THE PRACTICE OF HEAT TREATMENT OF

STEEL
STUDY THEME 5: PART 1

NHB 700
Rev 06

Prof. CW Siyasiya
September 2018

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1. Introduction to heat treatment of steels - austenitization
• Steel is an alloy of Fe and C
• Wide range of mechanical properties due to its response to a wide range of
heat treatment practices

• What is austenitization?
•Austenitising Temp (AT) : 100% γ
• AT decreases with C along A3 – A1 up
to 0.8%C and increases again along
Acm to max of 2%C
•Peritectic steels
• C stabilises γ
• AT for hypoeutectoid and eutectoid
steels is ∼60oC above the minimum T
required to form 100% γ
• AT for hypereutectoid steels between
A1 and Acm

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 Note the effects of
allowing elements on
AC3 and AC1, note
effects of α and γ-
formers

Ae1, Ae3 and Aecm:

“e” = assumed equilibrium

Ac = arret chauffant (heating

stop) and
Ar = arret refroidissant (stop
cooling)

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What does austenization involve?
• Nucleation of austenite above AC1
o At sites where with C fluctuations are high e.g. between pearlite lamellar
o At interface between pearlite and ferrite
o At carbides on ferrite GB
o In martensitic steel, on prior γ GB
o Prior cold work leads to more nucleation sites for γ
o Ferrite GB

• Growth of γ
o Pearlite transforms first followed by ferrite

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• Kinetics of the γ−α transformation

Approximate times required for the isothermal formation of austenite in a 0.8%C-Fe at

various austenitising temperatures (T-T diagram for isothermal austenitising)

Transformation sequence:
pearlite (α + Fe3C) → γ + α + Fe3C → γ + residual Fe3C → γ (inhomogeneous) →
γ (homogeneous)

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 Each steel would have its own T-T
diagram for isothermal austenitising

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 Transformation at A1, A3
and Acm is diffusion
controlled. Rapid heating
allows less time for
diffusion and tends to raise
the transformation T above
equilibrium. The same
applies with cooling where
high cooling rates are
associated with large
undercooling.

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 Apart from
composition, what
other factors
influence kinetics?
How does
chemistry effect
kinetics?
- Temperature
- Microstructure
- Heating rate

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• Peak is associated with the pearlite transformation. Higher kinetics for higher
cooling rate because of less spheroidization of carbides.

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Effect of heating/annealing temperature:

Use phase diagram

to explain

Note: its ∆CC γ

Growth rate, v, towards carbides slower ∴more retained γ that transforms to M

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Effect of initial microstructure at shorter times:

See effect of the presence of pearlite

Why is there no effect at longer times?

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Effect of heating rate

High heating rate, less

spheroidization of carbides
∴ more γ transformation

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Effect of heating rate:
• Evolution of γ

1. High heating rate, less time for C diffusion, less nucleation of γ ∴ coarse γ, the light phase
2. Slow heating rate, more time for SRX of ferrite ∴ more GB area for nucleation of γ
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Pptn. of carbides:
• Note the effect of the AT on Ms and the pptn. of GB Fe3C (dotted curves)

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 Why is the Teut affected in this way?
Why is it important to balance austenite with ferrite formers?
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As an empirical “rule-of-thumb” an AT of 50 to 60oC above the theoretical
minimum (A3) with corresponding austenitising time of 1hr/25 mm diameter
or maximum thickness of the component is used

• The exact length of time a steel part is austenitised depends on its

composition, size and chemical homogeneity
• AT must be optimised to avoid:
– Excessive γ grain growth as it impacts adversely on the mechanical properties of final
product
– Excessively high AT as it increases risks of quench cracks
– Oxidation and decarburisation
• High AT also add to cost of heat treatment (inert gases, energy and furnace
costs)
• Mitigating effect of high AT vis-a-vis γ grain growth:
– Add Al to form Al2O3 and Al-nitrides for GB pinning to inhibit grain growth
– Microalloying V, Nb or Ti for formation of stable carbonitrides (V4C3, NbC and TiN)
which pin austenite grain boundaries.

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• Due to high C contents of hypereutectoid steels, T required for 100% γ
(above Acm ) are excessively high, resulting in unacceptable grain
coarsening during austenitising
• Hence austenitization is done between A1 and Acm.
• Small amounts of undissolved Fe3C not detrimental, in fact improves wear
resistance
• Avoid the embrittling network of Fe3C on γ GB.
• Effects of alloying elements on solution treatment :
– Carbides such as those from V, Cr and Mo ∼950°C is sufficient for
carbide dissolution but for the very stable ones, such as NbC ∼1225°C
is necessary. TiN is usually used (which will not dissolve even at
1225°C) to contain excessive grain growth, (computer software e.g.
Thermo-Calc can be useful to predict solubility, illustrate how)
– Too much γ-formers will lower acceptable T range for tempering
treatment and here balancing with some α- formers is necessary
– Too low tempering T result in unacceptable long tempering times due
to low diffusion rates. Normally, temper above ∼600°C for one or two
hours.

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2. Normalizing of steel

• Normalizing is an austenitising cycle followed by continuous cooling in still air

or slightly agitated air
•High-C hypereutectoid steels are, however, not always normalized from a T
above the Acm since a coarse proeutectoid cementite network tends to severely
embrittle the grain boundaries. These steels may be normalized at T just above
the A1, where γ forms but proeutectoid Fe3C does not dissolve. At elevated T
involved, the proeutectoid Fe3C tends to spherodize ∴ less harmful
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 Note: Useful for simulations

Cooling curves for round bars, 25 – 150mm diameter normalizing treatment (courtesy The Mond
Nickel Co. Ltd)

• Hence the hardness results depends on the dimensions and composition

• UTS Rm in MPa may be calculated from the carbon potential Cp:
Cp = C[1+0.5(C-0.2)]+0.15Si+Mn[0.125+0.25(C-0.2)]+P[1.25-0.5(C-0.2)]+0.2Cr+0.1Ni
Rm = 27 + 56Cp (hot rolled steel)
= 27+ 50Cp (forged steel)
= 27 + 48Cp (Cast steel)
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2.1. Applications of normalizing based on steel classification:

• All std low, medium and high-carbon wrought steels can be

normalized, as well as many castings
• Reasons for normalizing:
– To increase or decrease the hardness and strength
– Improve machinability
– Grain refinement (could either be for better properties or prep. for
hardening)
– Finer carbides (in preparation for hardening)
– Homogenisation of the microstructure (in castings; to break up
dendritic structure, reduce banded grain structure)
– Alleviating chemical segregation
– Stress relief

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2.2. Normalizing heat treatment parameters:
• Heating rate is normally not critical but if excessive, parts with large variations
in section size may suffer from distortion due to thermal stress
• Time at temperature (1 hr/25mm thickness) must be sufficient to cause
homogenization of the structure (use of models is important for dissolution of
carbides and diffusion to remove any concentration gradients within the
austenite).
• Normalizing is air cooled and
faster than furnace annealing

• Less hypoeutectoid α and

Fe3C due to less transfn. time
(don’t use Lever Rule)

• Finer microstructure (pearlite

lamellar) from normalizing

• Note the effect of component

size on cooling rate and
subsequent microstructure
 π 2 Dt 
Ln[ M ][ X ] = A +
B β(t ) = β o exp  − 2 
T  4lo 
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• In general steel containing ≤ 0.2%C receive no heat treatment after
normalizing (why?).
• However, factors like cooling rate/component size and microstructure should
be considered rather than C content alone because may affect the hardness
• Note the grade of steels and normalizing temperatures given in the notes.
(identify the phases. How can you det the vol fraction? How can you confirm the
chemical comp of the steel? Would you expect the v f to change before and after?
Motivate your answer.

