Solids, Inter Molecular

Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intermolecular Forces:
Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes
12-1
Intermolecular Forces:
Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes
12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes
12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes
12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces
12.4 Properties of the Liquid State
12.5 The Uniqueness of Water
12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding
12.7 Advanced Materials
12-2
ATTRACTIVE FORCES
electrostatic in nature
Intramolecular forces bonding forces
These forces exist within each molecule.

They influence the chemical properties of the substance.
Intermolecular forces nonbonding forces
These forces exist between molecules.

They influence the physical properties of the substance.
12-3
Phase Changes
exothermic
sublimination
melting vaporizing
solid liquid gas
freezing condensing
endothermic
12-4
Table 12.1
A Macroscopic Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
State Shape and Volume Compressibility Ability to Flow
Gas Conforms to shape and volume high high

of container
Liquid Conforms to shape of container; very low moderate

volume limited by surface
Solid Maintains its own shape and almost none almost none
volume
12-5
Figure 12.1
Heats of vaporization and fusion for several common substances.
12-6
Figure 12.2 Phase changes and their enthalpy changes.
12-7
Figure 12.3
A cooling curve for the conversion of gaseous water to ice.
q = (amount)(molar heat capacity)(T) within a phase
12-8 q = (amount)(enthalpy of phase change) during a phase change

Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes
Within a phase, a change in heat is accompanied by a change in

temperature which is associated with a change in average Ek as
the most probable speed of the molecules changes.
q = (amount)(molar heat capacity)(T)
During a phase change, a change in heat occurs at a constant

temperature, which is associated with a change in Ep, as the
average distance between molecules changes.
q = (amount)(enthalpy of phase change)
12-9
Figure 12.4 Liquid-gas equilibrium.
12-10
Figure 12.5
The effect of temperature on the distribution of
molecular speed in a liquid.
12-11
Figure 12.6 Figure 12.7
A linear plot of vapor

Vapor pressure as a function of
pressure- temperature
temperature and intermolecular forces.
relationship.
12-12
The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
-Hvap 1 
   C
ln P =
R T 
P2 -Hvap  1 1 
ln =   
P1 R T2 T1
12-13
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.1 Using the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
PROBLEM: The vapor pressure of ethanol is 115 torr at 34.90C. If Hvap of

ethanol is 40.5 kJ/mol, calculate the temperature (in 0C) when
the vapor pressure is 760 torr.
PLAN: We are given 4 of the 5 variables in the Clausius-Clapeyron

equation. Substitute and solve for T2.
SOLUTION: P2 -Hvap  1 1 
ln =    34.90C = 308.0K
P1 R T2 T1
760 torr -40.5 x103 J/mol 1 1

ln = -
115 torr 8.314 J/mol*K T2 308K
T2 = 350K = 770C
12-14
Figure 12.8 Iodine subliming.
test tube with ice
iodine solid
iodine vapor
iodine solid
12-15
Figure 12.9 Phase diagrams for CO2 and H2O.
CO2 H 2O
12-16
Types of
Intermolecular forces
12-17
The nature of the phases and their changes are

due primarily to forces among molecules.
Bonding and nonbonding (intermolecular)
The two type of forces differ and Coulomb’s law

explains why:
Bonding – strong – larger charges closer
together
Intermolecular – weak – smaller charges farther
apart.
12-18
Figure 12.10 Covalent and van der Waals radii.
van der Waal’s distance
bond length
covalent radius
van der Waal’s radius
How far apart are the charges between molecules

that give rise to intermolecular forces?
12-19
Figure 12.11
Periodic trends in covalent and van der Waals radii (in pm).
The van der Waals radius

of an atom is always larger
than its covalent radius,
But van der Waals radii

decrease across a period
and increase down a group,
just as covalent radii do.
12-20
12-21
12-22
Ion – dipole forces

When an ion and a nearby polar molecule (dipole)
attract each other, an ion –dipole force results.
Example: when an ionic compound dissolves in water.

