Structure

7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Soils
7.2.1 Desirable Properties of $oil
7.2.2 Soil Classification
7.2.3 Engineering Properties of Soil
7.2.4 Soil Compaction
7.3 Aggregates
7.3.1 Types of Aggregates
7.3.2 Desirable Properties of Aggregates
7.3.3 Types of Rocks and their Suitability
7.3.4 Propertie? of Aggregates and Tests
7.4 Pavement Courses
7.5 Types of Binders
7.6 Bitumens
7.6.1 Source
7.6.2 Manufacture
7 63 Desirable Properties of Bitumen
7.6.4 Physical Properties of Bitumen
765 Testing of Bitumen
7.6 6 Selection of Appropriate Grade of Bitumen
7.7 Cement Concrete for Pavement
7.8 Concrete Mix Design
7.8.1 Concrete Strength
7.8.2 Admixtures
7.9 lllustrative Problems
I
7.10 Summary
7.1 1 Key Words
1 7.12 Answers to SAQs

711 INTRODUCTION
vement refers to the hard surface laid on the ground to enable the motorised vehicles
ove safely at high speeds at an economical cost. Since commercial vehicles are
loaded, modem pavements have to be substantially thick and strong. The cost of
I nt constitutes a significant proportion of the cost of a highway. The selection of
, e type of pavement and its composition is an important stage in highway design.
arious layers of the pavement are made by combining locally available materials (soil,
one aggregates etc) with a binder and compacting the mixture to a high density. The
hold various particles of soil or aggregates with a close bond.

i
1 oils are products of physical and chemical weathering of rocks. The variations in
[ limatic conditions - temperature, humidity and rainfall, together with the topography of
e terrain and vegetative cover, by acting on variety of rocks result in innumerable
arieties of soils. The manner of transportation and depositions cause many more
arieties.
e nature and engineering behaviour of soils is so diversified that it is difficult to group
em into a few general classes. Soil classification systems and several testing
rocedures have been developed to determine parameters relevant to the behaviour of
subgrade soils under traffic loading.
In this Unit, various types of materials commonly used in pavement construction are
described. Properties of the materials and testing procedures are discussed.
Highway Engineering Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
@ identify various materials used in pavement construction,
0 understand the properties of the materials and how these properties can be
determined by appropriate tests, and
explain the situations where each pavement material is used.

7.2 SOILS
Soils are the most extensively used highway engineering materials. They form the body
of the embankment and support the pavement. When a road goes in cutting, excavations
in soils and rock are involved. In some layers of the pavement, some soils (e.g. sand,
murrarn) are either directly used or used in conjunction with stabilizers like lime and
cement. Thus, knowledge of soil engineering is very necessary for you as a highway
engineer.
7.2.1 Desirable Properties of Soil
A highway engineer looks for the following desirable properties of soil:
1) adequate strength to carry the traffic loads transmitted through the pavement,
2) good resistance to compressibility such that pavements do not settle,
3) low susceptibility to volumetric changes (shrinkage and swelling) with changes
in moisture content, and
4) absence of excessive salts and organic matter which are deleterious to the
permanent performance of embankments,
5) amenability to high degree of compaction with economical efforts,
6) good ability to drain out water such that water is not retained and strength is
not impaired,
7) good ability to maintain stability of the embankments and cutting for the
heights and slopes provided
While the highway engineer looks for the above ideal requirements, economy demands
that the maximum use be made of the local soil avoiding transportation over long leads.
Ingenious methods can be followed to improve soil performance.
These include:
1) Use of additives,
2) Measures to improve soil drainage, and
3) Use of geosynthetics.
Properties of soil are studied under two groups:
1) Index properties, which are used to identi6 and classifjr soils (particle size
gradation and consistency limits)
2) Engineering properties (strength, compressibility and permeability).
The index properties often serve as a basis for preliminary designs. Engineering
properties are determined for the final design.
7.2.2 Soil Classification
Most systems of classifying soils for engineering purposes are based on two criteria:
i) Particle size distribution and
ii) Plasticity (Atterberg Limits)
Partide Size Distribution Pavement Materials
Soils ;re classified by their particle size distribution as under:

Particle Size
Soil Type (Symbol)
mm micron

Gravel (G) 60-2.0

Sand (S)
Coarse 2.0-0.6 2000-600
Medium 0.6-0.2 600-200
Fine 0.2-0.06 200-60
Silt (M)
Medium 0.06-0.02 60-20
Fine 0.02-0.002 21)-2
Clay (C) Less than Less than 2
0.002

ave particles of various sizes. Therefore, it is essential to determine the

of their sizes. Standard procedures are available for such determination.
analysis is done for coarse-grained soils (individual grains visible to the
soils (silt and clay) are analysed using sedimentation principle
particles in water according to Stoke's law.
commonly used for highway work as per Indian Standard and their ASTM
are given below:

Attc~rbergLimits
ined soils (silt and clay) have large surface area and a net negative charge on the
urface. Due to this, they are dominated by the physico-chemical s u k c e forces
e very differently fiom the coarse-grained soils (sand, gravel, cobble) which
d upon by gravity forces. Due to the presence of surface forces, the fine-
become plastic or cohesive on interaction with water.
ifferent physical states of soil depending on the water content are: (i) liquid state,
stic state, (iii) semisolid state and (iv) solid state. These are indicated in Figure 7.1.
isture content at the transition from one state to the next is designated as Liquid
lastic Limit and Shrinkage limit.
73
13ighway Engineering In 19 1 1, a Swedish soil scientist; A. Atterberg, developed a series of hand-performed
tests for determining the consistency of soil for agricultural uses. These tests are known
as the Atterberg Limit tests or consistency tests and are widely used by soil engineers.

SOLID 1 SEMI-SOLID
STATE
I PLASTIC STATE 1 LIQUID
STATE
1 . I

4-
INCREASING
MOISTURE CONTENT
DECREASING
*
Figure 7.1: C:ondstency Llmlts

As the moisture content in soil increases, the Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as that water
content at which the soil mass just starts to flow like a liquid under the influence of a
series of standard shocks. To test this, soil is mixed with water and made into a paste.
This paste is placed in a standard cup. A 13 mm wide groove is cut into the soil paste.
The soil for the cup is given a series of shocks by dropping it from a standard height
several times at uniform time intervals. The number of shocks given for the grove to
close is noted. The moisturc content at which the groove closes with 25 blows is
graphically determined as the LL.
As the moisture content is reduced below the LL, the soil sample becomes stiffer. It is in
a plastic state and is deformable until the Plastic Limit is reached. The Plastic Limit (PL)
is defined as that water content at which the soil mass ceases to be plastic, as determined
by a procedure of rolling the soil mass into a thread one-eighth inch (3 mm) dia.
The Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the LL and PL and represents the
range of moisture within which the soil is plastic. Silts have low PI, whereas clays have
high PI. Plasticity Index in comb~nationwith Liquid Limit indicates the sensitivity of the
soil to changes in moisture.
As moisture content is rkduced below the PL, the soil reduces in volume. The soil
eventually reaches a solid state at which no shrinkage can take place. The moisture
content below which a reduction in moisture content will not cause a decrease in the
volume of the soil mass is known as the Shrinkage Limit (SL).
Soil Classification Systems
From the known index properties of soils, it is possible to evolve a system of soil
classification. Such a process is a valuable aid in identifying a given soil and to
reasonably predict its suitability for highway use. There are many systems in common
use. For a highway engineer, the following systems are important:
1) Public Road Administration (PRA) system
2) Unified Classification system
3) Indian Standard Classification system.
T l ~ PRA
e classification system is described in Table 7.1 and is self-explanatory. The
term "Group Index" (GI) given in Table 7.1 is determined as:
 Pavement Materials

a = portion of percentage passing 75 micron sieve greater than 35 and not

( exceeding 75 per cent, expressed as a positive whole number having
values 1 to 40.
b = portion of percentage passing 75 micron sieve greater than 15 and not
exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole number having values 1 to
40.
c = portion of Liquid Limit (LL) greater than 40 and not exceeding 60,
expressed as a positive whole number having values 1 to 20.
d = portion of numerical Plasticity Index (PI) greater than 10 and not
exceeding 30, expressed as a positive whole number having values 1 to
20.