Before After
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2.3. The heat treatment of carbon and low alloy steels
2.3.1. Plain-carbon steels – mild steels
• containing maximum 0.25%C and 1.0%Mn
• 1.0 – 1.7%Mn are C-Mn steels
• Case hardening heat treatment – wear and fatigue resistant surface
and tougher core
• Quenching and tempering to improve machinability and toughness

2.3.2. Carbon steels containing 0.25 to 0.55%C – medium C – steels

• Medium C-steels (max 1%Mn) or medium C-Mn steels (1 –
1.7%Mn)
• Normally used in the hardened and tempered condition
• Hardenability is very sensitive to chemical composition (C, Mn
and Si) and the austenite grain size

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 2.3.3. Carbon steels containing 0.55% to 1.0% carbon – high C steels
• Restricted applications because of poor weldability, machinability
and formability
• Due to high C content imperative to take precautions during
quenching (both water and oil) – or use martempering (100% M)
or austempering (100% B).
• Limited sections (12mm) for martempering and austempering

2.3.4. Heat treatment of alloy steels (Ni, Si, Mn, Mo, V, Cr, and B)
• Max 0.45%C, quench hardened and tempered
• For alloying elements to increase hardenability they must be in
solution i.e. the solution temp must be correct/optimum.
• Alloying elements allow lower C content without decreasing
the hardenability – allows slow cooling rates therefore less
cracks and distortion, better toughness (consider 1080 vs 4140)
• Temper resistance – higher tempering temperatures
• Temper embrittlement 200 – 375/400oC and if cooled slowly from
575oC and higher tempering T.
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2.3.5. High strength structural steels – as-rolled pearlitic structural steels (some
are C-Mn steels, high Mn steels)
• These steels are characterized by as-rolled yield strengths in the range
of 290 to 345 MPa and are not intended for quenching and
tempering.

2.3.6. Microalloyed [alloying elements (0.05 to 0.15%)] HSLA steels

• Use additions of Nb, Ti and V (sometimes also Zr or rare earth)
• Heat treatment is not required because the properties are obtained from
controlled rolling (vs. conventional rolling)
• Improved toughness (as low as DBTT of -80oC) and high yield strength
(450 – 525 MPa) is achieved through fine ferrite grain size and
precipitation hardening (Nb(CN) and V3C4.
• Additions of rare earth alloying elements modify the sulphide stringers
– improved toughness, formability
• Weldable (low C. typically 0.06 %C)
• Linepipe steels
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 2.3.7. High-strength structural carbon steels
• Are basically C-Mn-Si steels and are either normalised or
quenched and tempered to produce minimum yield strengths of
290 MPa to 690 Mpa

2.3.8. Heat treated structural low-alloy grades (Cr Mo V steels)

• These steels are produced by heating to at least 900°C, quenching
in water or oil, and tempering at >600°C to form tempered
martensite or tempered martensite plus bainite, depending on the
section thickness.
• Double temper thicker sections
• Quenched and tempered structural HSLA grades provide
minimum yield strengths of 550 to 760 MPa.

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 3. ANNEALING OF STEEL
• Involves heating to and holding at a suitable temperature
• Categories:
– Subcritical: below A1
– Intercritical: between A1 and A3
– Supercritical/full annealing: above A3
– Spherodizing

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3.2. Intercritical annealing (between A1 and A3):
• Leads to less homogeneous γ that promotes spheroidal carbides (Note:
homogeneous γ promotes lamellar carbides)
• Structure of carbide depends on transformation T
• Transformation just below A1 produces coarse spheroidal carbide or
lamellar pearlite i.e. soft microstructure.
• Lower transformation T produces finer and harder microstructure
• Homogenisation above A1 is faster with finer and evenly distributed
carbides
• Undissolved carbides and or concentration gradients promotes formation
of spheroidal rather than lamellar structures (why?)

• segregation of Mn to α-γ GB refines GB–carbides and Mn enriched γ

transforms to martensite)

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Partitioning of alloying elements during intercritical annealing:
o Mn partitions to γ while Si to α
o Mn stabilizes γ which leads to ferrite-martensite dual phase structure upon quenching

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• Effects of intercritical vs. full annealing on phase transformations:

• Suppression of bainite (disappears)

• Stabilization of γ and suppression of Ms
• Epitaxial growth of ferrite leading to higher AC3
• Suppression of pearlite
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• Note the effect of dissolution of carbides at 800 oC on Ms
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Effect of annealing temperature in the intercritical region at shorter times:

• Insensitivity of γ fraction to T due to stabilization of γ from nearly equil. C parttioning

• Sensitivity of new ferrite NF to T
• Note effect of chemistry and cooling rate on γ and NF fraction
• Speculate what would happen at longer annealing times at higher and lower Ta
•

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 Effect of cooling rate on concentration of interstitials in ferrite:

o Partitioning of N and C to α at faster CR

o Precipitation of carbides and nitrides at slower CR
o Faster CR less time for diffusion

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 TMP route during hot working:

Exit last stand with 80 to 85% α remaining γ transforms on ROT or during coiling
depending on Ms

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3.3. Supercritical/full annealing
• Full austenitization above A3 in hypoeutectoid steels but between A1 and
Acm in hypereutectoid steels (γ+Fe3C)
• In general 50oC above A3 and A1 in hypo- and hypereutectoid steels
resp.
• Long-term austenitization in hypereutectoid steels produces soft spheroidal
coarse carbides, hence, soft microstructure.
• Machinability

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3.4 General guidelines for annealing:
• More homogeneous γ , more lamellar and conversely, a less uniform g more
spheroidal

• The softest steel – AT ~55°C above A1 and transforming at <55°C below A1.

• Long times required for complete transformation at >55°C below A1, partial
transf. at higher and complete at lower T, cool rapidly after transf.

• To ensure a minimum lamellar pearlite content in annealed 0,7 to 0,9% carbon

tool steels and other low-alloy medium-carbon steels, preheat for several hours
at a temperature in the region of 30°C below the lower critical temperature (A1)
before austenitizing (why?).

• To obtain minimum hardness in annealed hypereutectoid alloy tool steels, heat

at the austenitizing temperature (typically 800 to 900oC) for a long time (about
10 to 15 hours), then cool slowly (8 to 22oC/hr) to just about 540oC.

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3.5. Spherodizing:
• Produce globular carbides which is more machinable than Fe3C in
plate/lamellar form particularly in hypereutectoid steels.
• i.e. prolonged heat treatment breaks up the pearlitic structure and Gb Fe3C

Spherodized microstructure of 1040 steel

after 21 hours at 700°C (magnification:
approximately 1000x).

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The following methods may be used to spherodize steel
• Prolonged holding at a temperature just below A1.
• Heating and cooling alternately between temperatures that are just above
Ac1 and just below Ar1
• Heating to a temperature just above Ac1, and then either cooling very
slowly in a furnace, or holding at a temperature just below Ar1.
• Cooling at a suitable rate from the minimum temperature at which all
carbide is dissolved to prevent reformation of a carbide network, and then
reheating in accordance with the first or second methods described above
(applicable to hypereutectoid steels containing a carbide network). (how do
you prevent GB Fe3C?)

• Note: The rate of spherodizing depends somewhat on the prior

microstructure, being greatest for quenched structures in which the carbide
phase is fine and dispersed.
• Prior cold work also increases the spherodizing rate (why?).

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4. STRESS RELIEF HEAT TREATING OF STEEL

• Subcritical heat treatment to relieve residual stresses (RS)

• Microstructure and mechanical properties are not altered (significantly)
• If cooling rate is not uniform in complex geometry, new RS may be
introduced.

• RS occur when component is stressed beyond elastic limit and if plastic

flow occurs, may lead to distortion or fracture in brittle materials.
• RS can also promote stress corrosion cracking (CCS)
• In general, localized RS is assumed equal to yield strength (How does
yield strength vary with temperature? after RS heat treatment, YS is
restored but not RS)

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• RS relief requires heating component to temperature where its σys reaches
acceptable levels of RS.
• RS is a time-temperature related phenomenon, correlated to Larson-Miller
i.e.
Thermal effect = T(log t + C) x 10-3 where C = 20 for most steels
where: T is temperature in K, and t is time in hours.

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Note: Relief of RS represents typical stress-relaxation behaviour, in
which the material undergoes microscopic (sometimes even macroscopic)
creep at the stress relief temperature. Creep-resistant materials therefore
normally require higher stress-relieving temperatures than conventional low-
alloy steels. Typical stress relieving temperatures for low alloy ferritic steels
are between 595°C and 675°C. For high-alloy steels these temperatures may
range from 900°C to 1065°C (why the difference?).

