each instrument, if the ratio between the
two sample variances was greater than or equal to three, a non-pooled test was used. If the ratio
between the two sample variances was less than three, a pooled test was used. After the decision
was made between pooled and non-pooled tests, a two-sample t-test using Statcrunch was
performed.
Data Analysis and Findings
The results of the t-test for the assessment scores and grade point averages are listed in
Table 5 and Table 6, respectively. In each table, the variances of athletes and non-athletes are
shown; the ratios between variances were calculated and used to determine whether a pooled or
non-pooled test was used. The data was then entered into Statcrunch, and the two-sample t-test
was calculated. This test provided the t-statistic, the p-value, and the degrees of freedom (df). In
the tables, the abbreviated t represents the test statistic, the abbreviated p represents the p-value,
and the abbreviated df represents the degrees of freedom.
Table 5: Two-Sample t-test of Assessment Table 6: Two-Sample t-test of Grade Point

Scores Averages
Athlete Non-Athlete Athlete Non-Athlete
Variance 162.16038 546.62019 Variance 0.56728478 1.8567179
Ratio 3.370861551 Ratio 3.27299086
Pooled or Non- Pooled or Non-
non-pooled non-pooled
Pooled Pooled
t= 9.6106524 t= 6.3524841
p= <0.0001 p= <0.0001
df= 277.20582
df= 666.3068
The results of the t-test for the self-identity survey items and socialization survey items are listed
in Table 7 and Table 8, respectively. In each table, the variances of athletes and non-athletes are
shown; the ratios between variances were calculated and used to determine whether a pooled or
non-pooled test was used. The data was then entered into Statcrunch, and the two-sample t-test
was calculated. This test provided the t-statistic, the p-value, and the degrees of freedom (df). In
the tables, the abbreviated t represents the test statistic, the abbreviated p represents the p-value,
and the abbreviated df represents the degrees of freedom.
Table 7: Self-Identity Survey Results by Item

Item I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8
Athlete:
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Yes or No
Variance 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.7
Ratio 2.16964 1.12782 1.14213 1.7027 1.37037 1.07576 1.52448 1.03046
Pooled/
Non- pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled
Pooled
t= -1.287 -1.6474 -1.5177 -2.2517 1.76777 -2.0927 -2.9171 3.63731
p= 0.1021 0.053 0.0678 0.0145 0.0417 0.0208 0.0027 0.0003
df= 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48
Continued Table 7: Self-Identity Survey Results by Item
Item I9 I10 I11 I12 I13 I14 I15
Athlete:
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Yes or No
Variance 0.4 0.7 1.1 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.9 1 0.7 0.6 0.7
Ratio 1.4812 1.80749 1.1978 1.26 1.71333 1.535 1.19101
Pooled/
Non- pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled
Pooled
t= 2.28831 2.57016 -2.4249 0.97763 -1.8888 2.15385 -2.1049
p= 0.0133 0.0067 0.0096 0.1666 0.0325 0.0182 0.0203
df= 48 48 48 48 48 48 48
Table 8: Socialization Survey Results by Item

Item I1 I2 I3 I4 I5
Athlete:
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Yes or No
Variance 0.29 0.77 0.24 1.01 0.54 0.92 0.67 0.92 0.34 0.64
Ratio 2.6363637 4.1944446 1.6993865 1.375 1.8737864
Pooled/
non-
Non- pooled pooled pooled pooled
pooled
Pooled
t= -2.32379 -4.83636 -2.972602 2.3841582 -4.228283
p= 0.0122 <0.0001 0.0023 0.0106 <0.0001
df= 48 34.828236 48 48 48
Continued Table 8: Socialization Survey Results by Item
Item I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
Athlete:
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Yes or No
Variance 0.32 0.74 0.39 0.96 0.39 0.75 0.32 0.92 0.5 1.04
Ratio 2.2989691 2.4322034 1.9067797 2.8350516 2.08
Pooled/
Non- pooled pooled pooled pooled pooled
Pooled
t= -2.711088 -3.098387 -3.179746 -2.873685 -1.450481
p= 0.0046 0.0016 0.0013 0.003 0.0767
df= 48 48 48 48 48
To determine whether the null hypothesis was retained or rejected for each test, the p-
value was compared to the alpha value of .05. This alpha value is used in accordance with our
95% confidence level. When comparing the p-value with the alpha value, if the p-value was less
than the alpha value of .05, then the null hypothesis was rejected. If the p-value was greater than
or equal to the alpha value of .05, then the null hypothesis was retained, or we failed to reject the
null hypothesis. The results of the t-test for the assessment scores and grade point averages are
shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Conclusions of Educational Achievement Instruments