1
e GI is expressed nearest to the whole number and its value is written within brackets
a er the sub-group. Thus A-7-6(18) denotes soil of sub-group A-7-6 having a GI value
o 18.

3
e classification adopted by the Indian Standards is based on the Unified Soil
C assification system, whtch is also known as the revised Casagrande system. Table 7.2
s ows thls system. The classification involves the use of "prefixes" and "suffixes" as
der:

R Main Soil Type

Coarse-grained soils: Gravel
Prefix
G
Sand S
Fine-grained soils Silt M
Clay C
Organic silts and clays 0
Fibrous soil Peat Pt

Sub - division Suffix

For coarse-wained soils
Well-grad&, little or no fines
Well-graded w
ith suitable clay binder C
Poorly graded, with little or no fines P
Material containing considerable
proportion of silt
For fie-mined soils
Low Compressibility (LL less than 35) L
Medium compressibility (LL = 35 to 50) M
High Compressibility (LL more than 50) H
Engineering Properties of Soil
Three important engineering characteristics of soil are permeability, volume change and
strength. Permeability is the ease with which water can flow through the soil, and it is
measured by the coefficient of permeability, k, defined as
v=ki
where'
I

I v = velocity of flow of water and

i = hydraulic gradient under which the flow occurs.
 TabIe 7.1: Classification d Soils m d Soil-Aggregate Mixture (PRA)
Granular M.terid Silt-Clay Materiala
(35 or leis Passing 0.075 mm) (More than 35% Pusing 0.075 mm)
A- l A -2 4-7
*-

A-1 -a A-1-b A-3 A-24 ' 4-24 a-24 a-2-7 a4 6-5 a4 a-7-5
a-7-6
Sieve Analysis
PerCentPgssing:
2.00 mm (No.10) soma%
1 0.425 riun (No. 40)
+
30 rmpt
15mix
50 max
25 max
50min
l0max 35ma~r 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 1pjn 36 rnin 36 min

40 m q 41 min 40max 41 min 40- 41 min 40 max 41 min

Plastici index 6max NP 10 max 10 M 1l min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 ruin*
Usual Types of Stone hgments Gravel a d fine sand silty or clayey gravel and sand np
sicant saud6max
I clayey soils
I
Grou Index
GeneraI Rating as .Exellentto good fair to poor

*plasticity index ofa-7-5 subgroup is equal to aless than LL minus 30. Plasticity indcx of a-7-6 subgroup is.gmtQthaa U minus 30. NP signifies son-plastic.
 Pavement

Well-graded gravels or gravel-sand

mixtures with little or no fines
Clayey gravels poorly graded or
gravesand clay mixtures
Silty gravels poorly graded gravel-
sand-silt mixtures
Poorly graded gravels ol gravel-sand
mixtures with little or no fines

with little or no fines

Gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty

clays, lean clays of low plasticity
Clays of medium plasticity

The value of soil permeability depends on the soil type as shown in the table below.

Soil Type Coefficient of Permeability,

(k,cdsec)

Clean Gravel lo2- 10

Sand-Gravel mixture; 10 - 10"
Clean sand come, medium, fine
Very fine sand lo5
Silt, sand-silt-clay mixture 105 -
fll-.. R 1A - ~
 -
1Iighwa~Engineering The ingress of n~oistureto subgrade is possible through flow of water due to fluctuations
in hydraulic gradient, difision and capillaxy rise. Efforts should be made to prevent
moisture ingress, by minimising infiltration through the pavement, better shoulder
maintenance and keeping the formation level well above the ground water table.
Two types of volume changes are possible in soil - consolidation and compaction.
Consolidation is the decrease in volume due to slow expulsion of pore water in saturated
soils due to sustained loading. For example, the gradual settlement of highly clayey
embankments due to their own weight is primarily due to consolidation. Compaction is
the decrease in volume by reduction of air voids achieved by passage of rollers.
Compaction leads to densification of soil, resulting in increased strength of soil.
In this section, we will discuss about soil strength and compaction in more detail.
Soil Strength
Highway pavements rest on soils. The design of a pavement and its structural
performance over its design life are closely influenced by soil strength. Soil strength
itself is affected by the following factors:
1) Soil Type: Granular soils like gravel and sand have higher strength than fine-
grained soils like silt and clay.
2) Particle Size Distribution: A well-graded soil develops a good matrix of soil
particles, which thcn result in high internal friction.
3) Degree of Compaction: The strength of a soil increases as the degree to which
it is compacted increases.
4) Moisture Content: The amount of water present in soil affects the density to
which it can be compacted; it also affects its shearing strength.
5) Confinement: Sand has a higher supporting value when confined.
I
6) Permeability: The more permeable the soil is, the greater is the chance for
water to escape and hence higher will be its strength.
7) Structure Formed by Soil Particles: When clay is remoulded, the particles
form a new structure different from the one when it is in its natural state; thus
remoulded samples of clay may suffer loss in strength.
Coloumb's Law
The engineering computation concerned with the strength of a soil deal primarily with its
shearing strength, which is the resistance to sliding of one mass of soil against another.
Rarely one needs to know about compressive or tensile strength.
Coulomb found the following law to hold good in determining shear strength of soil:
S=c+atan#
where,
S = shear strength,
c = cohesion,
a = normal stress on the sliding surface, and
# = angle of internal friction (or angle of shearing resistance).
This equation shows that the shearing strength has two terms, i.e. cohesion, whicli is
independent of the applied stress: and the other internal friction, which is dependent upon
the normal stress. Coarse-grained soils like sand and gravel have high internal fhction;
but fine-grained soils like silt and clay have high cohesion but less or do internal friction.
+
For sand, the value of varies from about 28.5" (when it is loose and has round grains) to
about 46" (when it is dense and has well-graded angular grains). When in a loose state,
the angle of internal friction equals the angle of repose of the soil. The angle of repose is
the anele that the soil takes when it is heaned hv free fall without anv confinement.
 e of C, cohesion, in clayey soils can vary widely. A range of 1 to 14 M N / is~ ~ Pavement Materials

~eterryinationof Soil Strength

)
1
I
Soil st ngth is determined by conducting various tests, which may be classified into
three g oups. They are:
1) Shear tests

il samples in the laboratory. Bearing tests are conducted

field. Penetration tests can either be performed in the

the shear box test. Figure 7.2 explains the principle. The box

c
and the lower. The lower frame is fixed and the upper frame is
ction. The soil specimen is placed partly in the upper frame

Drain e of water from the specimen is possible. Undisturbed soil sample can be placed
in the hear box, or the specimen can be prepared by packing the soil sample in the shear
box to e desired density (remoulded). The soil to be used for construction of
emban ent is tested by remoulding the soil in the shear box to a density that is expected
to be hieved during construction.
I
the vertical load constant, the horizontal load is increased till shear failure takes
failure of the specimen takes place along the plane of movement, which is
The experiment is repeated for different vertical loads and points are
a straight-line to be plotted (Figure 7.3).

Compressive Force
I

II~ \
IT
Porous Stone
Weeo Holes for
-

0 5
I I
10 15
I
20
1
25
Compressive Force, kg

I Figure 7.1: Box Shear Test Figure 7.3: Results of Box Shear Test

can be performed under three conditions:

Immediate, undrained dr quick tests
Consolidated-quick or consolidated-undrained tests
Slow or drained tests
is, no doubt, simple, but has the following disadvantages:
) The area of sliding surface changes as the test progresses.
) Distribution of shewing stress over the potential area of sliding is unequal.
) Water content of saturated samples changes rapidly as a result of change in
stress.
Highway Engineering Trinxial Sheat Test
In the triaxial test, as the name itself indicates, a specimen of soil is subjected to
compressive stresses in three mutually perpendicular directions. Usually, stresses in two
lateral directions are kept constant and the vertical stress is increased till the specimen
fails in shear. Unlike in direct shear test, the plane of shear failure is not predetermined.
The specimen is cylindrical and the length to diameter ratio is in the range 2-2.5. For
soils, a specimen of length 75 mm is suitable.
The specimen is contained in a cylindrical pressure cell filled with water, through which
radial stress is applied (Figure 7.4). Thus the fluid pressure acts in all the three
directions. The pressure is measured by a pressure gauge. A thin rubber membrane seals
the specimen from the fluid in the cell. The wall of the pressure cell is made of
transparent material (such as perspex) so that the behaviour of the specimen can be seen.
The vertical axial pressure is applied by some loading arrangement. A proving ring
measures the vertical load. The axial deformation is measured by a dial gauge. The
water from the specimen can be allowed to drain out through a pipe. The cell pressure is
kept constant and the vertical (axial) load is increased until the specimen fails. The test is
done on specimens at 3 to 5 different values of constant lateral pressures. The specimen
can either be undisturbed or remoulded. The test can be (i) immediate, undrained or
quick test, (ii) Consolidated quick or consolidated undrained test or (iii) slow or drained
test. -

Vertical Load
1
Dial Gauge for e-- Pressure Gauge
Mearurin4- Constant Pressure Supply
Vertical Strain

Perspex Wall of Pressure Cell

Thin Rubber Membrane
Soil Specimen
9 +Pressure
w
+Outlet
Gauge
for Pore Water

Mgure 7.4: Trlaxlal Test Apparatus

Figure 7.5 shows the Mohr's failure envelope. When a tangent is drawn to the failure
envelope, the intercept of the best common tangent on the y-axis gives the cohesion
intercept. The slope of the tangent gives the angle of internal friction or the angle of
shearing resistance.

1 = (Td + (Tj
6
ad = Deviator Stress
ol= Total Vertical Stress

Figure 7.5: Mohr's Failure Envelope

The triaxial test has the following advantages:

1) It is possible to control the drainage conditions so as to represent various field
situations.
2) Pore water pressure can be measured accurately.
3) The stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.
 4 unconfined compression test is a special case of the triaxial test in which the lateral
ZJ confined Compression Test
-
Pavement

is absent (no confinement) and only the vertical compressive stress is

is a simple test, which is useful for immediate tests on predominantly clayey

e case of immediate tests on saturated clays, 4 is equal to zero and the envelope of
is a straight line parallel to.the x-axiS and at a distance c from it. The diameter of
is q,, the maximum compressive stress. Since c is the radius it follows that :

e name suggests, the plate bearing test consists of loading a plate placed on a soil
and measuring the deflection of the plate for various loads applied on the plate.
determines the "Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, in Westgaard7sanalysis of
pavements. In that analysis, the elastic reaction of the subgrade soil is assumed
and proportional at all points to the vertical deflection. The constant of
is known as the Modulus of Subgrade Reaction.
7.6 shows the test arrangement. A 75 cm diameter (or alternatively 30 cm
er) plate is seated on the subgrade soil. The plate is loaded using a hydraulic jack
ainst the underside of a loaded truck. The load can be measured by the pressure
of the hydraulic jack calibrated in load units and a dial gauge resting against a
frame measures the deflection. The loads are applied in increments such that
in increments of 0.25 mm are caused. The test is continued till a settlement
than 1.75 mm is reached. The load-settlement curve (Figure 7.7) should
ly be a straight line, and its slope should give the value of k. But it is usual to
curved relationship, in which case k is determined by drawing a straight line
gh the origin and a point on the curve corresponding to a settlement of 1.25 rnrn.

Reaction of Loaded Truck

i
i
,1 1 rp3Pressure Gauge
Datum Frame

Figure 7.6: Plate Bearlng Test

1 k = loading pressure corresponding to a settlement of 1.25 mm / 1.25

P
For e conditions given in Figure 7.7,

US Corps of Engineers procedure, the test is restricted to application of one load of

kg on a 75 cm dia plate. The resultant stress is 0.07 M N / ~ ' . The deflection
ponding to this load is measured ( A mm).
Highway Engiheerlng

hi &a am 1.00 I.=

Mean Senlement, mm

Figure 7.7: Load Settlement

Then

If a 30 cm dia plate is used, a rough correlation between the k value obtained using 75 cm
diameter plate and the k value obtained using a 30 cm dia plate is given by:
k 7 ~= 0.5k30
A theoretical relationship can also be derived to deal with problems of the above nature.
When a rigid circular plate is loaded on a soil of elastic property, the settlement is given
by :

P
since k = -
A'

k = - E , E being Modulus of elasticity of the plate and a being the diameter

1.18-a
of the plate.
It thus follows that:
E
Klal= K2a2= - constant,
1.18
where, the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to values with tests with plates of different diameter.

California Bearing Ratio Test

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is an ad-hoc penetration test, first developed by
the California State Highways Department for design of pavements. It is extensively
used the world over for designing flexible pavements and, to a limited scale, for
designing flexible pavement overlays. The test can either be conducted on a specimen
contained in a mould in the laboratory or in sib. Laboratory testing is, however, the
more common practice.
Figure 7.8 gives a diagrammatic view of the test assembly in the laboratory. The mould
is 150 mm dia. The soil sample can either be remoulded to the desired density and
 re content or can be collected in an undisturbed state by pushing the mould fitted Pavement Materials
a cutting edge into the soil. The test can be conducted on an unsoaked specimen or
ur day's soaking. The current Indian practice is to prepare specimens at optimum

I=%- Penetration Plunger, 50 mm dia

Dial Gauge for Measuring Penetration

Surcharge Weight
Mould

Y I1 H Soil Sample, 150 rnm dia x 127 mrn high

Y Figure 7.8: CBR Test Assembly

ntent corresponding to the desired compaction (either standard Proctor

S : 2720-Part VII or heavy compaction-Modified AASHTO compaction
720-Part VIII) and four days' soaking. The material should pass 20 mm
there are fractions larger than 20 mm, then they are replaced in exact weight by
passing 20 mm and retained on 10 mrn. The soil sample is 127.3 mm high.
weights, simulating the weight of pavement layers, are placed above the
lunger 50 mm dia is made to penetrate the sample at a rate of around 1.25
the load is increased. A proving ring with dial measures the load and a
the plunger measures the penetration. The values of the load and
recorded as the test progresses. Penetration values at which loads are
0.5, 1.0, 1.5,.2.0, 2.5, 3.0,.4.0,4.5, 5.0, 7.5,lO.Oand 12.5 mm. The results
a smooth curve is drawn through the points. A good specimen should
ith uniform convex upwards shape (Curve 1 in Figure 7.9).

e+ I weeds No Correction)

I Figure 7.9: Load vs Penetration Curve

If the s imen has surface irregularities, the initial portion of the curve may have
concavi upwards. In that case, a tangent is drawn to the curve at the point of greatest
slope ( rve 2 in Figure 7.9). This tangent plus the convex portion of the original curve
Highway Engineering is the corrected curve, with the origin moved to the point where the tangent cuts the X-
axis.
The CBR value is a ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the loads at penetration of 2.5 or
5.0 mm to the standard loads of 1,370 kg (pressure: 7 M N I ~ ' )and 2,055 kg (pressure:
10 MN/m2)respectively, which have been obtained from tests on standard crushed rock
defined to have a CBR of 100 percent. Usually the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration is
greater than that at 5 mm penetration and is taken for design purposes. However, if the
value at 5 mm happens to be greater, the test is repeated on a fresh sample, and if this too
gives similar result, the value at 5 mm penetration is taken for design purposes. Three
specimens are tested and the average of the three values, correct to one decimal place, is
reported as the CBR value.
CBR test, though very simple and widely practised, has its own critics. The arguments
put forth by the critics are:
1) The test is too arbitrary and ad-hoc.
2) The test procedure must be strictly adhered to, if comparable results are to be
obtained.
3) The CBR value is a rough estimate of the soil strength and cannot be related to
more fundamental properties governing soil strength such as cohesion.
4) The CBR test can only be used for the pavement design method for which it was
originally devised.
5) For soils containing coarse aggregate fractions of size greater than 20 mrn, the test
is not truly representative since such fractions are arbitrarily replaced. For insitu
tests, there is no method of replacing such fractions.
Some typical CBR values of soils, and their rating as embankment pavement materials is
given in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3: Typical CBR Values of Soils and their Rating

Soil Range of CBR values Rating

Clay 2-5 . Verypoor

subgrade
Silt 5-8 1 Poor subgrade
I
Sand Fair to good
subgrade
Gravel Excellent subgrade
30-60 I Good sub-base
I
60-80 1 Good base I
80-100 ] Best Base
CBR values have been roughly correlated to Modulus of Subgrade Reaction. Table 7.4
gives the correlation.

Table 7.4: Correlation Between CBR and k Value

I CBR

I K value MN/m2

7.2.4 Soil Compaction

Need for Compaction
Compaction of soil is the process of packing the soil particles densely together. This is
achieved by mechanical means and is followed by a reduction in air voids. Modem
i
1 i
high y practice places a high value on soil compaction. The advantages to be gained
by so' compaction are listed below:
1) A well-compacted subgrade possesses high strength. As a result the thickness
Pavement Materials

of the pavement required is reduced.

2) Similarly, a well-compacted sub-base or base, where soil is a major
constituent, has high strength.

I 1 3) A well-compacted embankment experiences less settlement.

I / 4) There will be less tendency for subsequent changes in moisture content.

5) The stability of slopes of embankment increases as the soil is compacted.
paction - Density Curve
gnificant property of soils is that for each soil and for a given amount of compaction,
exists an optimum moisture content (OMC) when the dry density is maximum. The
shape of the curve is given in Figure 7.10. Thus, the field compaction of soils is
done at OMC. Higher compaction efforts result in an upward shift of the curve,
the maximum dry density (MDD) and decreasing the OMC.

I
1
The compaction effort has been standardised. As per Indian standards two levels of
compaction are specified:
1) Light Compaction (IS 2720 - PartVII)
2) Heavy Compaction (IS 2720 - Part Vm)

I Light compaction corresponds to what is generally known as Proctor standard and heavy
compaction corresljonds to Modified AASHTO standard.
The standard Proctor density test consists of compacting the soil in 3 layers in a mould
1000 cm3volume. The ramrner used is 2.6 kg and it is dropped through a height of 3 1
cm and 25 blows are given to each layer. The soil is trimmed to the top of the mould and
its bulk density is determined. Later, the moisture content and dry density of the
specimen can be determined.
In the modified AASHTO procedure, the weight of the rammer is 10 lb (4.5 kg) and its
height of fall is 18 in (45.7 cm). The soil is compacted in 5 layers with 25 blows to each
layer. The mould is the same as used in Standard Proctor test.

i
The practice so far in India was to specify Standard Proctor density for highways, but of
late it has been realised that the heavy axle loads on Indian roads call for Modified
AASHTO compaction.
 - -
Highway Engheering Solids, Air and Water in Soil Mass
A soil mass consists of solid particles and voids. Voids can either be filled by air or by
water. Thus, the three phases in soil are (i) solids, (ii) air and (iii) water.
Figure 7.11 indicates how the three phases can be expressed symbolically in terms of
volume and weight.
The specific gravity of solid particles (G,) is in the range of 2.50-2.80 g/cc. It is
determined using the pycnometer or density bottle.
The void ratio (e) is the ratio of volume of voids (air voids plus voids occupied by water)
to the volume of solids. Thus,

Volume Mass Weight

N g w 7.11: Soil Mass- Volume Relationship

If the soil is fully saturated, V , = Yw,and

e= (for fully saturated soils)
vs

- " (for fully saturated soils)

Ws x Gs
Porosity of a soil (q) is the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of soil

Degree of saturation (s) is the extent to which voids in the soil mass are filled with water.

The moisture content, expressed in percentage (w), is the ratio of weight of water to
weight of solids (which can be obtained by oven-drylng the sample).

The unit weight or density of a soil, is the weight of solid mass per unit volume (g/cc). If
the soil is oven-dried, the density obtained is the dry density (yd) and if it is measured
with moisture, the density obtained is the bulk density (yb). --
SAQ 1
a) What are the desirable properties of soil for highway use?
b) How can soil properties be improved?
c) What are the four main soil types and what is the partice size for eaoh?
-7'

d) What are Atterberg limits?

 ?

What are the four states of a soil? fi avement Materials

What is liquid limit?

What is plastic limit:
What is plasticity index?
What is shrinkage limit?
What is group index?
What are the factors governing soil strength?
What is Coulomb's Law in determining soil strength?
) What is the range of value of angle of internal friction of sand?
How is soil strength measured?
How is direct shear strength of soil determined?
How is the triaxial test conducted on a soil sample?
Give the relationship between sheer strength and unconfined compressive
strength of clay.
What is 'Modulus of Subgrade Reaction?
How is Plate Bearing test conducted?
What is CBR?
What are the normal CBR values of different types of soils?
Give the limitations of the CBR test?
) Why is it necessary to compact soil for road construction?
What is OMC and MDD?
Give a typical Moisture-Density curve for soils.
Give the diagram indicating the three phases in a soil mass.
I) Define the following:
i) Void Ratio.
iii) Porosity.
iv) Degree of saturation.
v) Moisture content.

7.3 1 AGGREGATES
form the basic hard material in a pavement layer, be it of an unbound type or
e or cement concrete. The aggregate should be free of silt/clay coatings
matter. Such coatings will result in poor binding with cement or bituminous
e aggregate should not contain deleterious particles of silica minerals, opal,
dymite, zeolite, rhyolites, dacites and andesites and certain phyllites.
needs to be assessed through petrographic examination particularly for
. A study of their properties, testing procedures and specification
of great importance to a pavement materials engineer.
Highway Engineering 7.3.1 Types of Aggregates
Most of the aggregates for road making are obtained from natural sources. Some of them
may be used in their naturally occuring state with little or no processing such as gravel,
murram and sand. River shingle may need to be crushed to form small size aggregates.
Blasted rock when crushed yields aggregates of various sizes.
Artificial aggregates include slag and broken brick-bats (known in northern India as
Jhama metal).
7.3.2 Desirable Properties of Aggregates
Road-making aggregates must fulfil the following requirements:
1) High Strength: In order to bear the stresses imparted by wheel loads, aggregates
must have a high crushing strength, high resistance to impact and high resistance to
abrasion.
2) Polishing Resistance: In order to resist skidding, aggregates should not have a
tendency to get easily polished and rounded. Their fractured faces must have a
reasonably coarse texture to resist slipperiness.
3) Resistance to Chemical Agents: The aggregates must be chemically inert when they
are used in conjunction with lime and cement and must not get degraded due to
alkali-aggregate reaction.
4) Resistance to Environmental Effects: Temperature, rain and chemicals present in
the atmosphere cause disintegration of aggregates. The aggregates must be able to
withstand this effect. This property is known as soundness.
5) Good Interlocking: Whether or not aggregates ar6 bound with a binder like bitumen
or cement, one of the sources of strength of a pavement layer is the interlock among
the various particles. This is facilitated by good grading so that the voids in the
matrix formed by larger aggregates are filled in by smaller size aggregates.
Interlocking resistance is also increased if the aggregates are angular and cubical.
Some percentage of rounded surfaces is not harmful. Flaky and elongated particles
can be a source of weakness.
6) Adhesion with Bitumen: When aggregates are used in bituminous specifications,
they should have good adhesion property with bitumen. Otherwise "stripping" may
result, a phenomenon observed when aggregates come in contact with water.
7.3.3 Types of Rocks and their Suitability
Rocks are broadly classified into the following groups:
Igneous Rocks are formed from solidification of the
molten lava and intrusions. Common igneous
rocks are :granite and basalt
Sedimentary Rocks are formed by the accumulation of the
material derived from the breakdown of pre-
existing rocks through various natural agencies.
Common examples are sandstone and limestone.
Metamorphic Rocks are formed as a result of heat and pressure
on sedimentary rocks. A common example is
quartzite.
The suitability of some of the common rock types for road construction is given belovt
Basalt A very hard material, with low water absorption and
good adhesion with bitumen. Good for bituminous
courses and cement concrete.
Granite Reasonably hard material with low water absorption.
Good for bituminous courses and cement concrete
88 Quartzite A material with a low specific gravity and high
 percentage wear. Can be used for bituminous courses Pavement Materials
and cement concrete.
Sandstone High water absorption and high percentage wear.
Can be used for bases. When used in surfacing
courses, durability is low.

I Limestone High polishing value and hence must be avoided for

surfhcing courses.

I
7 3.4 Properties of Aggregates and Tests
r road making, certain engineering properties of aggregates assume importance. Tests
determining these properties and specification requirements are given below.

i {pecific Gravity
ecified gravity is determined by taking about 2 kg of aggregates and immersing them
water for 24 hours. The buoyant weight is noted. The aggregates are then oven-dried
I r 24 hours at a temperature of 100-110°C and the dry weight is found. The specific
avity is the ratio of dry weight to the loss of weight in water. Basalts have specific
avity in the range from 2.9 to 3.2, granites around 2.7, sandstones in the range from 2.0
2.7, limestone around 2.7 and Quartzite around 2.6.
ITVater Absorption
The same test as above is conducted, and the weight of aggregates after absorption is
additionally recorded. The water absorption is then determined, as a percent of oven-
dried weight. The usual allowable limit is 2 percent. Wgher water absorption causes
loss of mechanical strength when aggregates are exposed to long spells of wetness.
Absorbent aggregates when incorporated with bituminous binder are likely to absorb
binder at a rate of about half of its water absorption rate. Adjustments in mix design
need to be made on this account.
Shape
Angular aggregates give good interlock. But when natural sources (gravel etc) are used,
a certain percentage of rounds becomes unavoidable and is not harmful. Akerican
specifications require that in such cases at least 75 percent of aggregates should have two
I
I or more fractured faces.
Flaky and elongated particles are not conducive to good interlock and strength. Flaky
and elongated particles are defined respectively as those whose least dimension is less
than 0.6 of their mean and whose greatest dimension is more than 1.8 times their mean
size. The mean size is defined as the mean of the two sieve aperture sizes in the series 25
mm, 20 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm etc, between which the particle is retained.

II
For granular base courses, Indian practice is to prescribe a maximum flakiness
percentage of 15 percent; for thin bituminous courses, a value of 25 is prescribed and for
bituminous macadam and bituminous concrete a value of 35 is prescribed.
Resistance to Crushing and Impact
Tr&c loads cause impact and tend to crush the aggregates. Resistance to these is a
prime requirement and is a measure of the strength and hardness of the aggregates.
The standard test for this property is the .Aggregate Impact test. The test consists of
subjecting 12.5-10 mrn size clean dry aggregates to 15 blows of 13.5-14.0 kg hammer
falling from a height of 38055 mm. The aggregates are placed in a cylindrical cup of
internal diameter 102 mm and height 50 mm, in 3 layers by tamping each layer with 25
blows. After the specimen is subjected to blows form the hammer, the material is sieved
through 2.36 mm sieve. The weight of the material passing through the sieve expressed
as a percentage of the original weight is the aggregate impact value. The lower the value,
the higher is the strength. The values specified are 40 for waterbound macadam and 30
for bituminous courses.
A sketch of the apparatus is given in Firmre 7.12.
Highway Engineering Resistance to Abrasion
The tangential forces set up by the tyres at the road surface cause the aggregates to
abrasion and wear. An aggregate must be sufficiently hard to resist the abrasive effect of
traffic over a long period of time. There are many standard methods of testing the
resisthnce to abmsion, but the one used for road works in India is the Los Angeles

Locking Pin for Release Mechanism

r---
/ ,A Adjustable Stop for Release

Lifting Handle

'Blows)

Cylindrical Steel Cup, Inner Surfaces

Case-Hardeded

I Circular Base

FLgurr 7.12: Aggregate Impact Test Machine

Abrasion test. The test machine is illustrated in Figure 7.13. It consists of a cylindrical
container 700 mm dia and 500 mm long rotating on a horizontal axis. About 5 to 10 kg
of aggregates (weight depending on gradation) is placed in the container. The machine is
rotated at 30 to 33 RPM for 500 to 1000 revolutions, the number of revolutions
depending upon the grading of the aggregate. Steel balls, 48 mm dia, each weighing 390
to 445 g, provide the abrasive charge. The number of balls and their total weight are
standardised depending upon the grading of the sample. The abraded sample is sieved 01
1.7 mm sieve. The weight of the material passing 1.7 m m steve expressed as a
percentage of the initial weight is known as Los Angeles Abrasion Value. The values
specified are 50 per cent for water bound macadam and 40 per cent for bituminous
courses.

'---v'
M@re 7.13: Los Angeles Abrasion Appnratlu
 Pavement Materiels

s the resistance to weathering. The test has been standardised by subjecting

es to specified cycles of immersion in saturated solutions of sodium sulphate
um sulphate for 16 to 18 hours and drying at 105 to 1 10°C in an oven. The
of 5 cycles should not be more than 12 per cent for sodium subhate and
magnesium sulphate test.

inous work, an important property to look for in aggregates is their adhesion to

,especially in the presence of water. The loss of adhesion is known as shpping.
test has been standardised and censists of coating 20 to 12.5 mrn sieve aggregates
d immersing the mixture in water at 40°C for 24 h~urs.BY
n the average percent area of the surface stripped is assessed and is
wn as the stripping value. A maximum value of 25 per cent is commonly specified.

a) What are the types of aggregate suitable road construction?

b) What are the desirable properties of aggregates?
c) How is the specific gravity of aggregates determined?
d) How is the water absorption of aggregates determined?
e) How is the resistance of aggregates to crusting determined?
f) How is the resistance of aggregates to abrasion determined?
g) l30w is soundness of aggregates determined?
h) How is the stripping value of aggregates determined?

7.4 PAVEMENT COURSES

A pavement is built up in layers. The top-most course is the one having the higher
strength properties. The lower layers can be of decreasing strength as one goes down the

A simple classification of the pavement courses in a flexible pavement is given in Figure

7.14. The top course is generally known by the name "surfacing" or "wearing course".
The layer below the surfacing is the "base". The layer below the base is the "sub-base".
The sub-base rests directly on the embankment. The embankment layer that receives the
pavement is known as "subgrade".

Wearing Course or Surfacing

Sub Grade

Rgure 7.14: Layersin a Fleldble Pavement

~LghwnyEngheering In the case of a concrete pavement, the concrete slab acts as the wearing course. The slab
may be placed directly on the subgrade or on a sub-base. The arrangement is shown in
Figure 7.15.

Sub Grade
(b)

Figure 7.15: Layers In a Concrete Pavement .

7.5 TYPES OF BINDERS

Binders are used in pavements to hold various particles of soil or aggregates together.
Basically two types of binders are available:
1) Hydraulic binders
2) Hydro-carbon binders
Hydraulic binders consist of
a) Lime
b) Cement

d) Pozzolana
Hydro-carbon binders consist of
i) Bitumen and its derivatives
ii) Tar
Hydro-carbons binders, particularly those derived from petroleum crude oil, ate not
inexhaustible. As oil reserves dry up, their availability becomes difficult.

