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Beyond Punctuation Marks

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Punctuation
Punctuation is the use of symbols (i.e. ‘punctuation marks’) that enhance the meaning of written words and indicate grammatical and
intonational aspects.

Syntax
Syntax is the ways into which words can be put together in order to make phrases, clauses, and, eventually, sentences.

a Separation ,
A separation is indicated by the comma. The comma is a punctuation mark that 111 .P1.1. is used to separate, if need be, the main
clause from the coordinate clause or coordinate clauses, the subordinate clause [i.e. when the subordinate clause precedes
the main clause] or subordinate clauses, or the subordinate phrase or subordinate phrases; 111 .P1.2. is used to separate
items in the list; 111 .P1.3. is used to separate adjectives from each other; 111 .P1.4. is used to separate adverbs/adverbials from, if
need be, the clause and/or each other; 111 .P1.5. is used to separate question tags; 111 .P1.6. is used to separate vocatives; 111
.P1.8. is used to separate discourse markers; 111 .P1.9. is used with the inverted commas or the double inverted commas to separate
direct speech (also known as ‘direct discourse’) from indirect speech (also known as ‘reported speech’) [if no question mark or no
exclamation mark is used]; or 111 .P1.10. is used to separate the day of the month and the month from the year.

separation If you want one, I can buy it for you. the comma ,

separation I like pasta, fruits, and vegetables. the comma ,

separation The big, angry dog chased the little, scared cat. the comma ,

separation Tomorrow, I will come to see you. the comma ,

separation You haven’t told him, have you? the comma ,

separation Dad, I will come to see you after work. the comma ,

separation Well, I think so. the comma ,

separation “I love you,” she said. | ‘I love you,’ she said. the comma ,

separation I was born on the 4th of February, 1981. the comma ,

tag: examples: emphasis:

1 P1.1 He is drinking coffee, and she is drinking tea.
1 P1.1 He was smoking a cigarette, thinking deeply about his life.
Ⓒ clause,
1 P1.1 While their mother was cooking dinner, the children were watching television.
or Ⓟ phrase
1 P1.1 If you want one, I can buy it for you.
1 P1.1 Although I do not have much money, I can lend you some.
usage:
is used to separate, if need be, the main clause from the coordinate clause or coordinate clauses, the subordinate clause
[i.e. when the subordinate clause precedes the main clause] or subordinate clauses, or the modifying phrase or modifying
phrases

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 tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.2 I have bought apples, pears, and bananas.
1 P1.2 On the table were some books, pencils, and a gun.
1 P1.2 Would you like tea, coffee or something else? Ⓛ list
1 P1.2 I need an eraser, a pencil, and some paper.
1 P1.2 I like pasta, fruits, and vegetables.
usage:
is used to separate items in the list
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.3 She is beautiful, energetic, and very talented.
1 P1.3 The big, angry dog chased the little, scared cat.
1 P1.3 Frightened, hungry, and wet, the girl kept on walking. Ⓐ adjective
1 P1.3 Looking around, the captain could only see the vast, calm, blue ocean.
1 P1.3 They were happy, so happy.
usage:
is used to separate adjectives from each other
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.4 Tomorrow, I will come to see you.
1 P1.4 Fortunately, nobody was hurt in the accident.
Ⓐ adverb,
1 P1.4 Slowly, I began to understand his unusual philosophy.
or Ⓐ adverbial
1 P1.4 However, I don’t see the point.
1 P1.4 Shyly, quietly, almost tenderly, the girl began to speak.
usage:
is used to separate adverbs/adverbials from the clause and/or each other
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.5 I cannot do that, can I?
1 P1.5 You haven’t told him, have you?
1 P1.5 You are not, are you? Ⓠ question tag
1 P1.5 Your name is James, is it not?
1 P1.5 You are looking for me, are you not?
usage:
is used to separate question tags
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.6 ‘Hello, darling,’ he said.
1 P1.6 Yes, that’s right, mum.
1 P1.6 Will you help me, Irene? Ⓥ vocative
1 P1.6 Come on, Alex – do it!
1 P1.6 Dad, I will come to see you after work.
usage:
is used to separate vocatives
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.8 I mean, I don’t know.
1 P1.8 Well, I think so.
ⒹⓂ discourse
1 P1.8 Actually, I like him.
marker
1 P1.8 Believe it or not, I won five hundred.
1 P1.8 Now now, that’s not how you do it.
usage:
is used to separate discourse markers
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.9 ‘I love you,’ she said.
1 P1.9 ‘I see what you mean,’ he answered, looking at her.
ⒹⓈ direct speech /
1 P1.9 ‘Do it yourself then!’ she snapped.
ⒹⒹ direct discourse
1 P1.9 ‘I don’t know the answer,’ he said.
1 P1.9 ‘He said, “What’s your name?” and smiled at me,’ the young lady said to her mother, wincing.
usage:
is used with the inverted commas or the double inverted commas to separate direct speech (also known as ‘direct discourse’) from
indirect speech (also known as ‘reported speech’) [if no question mark or no exclamation mark is used]