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4.1. Development of RS
• Last section to cool sustains tensile residual stresses.

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6. TEMPERING
• Steel is heated to subcritical temperature (i.e. below Ac1) and held there for a
fixed length of time
• As-quenched martensite is extremely brittle and of little practical value
• Quenching to form martensite may also leave RS and if tensile may be
detrimental
• Hence tempering is necessary.
– To relieve RS and ensure dimensional stability
– Improve ductility and toughness

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 Variation in toughness with testing temperature for three steel microstructures tempered to
the same tensile strength
Why quench and temper instead of directly heat treating to the desired strength
and hardness?
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6.1 The mechanism of tempering
– A redistribution of C atoms in martensite as diffusion is accelerated by
an increase in T and this occurs at temperatures between RT and ∼100°C.
The Carbon atoms tend to cluster together in the microstructure, or
segregate to defects such as dislocations.
– generally ε-carbide, ppts in the martensite matrix and lath boundaries as
very small thin rods
martensite → ε-carbide + low-carbon martensite
(BCT) (Fe2,4C, HCP) (BCT, ≈ 0,25% C)
– During this stage of tempering, the residual austenite decomposes into
lower bainite which is a mixture of ferrite and cementite/ε-carbide
– The transition carbides convert to small rod-shaped cementite particles of
Fe3C
– The ε-carbide particles redissolve in the martensite, followed by diffusion
of almost all the Carbon in the martensite to form the cementite particles
(εε-carbide + low-carbon martensite → α +Fe3C)
– This leaves a matrix of ferrite containing virtually no Carbon. This ferrite
still retains the high dislocation density of the martensite, although a
recovery process gradually starts
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 – After extended times at high T (>600°C), the rod-shaped Fe3C particles
coalesce and spherodise to form spheroidised carbide particles on the
grain boundaries
– The driving force is a reduction in surface energy (a sphere has the
lowest area-to-volume ratio of any geometrical form)
– Note the effect of the precipitation of the carbides on retained γ vis-a-vis
Ms temperature and change in component dimensions

Spheriodised cementite in a 1,1% carbon steel. Magnification: 1000x

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6.2 The effect of tempering on physical properties

For hardness T<200oC and

toughness T>400oC

Schematic representation of the change

in hardness and toughness of steel after
tempering for 1 hour at various
temperatures.

The hardness of low- and medium-

carbon martensite tempered for 1
hour at temperatures between 100°C
and 700°C.
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• 100oC to 200oC: The original as-quenched martensite starts to lose its tetragonal crystal
structure as carbon diffuses out to form ε-carbide and a low-carbon martensite. The
precipitation of ε-carbide in this temperature range may cause a slight increase in
hardness, particularly in high-carbon steels. The steel has high strength, high hardness,
low ductility and low toughness, and many of the residual stresses are relieved. Typical
applications include wear resistant components such as gears, dies and cutting tools.
• 200°°C to 400°°C: ε-carbide is converted to cementite (Fe3C), and the low-carbon
martensite transforms to BCC ferrite. Any retained austenite is transformed to lower
bainite. Hardness is reduced due to the transformation of hard martensite to softer
ferrite, and the growth of carbide particles. The tensile strength decreases slightly, but
remains high. The ductility increases somewhat, but the toughness is still low.
• 400°°C to 650°°C: Dissolves the rod-shaped Fe3C particles, and replaces them with
spherical cementite particles, followed by growth of these cementite globules. The
ferrite matrix recovers and the dislocation density decreases. The tensile strength and
hardness are reduced, the ductility increases, and toughness increases rapidly.
• 350°°C and 500°°C: Good combination of toughness and strength is obtained, and this
temper range is usually recommended for components such as springs, shafts and armour
plating.
• 500°°C and 600°°C: Lower strength but toughness improves significantly. Components
tempered in this range include pressure vessels and machine parts subjected to high
impact loading or low temperatures.
• 600°°C to 700°°C: On further heating α grains recrystallize to form an equiaxed
structure with a low dislocation density, and cementite particles spherodize and coalesce
to produce large, globular particles. This structure is very stable, soft and tough.
Tempering in this temperature range is suitable for high-carbon steels and tool steels that
require machining.

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 6.3 The interrelation between time and temperature vis-a-vis hardness

The effect of time and temperature on the

hardness of a 0.2%C tempered steel.

The microstructure and properties developed during a tempering treatment are

affected by the following variables:
• tempering temperature,
• time at temperature,
• cooling rate from the tempering temperature, and
• the composition of the steel (including the carbon content, alloy content and
residual elements).
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 P = T(C + logt) and C is
unique for a material

Temper curves indicating the influence of vanadium additions to an 0.4% carbon steel.

Hollomon-Jaffe parameter : combines temperature and time; where T is

the temper temperature in K, and t is the temper time in hours

Note: the model may not apply when there is significant amount of retained γ
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Tempering curves for various Fe – 12%Cr – Co – Mo steels after quenching to
martensite, showing a clear secondary hardness peak after tempering at between 500 and
600°C. Note that the position of the secondary hardness peak is moved towards higher
temperatures as the Co + Mo content is increased. This indicates a greater stabilisation
of the M2X precipitate against transformation to the more stable higher carbide M23C6.
Note that Co remains in solution only promotes M2X

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Note the contribution from solid solution strengthening and the secondary
hardening from precipitation of coherent MX (Mo carbide)
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 In general, temper at least 50°C
beyond the hardness peak to avoided
ductility trough.

Effect of tempering on the impact resistance showing a minimum at the peak hardness position
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7. OTHER HEAT TREATMENTS:
7.1. Austempering:
• Austenitization, fast cool in salt bath to just above Ms, hold
between 200 and 450oC to transform to 100% bainite

Schematic transformation diagram for

austempering.

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• Comparison of microstructure and mechanical properties of austempered and
conventionally quench and tempered steels as a function of the treatment temperature.

Treatment Austemper Quench and temper

temperature
Just above the Ms Lower bainite Tempered structure
(250°C–350°C) High hardness and strength, High hardness and strength, low
good toughness toughness (tempered martensite
e.g. For a 0,7%C steel: embrittlement)
Hardness: 50,4 HRC e.g. For a 0,7%C steel:
Tensile strength: 1950 MPa Hardness: 50,2 HRC
Impact toughness: 48 J Tensile strength: 1700 MPa
Impact toughness: 4 J

400°C–450°C Upper bainite Tempered structure

Low impact toughness due to Improved toughness, other
coarse needle-like structure mechanical properties
comparable to austempering
500°C (patenting) Fine pearlite Highly tempered structure
Good ductility and Good mechanical properties,
machinability, low impact high impact toughness
toughness due to pearlitic
structure
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• Advantages
– Reduced risk of distortion and quench cracking

• Disadvantages/limitations:
– It is difficult to accurately determine when the transformation is
complete (the line on the IT diagram corresponding to the end of
transformation is poorly defined).
– Salt baths are expensive, corrosive and carries a health risk.
– In high alloy steels the required transformation times are impractically
long (why).
– Only sections that can be cooled fast enough to avoid transformation to
pearlite can be austempered. Therefore, industrial application of
austempering is limited to sections less than 12 mm thick.

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7.2. Patenting (IT of fine pearlite at 500oC with good ductility
in wire drawing):

• In wire manufacture, patenting is defined as a heat treatment applied to

medium- and high-carbon steels (0.6 – 1.1%C) before drawing the wire or
between drafts.
• Austenitization and then cooling to a temperature below the eutectoid
temperature in a bath of molten salt or lead.
• The objective is to form a fine pearlite structure with good ductility in order to
provide a formable structure for the wire drawing process.
• Patenting is typically performed at a temperature of ∼500°C

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 7.3. Martempering:
• Objective is to minimize distortion and cracking during quenching through T
equalization between surface and centre.
• Austenitization and then rapid cooling to a T above Ms and held in a bath of
molten salt or lead.
• Then air cooled and martensite form almost in the entire component followed by
tempering to desired hardness

Schematic transformation diagram

illustrating the martempering process.

