Case Studies 2010

1.
Figure 1 Location map of Madagascar
[© Conservation International Foundation]
Figure 2 Introduction
Madagascar has an astounding total of eight plant families, four bird families, and five
primate families that are endemic, that is they live nowhere else on Earth.
Madagascar’s more than fifty lemur species are the island’s charismatic worldwide
ambassadors for conservation, although, tragically, fifteen more species have been driven
to extinction since humans arrived.
Madagascar broke off from the Gondwanaland super continent more than 160 million
years ago and is an example of species evolution in isolation. Despite close proximity to
Africa, the island does not share any of the typical animal groups of nearby Africa. Instead,
Madagascar has evolved unique species, with high levels of endemism (species unique to a
geographical location).
The natural vegetation of the island is diverse. On Madagascar, tropical rainforests in the
east give way to dry deciduous forests along the western coast. A unique spiny desert
covers the extreme south. The island also has several high mountain ecosystems, which are
characterized by forest with mosses and lichens.
1
Figure 3 A climate graph for Toamasina, a major seaport in Madagascar. It has an elevation
of five metres.
450
400
350
Temperature
30 max 300
average
min
25 250 Rainfall /
mm
20 200
Temperature
15 150
/ ºC
10 100
5 50
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
84 85 87 86 86 86 86 85 84 83 83 85
Humidity / %
7 7 6 7 6 6 4 6 7 7 8 8
Hours of sunshine per day
[Courtesy of Columbus Travel Media]
2
Figure 4 Madagascar: key environmental facts
Area / km2 600 461
Vegetation remaining / km2 60 046

11 600
Endemic♦ plant species
57
Endemic threatened bird species
51
Endemic threatened mammal species
61
Endemic threatened amphibian species
45
Extinct species■
32
Human population density / people/km2
18 482
Area protected / km2
♦
Key: endemic: species found only in this location
■
recorded extinctions since the year 1500
3
Figure 5 Human impacts
The geographic isolation that allowed Madagascar to evolve diverse and unique species
also contributed to its environmental degradation. Because humans did not arrive on the
islands until 1500–2000 years ago, the native animals were not initially afraid and were
easily hunted by the colonists.
The Malagasy people came to Madagascar from Africa and Asia and imported rice
cultivation, slash-and-burn farming and cattle grazing, which are inappropriate for
infertile, lateritic soils and were devastating to the fragile ecosystems of the island. The
central plateau of Madagascar is almost completely deforested – and is now a lifeless
land of infertile, baked red earth. It is estimated that only about 17 % of the original
vegetation of Madagascar remains.
The 18 million people who live in Madagascar today do not represent a very large
number considering the land area of the island. However, the population is growing at
more than 3 % per year and is expected to double by the year 2025. In an area that is
already one of the most economically disadvantaged in the world, this growth rate is
putting tremendous pressure on the natural environment. In addition to agriculture,
hunting and logging, industry and small-scale mining are growing threats.
On the other Indian Ocean Islands, these same threats have been worsened by the
introduction of invasive alien species, brought as food sources, pets or for pest control.
Rats, cats and mongooses have devastated populations of birds and small reptiles, while
grazing rabbits, goats, pigs, and deer have stripped many landscapes. In addition, exotic
plant species such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) threaten the biodiversity of
freshwater ecosystems.
4
Figure 6 Soil degradation on the central plateau
Madagascar suffers from some of the worst land degradation and erosion in the world as
seen by the dark areas of the aerial photograph below.
[Source: www.photos.wildmadagascar.org]
5
Figure 7 Logging tables
Conventional logging
• Too many roads and skidtrails
• Too many landings that are too large
• Substantial canopy opening
• Subsequent invasion by vines and pioneer plant species
• Significant damage to other vegetation, including future crop trees
• Large number of lost logs
Reduced-impact logging
• Reduces soil disturbed in roads, landings, and skidtrails by almost 50 %
• Significantly less canopy opening
• Better survival of residual trees
• Faster recovery; shorter cutting cycles
• Total cost is 10–15 % lower
• Wood waste is reduced by more than 60 %
[Source: Tropical Forest Foundation]
6
Figure 8 Conservation in Madagascar
About 2.7 % of Madagascar’s land area is officially protected in national parks, strict
nature reserves established to conserve ecosystems and special reserves designed to protect
a particular species or a group of species.
Attempts to identify and safeguard the areas remaining natural habitats are being
implemented with projects that demonstrate the value of this conservation to the country.
For example, in much of Madagascar the economic value of the remaining forests is of
enormous importance. Eco-tourism has provided a source of income for local communities.
Efforts at species-focused conservation represent important progress for the future of

several unique species. A number of lemur species have been bred successfully in
captivity, and, in 1997, the first lemur reintroduction program introduced captive-born
black and white ruffed lemurs into the Betampona Nature Reserve.
Photograph of a black and white ruffed lemur
[Source: adapted from www.images.wildmadagascar.org/pictures/1997/sifaka1.gif]
Lemurs have been the focal point of species-based conservation efforts in Madagascar.
7
Figure 9 Tropical forest ecosystem
The diagram below represents a tropical forest ecosystem on the north east coast of
Madagascar.
The climax vegetation type up to the coastal margin is mixed tropical forest.
Table of surveyed animal groups present at the three sites shown on the map above.
Number of species
Animal group Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
Lemurs 0 9 2
Tenrecs (rodent-like insectivores) 1 7 3
Geckos and chameleons 3 12 5
Carnivores (fossa, fanaloka, mongoose) 0 1 0
Frogs 0 5 2
Insects 2 14 9
Scorpions 3 0 1
[Source: adapted from www.europe.2007-aliens.org]
8
9
2. (a) Suggest why Madagascar has such
(i) high biodiversity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
10
(ii) high rates of endemism (species only found in Madagascar).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
11
(b) Explain why Madagascan species have been vulnerable to hunting in the past.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
12
(c) Construct a model (diagram) that demonstrates why the soil of the central plateau in
Madagascar has become degraded.
(4)
13
(d) With reference to Figure 7, explain why reduced-impact logging is likely to be more
sustainable than conventional logging.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
14
(e) (i) With reference to Figure 4, calculate the proportion of Madagascar’s total area
which is protected.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
15
(ii) Suggest two reasons why the economic benefits of conservation are being
promoted by the authorities in Madagascar.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
16
(f) With reference to Figure 9,
(i) suggest two reasons for the variation in animal groups found at sites 1, 2 and 3.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
17
(ii) evaluate the reserve shown according to principles of good reserve design.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
18
(g) (i) With reference to Figure 5, state the expected total Madagascan population in
2025.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
19
(ii) Justify whether or not you think the government should attempt to reduce the rate
of population growth on the island.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 23 marks)
20
3. Introduction
Uganda is a relatively small country in east Africa with a rapidly growing and ethnically
diverse population. The economy of the country is heavily dependent on farming which
employs 83 % of its workforce. While rainforests have extraordinary global significance,
conservation efforts in Uganda clearly need to take into account the needs of both the local
communities and the national economy as a whole. Management of their forest reserves
has moved toward meeting social, economic and conservation needs within the country. In
Kibale National Park, for example, the protected area is surrounded by 7 “parishes” (areas
of local government with strong family and tribal ties) where approximately 150 000
people live. These boundary communities extract more than 20 different products from the
park to meet some of their subsistence, commercial, cultural and medicinal needs.
21
Figure 1 Map showing the location of Kibale National Park in Uganda
SUDAN
KENYA
Kitgum
Arua
ZAIRE
Gulu Morolo
t
er Masindi
lb UGANDA
A
Kibale ke Holma
La
National
Park FortPortal Mbale
Kampala Jinja equator
Entebbe
Masaka
Mbarara Lake
Victoria
Kabale
Kabale TANZANIA
RWANDA
[Source: www.usu.edu. Reproduced by permission of Utah State University]
22
Figure 2 Map of Kibale National Park and surrounding parishes
23
Figure 3 The model on which the original proposal for the Kibale National Park was based
The Uganda strategy for managing their tropical forest was started by the World Bank Forestry Rehabilitation
Programme and the original proposal for Kibale National Park was based on their “Man and the biosphere
model” shown below.
Production zone 50%
Buffer zone 30%
Strict reserve 20%
Key:
Strict reserve – (0 % of the forest area) where all direct human impact is prohibited
Buffer zone – (30 % of the forest area) managed for ecotourism, education, research
and controlled harvesting by local community of minor forest products
e.g. wild coffee
Production zone – (50 % of the forest area) managed for sustainable forestry and local
community use
[Source: adapted from D Earl, (1992), Wise Management of Tropical Forest for Timber Production, Tourism and
Wildlife, Wise Management of Tropical Forests, Oxford University Press, Oxford]
24
Figure 4 Data showing diameter and abundance of Ficus* species in logged and unlogged
Ugandan rainforest
Forest Type Number of Ficus species trees / km2 by diameter class (cm)
10 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 50 51 – 70 71 – 90 91 – 110 > 110
Unlogged 40 20 0 0 0 4 4
Logged 153 77 101 8 4 0 2
* Ficus species are fig trees that grow by attaching themselves to the main trunks or stems of
other forest trees. The trees that they grow against are very often those that provide timber for
the loggers. In a typical rainforest they provide abundant food for many fruit-eating birds and
insects, particularly at times when there are very few alternative food sources available. Many
other trees and shrubs depend on these bird populations for dispersal of their seeds. Because so
many species depend upon Ficus species, they are frequently referred to as “keystone species”
in a forest ecosystem.
[Source: adapted from D Alder, (1991), Uganda Forestry Rehabilitation Project Data Processing for the Budongo
Forest Inventory, report DA-UG-4]
Figure 5 Figure showing relative abundance of seven primate species in adjacent areas of
mechanically logged and undisturbed forest at Kibale National Park
Mechanically logged forest Undisturbed forest
Red colobus
Red tail monkey
Blue monkey
Chimpanzee
Black and white colobus
Mangabey
L’Hoest’s monkey
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Index of abundance (number of primate groups/km)
(number of individuals/km in case of chimpanzees)
[P Howard (1991) Nature Conservation in Uganda’s Tropical Forest Reserves, IUCN Publishers.
Reproduced by permission]
25
Figure 6 Conservation and indigenous peoples
The removal of people in establishing protected areas in Africa is the most basic form of
ecological restoration, and is based on the idea that human occupation is “unnatural”. In
some instances this may be true, but in most it is not, and serious questions of human rights
are raised by the imposition of “wilderness conditions” through the eviction of farmers,
hunter-gatherers or pastoralists. Many institutional and legal problems arise, but are
typically met through various forms of community outreach programmes, sometimes with
revenue sharing, development aid and access for resource use.
[M Penrow and A Davy, Handbook of Ecological Restoration, (2002).

Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.]
Figure 7 Sample letters received by the Kibale chief warden from parish members around
the park
“This is to tell you that when we went in the park we saw four people pit-sawing timber
around Lake Kiribwato. We are therefore calling you to come and patrol the area. The
resource users reported to me of that illegal activity.”
General Secretary, LC II, Nyabweya Parish, 6 June 2000
“There are five people who are in the park, hunting. We saw them while we were checking
coffee areas. Bring rangers and we will arrange to catch them. Come quickly before they
come out of the forest.”
Resource User, Nyakarongo Parish, 2 March 2000
“Madam, we are informing you that people are burning charcoal in the park. Please
arrange to send rangers for patrolling. We shall guide you to show the areas and the people
involved.”
LC II Office, Kiziba Parish, 8 November 2000
“I hereby inform you that after Mweya coordination meeting we patrolled the park and
found that pit sawyers had split a tree in the park but upon seeing us they ran away. So, we
collected their tools and took them to the office of LC II. We wanted someone to come so that
we could hand them in to your office. But they never showed up. We still have in our
possession two machetes, one rope and one file for sharpening.”
User Group Member, Kakooga
[Adapted from P Chhetri, A Mughisa, and S White (2003), Community resource use in Kibale and Mount Elgon National Parks,
Uganda. In: G Borrini-Feyerabend and T Sandwith (eds) Conservation Partnerships in Africa, Parks journal, IUCN Gland,
Switzerland, 13:1, pages 28-38 – Box 1]
26
Figure 8 A selection of strategies employed to develop a cooperative partnership between the
local population and the management of Kibale National Park
Strategy 1 – allowing local people access to park resources

Cooperative resource management allows people access to selected resources under certain
conditions. In return the resource users undertake to monitor and regulate
resource-harvesting levels and to protect the resource use areas. Formal agreements are
negotiated and signed by Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) and by resource users. Kibale
National Park has entered into a number of agreements, involving 29 % of surrounding
parishes. Of these, three agreements were for harvesting wild coffee in the park by people in
Mbaale, Kabirizi and Nyakarongo parishes, one agreement allowed extraction of multiple
resources such as papyrus, craft materials, medicinal plants, grass for thatching and access to
crater lakes for fishing at Nyabweya.
Strategy 2 – problem-animal management
In Kibale National Park, the loss of crops to park animals is perhaps the biggest source of
conflict between local communities and park managers. UWA, working with local
communities, tested a number of deterrents to keep the park animals from entering the
farmers’ fields. They included digging a trench, live fencing with Mauritius thorn
(Caesalpinia decapetala), placing sharp objects, scare-shooting and growing buffer crops
such as tea and soybean that are not easily eaten by wild animals. Of these, the trench and
Mauritius thorn fencing were found to be the most effective measures to keep bush pigs and
elephants out of crops.
Strategy 3 – partnerships to reduce pressures on protected areas
Unsustainable development outside the parks forces people to turn to park resources for
food, other subsistence products and even to generate cash income. By cooperating with the
district authorities to promote environmentally sustainable development outside the parks,
UWA is helping to reduce pressures on the parks. These projects, which are also working
with local NGOs, include a variety of activities e.g. beekeeping (honey production) under
managed conditions within the park, domestic pig farming, coffee and fruit growing.
Strategy 4 – revenue sharing
UWA’s policy of allocating 20 % of the entrance fees to surrounding local authorities is a
good example of sharing benefits from conservation. However, the actual amounts shared are
small, as they are limited to gate fees only and do not include a wide range of other sources
of revenue such as trekking fees, camping fees, etc. For example, Kibale National Park
earned a total of US $116 300 in the year 2002 but only US $7800 was given to nearby
communities.
[Source: adapted from P Chettri, A Mughisa, and S White, (2003), Community Resource Use in Kibale and Mount
Elgon National Parks, Uganda Parks, 13:1, pages 28–38]
27
Figure 9 Decentralization
Decentralization is the process whereby a central government gives up some of its

management powers to local government, local leaders or community institutions. Central
governments have often found it hard to enforce some policies – such as grazing allocations,
fishing quotas and forest use – because of resistance in local communities. Decentralization
can bridge this gap by creating ways for people to negotiate mutually acceptable
environmental goals with governments.
The first wave of decentralization was seen in developing countries in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, frequently resulting in some form of decentralized natural resource
management. Uganda tried to recreate its government in a way that was responsive to
citizens and would promote local governments after years of repressive rule. From the
mid-1990s onward, a second form of decentralization became popular thanks to the efforts of
donor agencies targeting aid toward specific environmental and social sectors. For instance,
donor agencies supported the establishment of forest and wildlife committees in Uganda.
[Source: adapted from World Resources 2002–2004, (2003), World Resources Institute]
28
Figure 10 The roles of local organizations in the decentralization of forest management in
Uganda
A survey was carried out of local organizations and governmental bodies associated with forest
management in Uganda in order to identify the roles each played. The organizations were
considered in three categories – district governments, parish authorities and support
organizations (e.g. NGOs, research institutes). The table below records results of this survey
where the figures represent the percentage of responses from each category that considered
themselves to contribute to the given role.
Note: N = the number of organizations surveyed in each category.
District Parish Support

Roles governments authorities organizations
(N = 47) (N = 169) (N = 20)
Promotion of tree-planting 98 95 90
Promotion of energy conservation technologies 9 43 35
Monitoring illegal forest use 57 23 20
Promotion of bee-keeping 30 23 20
Formulation of policies and local laws 47 19 15
Promotion of ecotourism 17 10 15
Promotion of forestry research 9 4 35
Seeking funding for forestry activities 4 3 5
[Source: adapted from N Turyahabwe, C Geldenhuys, S Watts, and J Obua, (2007), Local Organizations and
Decentralised Forest Management in Uganda, International Forestry Review, 9:2, page 588]
4. (a) Suggest two ways in which the buffer zone of the “Man and the biosphere model”
(Figure 3) may contribute toward achieving effective conservation of the forest
ecosystem.
......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
(2)
29
(b) Identify one way in which the Kibale National Park differs significantly from the model
on which it was based, and state how that difference may influence the success of
conservation within the park.
......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c) (i) Calculate (to the nearest whole number) the percentage of Ficus species trees
(Figure 4) that have a diameter of 50 cm or less in unlogged and in logged forest.
Show your calculations.
Unlogged: .........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Logged: .............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) Suggest two reasons why logging may have caused the differences in abundance
of size classes in the populations of Ficus.
...........................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
30
(d) From an ecosystem you have studied, identify another species that, like Ficus, may be
described as a “keystone species”. Justify your answer.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e) (i) Outline the differences in abundance of primate species between mechanically
logged and undisturbed parts of Kibale National Park forest (Figure 5).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) Suggest an explanation for the difference of abundance in Black and white colobus
between the two areas.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii) Assuming that the recording of data in the study was completely reliable, state one
other assumption that must be made in order to conclude that the differences found
in primate abundance between the two areas is due to logging activity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
31
(f) From your own study, or from the information provided in the resource booklet, state one
way in which logging may not be considered a truly sustainable activity even when
harvesting is kept to below maximum sustainable yields.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(g) Four parishes are specifically referred to in Figure 8 as entering into agreements with the
UWA. From an examination of the location of these four and the other parishes on the
map, suggest two reasons why other named parishes may be less willing to enter into
such agreements.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(h) Identify one cause for indigenous people to have negative attitudes toward the
establishment of the Kibale National Park, and explain how one of the strategies adopted
by the park management may help to overcome it.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
32
(i) In the study reported in Figure 10, identify one role in which the three groups show a
significant difference in their contribution and suggest a reason for this difference.
......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(j) From the information given in the resource booklet, identify and discuss two pieces of
evidence that could be used to suggest the Kibale National Park has achieved a degree of
success in its conservation aims. (Use the figure numbers to refer specifically to any
evidence you identify.)
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(4)
(Total 25 marks)
33
5. Figure 1 — Fact File on Glen Canyon
Initial cost: $300 million (in 1963)

Ongoing costs: estimated between $11 and $29 million
Height: 216 m
Completed: 1963
Amount of Glen Canyon flooded by Lake Powell: 299 km
Economic benefits:
• The Colorado River provides water for more than 30 million people and without Glen
Canyon Dam a lot of this water would be “wasted”.
• Glen Canyon Dam allows the southwest of the United States to be developed and
populated far more than the pre-dam conditions.
• 85 % of the water is used for irrigation for agricultural production enabling arid regions to
become fertile agricultural lands and economically viable.
• Because of the high productivity of these areas, many people in the United States are
provided with fruits and vegetables all year round.
• The Glen Canyon Dam power station represents a cheap source of hydroelectric power for
much of the southwestern United States and for parts of Mexico, including many poor rural
and Native American communities.
• The water supply enabled development of the town of Page, Arizona, which currently has
over 8,200 residents.
• 4 million visiting tourists (often en route to the Grand Canyon and Monument Valley)
bring in $2.5 million each year.
• Many jobs depend on the tourist industry. The largest employers are the National Park
Service and the Navajo Generating Station.
• Lake Powell itself provides fishing, boating, water-sports and camping to tourists each
year.
• Downstream, recreational fisheries have been improved. Non-native trout have done
especially well, further attracting tourists to one of the finest trout fishing sites in the
southwest.
• Altered flows provide excellent rapids and runs for rafters and kayakers each year.
[Source: Adapted from the article “Large Dams in the Western United States”, produced by Environmental Science
students at Kenyon College in 1989, www2.kenyon.edu/Projects/Dams/index.html]
34
Figure 2 — Map of the Lower Colorado River
[In public domain, US Gov: http://www.saltonsea.water.ca.gov ]
35
Figure 3 — Photograph of Glen Canyon Dam, Lake Powell is behind
[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glen_Canyon_Dam.jpg]
36
Figure 4 — The Advantages of Hydroelectric Power (HEP)
Adapted from a website produced by the National Hydropower Association (US).
A major source of energy

• The United States is the second largest producer of hydroelectric power (HEP) in the
world.
• HEP contributes 8–12 % of the United States’ electrical generation.
• Globally, one-fifth of electricity is generated from HEP.
Clean and renewable – a sound environmental choice
• 93 % of Americans believe HEP is important for meeting future electricity needs.
• HEP is a renewable source of electricity. HEP accounts for 80 % of the United States’
total renewable electricity generation making it the leading renewable energy source.
• In 1999, HEP avoided the release of an additional 77 million metric tons of carbon
equivalent into the atmosphere. This is equivalent to the annual exhaust of half of the
cars on United States roads.
• HEP projects can enhance wetlands and support healthy fisheries. Wildlife preserves can
be created around reservoirs, which can provide stable habitats for endangered or
threatened species.
Reliable, efficient, secure… and fun!
• Today’s HEP turbines are capable of converting 90 % of available energy into electricity
- that is more efficient than any other form of generation.
• HEP’s operational flexibility – its unique ability to change output quickly – is highly
valued and will become even more so in a competitive market. Its unique voltage control,
load-following and peaking capabilities help maintain the stability of the electric grid
ensuring economic growth and a high quality of life.
• HEP adds to national security. Water from rivers is a purely domestic resource that is not
subject to disruptions from foreign suppliers, production strikes or transportation issues.
• There were a total of 81 million recreation user days provided by licensed HEP projects
in 1996. Boating, skiing, camping, picnic areas and boat launch facilities are all
supported by HEP.
[Source: Adapted from: United States National Hydropower Association www.hydro.org, Idaho National Laboratory]
37
Figure 5 — Historical water discharge and suspended sediment discharge trends as a
result of the construction of dams along the Colorado River (including Glen Canyon
Dam)
40
(a) Water discharge
30
billions of m3
20
10
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

years
400
(b) Suspended sediment discharge
300
billions of kg
200
100
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

years
[Source: The United States Geological Survey in Schwarz et al. (1991), published in Goudie, The Human Impact on
the Natural Environment, Blackwell, 1993, page 182]
38
Figure 6 — The Chief Environmental Impacts of Dams
Impacts due to existence of dam and reservoir:

1. Reservoir in place of a river valley (loss of habitat).
2. Changes in downstream morphology of riverbed, delta, coastline due to altered
sediment load (increased erosion).
3. Changes in downstream water quality: effects on river temperature, nutrient load,
turbidity, dissolved gases, concentration of heavy metals and minerals.
4. Reduction of biodiversity due to blocking of migration of fish (e.g. salmon) and
because of above changes.
Impacts due to pattern of dam operation:

1. Changes in downstream hydrology:
(a) change in total flows;
(b) change in seasonal flows (e.g. spring flood becomes winter flood);
(c) short-term fluctuations in flows (sometimes hourly);
(d) change in extreme high flow and low flow.
2. Changes in downstream morphology caused by altered flow pattern.
3. Changes in downstream water quality caused by altered flow pattern.
4. Reduction in riverine/floodplain habitat diversity, especially because of elimination of
floods.
[P McCully (1996), ‘Silenced Rivers, The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams’, London, Zed Books]
39
Physical Properties
Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon is 446 km long, 1.5 km deep and 30 km wide.
and Shaped by the Colorado River the Grand Canyon was declared a
Glen Canyon Dams world heritage site in 1919.
Hoover Dam was created in 1941 flooding the lower 20 % of the
Grand Canyon.
Glen Canyon Dam was completed in 1963, 24 kms upstream from
the Hoover Dam.
Figure 7 — Dam Impacts
Biological Habitats No formal environmental impact study was carried out on either
of the dams.
River Otter and Muskrat are now absent from the Glen Canyon Dam now traps 95 % of the sediments carried by the
Grand Canyon. Colorado River.
Squawfish, Roundtail Chub and several other species Downstream, soil and river fertility is compromised by a lack of
have disappeared. organic enrichment from sediment deposition.
Many birds (e.g. Western Willow Flycatcher), lizards River beach and bar erosion is now a problem downstream.
and invertebrates have been lost from the system. Water temperature downstream is a constant 8 ° C because water is
Non-indigenous, generalist, plant and animal species extracted from the dams at a depth of 60m – this water is cold, not
are invading including fish: several exotic trout having been heated by the sun as surface water would be.
species, Bluegill, Sunfish and Channel Catfish are now Prior to damming water temperature ranged from 3 ° C to 27 ° C.
present in the system. Regulated flows currently keep the Colorado River in Grand
The truncation of the habitat corridor between the Canyon fluctuating between 228 – 570 cubic meters per second
Hoover and Grand Canyon Dam has interrupted (m3 s–1). Before the Glen Canyon Dam, flows fluctuated between
migration routes and is leading to genetic isolation of 86 – 2571 m3 s–1.
certain indigenous species.
Due to the constant cold temperature of the river
downstream Blue Green Algae and Cladophora
have replaced the natural warm water food web. People and Culture
The temperature variation would previously trigger
native fish reproduction and maintain native insect Indigenous Havasupi people inhabit the Grand Canyon basin.
populations. Navajo and Hualapai people possess land in the Grand Canyon.
The Colorado River runs through Mexico and its delta Hopi and Zuni have sacred rites in the Grand Canyon.
area was classified as an International Biosphere in The presence of the dams have made indigenous people dependent
1992. Since the Glen Canyon Dam was built water on its water; a trait not previously apparent in their culture.
40
rarely reaches the delta area. River erosion is causing the destruction of archaeological sites.
Figure 8 — What is a good dam? A checklist
The following is an edited list of suggestions from International Dams Newsletter, 1986.
1. No dam should be built until an adequate assessment of its likely environmental effects
has been undertaken and made available to the public.
2. Water-development projects should only be undertaken if they can be shown to benefit

large sectors of the population instead of the urban elite.
3. Schemes should favour labour-intensive rather than capital-intensive economic

activities.
4. They should produce food crops for feeding the local population rather than for export.
5. They should not compromise public health and safety.
6. They should not adversely affect national parks, heritage sites, areas of scientific and
educational importance, tropical rainforests or areas inhabited by species threatened
with extinction.
7. They must be viable for a minimum of 100 years. They should only be built where it
can be guaranteed they will not silt up.
8. They should not be built if their associated irrigation schemes are likely to lead to the
salinisation of agricultural land.
9. The funding should be based on sustainable long-term resource enhancement rather

than short-term resource exploitation.
10. They should not involve displacing indigenous people from their homelands and
endangering their culture, unless compensation is provided and they are better off than
before the project.
11. There must be no potential significant engineering or safety problems.
12. They should not be built where they are likely to inflict significant damage to estuarine
or ocean fisheries.
13. They should not be built if they are likely to significantly harm the environment of a
neighbouring country without its full consent.
[Source: Edited from International Dams Newsletter, 1986. Permission granted by International Rivers]
41
6. (a) Describe the purpose of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) At the time of construction of Glen Canyon Dam no EIA was undertaken. