University of Manchester

School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering

Aerospace and Mechanical Systems
Dr D.A. Bond
Pariser Bldg. C/21
e-mail: d.bond@umist.ac.uk
Tel: 0161 306 8733

UNIVERSITY OF
MANCHESTER
1st YEAR LECTURE NOTES
AEROSPACE AND MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

§ 1: ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
§ 2: AUTOMOTIVE POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
§ 3: AEROSPACE POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - What is an Engineering System?

1. What is an Engineering System?

An engineering system is a set of components that function together to perform a required duty.
Systems may be large or small and are defined by precise boundaries of theoretical or physical
form. System boundaries are chosen to concentrate attention on the system of interest. Two types
of information cross the system boundaries; input and output. In the simplest situation there will
be a single system input and single output however most engineering systems are complex and
may involve multiple inputs and outputs.
Consider the following examples
• Chemical plant: The system may be the production process required to produce plutonium
fuel for a power generating reactor. The components of the system would be dissolving
vessels, mixers, precipitation vessels, filtration and other components.
• Aircraft: The total transportation system of an aircraft may comprise, wings, fuselage,
power-plant, stabilisers, rudder undercarriage, environmental control etc.
• Automobile: As with aircraft an automobile is comprised of many interoperating systems
eg: power-plant, brakes, wheels, suspension drive train, fuel system
Within these higher level systems there may be lower level systems. Whilst at a lower level these
‘sub’-systems still fall into the description of a system provided thay are comprised of multiple
components. Consider the following examples of sub-systems within an automobile propulsion
system:
• Engine - which has further sub-systems including ignition, exhaust, air intake, cooling.
• Gearbox – with sub-systems such as driveshafts and gears, mechnical levers.
• Clutch – comprised of clutch plates, springs, hydraulic actuators, mechanical levers.
• Differential/Final-drive – with planet gears, drive gears, bearings, housings.
• Propshaft – including bearings, couplings and possibly CV or universal joints.
• Axle – including bearings, couplings and possibly CV or universal joints.
• Wheels – which includes bearings, tyres, rims.
• Brakes – which may comprise brake levers, pads, rotation sensors, hydraulic cylinders.
The above systems and sub-systems are not an exhaustive set for each case but are indicative of
the breadth of mechanical or electrical hardware that may comprise a system. It is therefore
possible to define systems of very different types. The essential principle is that the boundary of a
system is precisely and clearly defined.
Size does not define a system; in fact large systems may be formed by a set of smaller systems, as
in the case of transport or in the chemical plant above. In most systems it is possible to identify
‘levels’ of increasing engineering detail until a fundamental component is reached. However the
objective of this course is not to discuss at length the relationship between systems, level of sub-
systems and components, but rather to study how components make a contribution to the function
of systems and how systems perform.
The course is a mixture of quantitative and qualitative topics which shall explore a number of
aspects of different engineering fields. Engineering analysis will be limited to simple cases or
simplified components but will be the starting point for more detailed analyses which will be
covered in future years.

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - What is an Engineering System?

1.2 Relationship to Systems Engineering

The concepts of Systems Engineering are followed to some extent in this course in that we look
at the performance of a system rather than the individual parts that comprise the system.
"Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of
successful systems. It focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the
development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system
validation while considering the complete problem: Operations, Performance, Test,
Manufacturing, Cost & Schedule, Training & Support, and Disposal."
International Council On Systems Engineering
"A branch of engineering which concentrates on the design and application of the whole as
distinct from the parts… looking at a problem in its entirety, taking account of all the facets and
all the variables and linking the social to the technological."
Ramo S. in Stevens et al, 1998, Systems Engineering: Coping With Complexity', Prentice Hall Europe
"An interdisciplinary approach encompassing the entire technical effort to evolve and verify an
integrated and life-cycle balanced set of system people, product and process solutions that satisfy
customer needs."
Shishko, R, NASA Systems Engineering Handbook, 1995.

1.3 Course examples

This course draws heavily on engineering examples from Transport systems and will cover
examples relevant to both Mechanical and Aeronautical applications. Where the dual purpose of a
system is not obvious please ASK where such a system may be employed in the application of
your interest.

Figure 1-1: Aircraft Structural, Propulsion and Control Systems

The two most obvious and fundamental industries to the Mechanical and Aeronautical courses
will be used to provide the majority of the examples for analysis; Aircraft and Automobiles.

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - What is an Engineering System?

Before we start into the analysis and consideration of systems within these transport devices it is
worth considering at a higher level the similarity of systems used in the two devices.

Generic Generic Purposes Automobile Examples Aero Examples

System
Structure • Hold other systems together. Body/Chassis Fuselage
• Provide an environment for payload. Wheels Wings
• Crash protection Undercarriage
• Support vechicle in/on medium of
travel
Propulsion • Propels vehicle IC Engines IC Engines
Gas Turbine Engines
Provides power for other Rockets
applications
Fuel • Supply an appropriate quantity of fuel Fuel Injection/Carburettor Fuel Injection/Carburettor
to the propulsion system
• Maintain efficiency of propulsion
system
• Monitor usage of fuel source
Hydraulic/P • To control motion of structure via Brake System/Master Control Surface Deflection
neumatic actuators Cylinder Brakes
Some clutch systems G-Suit
Electrical • Power distribution in the vehicle Lighting Lighting
Heating Heating
Some component actuation
Instrumenta • Provide information on performance Tachometer HSI
tion Fuel gauges Airspeed Indicator
Nav Instruments

These are all very generic systems within not only transport systems but any operation that
requires power to be supplied from a fuel source, control of a process or actuation of components.
The systems breakdown is not limited to mechanical devices but also can be used to consider
biological systems such as in a human.
This course will focus on the propulsion systems as they contain many examples of complex
system applications. In particular the course will look at:
• Auto Power Transmission Systems – including engines, turbochargers, clutches, gearboxes,
differentials
• Aero propulsion systems – propeller driven, gas turbine, turbocharged engines
• Braking Systems – Disc and drum brake mechanisms
• Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems – Hydraulic actuators and G-suits
Questions
Try to think of equivalent systems in a human that match onto the generic systems listed in the
table above.

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems – Automotive Power Transmission System

2. Automotive Power Transmission System

2.1 System elements
The power transmission system of a truck, car or motorcycle is an integrated set of carefully
matched components from engine to wheels. The principal elements for a vehicle with two
driving wheels are:

ENGINE CLUTCH GEARBOX DIFFERENTIAL WHEELS

Figure 2-1: Principal Elements in Power Transmission System

2.2 Engines
2.2.1 Principle of Operation of Automotive Internal Combustion (IC) engines
2.2.1.1 Four stroke cycle

Figure 2-2: Four Stroke Engine Cycle

(after Anderson J.D., Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw Hill,1999)

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

Prior to arriving at the engine cylinder air is drawn into the engine through the carburettor, where
fuel is added. The resultant fuel-air mixture is then ducted to the top of the engine, ready to be
drawn into the cylinder through the intake (see Figure 2-2). Once at this stage the four stoke cycle
begins. The four stages (which correspond to an up or down motion of the piston – also known as
a stroke) are:
a. Induction/Intake Stroke – where the piston moves downwards, sucking the available fuel-
air mixture through an opened valve into the area at the top of the cylinder known as the
combustion chamber. The sucking process continues all the time that the piston moves
down the cylinder.
b. Compression Stroke – where the inlet valve closes and the piston moves upwards,
compressing the fuel-air mixture (consequently increasing the temperature of the fuel air
mixture). As the piston approaches the top of the stroke, known as Top Dead Centre (TDC),
spark from the spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture, causing it to combust. The
combustion process increases the pressure of the mixture and the burning mixture wants to
expand.
c. Power/Work Stroke - the burning/expanding gases force the piston downwards providing
power for the engine to supply less a component that is used to power the other three
strokes in the other cylinders of the engine.
d. Exhaust Stroke- where the exhaust valve opens and the piston moves upwards expelling the
burnt gases out of the cylinder at high velocity.
Less formally, the four strokes are sometimes called ‘Suck’, ‘Squeeze’, ‘Bang’, ‘Blow’.
A four-stroke engine may have any number of cylinders from one upwards. However, most are
arranged in pairs as paired cylinders make an engine easier to balance. Most engines use part of
the power generated in the power stroke to rotate a heavy flywheel to keep the rotation smooth
and to keep the crankshaft turning during the "non-power" strokes.
Questions
• What is the purpose of the carburettor and how does it work?
• Consider the Perfect Gas Laws (PV=nRT) and understand why and to what extent the
temperature must rise when the fuel/air gas mixture is compressed.
• How does a camshaft operate and what is its main purpose?
2.2.1.2 Two stroke
The mechanics of a two-stroke engine are more simple than those of a 4 stroke engine. Unlike the
four-stroke engine, the complete cycle takes only one upstroke and one downstroke of the piston,
so some of the four stages of operation must occur simultaneously.
a. Induction/Intake Stage – The fuel and air are mixed in the carburettor in the usual way, but
instead of being sucked into the top of the cylinder, the fuel/air mixture is drawn into the
crankcase by the vacuum created during the upward stroke of the piston. The pressure
imbalance caused by the vacuum being created causes the inlet poppet valve to open
allowing fuel into the crankcase.
b. Compression Stage – while the upwards motion of the piston is drawing in a new fuel air
mixture, a previous mixture is being compressed above the piston. The upwards motion of
the piston in a single cylinder two-stroke engine is driven by a flywheel. The crankcase is
connected to the combustion chamber in the cylinder by an inlet port (also known as a

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

transfer port) and to the exhaust manifold by the exhaust port. In the induction and
compression stages of the cycle both ports are covered, sealing the cylinder and allowing
the new charge of fuel-air mix to be drawn in and the previous mix to be compressed.
c. Power/Work Stage - At the top of the upstroke the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture and
the burning fuel expands, driving the piston downward. During the downward stroke the
poppet valve is forced closed by the increased crankcase pressure. As the piston moves
down the inlet and exhaust ports are uncovered (replicating the function of the valves in the
four-stroke engine).
d. Exhaust Stage – as the inlet port is now open the compressed fuel/air mixture in the
crankcase moves through the port (around the piston) and into the cylinder. This addition of
the new fuel/air mixture expels the burnt exhaust gasses out the exhaust port. Unfortunately
though, some of the fresh fuel mixture is usually expelled as well.

Figure 2-3: Two Stroke Cycle

Questions
• How is the lubrication of a two-stroke engine different to that of a four-stroke engine and
why does that mean you should not use two-stroke fuel in a four-stroke engine?
• What would be more efficient a two-stroke or four stroke engine? Why?
2.2.2 Turbocharger
Turbochargers compress the air being fed into an engine thus forcing more air into a cylinder
during the induction stroke. The increased amount of oxygen in the compressed air means that
additional fuel may be added (the fuel/air mix ratio being fixed at a ratio such that the fuel air
combustion process consumes all or nearly all of the fuel).This allows more power to be
generated during each power stroke and hence more power will be available from the engine. A
turbocharged engine produces more power overall than the same engine without a turbocharger.
A parameter used to assess the impact of turbocharger is the power-to-weight ratio for an engine.
The weight of a transport engine is directly related to the amount of energy required to propel it.

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

So as high as possible a power-to-weight ratio for an engine is ideal. A turbocharger is quite light
but adds quite a lot of power to an engine and so helps increase an engines power-to-weight ratio.
The turbocharger is connected to the engine exhaust manifold and uses the high velocity exhaust
gas flow from the engine to spin a turbine, which then drives an air compressor. Turbocharger
turbines operate at speeds over 120,000 rpm.

Figure 2-4: The Turbocharger System (from www.howsttuffworks.com)

Figure 2-5: A Turbocharger Operation (from www.howsttuffworks.com)

A Turbocharger may increase the pressure of the engine inlet air by around 7psi (this is
approximately 50% of the normal atmospheric air pressure 14.7psi). This then allows almost 50%
more air and fuel to be added to the cylinder. However 50% more energy is not produced due to
inefficiencies in the system and restricted exhaust flow. Performance increases of 30-40% are
more typical.
As will be examined in future lectures on gas turbine engines, the power to spin the turbine and
compress the inlet air must come out of the additional power provided. This is seen through the
turbine making it more difficult to force the exhaust gases out so the engine has to use part of its
power stroke energy to drive the exhaust gases out.
A turbocharger also helps at high altitudes where the air is less dense. Normally aspirated engines
will have reduced power at high altitudes for exactly the opposite reason why turbochargers

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

increase power. The air-pressure is lower, the air density less hence less air is sucked into a
cylinder during an induction stroke. A turbocharger overcomes this problem and although a
turbocharged engine may also have reduced power at high altitudes (as the same inlet fuel/air
pressure cannot be achieved from the lower starting air pressure), the reduction will be
significantly less as the less dense air is easier for the turbocharger to compress thus requiring
less energy from the engine.
2.2.3 Supercharger
A supercharger is similar to a turbocharger in that they are both forced induction systems that
compress the air flowing into an engine. Also like a turbocharger the supercharger relies upon a
rotating air compressor to provide the compression. Where the turbocharger uses the engine
exhaust gases to spin a turbine to drive the compressor, a supercharger is connected via a belt
directly to the engine. A supercharger provides a similar boost in inlet fuel/air mix pressure
(approx 7psi) to that of a turbocharger.
Theoretically a turbocharger is more efficient because it makes use of the energy contained in the
exhaust gas flow that would otherwise simply be lost to the environment. However the exhaust
back-pressure that this creates reduces the efficiency of a turbocharger such that the net additional
power provided is slightly less than that of a supercharger when installed on an engine operating
at relatively low speeds (rpm). At higher engine speeds (rpm) a turbocharger becomes more
efficient and is the preferred method for boosting the performance of high-speed engines.
Questions.
• How do the operating speeds of a turbine compare to those of the overall engine?
• What operating temperature would you expect a turbocharger turbine to operate at and how
would that affect the design and manufacture of a turbine?
• What might be some of the critical design issues with a turbine due to its high operating
speeds?
• What happens when a turbo ‘blows-up’ and how might the driver recognise it?
• Can a turbocharger be added to a normal road vehicle?
• Why are aero engines turbocharged?
2.2.4 Measuring Power, Torque and Speed of an Engine
The power (P) transmitted by an engine shaft is the product of the torque (T) and the rotational
speed ( ).
P = Tω (2.1)
where Power has SI units of Watts (W= Nm/s), Torque SI units of Newton Metres (Nm) and
rotational speed SI units of Radian per Second (rad/sec).

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

Example:
If an engine develops 70Nm of Torque at 3000 rpm the power generated by the engine is:

70 × 3000 × 2π
P= = 22.0kW = 29.5hp
60
where
2π
ω = RPM ×
60
1hp = 0.7457kW

The Torque generated at the output of the crankshaft can be measured at different engine speeds
to produce what are known as Torque curves for an engine. Consider the example below for a
1996 1.5l turbo-charged Honda F1 engine. This data may be used to calculate the maximum
power output of the engine over the operating engine speeds.

800 800

700 700
Torque (Nm)

Power (kW)
600 600

500 500

400 400

300 300
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Engine Speed (x1000 rpm)

Figure 2-6: Torque curve for a Honda F1 engine

Note the speed range of the engine shown is much higher than for a normal road vehicle.
Questions:
• Why is a high engine speed attractive?
• What are the disadvantages of high engine speeds?

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

2.3 Clutch
2.3.1 Introduction
The clutch provides the means of separating the engine from the drive train when a vehicle needs
to be at rest or when changing gear. A very common design consists of two plates pressed
together by a spring. Torque is transmitted from one plate to the other through friction. The clutch
plates are separated by forcing one plate back against the spring and separating the connection
between plates (this is of course what you do when you depress the clutch pedal in a car).

Figure 2-7: Diaphragm Spring Clutch

The above described clutch is known as a single plate dry clutch. In industrial applications, a
different arrangement is often used. The clutch plates can be immersed in oil. The oil reduces
wear as the clutches engage and disengage machinery quickly. Clearly the coefficient of friction
is reduced considerably therefore multiple clutch plates are used to improve torque capacity.
There are clutch designs that also use multiple clutch plates without being immersed in oil.

Figure 2-8: Multiple Plate Clutch

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

Note the multiple clutch plates must be free to move axially on their shaft in order that each plate
has the contact force of the spring. If the plates were not free to move axially then the spring
contact force would be shared between the plates thus reducing the torque capacity.
2.3.2 Clutch Analysis
Figure 2-9 shows a friction disk having an outside diameter D and an inner diameter d. A
simplified analysis may be used to determine the axial force F necessary to transfer a certain
Torque T.

dA

r dr
D d F

Figure 2-9: Simplified Sketch of Clutch Plate

Two methods of solving this problem exist:

• Uniform Wear – If the disk is assumed to be rigid then the greatest amount of wear will
first occur in the outer areas of the plate where the work done by friction is greatest (as the
outer rotates at a higher linear velocity). After a certain amount of wear the pressure
distribution will change so as to permit wear to be uniform.
• Uniform Pressure – A simpler method of analysis but which requires a complex design for
the clutch assumes that the pressure distribution across the plate is kept uniform.
2.3.2.2 Uniform wear analysis
After initial wear the pressure exerted on the plate will be greatest at r = d/2 in order for the wear
to be uniform. Define this maximum pressure as Pmax. Wear is proportional to work, work is
equivalent to a force multiplied by a distance and the distance a point at radius r travels in a given
time relative to the inside radius is equivalent to the ratio of the radii (as Vr = r). This allows the
pressure at any point to be written as:
d /2
P = Pmax (2.2)
r
The elemental Force (dF) being applied on elemental area dA(= 2 rdr) is simply the pressure at
radius r multiplied by dA. Thus the total Force may be found by integrating of the range r = d/2 to
r = D/2:

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

D/2
F= ∫ dF
d /2
D/2
= ∫ P.2π r.dr
d /2
D/2
d /2
= ∫P max 2π r .dr (2.3)
d /2
r
D/ 2
= Pmaxπd ∫ dr
d /2

P πd
= max (D − d )
2
The torque that this clutch is able to transfer is found by integrating the product of the elemental
Friction Force (dFf = dF with = coefficient of Friction between the clutch plates) and the
radius that it acts at (r):
D/ 2
T= ∫ µrdF
d /2
D/ 2
d/2
= ∫ µrP max
r
2π r .dr
d /2 (2.4)
D/2
= µPmaxπd ∫ r.dr
d/2

µPmaxπd µF
=
8
(D 2
)
−d2 =
4
(D + d )
2.3.2.3 Uniform Pressure Analysis
A similar approach may be used considering the pressure to be uniformly distributed to give:
πPuniform
F=
4
(D 2
−d2 ) (2.5)

πµPuniform
T=
12
(D 3
−d3 ) (2.6)

Questions
• What effect would using multiple clutch plates have on the size of a clutch required to
transfer a given torque?
• What effect would using a stiffer clutch spring have on the Torque able to be transferred by
a clutch?
• Is the simplified clutch described above any different to a simple disc brake? If not could a
similar analysis be used for a disc brake?

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2.4 Gearbox

Figure 2-10: Four-speed Gearbox

The detail design of gearboxes is beyond the scope of this course and their study will be confined
to gear ratios to match engine power to vehicle performance.
The power transmission system provides the drive from the engine to the wheels. An engine may
operate at speeds of 1000 rpm to 7000rpm for a road vehicle (and as shown earlier even higher
for performance vehicles). Typically a road wheel has a rolling radius (r) of approximately 0.25m
(measured from the ground to the centre of the wheel). The speed of the wheel is therefore:
ω =V /r (2.7)
where V is the road speed.

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

Therefore for road speeds up to 120mph, varies from 0 to 215rad/sec or 2049 rpm. The
transmission system must match 1000-7000rpm for the engine to 0-2000rpm for the wheels.
Disengaging the clutch enables the engine to run whilst the rest of the transmission system is
stationary.
The possible gear ratio range varies from approximately 15:1 (= 5000:341 considering 20mph in
first gear say at 5000rpm engine speed) to approximately 3.5:1 (= 3800:1170 considering 70mph
at 3800 rpm engine speed).
Gearboxes generally operate most efficiently when they do not have to perform large speed
variations. If the final drive has a speed reduction of about 4:1 then the gearbox does not have to
operate at high gear ratios. Typically differential gears have gear reduction rations of about 4:1
for automobiles.
Let the engine speed (also the input speed to the gearbox) be 1, the output speed of the gearbox
be 2 (also the input speed to the final-drive) and the output speed of the final drive be 3 which
is also the speed of the wheels.
The relationship between the engine speed and the wheel speed is then:
ω1 ω 2
ω1 = ω3
ω2 ω3
= gearbox ratio × final − drive ratio × wheel speed (2.8)
V
= gearbox ratio × final − drive ratio ×
r
From this equation the gearbox ratios may be calculated:
Consider a typical road car
Gearbox Ratios
First 3.25:1
Second 1.90:1
Third 1.25:1
Fourth 0.937:1
Fifth 0.771:1
Final-drive 4.25:1

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Example:
The speed of the car may be calculated for a given engine speed. Assume that the rolling radius
of the wheel is 0.25m calculate the speed of the car (in all gears) at an engine speed of 4700rpm.
V
ω1 = gearbox ratio × final − drive ratio ×
r
ω1r
⇒V =
gearbox ratio × final − drive ratio
4700 × 260π × 0.25
⇒V = = 8.9 m / s = 19.9 mph
3.25 × 4.25
Similarly for second, third, fourth and fifth gear the speeds are 34, 51, 69 and 84mph. Check
these calculations.
Questions:
• If the maximum engine Torque is developed at 4700rpm, are these gearbox ratios a good
choice?
• At maximum engine speed of 7000rpm, the car is expected to travel at 125mph (is there
sufficient power available?)

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2.5 Differential/Final-drive

Figure 2-11: Final-drive (Differential) Locations on modern automobiles (from www.howsttuffworks.com)

The detail design of the final drive is also beyond the scope of this course but we shall consider
its functionality. The function of components is, of course, an essential aspect to the
understanding of system performance.
The 'final drive' is a differential gearbox that distributes the drive to the two driven wheels. On a
front engine, rear wheel car drive the differential is often incorporated into a back axle or as a
separate gearbox at the back if the car has independent rear suspension. On a front engine, front
wheel drive car the final drive is usually incorporated into the gearbox housing but it can be
located at the points where the drive shaft couplings 'emerge' from the gearbox.

Figure 2-12: Transfer of Torque by a Differential Gearbox

The differential serves several purposes.

• It is a final, fixed reduction gear in the drive system to match engine speed to wheel speed.
• It creates two drive shafts to the wheels from a single drive input from the gearbox.
• It allows the driven wheels to rotate at different speeds. Travelling in a straight line both
wheels must rotate at the same speed. Around a bend though, the inside wheel must rotate
more slowly than the outside wheel.

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Figure 2-13: Variation in distance travelled by internal and external wheels:

If the differential did not perform this last task the wheels would be locked together and rotate at
the same speed all of the time. For a vehicle to turn, one tyre would have to slip. With modern
tyres and sealed roads, a great deal of force is required to make a tire slip. That force would have
to be transmitted through the axle from one wheel to another, putting a heavy strain on the axle
components and greatly increasing the wear rate on the tyres.

Figure 2-14: Rear Differential

On front wheel drive vehicles, the differential unit is normally part of the transaxle assembly. On
rear wheel drive vehicles, it is part of the rear axle assembly. A differential unit is usually
contained within a cast iron casting known as the differential case. Located inside the case are the
differential pinion shafts and gears and the axle (or wheel) side gears.

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When an automobile is moving straight ahead, both wheels are free to rotate. Engine power is
applied to the pinion gear, which rotates the ring gear. Beveled pinion gears are carried around by
the ring gear and rotate as one unit. Each axle receives the same power, so each wheel turns at the
same speed.

Figure 2-15: Operation of a Differential

When the car turns a sharp corner, only one wheel rotates freely. Torque still comes in on the
pinion gear and rotates the ring gear, carrying the bevelled pinions around with it. However, one
axle is held stationary (or rotate more slowly) and the bevelled pinions are forced to rotate on
their own axis and "walk around" the slower rotating axle side gear gear. The other side is forced
to rotate more rapidly because it is subjected to the sum of the of the ring gear rotation and the
rotation of the pinion gears walking about the other axle axis.
To prevent a loss of power on slippery surfaces, a differential lock is often used to lock the two
axles together until the slippery spot is passed, at which point they are released. These
differentials are referred as to limited-slip or traction-lock differentials. When the car is
proceeding in a straight line, the differential gears are locked against rotation due to gear reaction.
When the vehicle turns a corner or a curve, the differential pinion gears rotate around the
differential pinion shaft. The differential pinion gears allow the inside axle shaft and driving
wheels to slow down. On the opposite side, the pinion gears allow the outside wheels to

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accelerate. Both driving wheels resume equal speeds when the vehicle completes the corner or
curve. This differential action improves vehicle handling and reduces driving wheel tire wear.
Example
The tooth numbers for the automotive differential shown below are N2=17, N3=54, N4=11,
N5=N6=16. If the drive shaft turns at 1200rpm what is the speed of the right hand wheel if it is
jacked up and free to rotate and the left wheel remains on the road surface?

Figure 2-16: Schematic of a rear differential (after Shigley, J.E., Mechnical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, 1975)

− The ring gear rotates 17/54th of a rotation for every rotation of the drive shaft =
1200×17/54=378rpm.
− As the Left Hand wheel is locked gear 5 does not move.
− During one rotation of the ring gear the planet gears will rotate about their axis 16/11 times
because of their interaction with the stationary left hand axle gear (No 5) =
378×16/11=550rpm.
− If the planet gears were to remain stationary about the wheel axis their rotation about their
own axis would cause the right hand axle gear (No 6) to rotate at a speed 11/16th of the
planet gears i.e. = 550×11/16=378rpm.
− Added to this planet gear “walking” rotation is the overall ring gear rotation of 378rpm
therefore the total rotational speed of the right hand axle = 378 + 378 = 756rpm.
Questions
• Why might the trait of differential gearboxes illustrated in the example above not be
beneficial for car performance (especially in the wet or in boggy conditions)
• How do modern vehicle overcome this problem

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2.6 Performance

2.6.1 Power
The engine develops a certain amount of power and torque depending on its speed of operation
(and the fuel input).
The torque T produced at the wheels gives a force F = T/r where r is the rolling radius of the
wheel. F provides:
• a means of accelerating the car (F = ma), and
• a means of climbing hills, F>mg.sin for the vehicle to move at all up the slope, the extra
force is available for acceleration ( is the inclination of the slope).
The power produced by the engine determines the rate at which a vehicle can work. At constant
speed, the power of the engine determines the maximum vehicle speed considering the rate of
which work is done:
• raising the mass of the vehicle (climbing a hill), overcoming drag from the air,
• overcoming rolling resistance, and
• overcoming losses in the power transmission systems.
Example:
Calculate the power required to drive a car of mass 1300kg up a hill of inclination of 10˚ at 18
m/s (approx 40 mph).
Power = Work / time
= Force × Distance/Time
= Force ×Velocity
= 1300 × 9.81× sin10 × 18
= 39.86kW
= 53hp
So, unless a vehicle has a power output greater than 53hp it cannot climb a 10˚ slope at 40 mph.
Question
• How does power to weight ratios of vehicles affect their hill climbing capabilities.
2.6.2 Resistance to motion
The drag D due to wind resistance is given by
D = C d .½AρV 2 (2.9)
where:
• Cd = drag coefficient (no units, derived by experiment or Computational Fluid Dynamics
and depends on detail shape),
• A = frontal area of the vehicle,
• = density of air (1.2 kg/m3 at sea level) and
• V = velocity (m/s) of air over the vehicle.

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Example
Calculate the power required to overcome drag on a car with a Cd of 0.35 travelling at 100 mph
(45 m/s) in still air if the frontal area of the car is 2.5m2.
D = (0.35).(0.5).(2.5).(1.2).(45)2 = 1063N
The power required to overcome the drag force = D × V
Power = 1063.(45) = 47.8kW = 64hp
Think about the size of this answer, it is a large amount of power for a car just to overcome drag.
Remember that there must be an excess of power for rapid acceleration or towing applications.
If the rolling resistance of the vehicle is 120N and is independent of speed, then the power
required to overcome rolling resistance is 120.(45) = 5.4kW = 7.2 hp. Which means the total
power required to travel at 100mph is approximately 71hp.
2.7 Web References:
a. http://www.howstuffworks.com/sc-engines-automotive.htm
b. http://www.keveney.com/Engines.html
c. http://www.familycar.com/auto101.htm
d. http://www.autoshop-online.com/auto101
e. http://www.ogura-clutch.com/whatsnew/feature5.html
f. http://www.turbointernational.com
g. http://www.mercedes-benz.com/e/cars/e-class-t/facts_m2.htm

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Tutorial Sheet 1: Automotive Power Transmission System

i. Explain the 4T and 2T IC engine cycles.
ii. Over what speed range does a modern car engine operate? Explain briefly two principal
factors that limit the speed of engines.
iii. Name the elements in an automotive power transmission system. What functions does the
final drive ('differential' gearbox) perform in the power transmission system of a car?
iv. A Harley-Davidson Sportster 883 develops a maximum torque of 6INm at 2500rpm.
Calculate the power output at this speed. If the torque reduces to 50Nm at 5000rpni,
calculate the power developed at 5000 rpm.
Answers (16kW/21.8hp, 26.2kW/35. 7hp)
v. A Kawasaki GPZ 500S develops a maximum torque of 46.1Nm at 8500rpm. Calculate the
power developed at 8500 rpm. The maximum power developed by the engine is 44.1 kW at
9800rpm, calculate the torque developed at this speed.
Answers (41kW/55.8hp, 43Nm)
vi. A typical ' hot hatch' saloon car might develop 130 bhp (Brake horse power, the power
output at the dynamometer brake) and have a mass of 900 kg. A typical sports/all rounder
motorcycle, eg Honda CB 500, has a power output of 55bhp and a mass of 170 kg.
Calculate the power to weight ratio of the two machines and comment on their expected
performances.
vii. Calculate the power - engine speed characteristic from the torque curves for the following
two engines, Explain why one of the engines will need more gears than the other for
effective driving.

160 120
150
110
140
130 100
Torque (Nm)

Power (kW)
120
90
110
100 80

90 70
80
60
70
60 50
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Engine Speed (x1000 rpm)

Figure 2-17: Torque Curves

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Aerospace and Mechanical Systems - Automotive Power Transmission System

viii. Derive the uniform pressure expressions for Force and Torque for a single plate dry clutch.
Answers (see eqns 2.5 and 2.6
ix. A single dry plate clutch has a single pair of mating surfaces 300mm outer diameter by 225
mm internal diameter. The coefficient of friction in 0.25 and the maximum pressure is
825kPa. Find the torque capacity using:
a) the uniform wear assumption
b) the uniform pressure assumption.
Answers (718Nm, 842Nm)
x. A single dry plate clutch has a single pair of mating friction surfaces, is 200m outside
diameter and 100mm inside diameter and has a coefficient of friction of 0.30. What is the
maximum pressure corresponding to an actuation force of 15kN? Use both the uniform
wear and uniform pressure assumption.
Answers (955kPa, 637kPa)
xi. A car has a gear ratio of 0.8:1 in fifth gear, a final drive ratio of 3.9:1 and a wheel rolling
radius of 0.29. Calculate the engine revs per 10mph of road speed in fifth gear. If the top
speed is 115 mph, at what is the engine speed?
Answers (459.2rev/10mph, 5281rpm)
xii. Calculate the required gearbox ratios for the following conditions.
Gear Road Speed
(mph)
1 18
2 25
3 33
4 46
for an engine speed in each case of 3000rpm, a final drive ratio of 4:1 and a wheel rolling
radius of 0.25m
Answers:(2.44:1, 1.757.1, 1.33:1, 0.955:1)
xiii. Plot a graph of the drag force on a vehicle against the vehicle speed (cover the values at 10
mph, 30mph, 50mph, 70mph, 90mph, 110mph, 130mph, 150mph). Assume that the frontal
area of the vehicle is 2.0m2 and that the vehicle has a Cd of 0.35. The density of air is
1.2kg/m3.
Answers (8.9, 75.5,210, 411, 680, 1015, 1418, 1888 N)
Take note of this result, gain a feel for the numbers.
xiv. Calculate the power required to overcome the drag of the vehicle in Q(xiii) at 70 and 110
mph. If the rolling resistance of the vehicle is 300N (assume independent of speed),
calculate the power to overcome rolling resistance.
Answers (12.9, 49.9, 9.4, 14.8).
Note how the rolling resistance is less important at high speed.

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xv. Published data for a BMW 316i Compact includes:

- Cd = 0.33
- Frontal area of 2.13m3 (approx)
- Maximum speed = 117 mph.
- Maximum power = 75 kW at 5500rpm
- The gearbox ratios are 1.22:1 and 1:1 in 4th and 5th gear respectively.
- The final drive ratio is 3.38:1

Do these figures make sense? Check them out by calculating the power required to drive
the car at 117 mph on a level road. Neglect losses in the transmission (which would reduce
top speed) and try the calc with a rolling resistance of 25ON and without. Calculate the
road speed at 5500 rpm engine speed with the car in 4th and 5th gear, assuming a rolling
radius of 0.29m for the wheel.
Answers (73.4kW, 60.4kW, 91mph, 111mph, the top speed appears to be justified)
xvi. Why is maximum power from the engine matched to (nearly) top speed? Why is high
engine torque useful at low engine speeds?

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