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STEEL TYPES: STRUCTURAL, LOW
ALLOY AND TOOL STEELS
STUDY THEME 5: PART 2

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1. THE CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIFICATION OF STEEL
1.1 The classification of steels:
• Steel can be classified by type, class or grade (there are other ways)
• Type relates to process route:
– BOF (Basic Oxygen Furnace) or EAF (Electric Arc Furnace)
– Basic oxygen furnace: Used for producing structural steels and low alloy steels.
Typical route: Blast furnace or direct reduction process → basic oxygen furnace
(BOF)
– Electric arc furnace: Mainly used for special alloy steels. Typical route: Scrap
metal/pig iron (DRI) → electric arc furnace → vacuum degassing (H2
embrittlement)
• Class: typical application/or method of production
– E.g. Case hardening steel, corrosion and heat resistant steel, tool steel, free
machining steel, boiler steel, deep drawing steel etc
• Grade: according to composition/mechanical properties in line
with standard specs
– There are various spec systems e.g. AISI, SAE, DIN, EN, ASTM
– In South Africa the American (AISI, SAE or ASTM), German (DIN), British (BS),
European (EN) and ISO specification systems are widely used.
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The AISI-SAE system of steel designations.
Numerals and digits Steel type and nominal alloy content
Carbon steels
10XX Plain-carbon steel (1.00% max. Mn)
11XX Resulpurized steel for free-machining applications
12XX Resulpurized and rephosphorized steel (for
machinability)
15XX Plain-carbon manganese steel (1.00 to 1.65% Mn)
Manganese steels
13XX 1.75% Mn
Nickel steels
23XX 3.5% Ni
25XX 5.0% Ni
Nickel-Chromium steels
31XX 1.25% Ni; 0.65 and 0.8% Cr
32XX 1.75% Ni; 1.07% Cr
33XX 3.50% Ni; 1.50 and 1.57% Cr
34XX 3.00% Ni; 0.77% Cr
Molybdenum steels
40XX 0.20 and 0.25% Mo
44XX 0.40 and 0.52% Mo
Chromium-Molybdenum steels
41XX 0.50, 0.80 and 0.95 % Cr; 0.12, 0.20, 0.25, and 0.30%
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 2. HEAT TREATMENT OF TOOL STEELS (high quality/integrity steels)
Major alloying elements are Si, Mn, Co, Cr, Mo, Ni, V and W. Their functions are described
as follows:
Alloying elements Quenching Wear Hardenability Toughness Tempering Heat
Hardness resistance resistance resistance

C solute strongly moderately slightly negative no influence no influence

positive positive positive
undissolved moderately strongly slightly negative no influence no influence
(carbide) positive positive negative
Cr solute no influence no influence very positive no influence positive slightly
positive
as alloy slightly strongly slightly slightly no influence slightly
carbide positive positive negative negative positive
Si no influence no influence slightly no influence slightly no influence
positive positive
Mn no influence no influence very positive no influence no influence no influence
Ni no influence no influence very positive very positive no influence no influence
Mo solute no influence no influence
very positive no influence positive very positive
as alloy slightly strongly slightly slightly no influence slightly
carbide positive positive negative negative positive
W solute no influence no influence
slightly no influence positive very positive
positive
as alloy slightly strongly slightly slightly no influence slightly
carbide positive positive negative negative positive
V solute no influence no influence reasonably no influence very positive very positive
positive
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as alloy moderately strongly negative slightly no influence slightly
• The properties are primarily a function of composition and heat treatment
given to the alloy

• No single tool material combines maximum wear resistance, toughness

and resistance to softening at elevated temperatures

• Requires careful trade-off to achieve optimum properties .

• The hardenability of tool steels follows the same general rules governing other
alloy steels – the higher the alloy content, the greater the hardenability

2.1. Classification of and commonly used tool steels

• Refer to table 6 and 7 respectively in the notes.