7.6 BITUMENS
Bituminous materials are widely used in road construction and maintenance. After
gaining experience fiom their use in obtaining smooth riding surface, bituminous
mixtures are being used as structural layers. These materials are considered to be flexible
fiom suuctural point of view.
Bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid material, black or brown in colour, having adhesive
properties, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, derived fiom petroleum crude or
occuring in natural asphalt, and soluble in carbon disulphide. In American terminology,
the material is known by the name Asphalt. In British terminology, also adopted in
India, the material is known as Bitumen.
7.6.1 Source .
The most common source of bitumen is through petroleum crude. It is also found as rock
asphalt in some parts of Europe and as Lake Asphalt in Trinidad.
 does not yield good bitumen,suitablefor roadwork, except Digboi bitumen Pavement Mnkrldrr
. Thus, India gets its entire bitumen (around 1 to'1.5 million tomes for
ough imported crude.
7.6.4 Manufacture
e from distillation of petroleum crude is bitumen. Figure 7.16 gives the
r manufacture of bitumen and its derivatives.
ect method is to set the distillation process such that the residue comes out
en. It is then known as "straight-run" bitumen, because it comes out
om the distillation process and its viscosity has not been adjusted by blending,
or any other process. The product is of "penetration grade" whose degree of
ess can be measured by a penetration test (described later). Blowing air through
while it is hot results in a rubbery bitumen, which is known as
n bitumen. Blending straight run bitumen with a heavy distillate like diesel results
SC); blending with a medium distillate like kerosene yields
(MC) and blending with a medium distillate like petrol yields
C). If bitumen is dispersed in water in minutely subhvided
p of an emulsifying agent an emulsion is obtained.
I
I $iturnen is used in India as (i) straight-run penetration grade paving bitumen (ii) cutbacks
d (iii) emulsions.

Oil Well
Lipht Medium
Distillate

Gasoline, Light Solvents

181 . Kerosene, Light Bumer O
i
l
tion Diesel 03&ubricating Oils

low Curing Cutback Asphalts,

ubricating Oils (may also be
by direct distillation)

'Rapid Curing
Cutback Asphalt

Blender

1l [Bi(~and
and Water Water Emulsified Asphalts

T ( '
Emulsion Plant

I FLgare 7.1& Petm1tum Asphalt Flow ChPrt for Emnlslled and Cdberk Asphalt

7.6.3 Desirable Properties of Bitumen

In road constructinn nne Innka CnrtLp qnllnv.,;..,. A~..:-..I.I- -----A:--:- L
:,
 a) Bitumen should have good affinity to aggregates.
b) Bitumen should be fluid enough to coat all particles of the aggregates in a
premix process. This is achieved by heating the bitumen and the aggregates
too.
c) In spraying work, bitumen should be susceptible of being sprayed to a thin
film. This is achieved either by heating it or by fluxing it or by emulsifying it.
d) When the binder cools down to atmospheric temperature it should harden to
hold the aggregates together.
e) Its susceptibility to change its viscosity when temperature varies should be
low. In particular, its viscosity characteristics should be reasonably constant
within the range of temperatures the road experiences.
f) The bitumen should retain its properties over a long period. In other words, it
should be a durable binder and should not lose its properties too soon.
g) When heating it to the application temperature it should not lose its properties
too soon.
7.6.4 Physical Properties of Bitumen
Bitumen possesses the following properties:
a) It is a viscous liquid
b) It consists predominantly of hydrocarbons ,

c) It is soluble in carbon disulphide

d) It is insoluble in water
e) Its specific gravity is around 1.OO
f) It has water-proofing properties
g) It is thermoplastic, i.e. it becomes soft on heating and in the reverse process
becomes hard on cooling.
h) It oxidises slowly.
i) It is chemically inert.
7.6.5 Testing of Bitumen
viscosity
Viscosity is the property of which bitumen resists flow due to internal friction.
Absolute or dynamic viscosity is measured by means of a sliding plate viscometer (see
Figure 7.17). A thin film of bitumen of thickness d (20 to 50 microns) is held between
two plates, the area of contact being A. The tangential force Fto move the top plate at a
velocity V is measured. The coefficientof viscosity, q is then given by:

In CGS units it is measured in Poise.

Dynamics viscosity
Kinematic viscosity =
Density

Kinetic viscosity is measured in CGS units in Stokes (cm2/sec).

 Pavement Materials ,

3
Far Simple Liquid E =n A " I d . i.r,n = F d / A v

1I Flgure 7.17: Concept of Vlscoslty

f liquid bitumen is measured by efflux viscometers. The liquid is ke@ at a

re and is made to pass through an orifice; the time required to pass a
through the orifice is noted and is an indirect measure of the viscosity
methods used are STV (Standard Tar Viscometer), Saybolt Furol,
Engler. The diameter of orifice varies in the range of 3 to 10 mm and the
d is in the range of 50 to 200 ml.

Cutback
Bitumen

).\---------------------------------
Start
Seconds
-6--;
End
SO CC

I/ Flgwe 7.18: Vlscoslty Test

I
Duc ility

i
Bitu en binder should be sufficiently ductile, i.e., it should be capable of being stretched
with ut breaking. Ductility is the opposite of brittleness.

Start
Cm
Ductility
\
Bitumen

Break

Bl-yd27-a Bitumen

I1 Figure 7.19: Ductility Test

y is measured by stretching a standard briquette of bitumen (Figure 7.19) having

sectional area of 1 sq cm at a temperature of 27°C the rate of pill being 5 cm per
The distance in cm that the briquette can be stretched before breaking is the
. Values vary fiom 5 to 100. A minimum value of 50 is commonly specified.
y bitumen, values may be as low as 15.

t
Pen tration
sure of the hardness of bitumen is indirectly obtained by the penetration test. It
the distance a standard blunt-pointed needle will vertically penetrate a sample
Hlghway Engineering ; load being 100 g and time of application of load being 5 secs
of material at 2 7 0 ~the
(Figure 7.20). The unit of penetration is 1110 mm. Thus 801100 pen means a penetration
of 8-10 mm. Penetration limits enable bitumen to be classified on the basis of
consistency. Common grades are 30140,40170 and 801100.
Softening Point
The softening point is measured by the "Ring and Ball" test. Softening point is the
temperature at which bitumen attains a particular degree of softness under

Bitumen 25' d Bitumen After 5 sec.

Figure 7.20: Penetration Test

standardised test conditions. The temperature at which a standard steel ball placed on
a layer of bitumen kept in a standard ring passes through the bitumen layer and
touches the bottom plate kept at a distance of 2.54 cm is the softening point
(Figure 7.2). The bath liquid is waterlglycerine. The softening point of paving grade
bitumen 801100 is 3550°C. The significance of the softening point is that it indicates
the temperature at which bitumen passes from solid to liquid consistency. For
satisfactory performance and avoidance of "bleeding", bitumen should have a
softening point 5 to 10°C above the maximum atmospheric temperature.

lt- Thermometer

. Steel Ball

Start ' End b

Figure 7.21: SoRenlng Point Test

Flash and Fire Point

The test is performed under standard conditions. The flash point (Figure 7.22) is the
lowest temperature in degrees C at which the application of a test flame causes the
vapour from bitumen to catch fire momentarily in the form of a flash. The fire point is
the lowest temperature in degrees C at which the application of the test flame causes the
bitumen to ignite and burn for at least 5 secs under specified conditions of test. The safe
limit for heating bitumen is normally W°C below the flash point.
 Pavement Materials

Point

Small

Figun?7.22: Elaah Poht Test

I

I
S ecific gravity of bitumen is determined by the pycnometer method. The measurements
a taken at 27OC. The specific gravity is generally around 1.00.

solubility of bitumen in trichloroethylene is a measure of its purity. A minimum

of 99 per cent is generally desired.
I
oat Test
e float test is a modified viscosity test adapted for use with small quantities of very
scous bituminous materials. It is the time in seconds required for a small plug of
bitumen, which is held in an open mould attached to the bottom of a saucer, to
come sufficiently fluid when the saucer is floated in water at 50°C (Figure 7.23).

Start m-. - Seconds .--- .-+ End

Figure 7.23: Float Test

oss on Heating
en a bituminous material is heated, it loses its volatile and therefore hardens. The less
loss on heating, the better is the bitumen. The test is conducted by an accelerated heat
test. 50 g of bitumen is placed in a container in one of the recesses of revolving shelf.
shelf rotates at 5 to 6 revolutions per minute. The test is carried out for 5 hrs in an
oven at 163OC. Not more than one percent loss in weight is desirable. The residue is
tested for penetration. The reduction in penetration should be less than 40 per cent of the
original value.

1The
~ i n d e Content
r of Emulsions
binder content of emulsions is determined by an evaporation test. About 50 g of
bitumen emulsion is heated in an oven at 110°C for 3 hrs. The container is then weighed.
97
Highway Engineering The binder content is found by the difference in weights. The residue is tested for
penetration and ductility. 1

7.6.6 Selection of Appropriate Grade of ~ i t u m e n

Guidelines for selection of bitumen grade in India are given below:
Type of Bitumen Use
Penetration Grade Hot-mix work in areas where the difference
30140 between maximum and minimum
temperature is less than 25°C and on roads
with high volume of traffic (expressways,
urban roads and factory roads).
Type of Bitumen Use
Penetration Grade Hot-mix work for bituminous macadams and
60170 bituminous concrete for superior type of
roads with high traffic and in normal
summer temperatures.
a) For surface dressing.
ii) For premix works in high altitudes.
iii) For premix works in roads with less
traffic intensity.
Cutback Bitumen i) Sufice dressing in cold weather
ii) Premix in cold weather
iii) MC and SC cut backs are us.ed for
priming.
Emulsion i) Used for surfhce dressing in cold
weather, wet conditions and
maintenance works
ii) Used for premix works in wet weather
(except dense and semidense carpet)
and maintenance works.
iii) Priming.
SAQ 3
a) Give a sketch of the flexible pavement showing the layers in it.
b) Give a sketch of the rigid pavement showing the layers in it.
c) What are the various types of binders available for road construction?
d) What is bitumen?
e) How is bitumen manufactured?
f) How are cutbacks produced?
g) What are SQ, MC and RC cutbacks?
h) How is emulsion
i) What are the desirable properties of bitumen?
j) What are the physical properties of bitumen?
k) What is viscosity?
1) How is coefficient of viscosity measured?
m) How is kinematic viscosity measured?
 n) What is ductility of bitumen? Pavement Materials

o) How is ductility measured?

p) What is "penetration" when dealing with bitumen?
q) How is penetration of bitumen measured?
r) What is the "softening point" of the bitumen?
s) How is the "softening point9'ofbitumen measured?
t) What should be the "softening point" of bitumen for satisfactory performance
of road?
u) What is the normal specific gravity of bitumen?
v) How is the purity of bitumen tested?
w) What is Float Test?
x) What should be the desirable value of loss of weight of bitumen on heating?
y) Where is 30140 pen bitumen used?
z) Where is 60170 pen bitumen used?
aa) Where is 801100 pen bitumen used?
bb) What are the applications of cutback?
cc) Where is emulsion used?

d.7 CEMENTCONCRETE FOR PAVEMENT

ncrete pavements for highways and airfields are subjected to severe load intensities.
such they have to be designed with care and constructed under good supervision. The
requirements that are sought after are discussed below: -

i
1 Strength: The thickness of concrete slab is designed on the basis of its strength
r quired. This governs the mix design and cement quality and thus the economy of the
p vement.

d
2 Durability: The concrete slab has to take the heavy loads coming on it for many years
t come. It must have adequate fatigue resistance.
Abrasion Resistance: The concrete pavement must be able to withstand the abrasion
by vehicular traffic. It should not get loosened or pitted due to the high tangential
at the tyre-road interface.

i1
4 Skid Resistance: The surface should be sufficiently rough so as to prevent skidding
u der wet weather conditions. The texture should not deteriorate to become smooth.
5 Shrinkage: Concrete shrinks as it dries. Excessive shrinkage can cause cracks.
astic Properties: During construction, concrete will be placed and compacted in a
c condition. It should have sufficient workability, which will enable it to be laid
compacted with the available equipment. It should, however, be free from excessive
ding when compacted.
ishability: Concrete when laid and compacted should be finishable to the desired

The strength and durability of concrete are dependent upon its

ingress of water below the concrete slab can soften the subgrade
lead to mud pumping. 99
- . . -
Hlghwny Engineering
7.8 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Proportioning of the ingredients of concrete calls for great expertise. The objective of a
good mix design should be to ensure that:
1) The concrete has the desired strength,
2) The concrete has the lowest slump consistent with efficient placing and
compaction to provide a homogeneous mass,
3) It has the maximum size of aggregates economically available and consistent
with proper placing;
4) It has adequate durability to satisfactorily withstand the loads coming on it
during its service life;
5) It has a good surface texture which lasts over its service life; and
6) The mix should be economical.
The steps in the mix design are:
1) First, determine the target mean strength of concrete, given the design strength
and the variability fictor. It is common to work with 5 percent of cubes having
strength less than that specified (i.e.a tolerance level of 1 in 20). Assume
normal distribution. It means that the target mean = design strength + 1.65
standard deviation.
2) Knowing the cement grade to be used (and its 7day strength), the required
water-cement ratio to produce the target mean strength is determined fiom
curves reproduced below (Figure 7.23).

7-Day Compressive Strength Curve for

of Cement, M N / With
~ ~ Cement
Single Sized Standard Sand Concrete
(IS 269- 1967) Mix Design
35 A
32 B
28 C
25 D
21 E
18 F
. 0.4 0.6 0.a 1.0
Water-Cement Ratio by Weight
Figure 7.24: chart for Concrete Mix Design

3) Knowing the slump of concrete desired and the maximum size of aggregate, a
reference to standard tables is made and the fiee water content is determined.
Sand content is similarly determined.
4) From known values of specific gravity of aggregates and cement, the proportion
by weight of water, cement, sand and coarse aggregates is found.
5) Coarse-aggregates grading is determined fiom standard grading curves.
7.8.1 Concrete Strength
Flexural strength of concrete is important for pavement design. It is measured by
subjecting a beam of concrete, generally 150 mm x 150 mm square section, and about
 0 rnm long. The span for testing is equal to four times the depth and the load is Pavement Materials'
at the third points of the span. A 28-day strength of 3.5 to 4.5 MPa is desirable
grade concrete.
ncrete flexural strength is related to its compressive strength. The actual relationship
particular concrete depends on a variety of factors. Roughly, the 28-day flexural
ngth is 118 to 1/12 of the 28-day compressive strength. It is more common to
lish this relationship for a particular mix and control the quality of construction on
asis of compressive strength.
I 718.2 Admixtures
xtures are commonly used in paving concrete with a view to modify its properties.
ng mixtures are organic substances that promote the formation of discrete
ubbles. Their use improves workability and increases the durability of
e, though slightly reducinf the strength. Water-reducing admixtures
are used to get a workable concrete mix without additional water.
can also be used to retard the rate of setting of concrete or to accelerate gain
"

1 a) What are the general requirements of good concrete for road pavement?

I1 b) What are the requirements of a good mix design of concrete for road
pavement?
c) What are the steps in a mix design of concrete?

II d) What is the approximate value of flexural strength in relation to 28-day

compressive strength?
e) What are the admixtures used in concrete for pavement?

7.$ ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

C
P blem 1

'I
0 servations from a direct shear test having an area of 36 cm2are given below.

l I Compressive Force,
(kg)

ue of internal fiiction and cohesion.

3 gives a plot of the data.

plot, slope of line = 26"

intercept on y-axis
Iway Engineering

4.1
Cohesive stress, c = - = 0.114 kg/cm2
36
= 0.011 MN/m2

Equation of the line is

S = 0.0 1l+atan 26"
Problem 2
Plate bearing tests conducted on a 30 cm dia plate yielded the following observations:

Load (kg) 270 580 770 1010 1260 1480 1690

Settlement (mm) 0.25 0.50' 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75

Determine the k value corresponding to a plate of 75 cm diameter.

Solution

At a settlement of 1.25 mm, load = 1260 kg.

1260 9.81
Loading stress, p = x-
0.7854 x 302 lo6

Problem 3
Load and penetration values fiom a CBR test are given below. Calculate the CBR value.

Penetration 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4 5 7.5 10 12.5

(mm)
Load (kg) 0 7 '24 41 59 70 81 98 110 129 143 150

Solution I

I
The load-penetration curve is plotted in Figure 7.9 (Curve 11). The observations need
correction. The tangent to the curve meets the x-axis at a value of 0.25 mm. The origin
needs shifting by this amount. Thus, the loads at 2.5 mm and 5.00 mm penetration are
74 and 111 kg respectively.
CBR value fiom 2.5 mm penetration

CBR value fiom 5.00 rnm penetration

 Materials

1 The CBR value is 5.4 per cent.

7.10 SUMMARY
is unit, you have been made familiar with the materials used in road construction.
have learnt what are the various types of soil and what are the tests used to
e the parameters for design of pavements. You have been introduced to various
ms of soil classification. You have learnt the importance and the concept of soil
action. You have become familiar with the procedure of California Beating Ratio
is most commonly used by the highway engineer.
have been made familiar with the desirable properties of aggregates and the types of
that are suitable to be used for road construction. You hpve also learnt the tests
used for determining the properties of the aggregates.
ou have been introduced to bitumen as a binder. The properties of bitumen and the
sts used to determine them have also been explained.

f e properties of cement concrete have been presented and the procedure for designing
t e concrete mix has been given.
ith the knowledge gained from this unit, you will be able to identify different types of
aterials used in road construction and select the materials for various purposes
pending on their properties. The properties determined using these procedures would
used for the design of pavements as presented in the next unit.

'$11 KEY WORDS

n

System of categorising the soil used for identifying them

and understanding their behaviour for various purposes.
ain Size Analysis Procedure used to determine the proportions of particles
of various sizes.
Also called Plasticity limits, indicate the consistency of
soil.

4 quid Limit The water content at which the soil starts behaving like a
liquid.
The water content at which the soil stops behaving like a
plastic.

I
P1 sticity Index The range of water content when the soil remains plastic.
The water content of soil below which no shrinkage can
take place.
Classification Soil classification given by Public Road Administration
of USA.

1
Di ect Shear Test Procedure of strength testing of soil by fhiling the
specimen along a predetermined failure plane.
Procedure of strength testing of a cylindrical soil
specimen by applying constant stress in the radial
direction and increasing vertical stress.

t
C lomb's Law The law that relates the shear strength of soil to its shear
parameters c and 4
--
Highway Engine Graphical representation of stress condition that exists on
Mohr's Circle
a plane of a soil specimen.
Cohesion Intercept The intercept on the shear stress axis.
Angle of Internal Slope of the failure envelope in a normal stress-shear
Friction (Angle of stress plot.
Shearing Resistance)
Unconfined Procedure of strength testing of clayey soil in which a
Compression Strength cylindrical specimen is failed by applying increased .
(UCC Test) vertical compressive stress.
.
Plate Bearing Test The field test that is performed to evaluate the bearing
resistance of the ground.
Modulus of Subgrade The parameter that itidicates soil bearing resistance to
Reaction \\ loads.
California Bearing An ad-hoc penetration test that is used to find suitability
Ratio of soil for use in pavement construction.
Optimum Moisture The water content that gives maximum compaction to
Content soil when packed into a standard mould by applying
standard energy.
Maximum Dry Density The dry density corresponding to Optimum Moisture
Content.
Aggregate Impact A measure of toughness of aggregates determined by
Value aggregate impact test.
Los Angeles Abrasion A measure of resistance to abrasion of aggregates
Value determined by Los Angeles Abrasion test.
Soundness A measure of resistance to weathering of aggregates.
Stripping The loss of adhesion between aggregate and bitumen.
Penetration Grade A type of bitumen used in hot mix works.
Bitumen
Cutback Bitumen A type of bitumen used in cold weather.
Bitumen ~mulsion A liquid formed by mixing bitumen and water for use in
cold weather.
Viscosity Property of a liquid's resistance to flow.
Penetration A measure of hardness of bitumen.
Softening Point The temperature.at which bitumen attains a particular
degree of softness.
Ductility Capability of being stretched without breaking.
Flash Point The lowest temperature at which the bituminous vapour
can catch fire in a flash.
Fire Point The lowest temperature at which the bitumen can burn.
Concrete Mix Design Proportioning of the oncrete ingredients to obtain
concrete of the desired strength.
Air-Entraining Agent Admixture, that is added to concrete that promotes the
formation of minute air bubbles for improving
104
I
lasticiser

.12 ANSWERS TO SAQS

workability and increasing the durability of concrete.
Admixture that is added to concrete that reduces water
requirement to get a workable concrete mix.
Pavement Materials

a) Refer section 7.2.1

b) Refer section 7.2.1
c) Refer section 7.2.2
d) Refer section7.2.2
e) Refer section 7.2.2
f ) Refersection7.2.2
g) Refer section 7.2.2
h) Refer section 7.2.2
i) Refer section 7.2.2
j) Refer section 7.2.2
k) Refer section 7.2.3
1) Refer section 7.2 3
m) Refer section 7.2.3
n) Refersection7.2.3
o) Refer section 7.2.3
p) Refer section 7.2.3
q) Refer section 7.2.3
r) Refer section 7.2.3
s) Refer section 7.2.3
t) Refer section 7.2.3
u) Refer to table 7.3
v) Refer section 7.2.3
w) Refer section 7.2.4
x) Refer section 7.2.4
y) Refer section 7.2.4
z) Refer Figure 7.1 1
bb)Refer section 7.2.4
SAQ 2
a) Refer sections 7.3.2and7.3.4
b) Refer section 7.3.3
c) Refer section 7.3.5
d) Refer section 7.3.5
e) Refer section 7.3.5
1

f) Refer section 7.3.5 105

Highway Engineering g) Refer section 7.3.5
h) Refer section 7.3.5
SAQ 3
a) Refer Figure 7.14
b) Refer Figure 7.15
c) Refer section 7.5
d) Refer section 7.6.1
e) Refer section 7.6.3
f) Refer section 7.6.3
g) Refer section 7.6.3
h) Refer section 7.6.3
i) Refer section 7.6.4
j) Refer section 7.6.5
k) Refer section 7.6.6
1) Refer section 7.6.6
m) Refer section 7.6.6
n) Refer section 7.6.6
o) Refer section 7.6.6
p) Refer section 7.6.6
q) Refer section 7.6.6
r) Refer section 7.6.6
s) Refer section 7.6.6
t) Refer section 7.6.6
u) Around 1.00
v) By testing its soIubility in tri-chloro-ethylene.
w) Refer section 7.6.6
x) Not more than one percent.
y) Refer Table in section 7.6.7
z) Refer Table in section 7.6.7
aa) Refer Table in section 7.6.7
bb) Refer Table in section 7.6.7
cc) Refer Table in section 7.6.7
SAQ 4
a) Refer section 7.7
b) Refer section 7.8.1
c) Refer section 7.8.1.
1 1
d) Flexural strength = - - - of 28 day compressive strength.
8 12
e) Refer section 7.8.3