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 tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.10 I received your letter on the 2nd of June, 2015.
1 P1.10 It happened in August, 1986.
1 P1.10 March 9, 2014 Ⓓ date
1 P1.10 I was born on the 4th of February, 1981.
1 P1.10 They got married on the 1st of January, 2016.
usage:
is used to separate the day of the month and the month from the year

a Connection, a Balance, or a Contrast : ; –

A connection, a balance, or a contrast is indicated by the colon, the semicolon, or the dash. The colon 151 .P5.3. is used to separate
the main clauses to show a connection, a balance, or a contrast between them. The semicolon (also can be hyphenated, i.e. ‘the semi-
colon’) 161 .P6.1. is used to separate the main clauses to show a connection, a balance, or a contrast between them. The dash 171
.P7.5. is used – singly – to introduce some kind of balance.

connection
balance I have been looking for you: I have found you. the colon :
constrast
connection
balance I am from Spain; my wife is from Portugal. the semicolon ;
constrast
balance He loves her – she loves him. the dash –

tag: examples: emphasis:

6 P6.1 She lives in London; he lives in Manchester.
6 P6.1 I prefer tea; she prefers coffee. Ⓒ connection,
6 P6.1 I am from Spain; my wife is from Portugal. Ⓑ balance,
6 P6.1 Everyone knows him; he is very famous. or Ⓒ contrast
6 P6.1 Branwell died on the 24th of September, 1848; Emily died on the 19th of December, 1848.
usage:
is used to separate the main clauses to show a connection, a balance, or a contrast between them

tag: examples: emphasis:

5 P5.3 I am eating a soup: she is eating a salad.
5 P5.3 I am from Norway: she is from Sweden. Ⓒ connection,
5 P5.3 He is watching television: I am listening to music. Ⓑ balance,
5 P5.3 I have been looking for you: I have found you. or Ⓒ contrast
5 P5.3 I do not see the point: I do not see the reason.
usage:
is used to separate the main clauses to show a connection, a balance, or a contrast between them

tag: examples: emphasis:

7 P7.5 Time is a healer – love is a healer.
7 P7.5 He loves her – she loves him.
7 P7.5 I did not know what to do – there was absolutely nothing I could do. Ⓑ balance
7 P7.5 He wanted it – he dreamed/dreamt about it every waking moment.
7 P7.5 Love me, darling – love me truly!
usage:
is used – singly – to introduce some kind of balance

a Summarization, an Amplification, or Emphasis –

A summarization, an amplification, or emphasis of the previous clause or clauses, word or words, or phrase or phrases is indicated by
the dash. The dash 171 .P7.3. is used – singly – to summarize, amplify, or emphasize the previous clause or clauses, word or words, or
phrase or phrases.

summarization Disease, hunger, poverty, ignorance, crime, and

amplification the dash –
suffering – these were the problems which they faced.
emphasis I will love you – forever. the dash –

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 tag: examples: emphasis:
7 P7.3 He had everything – a good education, a good job, a big house, a nice car, a beautiful wife,
happy kids, and many, many friends.
7 P7.3 I will love you – forever. Ⓢ summarization,
7 P7.3 Side by side: life and death, love and hate, success and misery – that’s life. Ⓐ amplification,
7 P7.3 The burglar took everything – the TV, the computer, the tablet, and the money. or Ⓔ emphasis
7 P7.3 Disease, hunger, poverty, ignorance, crime, and suffering – these were the problems which
they faced.
usage:
is used – singly – to summarize, amplify, or emphasize the previous clause or clauses, word or words, or phrase or phrases

a Reason or an Explanation :
A reason or an explanation is indicated by the colon. The colon 151 .P5.2. is used to give an explanation or a reason.