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 Table 6. AISI classification system for tool steels.
Identifying
Name Type Properties Uses
symbol
Water-hardening Tough core; hard wear- Cutlery, trim dies, cold header dies, wood
W Plain carbon
tool steels resistant surface chisels, hand punches
Blank and trim dies, chisels, rivet sets,
Shock-resisting tool Excellent toughness; high
S Medium-carbon, low-alloy forming rolls, slitting cutters, structural
steels strength
applications
Oil-hardening cold Wear resistant to moderate Dies and punches where high temperatures
O Oil-hardening
work tool steels temperatures are not generated
Air-hardening,
Medium-alloy, air- Minimum distortion and
medium-alloy cold A Dies, punches and forming rolls
hardening cracking on quenching
work tool steels
High-carbon, high-
High-carbon, high- High hardness; excellent Shear blades, long-run stamping dies and
chromium cold work D
chromium wear resistance brick applications
tool steels
Low-alloy, special- High toughness; good Arbors, cams, chucks, spindles, drift pins,
L Low-alloy
purpose tool steels strength cold-forming rolls, slitting cutters
Low hardness; low
Dies and moulds for low-temperature die
Mould steels P Low-carbon resistance to work-
casting and for moulds for plastics
hardening

Hot work tool steels, Chromium (H1-H19) Good toughness; good High-stressed components and high-
chromium, tungsten H Tungsten (H20-H39) resistance to softening at temperature extrusion dies (may be water
and molybdenum Molybdenum (H40-H59) elevated temperatures cooled in service without cracking)

Cutting tools and high-temperature

Tungsten high-speed High hardenability and
T Tungsten structural components, drills, reamers,
tool steels hardness
broaches, milling cutters, punches and dies

Molybdenum high- High hardenability and Piercing punches, cutting tools, twist drills,
M Molybdenum
speed tool steels hardness planer tools, insert cutter blades
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2.2. General heat treatment of tool steels
2.2.1. Normalizing: to conditions the steel for subsequent spherodizing, annealing or hardening.
• Heat above A3 or Acm and air cool
• Not recommended for any tool steel that hardens in air (why?).
• Note the double quench – what happens and why is it important?

Heat treatment cycles required to produce tool steels. (a) Thermomechanical processing, and
(b) hardening heat treatment. (A: austenite, C: cementite, F: ferrite, L: liquid). (why anneal
just above A3, why preheat)
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2.2.2. Stress relieving
• Quenching (cooling rate/practice) and machining are the source of RS
• Stress relieving decreasing the probability of distortion or cracking during
subsequent hardening
• Hardened steels can be stress relieved at temperatures between 510oC and
590oC

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2.2.3. Austenitization of tool steels
• Excessively high temperatures or abnormally long holding times may result in
excessive distortion, abnormal grain growth, loss of ductility and low strength
• AT determines the hardenability, Ms-temperature, retained austenite
content and secondary hardening potential of the tool steel (HOW?)
• All tool surfaces must be free of decarburization prior to and during heat
treatment (Why?).

• Figure below:
• With increasing AT more alloying elements go into solution, the Ms-
temperature drops, and more austenite is retained at room temperature. As
a result, the as-quenched hardness is reduced and subzero cooling has a
greater effect.
• Tempering will raise the hardness of as-quenched structures through a
combination of retained austenite transformation and secondary hardening.

• Preheating of large components: is employed as a safeguard against cracking or

severe distortion due to thermal shock and temperature gradients
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Hardness as a function of tempering temperature for as-quenched, quenched and subzero cooled
to -80°C, and quenched and subzero cooled to -180°C A2 tool steels for austenitizing
temperatures of (a) 950°C, (b) 1000°C, (c) 1050°C, and (d) 1100°C. (which is better SZ or DT?)
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2.2.3. Quenching:
• May be performed in water, brine, oil, salt, inert gas, or air
• QM with a cooling capacity that exceeds requirements is not recommended
because of the possibility of cracking or distortion
• Air hardening tool steels are frequently hot quenched (QM T above ambient)
to the range of 540°C to 650°C after austenitizing. Why?
– To minimize/prevent distortion and hard scale
• Martempering is often utilized to minimize distortion in oil-hardening tool steels
or in extremely thin sections of water-hardening tool steels

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