Ep α - | z | µ
r2
The – sign means that the potential energy of the
molecule is lowered by its interaction with the polar
solvent.
1/r2 means that the interaction depends more strongly in
distance than between two ions.
12-23
Dipole – dipole forces

When polar molecules lie near each other, as in
liquids and solids, their partial charges act as
tiny electric fields that orient them and give
rise to dipole – dipole forces
12-24
Figure 12.12 Polar molecules and dipole-dipole forces.
solid
liquid
12-25
THE HYDROGEN BOND
a dipole-dipole intermolecular force
A hydrogen bond may occur when an H atom in a molecule,

bound to small highly electronegative atom with lone pairs of
electrons, is attracted to the lone pairs in another molecule.
The elements which are so electronegative are N, O, and F.

hydrogen bond hydrogen bond
donor acceptor
.. .. ..
..
O H N
..
F H O
..
.. ..
acceptor .. donor
N H F
..
..
..
acceptor donor
12-26
Figure 12.13 Dipole moment and boiling point.
For molecular compounds of approximately the same size and molar mass, the
greater the dipole-dipole forces between the molecules are, and so the more
12-27 energy it takes to separate them.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.2 Drawing Hydrogen Bonds Between Molecules

of a Substance
PROBLEM: Which of the following substances exhibits H bonding? For
those that do, draw two molecules of the substance with the H
bonds between them. O
(a) C2 H6 (b) CH3OH (c) CH3C NH2
PLAN: Find molecules in which H is bonded to N, O or F. Draw H

bonds in the format -B: H-A-.
SOLUTION: (a) C2H6 has no H bonding sites. H

H H H N
(b) (c) O
H C O H O
H N CH3C CH C CH3C
3
H H CH3C N H O N H O
H O C H H
H
H
12-28
Figure 12.14 Hydrogen bonding and boiling point.
12-29
Polarizability and Charged-Induced Dipole Forces

distortion of an electron cloud
•Polarizability increases down a group
size increases and the larger electron clouds are further

from the nucleus
•Polarizability decreases left to right across a period
increasing Zeff shrinks atomic size and holds the electrons

more tightly
•Cations are less polarizable than their parent atom

because they are smaller.
•Anions are more polarizable than their parent atom

because they are larger.
12-30
Figure 12.15 Dispersion forces among nonpolar molecules.
separated instantaneous
Cl2 dipoles
molecules
12-31
London or dispersion forces

• Dispersion forces are caused by momentary
oscillation of electron charge in atoms and,
therefore, are present between all particles (atoms,
ions and molecules)
• Instantaneous dipole – induced dipole forces.
• Except in cases involving small polar molecules or
those with strong hydrogen bonding, the dispersion
force is the dominant force
• Example: HCl - 85% dispersion and 15%
dipole-dipole.
12-32
Figure 12.16
Molar mass and boiling point.
Higher molar mass, higher

polarizability
Intermolecular forces between
the molecules.
12-33
Figure 12.17 Molecular shape and boiling point.
fewer points for

dispersion
forces to act
more points for
dispersion
forces to act
12-34
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.3 Predicting the Type and Relative Strength of

Intermolecular Forces
PROBLEM: For each pair of substances, identify the dominant
intermolecular forces in each substance, and select the
substance with the higher boiling point.
(a) MgCl2 or PCl3
(b) CH3NH2 or CH3F
(c) CH3OH or CH3CH2OH

CH3
(d) Hexane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3)
CH3CCH2CH3
or 2,2-dimethylbutane
CH3
PLAN: Use the formula, structure and Table 2.2 (button).
•Bonding forces are stronger than nonbonding(intermolecular) forces.

•Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of dipole-dipole force.
•Dispersion forces are decisive when the difference is molar mass or
molecular shape.
12-35
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.3 Predicting the Type and Relative Strength of

Intermolecular Forces
continued
SOLUTION:
(a) Mg2+ and Cl- are held together by ionic bonds while PCl3 is covalently
bonded and the molecules are held together by dipole-dipole interactions. Ionic
bonds are stronger than dipole interactions and so MgCl2 has the higher boiling
point.
(b) CH3NH2 and CH3F are both covalent compounds and have bonds which are
polar. The dipole in CH3NH2 can H bond while that in CH3F cannot. Therefore
CH3NH2 has the stronger interactions and the higher boiling point.
(c) Both CH3OH and CH3CH2OH can H bond but CH3CH2OH has more CH for
more dispersion force interaction. Therefore CH3CH2OH has the higher boiling
point.
(d) Hexane and 2,2-dimethylbutane are both nonpolar with only dispersion
forces to hold the molecules together. Hexane has the larger surface area,
thereby the greater dispersion forces and the higher boiling point.
12-36
Figure 12.18
Summary diagram for analyzing the intermolecular forces in a sample.
INTERACTING PARTICLES
(atoms, molecules, ions)
ions present ions not present
ions only polar molecules only nonpolar

IONIC BONDING DIPOLE-DIPOLE molecules only
(Section 9.2) FORCES DISPERSION
FORCES only
H bonded to
ion + polar molecule
N, O, or F
ION-DIPOLE FORCES polar + nonpolar
molecules
HYDROGEN DIPOLE-
BONDING INDUCED DIPOLE
FORCES
DISPERSION FORCES ALSO PRESENT

12-37
OTHER PROPERTIES OF
LIQUIDS
12-38
Figure 12.19 The molecular basis of surface tension.
hydrogen bonding
occurs across the surface
and below the surface
the net vector
for attractive
forces is downward
hydrogen bonding
occurs in three
dimensions
12-39
Surface tension
• Is the energy required to increase the surface area by
a unit amount – the stronger the forces are between
particles in a liquid, the greater the surface tension.
• Tendency to minimize surface area (spherical drops)
• The relatively high surface tension of water accounts

for the ease with which it can be nebulized, or placed
into aerosol form. Low surface tension liquids tend to
evaporate quickly and are difficult to keep in an
aerosol form. All liquids display surface tension to
some degree.
12-40
Table 12.3 Surface Tension and Forces Between Particles
Surface Tension
Substance Formula (J/m2) at 200C Major Force(s)
diethyl ether CH3CH2OCH2CH3 1.7x10-2 dipole-dipole; dispersion
ethanol CH3CH2OH 2.3x10-2 H bonding
butanol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 2.5x10-2 H bonding; dispersion
water H2O 7.3x10-2 H bonding
mercury Hg 48x10-2 metallic bonding
12-41
Figure 12.20 Shape of water or mercury meniscus in glass.
concave
convex
capillarity
stronger
adhesive forces cohesive forces
H 2O Hg
12-42
Capillarity
• The rising of a liquid through a narrow space

against the pull of gravity is called capillary
action, or capillarity.
• It is the result from a competition between
intermolecular forces within the liquid
(cohesive forces) and those between the liquid
and the tube walls (adhesive forces)
12-43
Viscosity
• Its resistance to flow – intermolecular

attractions impede this movement.
• Gases and liquids flow, but liquid viscosities
are much higher because of intermolecular
forces.
• Viscosity decreases with heating
• Molecular shape – small, spherical molecules
make little contact and pour easily.
12-44
Table 12.4 Viscosity of Water at Several Temperatures
viscosity - resistance to flow
Viscosity
Temperature(0C) (N*s/m2)*
20 1.00x10-3
40 0.65x10-3
60 0.47x10-3
80 0.35x10-3
*The units of viscosity are newton-seconds per square meter.
12-45
Figure 12.21 The H-bonding ability of the water molecule.
hydrogen bond donor
hydrogen bond acceptor
12-46
The Unique Nature of Water
•great solvent properties due to polarity and

hydrogen bonding ability
•exceptional high specific heat capacity
•high surface tension and capillarity
•density differences of liquid and solid states
12-47
Figure 12.22 The hexagonal structure of ice.
12-48
Figure 12.23 The expansion and contraction of water.
12-49
Figure 12.24
The macroscopic properties of water and their atomic
and molecular “roots”.
12-50
Solids:
- crystalline
- amorphous
12-51
Figure 12.25 The striking beauty of crystalline solids.
celestite pyrite amethyst halite
12-52
Structures of solids
• Crystalline solids have a regularly repeating

pattern of atoms.
• We will consider only cubic unit cells, with
equal edges meeting at right angles (90°) when
we calculate in detail the packing efficiency.
• There are 7 crystal systems and 14 types of
unit cells that occur in nature.
12-53
Cubic system
• Majority of metallic elements
• Some covalent compounds
• Several ionic compounds
There are 3 types of cubic unit cells within the cubic

system:
1. Simple cubic unit cell
2. Body-centered cubic unit cell
3. Face-centered cubic unit cell
12-54
Figure 12.26 The crystal lattice and the unit cell.

lattice point
unit
cell
unit
cell
portion of a 2-D lattice
portion of a 3-D lattice

Lattice - Consists of all points with identical surroundings
Unit cell – The smallest portion of the crystal that, if repeated in all
three directions, gives the crystal.
12-55
Figure 12.27 (1 of 3) The three cubic unit cells.
Simple Cubic
1/8 atom at
8 corners
Atoms/unit cell = 1/8 * 8 = 1

coordination number = 6
Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbors surrounding it.
12-56
Body-centered
Cubic
1/8 atom at
8 corners
1 atom at
center
Atoms/unit cell = (1/8*8) + 1 = 2

coordination number = 8
12-57
Face-centered
Cubic
1/8 atom at
8 corners
1/2 atom at
6 faces
coordination number = 12 Atoms/unit cell = (1/8*8)+(1/2*6) = 4
12-58
Figure 12.28 Packing of spheres.
simple cubic
(52% packing efficiency)
body-centered cubic
(68% packing efficiency)
12-59
Figure 12.28 (continued) layer a – shifting

every other row a
hexagonal layer b
covers
closest cubic closest
layer a packing layer c the white
packing space.
closest packing of first

and second layers
abab… (74%)
abcabc… (74%)
hexagonal expanded face-centered

unit cell side views unit cell
12-60 Hexagonal( Mg, Zn) and FCC (Ni, Cu) is the most efficient packing for identical spheres
Packing efficiency %
= (volume occupied by spheres) / (total volume) x 100
This calculation is carried out on the contents of the

unit cell. Therefore, our first step is to count the
number of atoms contained within the unit cell. To
do this you should keep in mind that atoms located
at the corners, edges and faces of the unit cell are
not fully contained in a single unit cell, so that they
only partially occupy the unit cell.
12-61
• Atom Location Fraction Inside Unit Cell*

Corner 1/8
Edge 1/4
Face 1/2
Anywhere else 1
*For unit cells with non-orthogonal axes it is not

strictly true that an atom on a corner (edge) is
exactly 1/8 (1/4) inside the unit cell, but it is still
true that 8 (4) such atoms add up to one atom in the
unit cell
12-62
• Now we can determine the number of atoms

inside the unit cell for each of the packing
arrangements we have discussed.
Face Centered Cubic (ccp) (8 ×1/8) + (6 ×1/2) = 4

Body Centered Cubic (bcc) (8 ×1/8) + 1 = 2
Simple Cubic (sc) (8 ×1/8) = 1
Hexagonal closed packed (hcp) = 6
12-63
• The volume of occupied space contained

within the unit cell can now be easily
calculated by multiplying the number of atoms
per unit cell by the volume of a sphere.
V = 4/3 π r3 x ?
12-64
• The next step is to determine the size

of the unit cell as a function of the
atomic radius, r:
SC, BCC, FCC
12-65
Simple cubic
1/8 atom at
8 corners a = b = c = 2r
The volume of a sphere is
a = 2r V = 4/3 π r3
Atoms/unit cell = 1/8 * 8 = 1 V = (2r)3

V = 8r3
Packing efficiency % = 4/3 π r3 x 1 X 100 = 52 %

8r3
12-66
Body-centered cubic
The volume of a sphere is
V = 4/3 π r3
a2 + a 2 = ?
a2 + ? = (4r)2
a2 + 2a2 = (4r)2
3a2 = 16r2
a = √(16/3)r
Atoms/unit cell = (1/8*8) + 1 = 2

(2.3r)3
12-67
Face-centered cubic
a2 + a2 = (4r)2
2a2 = 16r2 The volume of a sphere is
a = 81/2 r V = 4/3 π r3
V = (81/2 r)3
V = 83/2r3
Atoms/unit cell = (1/8*8)+(1/2*6) = 4

83/2r3
12-68
Density
• d = m/V
• m = M/NAx #of spheres per unit
• V = unit cell (sc, bcc, fcc)
12-69
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.4 Determining Atomic Radius from Crystal Structure
PROBLEM: Barium is the largest nonradioactive alkaline earth metal. It has

a body-centered cubic unit cell and a density of 3.62 g/cm3.
What is the atomic radius of barium?
(Volume of a sphere: V = 4/3pr3)
PLAN: We can use the density and molar mass to find the volume of 1 mol of
Ba. Since 68%(for a body-centered cubic) of the unit cell contains
atomic material, dividing by Avogadro’s number will give us the volume
of one atom of Ba. Using the volume of a sphere, the radius can be
calculated.
density of Ba (g/cm3) radius of a Ba atom

reciprocal divided by M V = 4/3pr3
volume of 1 mol Ba metal volume of 1 Ba atom
multiply by packing efficiency divide by Avogadro’s number
volume of 1 mol Ba atoms
12-70
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.4 Determining Atomic Radius from Crystal Structure
continued
SOLUTION:
1 cm3 137.3 g Ba
Volume of Ba metal = x = 37.9 cm3/mol Ba
3.62 g mol Ba
37.9 cm3/mol Ba x 0.68 = 26 cm3/mol Ba atoms
26 cm3 mol Ba atoms

x = 4.3x10-23 cm3/atom
mol Ba atoms 6.022x1023 atoms
-23 3
r3 3V 3(4.3x10 cm ) = 2.2 x 10-8cm
= 3V/4p r =3 3
4p 4 x 3.14

12-71
Cu d = 8.93 g/cm3 atomic radius 128pm

M = 63.55 g/mol
Is the metal close-packed or body centered cubic?
Strategy :
• Calculate the density of the metal assuming first
that is ccp and then that it is bcc.
• The structure with the density closer to the
experimental value is more likely to be the actual
structure.
• The mass of a unit cell is the sum of the masses of
the atoms that it contains.
• The mass of each atom is given by M/NA
• Length of FCC (a = 81/2r)
• Length of BCC (a = √(16/3) r )
12-72
Cu d = 8.93 g/cm3
Is the metal close-packed or body centered cubic?
• FCC d = m/a3 m = 4 x M/NA
(81/2r)3
• BCC d = m/a3 m = 2 x M/NA
(√(16/3) r )3
Are these metals BCC or FCC ?

Fe d = 7.87 g/cm3 atomic radius 124 pm
Ag d = 10.5 g/cm3 atomic radius 144 pm
12-73
Table 12.5 Characteristics of the Major Types of Crystalline Solids

Interparticle Physical
Particles Forces Behavior Examples (mp,0C)
Atomic Atoms Dispersion Soft, very low mp, poor Group 8A(18)
thermal & electrical [Ne-249 to Rn-71]
conductors
Molecular Molecules Dispersion, Fairly soft, low to moderate Nonpolar - O2[-219],
dipole-dipole, mp, poor thermal & C4H10[-138], Cl2
H bonds electrical conductors [-101], C6H14[-95]
Polar - SO2[-73],
CHCl3[-64], HNO3[-
42], H2O[0.0]
Ionic Positive & Ion-ion Hard & brittle, high mp, NaCl [801]
negative ions attraction good thermal & electrical CaF2 [1423]
conductors when molten MgO [2852]
Metallic Atoms Metallic bond Soft to hard, low to very Na [97.8]
high mp, excellent thermal Zn [420]
and electrical conductors,
Fe [1535]
malleable and ductile
Network Atoms Covalent bond Very hard, very high mp,
usually poor thermal and
electrical conductors
12-74
Figure 12.29 Figure 12.30

Cubic closest packing for Cubic closest packing of
frozen argon. frozen methane.
Atomic solids Molecular solids

Individual atoms held together by The lattice points are occupied
dispersion forces. Noble gases by individual molecules
12-75
Figure 12.31 Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The sodium chloride structure.
space-filling
expanded view 1:1 ratio

(8 x 1/8) + (6 x 1/2) = 4 Cl-
(12 x 1/4) + 1 (center) = 4 Na+
Ionic solids
• The unit cell contains particles with whole charge and has the same
cation:anion ratio as the empirical formula.
• The ionic bonding is stronger than intermolecular forces in atomic or molecular
solids.
• Many ionic solids use the cubic closest packing.
• Coordination number is 6 - # of ions of opposite charge surrounding a specific
12-76 ion.
Figure 12.32 The zinc blende structure.
1:1 ratio
zinc sulfide (8 x 1/8) + (6 x 1/2) = 4 S2-
4 Zn2+ tetrahedrally surrounded by four
ions of opposite charge.
12-77
Figure 12.33 The fluorite (CaF2) structure.
1:2 ratio
(8 x 1/8) + (6 x 1/2) = 4 Ca2+
F- occupy all 8 available holes.
Antifluorite is often see in a 2:1 ratio.
12-78
Coordination number in an Ionic solid

• (6,6) – coordination -NaCl, KBr, RbI, MgO
In this notation the first number is the cation and the
second is the anion.
0.4 to 0.7 a structure similar to NaCl is expected

> 0.7 more anions can fit around the cation where
the two ions are almost the same size.
CsCl (8,8) coordination
12-79
Figure 12.34 Crystal structures of metals.
cubic closest packing hexagonal closest packing
Metallic solids – Metallic bonding forces hold individual atoms together.

Wide range of melting point and hardnesses related to packing
efficiency and the number of valence e- available for bonding.
12-80
Network covalent solids – where strong covalent bonds link the atoms together
throughout a network.
High melting point and boiling point.
Conductivity and hardness depends on the bonding
12-81
Figure 12.35 Crystalline and amorphous silicon dioxide.
12-82
Figure 12.36 The band of molecular orbitals in lithium metal.
12-83
MOLECULAR ORBITAL BAND THEORY

The electrons in a substance must move within the conduction band in
order to conduct electricity.
• The conduction band is a partially filled band or a band of vacant

energy levels just higher in energy than a filled band.
• Metals conduct electricity because the highest energy electrons can
easily move in a conduction band.
• For a metal, the electrical conductivity decreases as the temperature
increases. The metal ions move more, which slows down the flow of
electrons when an electric field is applied.
• A typical metalloid is a semiconductor where there is a gap between
the highest energy electrons and the conduction band and they do not
conduct electricity at low temperatures. A small increase in
temperature will excite some of the highest energy electrons into the
empty conduction band. Therefore, electrical conductivity increases
with increasing temperature for a metalloid.
12-84
Figure 12.37
Electrical conductivity in a conductor, semiconductor, and insulator.
conductor insulator
•Metallic luster
•Malleability
•Thermal conductivity
semiconductor
12-85
Figure 12.38
The levitating power of a superconducting oxide.
rare earth magnet
superconducting ceramic disk
liquid nitrogen
Superconductivity –
to conduct with no energy loss
requires extreme cooling to minimize atom movement.
It has been observed by cooling metals to near absolute zero.
12-86
Figure 12.39
Crystal structures and band

representations of doped
semiconductors.
extra negative charges (electrons) are present the empty orbitals act as positive holes
INCREASING CONDUCTIVITY
Doping – adding small amounts of other elements to increase or decreae the
number of valence electrons in the bands.
12-87
Figure 12.40 The p-n junction.

p-n junction
Forward bias
Reverse bias
12-88
Figure 12.41 Steps in manufacturing a p-n junction.
heat in furnace with O2
treat with photoresist apply template •expose to light

and solvent
•remove template
•treat with Ga vapor •etch SiO2 with HF

•remove SiO2 • remove photoresist
12-89
Figure 12.42
Structures of two typical molecules that form liquid crystals.
12-90
Figure 12.43 The three common types of liquid crystal phases.
nematic cholesteric smectic
12-91
Figure 12.44 Liquid crystals in biological systems.
nematic arrays of actin and myosin protein

tobacco mosaic virus particles filaments in voluntary muscle cells
12-92
Figure 12.45
Schematic of a liquid
crystal display (LCD).
12-93
Table 12.7 Some Uses of Modern Ceramics and Ceramic Mixtures
Ceramic Applications
SiC, Si3N4, TiB2, Al2O3 Whiskers(fibers) to strength Al and other ceramics
Si3N4 Car engine parts; turbine rotors for “turbo” cars;

electronic sensor units
Si3N4, BN, Al2O3 Supports or layering materials(as insulators) in

electronic microchips
SiC, Si3N4, TiB2, ZrO2, Cutting tools, edge sharpeners(as coatings and
Al2O3, BN whole devices), scissors, surgical tools, industrial
“diamond”
BN, SiC Armor-plating reinforcement fibers(as in Kevlar

composites)
ZrO2, Al2O3 Surgical implants(hip and knee joints)
12-94
Figure 12.46 Unit cells of some modern ceramic materials.
SiC
silicon
carbide
BN high
cubic boron temperature
nitride superconductor
(borazon)
YBa2Cu3O7
12-95
Table 12.8 Molar Masses of Some Common Polymers
Name Mpolymer (g/mol) n Uses
Acrylates 2 x105 2 x103 Rugs, carpets
Polyamide(nylons) 1.5 x104 1.2 x102 Tires, fishing line
Polycarbonate 1 x105 4 x102 Compact discs
Polyethylene 3 x105 1 x104 Grocery bags
Polyethylene (ultra- 5 x106 2 x105 Hip joints

high molecular weight)
Poly(ethylene 2 x104 1 x102 Soda bottles

terephthalate)
Polystyrene 3 x105 3 x103 Packing; coffee cups
Poly(vinyl chloride) 1 x105 1.5 x103 Plumbing
12-96
Figure 12.47 The random coil shape of a polymer chain.
12-97
Figure 12.48 The semicrystallinity of a polymer chain.
12-98
Figure 12.49 The viscosity of a polymer in solution.
12-99
Table 12.9 Some Common Elastomers
Name Tg (0C)* Uses
Poly(dimethyl siloxane) -123 Breast implants
Polybutadiene -106 Rubber bands
Polyisoprene -65 Surgical gloves
Polychloroprene (neoprene) -43 Footwear, medical tubing
*Glass transition temperature
12-
Figure 12.50 Manipulating atoms.
tip of an atomic force microscope (AFM)
12-
Figure 12.50 Manipulating atoms.
nanotube gear
12-
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B12.1
Diffraction of x-rays by crystal planes.

12-
Figure B12.2
Formation of an x-ray diffraction pattern of the

protein hemoglobin.
12-

Figure B12.3 Scanning tunneling micrographs.
gallium arsenide semiconductor metallic gold
12-
12-
12-
Other properties of liquids
• Surface tension- energy required to disrupt a

drop and spread it out as a film- tendency to
minimize surface area (spherical drops)
• Capillary action- creeping up a surface
cohesive vs. adhesive
• Viscosity: resistance to flow
depends on intermolecular forces
less inter.forces high viscosity.
12-

Solids, Inter Molecular

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Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes

12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes

12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes

12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces

12.4 Properties of the Liquid State

12.5 The Uniqueness of Water

12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding

12.7 Advanced Materials

Intramolecular forces bonding forces

These forces exist within each molecule.

Intermolecular forces nonbonding forces

These forces exist between molecules.

solid liquid gas

A Macroscopic Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

State Shape and Volume Compressibility Ability to Flow

Gas Conforms to shape and volume high high

Liquid Conforms to shape of container; very low moderate

Heats of vaporization and fusion for several common substances.

Figure 12.2 Phase changes and their enthalpy changes.

q = (amount)(molar heat capacity)(T) within a phase

12-8 q = (amount)(enthalpy of phase change) during a phase change

Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes

Within a phase, a change in heat is accompanied by a change in

q = (amount)(molar heat capacity)(T)

During a phase change, a change in heat occurs at a constant

q = (amount)(enthalpy of phase change)

Figure 12.4 Liquid-gas equilibrium.

Figure 12.6 Figure 12.7

A linear plot of vapor

The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.1 Using the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

PROBLEM: The vapor pressure of ethanol is 115 torr at 34.90C. If Hvap of

PLAN: We are given 4 of the 5 variables in the Clausius-Clapeyron

760 torr -40.5 x103 J/mol 1 1

Figure 12.8 Iodine subliming.

test tube with ice

Figure 12.9 Phase diagrams for CO2 and H2O.

The nature of the phases and their changes are

Bonding and nonbonding (intermolecular)

The two type of forces differ and Coulomb’s law

Figure 12.10 Covalent and van der Waals radii.

van der Waal’s distance

van der Waal’s radius

How far apart are the charges between molecules

The van der Waals radius

But van der Waals radii

Ion – dipole forces

Example: when an ionic compound dissolves in water.

Dipole – dipole forces

Figure 12.12 Polar molecules and dipole-dipole forces.

THE HYDROGEN BOND

a dipole-dipole intermolecular force

A hydrogen bond may occur when an H atom in a molecule,

The elements which are so electronegative are N, O, and F.

Figure 12.13 Dipole moment and boiling point.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12.2 Drawing Hydrogen Bonds Between Molecules

PLAN: Find molecules in which H is bonded to N, O or F. Draw H

SOLUTION: (a) C2H6 has no H bonding sites. H

Figure 12.14 Hydrogen bonding and boiling point.

Polarizability and Charged-Induced Dipole Forces

•Polarizability increases down a group

size increases and the larger electron clouds are further

coordination number = 12 Atoms/unit cell = (1/88)+(1/26) = 4