Result: Null
alpha Hypothesis
Two-Sample t-test Hypothesis p-value
value
was…
Assessment μ1 : Mean of Athlete Scores H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
<0.0001 0.05 Rejected
Scores: μ2 : Mean of Non-Athlete Scores HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
Grade
Point μ1 : Mean of Athlete GPA H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0 <0.0001 0.05 Rejected
Averages: μ2 : Mean of Non-Athlete GPA HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
In each of the tests, the p-value was less than the alpha value, .05. Therefore, the null
hypothesis was rejected in both tests. Rejecting the null hypothesis meant that the mean of the
assessment scores and grade point averages of female athletes was greater than the mean of the
assessment scores and grade point averages of female non-athletes. Therefore, there is a
significant difference in educational achievement found between female athletes and female non-
athletes.
The results of the t-test for each item on the self-identity survey are shown in Table 10.
Table 10: Conclusions of the Self-Identity Survey

Two-Sample t-test
Result: Null Hypothesis
Hypothesis p-value alpha value
μ1 : Mean of Athlete Response was…
μ2 : Mean of Non-Athlete Response
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
Item 1 0.1021 0.05 Retained
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
Item 4 0.0145 0.05 Rejected
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
For items 1, 2, 3, and 12 the p-value was greater than the alpha value of .05. As a result,
the null hypothesis was retained. The items 1, 2, 3, and 12 are shown:
1. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on equal basis with others.
2. I can do well or better than others at school.
3. I am happy with who I am.
12. I wish I could have more respect for myself.

Retaining the null hypothesis meant there was not a significant difference found between the
mean response of the female athlete and female non-athlete on these four items.
For items 4-11, 13-15, the p-value was less than the alpha value of .05. Therefore, the
null hypothesis was rejected. The items are shown:
4. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
5. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
6. I have a good understanding of the things I learn in school.
7. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
8. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
9. My skills are weaker than other people in my classes.
10. I feel useless at times.
11. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
13. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
14. At times, I think I am no good at all.
15. I am sure I will be able to reach my goals.
Rejecting the null hypothesis meant that there was a significant difference found between the
mean response of the female athlete and female non-athlete on these items. Therefore, in 11 out
of the 15 items on the self-identity survey, there was a significant difference in self-esteem found
between female athletes and female non-athletes.
The results of the t-test for each item on the socialization survey are shown in Table 11.
Table 11: Conclusions of the Socialization Survey

Two-Sample t-test
Result: Null Hypothesis
Hypothesis p-value alpha value
μ1 : Mean of Athlete Response was…
μ2 : Mean of Non-Athlete Response
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
Item 2 <0.0001 0.05 Rejected
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
Item 5 <0.0001 0.05 Rejected
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 - μ2 = 0
HA : μ1 - μ2 < 0
For item 10, the p-value was greater than the alpha value of .05. As a result, the null
hypothesis was retained. Item 10 is shown:
10. I feel like I have a lot of good friends.
Retaining the null hypothesis meant there was not a significant difference found between the
mean response of the female athlete and female non-athlete on this item.
For items 1-9, the p-value was less than the alpha value of .05. Therefore, the null
hypothesis was rejected. The items 1-9 are shown:
1. I have a group of friends that I like hanging out with.
2. I know how to start a conversation with someone new.
3. I talk to my parents about school often.
4. I do not talk to my parents about school at all.
5. I have several friends that share the same values as me.
6. I feel accepted by my friends.
7. I have several friends that want to further their education.
8. I talk to my teachers outside of class often.
9. I have friends that are involved in the same things as I am
Rejecting the null hypothesis meant that there was a significant difference found between the
mean response of the female athlete and female non-athlete on these items. Therefore, in 9 out of
the 10 items on the socialization survey, there was a significant difference in socialization found
between female athletes and female non-athletes.

Summary
For the tests that examined the mean differences in educational achievement, the null
hypothesis was rejected. This indicates that there is a significant difference in educational
achievement found between female athletes and female non-athletes, with female athletes having
significantly higher test scores and higher grade point averages. There are several reasons that
may contribute to these results. Scottsbluff High School has an eligibility policy that requires
participants in sports to be passing all classes in order to compete. This may have an influence on
the females who do or do not participate in sports, as well as an influence on the mindset of the
importance of assessment scores and overall grades.
For the tests that examined the mean responses to the self-identity survey, there was a
significant difference found, in 11 out of the 15 items, in self-esteem between female athletes
and female non-athletes. Though these results show that female athletes’ confidence is greater
than their non-athletic counterparts, there could be some bias in their responses. For example,
some participants may not have felt comfortable being as honest in their responses as others,
possibly skewing the results.
For the tests that examined the mean responses to the socialization survey, there was a
significant difference found, in 9 out of the 10 items, in socialization between female athletes
and female non-athletes. This indicated that female athletes are more confident in their
relationships between their friends, parents, and teachers, and are more confident in building
those relationships. Reasons for this may include: being around adults more often, having to
respond to criticisms and suggestions appropriately, and having to organize their school
functions with their families.