reason I do not want to buy a car: I am a bad driver. the colon :

explanation

tag: examples: emphasis:

5 P5.2 I do not want to buy a car: I am a bad driver.
5 P5.2 You cannot do it: it is against the law.
Ⓔ explanation,
5 P5.2 The prices are different: it depends on the brand.
or Ⓡ reason
5 P5.2 She knew exactly what she felt: she felt love.
5 P5.2 The word that unbiasedly describes him is: ‘evil’.
usage:
is used to give an explanation or a reason

a Sudden Change of Subject –

A sudden change of subject is indicated by the dash. The dash 171 .P7.1. is used – singly – to show a sudden change of subject that
interrupts the grammatical flow.

sudden change Do you really think that I – what do you think I am? the dash –

tag: examples: emphasis:

7 P7.1 Do you really think that I – what do you think I am?
7 P7.1 Open the book on page – stop dreaming, Samantha! – on page 56.
7 P7.1 Her name was Amy White – I wonder what happened. ⓈⒸ sudden change
7 P7.1 I like fruits and vegetables – I don’t go to restaurants very often.
7 P7.1 “I met her two years ago – no, I don’t want any sure in my coffee,” he said.
usage:
is used – singly or in pairs – to show a sudden change of subject that interrupts the grammatical flow

Direct Speech/Discourse ‘ ’ or ` ‘ or “ ”
Direct speech/discourse is indicated by the inverted commas. The inverted commas (also known as ‘the quotation marks’, ‘the quotes’,
‘the double inverted commas’, or ‘the double quotation marks’) .10. .P10.1. are used to show direct speech/discourse.

the inverted
direct discourse “I don’t love you anymore.” | “I don’t love you anymore,” she simply said. commas “”

the inverted
direct speech ‘I don’t love you anymore.’ | ‘I don’t love you anymore,’ she simply said. commas ‘’

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 tag: examples: emphasis:
10 P10.1 ‘I don’t love you anymore,’ she simply said.
10 P10.1 “Run, rabbit, run,” the girl shouted.
ⒹⓈ direct speech /
10 P10.1 ‘He answered “I don’t think so,”,’ she said.
ⒹⒹ direct discourse
10 P10.1 `Who knows?' he soliloquized.
10 P10.1 “She screamed ‘No!’,” he said.
usage:
in writing, are used to show direct speech / direct discourse

In British English, the single inverted commas are used, which can be of two types (‘ ’ or ` '); in American English, the double inverted
commas are used (“ ”). If a phrase or a passage – which is already contained within the inverted commas – has, within itself, direct
speech, a highlighted word, phrase, or title, such direct speech or such highlighted word, phrase, or title should be contained within
the inverted commas of the opposite style.

rep. direct speech 1 or. dir. sp. 2 rep. direct speech 1 or. dir. sp. 2 rep. direct speech 2 or. dir. sp. 3
British English ‘I don’t love you,’ she said. `I don’t love you,' she said. ‘She said, “Yes,”,’ he said.
British type 1 British type 2 rep. direct speech 1
rep. direct discourse 1 or. dir. disc. 2 rep. direct discourse 2 or. dir. disc. 3
American English “I don’t love you,” she said. “She said, ‘Yes,’,” he said.
American type rep. direct discourse 1

a Pause …
In direct speech, a pause in indicated by the triple dot. The triple dot (also known as – when indicating .P16.1. a slight pause – ‘three
dots’, ‘the dot-dot-dot’, ‘the suspension point’, or ‘the multidot’) .16. .P16.1., in reported direct speech, is used to indicate a slight
pause.

pause “I… don’t know,” he said. the triple ...

tag: examples: emphasis:

16 P16.1 “I… don’t know,” he said.
16 P16.1 ‘Please, would you… help me?’ she asked.
16 P16.1 “Who… are you?” she asked, looking at him intensely. Ⓟ pause
16 P16.1 ‘I..,’ she began shyly, ‘would like to be your friend.’
16 P16.1 “Um.., well.., I think so,” he agreed.
usage:
in reported direct speech, is used to indicate a slight pause

a Question ?
A question is indicated by the question mark. The question mark (also known as ‘the query’ [chiefly in printing]) 121 .P2.1. is used at
the end of a question, i.e. the interrogative mood.

the question
question How are you? | “How are you?” | “How are you?” he said. mark ?

the question
question How are you? | ‘How are you?’ | ‘How are you?’ he said. mark ?

tag: examples: emphasis:

2 P2.1 How are you?
2 P2.1 Where do you live?
2 P2.1 Does she love him? Ⓠ question
2 P2.1 How much does it cost?
2 P2.1 Do you understand me?
usage:
in writing, is used at the end of a question, i.e. the interrogative mood

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 an Exclamation !
An exclamation is indicated by the exclamation mark. The exclamation mark 131 .P3.1. is used to indicate that a word, a phrase, a
clause, or a sentence is an exclamation that shows a strong feeling of some kind.

the exclamation
exclamation Run! | “Run!” | “Run!” she screamed. mark !

the exclamation
exclamation Run! | ‘Run!’ | ‘Run!’ she screamed. mark !

tag: examples: emphasis:

3 P3.1 ‘Shut up!’ he snapped.
3 P3.1 ‘Run!’ she screamed.
3 P3.1 ‘Over here!’ somebody shouted in the distance. ⓈⒻ strong feeling
3 P3.1 ‘Ship ahoy!’ one of the sailors cried out.
3 P3.1 ‘No!’ he screamed in agony.
usage:
in writing, is used to indicate that a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence is an exclamation that shows a strong feeling of some
kind

a Possessive Form ’ or '

A possessive form is indicated by the apostrophe. The apostrophe 191 .P9.2. is used to form the possessive form of a proper noun or
a common noun.

possessive form It is the dog’s mat. | It is the cat’s food. | It is Sarah’s umbrella. the apostrophe ’ or '

tag: examples: emphasis:

9 P9.2 It is Maria’s umbrella.
9 P9.2 It is Sarah’s husband over there.
9 P9.2 Is it your dad’s car? Ⓟ possession
9 P9.2 The dog’s mat was yellow.
9 P9.2 Have you met Phil’s sister’s boyfriend?
usage:
is used to form the possessive form of a proper noun or a common noun

a Highlight or a Title ‘ ’ or ` ' or “ ”

A highlight or a title is indicated by the inverted commas. The inverted commas .10. .P10.2. are used to highlight a word or a phrase
to indicate that the highlighted word or the highlighted phrase is being discussed rather than used within the sentence, or simply to
draw attention to it; or, in writing, can be used instead of the italic type in the titles of books, films, plays, works of art, musical works,
magazines, newspapers, etc.

highlight Did she answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’? | Have you read ‘Animal Farm’? the inverted
“ ” or ‘ ’
title commas

tag: examples: emphasis:

10 P10.2 Did she answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’?
10 P10.2 The past form of the verb ‘spell’ can be ‘spelled’ or ‘spelt’. Ⓗ highlight,
10 P10.2 “She said ‘Yes,’,” he said happily. Ⓐ attention,
10 P10.2 He bought ‘the New York Times’. or Ⓣ title
10 P10.2 Have you read ‘Animal Farm’?
usage:
in writing, are used to highlight a word or a phrase to indicate that the highlighted word or phrase is being discussed rather than
used within the sentence, or simply to draw attention to it; or, in writing, can be used instead of the italic type in the titles of books,
films, plays, works of art, musical works, magazines, newspapers, etc.

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 Extra Information ( ) [ ] < > { } – –
Extra information is indicated by the round brackets, the square brackets, the angle brackets, the brace/curly brackets, or the pair of
dashes. The round brackets (also known as ‘the parentheses’ [plural]) .11. .P11.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a
numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra information is given. The square brackets (also known as ‘the parentheses’ [plural])
.12. .P12.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra information is given.
The angle brackets .13. .P13.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra
information is given. The brace/curly brackets .21. .P21.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a
symbol to show that extra information is given. The pair of dashes 171 .P7.2. are used to fence off extra information within a clause
or a sentence.

the round brackets

the square brackets ( )[ ]
extra information William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was an English writer of plays and poems. the angle brackets
the brace/curly brackets < >{ }

tag: examples: emphasis:

11 P11.1 William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was an English writer of plays and poems.
12 P12.1 The brackets [also known as ‘the parentheses’] are a pair of punctuation marks.
ⒺⒾ extra
13 P13.1 The irregular verb ‘get’ has two types of resultant participles <i.e. ‘got’ and ‘gotten’>.
information
21 P21.1 The road was 10 foot wide {about 3 metres/meters}.
7 P7.2 His wife – an attractive, young woman – shook my hand.
usage:
are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra information is given

an Alternative or an Option ( )
An alternative or an option is indicated the round brackets. The round brackets .11. .P11.2. are used to show an alternative or an
option.

alternative boy(s) = boy or boys | 6 foot (180 centimetres/centimeters) the round

()
option brackets

tag: examples: emphasis:

11 P11.2 boy(s) or girl(s)
11 P11.2 He is 6f (1.80cm).
Ⓐ alternative,
11 P11.2 He bought a pint of milk (0.568 litre (BrE), and 0.473 liter (AmE)).
or Ⓞ option
11 P11.2 The speed limit was 30 miles per hour (48 km per hour).
11 P11.2 She ran a marathon last week, which is 26 miles (or 42 km).
usage:
are used to show an alternative or an option

an Omission , or ’ or '
An omission of a word or words is indicated by the comma, and an omission of letters or numbers is indicated by the apostrophe. The
comma 111 .P1.7. is used to show the omission of a word or words in the text. The apostrophe 191 .P9.1. is used to indicate the
omission of a letter or letters or numbers within a word or a number respectively.

omission I, robot. the comma ,

omission I’m well. the apostrophe ’ or '

tag: examples: emphasis:

1 P1.7 I, robot. (= I am a robot.)
1 P1.7 I see you: you, me. (= I see you: you see me.)
1 P1.7 He was drinking coffee, and she, tea. (= He was drinking coffee, and she was drinking tea.) Ⓞ omission
1 P1.7 My name is Chris, and his, David. (= My name is Chris, and his name is David.)
1 P1.7 I’ll dance with Rita, and you, with Jessica. (= I’ll dance with Rita, and you’ll dance with Jessica.)
usage:
is used to show the omission of a word or words in the text

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 tag: examples: emphasis:
9 P9.1 I’m well. (= I am well.)
9 P9.1 He isn’t here. (= He is not here.)
9 P9.1 I can’t see it. (= I cannot see it.) Ⓞ omission
9 P9.1 Do you like rock ‘n’ roll? (= Do you like rock and roll?)
9 P9.1 1 January ’86 (= 1 January 1986)
usage:
is used to indicate the omission of letters or numbers

a List, Direct Speech/Discourse, or a Quotation :

A list, direct speech/discourse, or a quotation can be introduced by a colon. The colon 151 .P5.1. is used in front of the list, or 151
.P5.4. is used to introduce direct speech (BrE) or direct discourse (AmE), or to introduce a quotation.

list I have bought: flour, milk, and some eggs. the colon :

direct discourse He told her: “I love you so much.” | He told her: ‘I love you so much.’ the colon :
direct speech
One of his favo(u)rite Darwin’s quotation was: “A man who dares to
quotation the colon :
waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life.”

tag: examples: emphasis:

5 P5.1 I have bought: flour, milk, and some eggs.
5 P5.1 The colo(u)rs of the rainbow are said to be: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
5 P5.1 They have: three children, four dogs, and seven cats. Ⓛ list
5 P5.1 Make sure that you: clean your room, mow the lawn, and fix the bicycle.
5 P5.1 Have you met: Mark, Andy, Peter, and Amy?
usage:
is used in front of the list

tag: examples: emphasis:

5 P5.4 She said: ‘I want to be rich and famous.’
5 P5.4 Prime Minister said: ‘We must say “no” to illegal immigrants.’
ⒹⓈ direct speech /
5 P5.4 He told her: “I love you so much.”
ⒹⒹ direct discourse,
5 P5.4 He exclaimed: ‘Eureka!’ or Ⓠ quotation
5 P5.4 One of his favo(u)rite Darwin’s quotation was: “A man who dares to waste one hour of time
has not discovered the value of life.”
usage:
is used to introduce direct speech (BrE) or direct discourse (AmE), or to introduce a quotation

the Sentence’s End .

The sentence’s end is indicated by the full stop. The full stop (also known as ‘the period’, ‘the point’, ‘the full point’, or ‘the dot’) 141
.P4.1. is used at the end of a sentence when the sentence is neither a question nor an exclamation.

sentence’s end I understand you. the full stop .

tag: examples: emphasis:

4 P4.1 She loves him very much.
4 P4.1 I went to see her yesterday.
ⒺⓈ the end
4 P4.1 The house is big. of the sentence
4 P4.1 I have been looking for you.
4 P4.1 I understand you.
usage:
in writing, is used at the end of a sentence when the sentence is neither a question nor an exclamation

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