Before any conclusive decisions can be made about the impact of athletic participation on
a female’s self-esteem, socialization, and educational achievement, a more extensive study needs
to be completed. Performing the same tests with two other samples, may present different results.
Additionally, the limited number of times the assessment scores and grades were recorded, and
the limited number of times the surveys were distributed, may have provided an incomplete
representation.
References
Broh, B. A. (2002). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement: Who

benefits and why? Sociology of Education, 75(1), 69-91. doi:10.2307/3090254
Hanson, S. L., & Kraus, R. S. (1998). Women, sports, and science: Do female athletes have an
advantage? Sociology of Education, 71(2), 93-110. doi:10.2307/2673243
Snyder, E. E., & Spreitzer, E. (1977). Participation in sport as related to educational

expectations among high school girls. Sociology of Education, 50(1), 47-55.
doi:10.2307/2112644
Spreitzer, E., Snyder, E. E., & Kivlin, J. E. (1978). A summary of some research studies
concerning the female athlete. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 3(1), 14-19.
doi:10.2307/3345984
Troutman, K. P., & Dufur, M. J. (2007). From high school jocks to college grads: Assessing the
long-term effects of high school sport participation on females educational attainment.
Youth & Society, 38(4), 443-462. Doi:10.1177/0044118x06290651
Videon, T. M. (2002). Who plays and who benefits: Gender, interscholastic athletics, and
academic outcomes. Sociological Perspectives, 45(4), 415-444.
doi:10.1525/sop.2002.45.4.415
Yeung, R. (2015). Athletics, athletic leadership, and academic achievement. Education and
Urban Society, 47(3), 361-387. doi:10.1177/0013124513495277

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Running head: ATHLETIC PARTICIPATION AND ITS IMPACT 1

Chadron State College

List of Tables .......................................................................................................page 4

Statement of the Problems ...................................................................................page 5

Review of Related Literature ...............................................................................page 6

Value System ...........................................................................................page 10

Educational Achievement ........................................................................page 12

Statement of Hypothesis ..........................................................................page 17

Procedure and Design ..............................................................................page 18

Data Analysis and Findings .................................................................................page 22

possible benefits of participating in interscholastic athletics such as academic achievement,

educational expectations, increased self-esteem, and the ability to construct relational

in terms of mass participation, expanded programs, and budgetary allocations (Spreitzer,

benefits of interscholastic athletics for young female athletes.

Statement of the Problem

participants will be defined through self-identity, socialization, and educational achievement.

Review of Related Literature

(Spreitzer, Snyder, & Kivlin, 1978).

In fact, Spreitzer, Snyder, and Kivlin (1978) go on to say:

and our measures of self-identity. On the contrary, slight to moderate positive

relationships emerged in the opposite direction. (p. 19)

pursuits (Broh, 2002).

Despite the growing number of girls participating in sports, athletics continue to be a

commonly viewed as a social institution created by men to mirror traditional male

construction of families, schools, and communities encourages boys to be outgoing,

introduces the question of interest: whether participation in the nontraditional arena of

such as science. (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).

increasingly become a route to prestige for adolescent girls (Videon, 2002).

achievement in academics (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).

maintaining relationships. However, athletic participation stresses competition,

socialization practices (Videon, 2002). Furthermore, sports participation offers student

pursuits (Broh, 2002).

female athletes (Videon, 2002).

According to Hanson and Kraus (1998):

treatment is not so much a result of females’ deficits in technical skills as of their

and work settings. (p.106)

Likewise, the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS)

lifelong lessons of teamwork, self-discipline, and facilitates the development of youth

the development of leadership skills in female athletes (Videon, 2002).

In an article written by Yeung (2015), he describes the relationship between athletic

Yeung (2015) goes on to say:

participation. While serving as a leader of an athletic team, students may learn

of achievement in the classroom. (p. 382)

develop the role of a team captain or leader on their team.

attitudes that help them in the other.

college than do non-athletes (Yeung, 2015).

Videon (2002) also concluded that a comparison of educational outcomes indicated

Nonetheless, when comparing female athletes to their non-athletic counterparts,

effects of the development of young females.

The effects of athletic participation on participants’ self-identity, socialization, and

participant was asked to answer 1, 2, 3, or 4 if they strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, or

participants’ self-esteem and identity throughout their involvement, or non-involvement, in

1. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on equal basis with others.

of the Likert responses of 1-4.

1. I have a group of friends that I like hanging out with.

participants, with some participants having more scores than others.

collected and recorded on a spreadsheet. The number of classes a participant is enrolled in

data for the study.

response and the value of the mean of the non-athletes’ response.

the non-athletes’ response.

10, 12, and 14, were as follows:

response and the value of the mean of the non-athletes’ response.

of the non-athletes’ response.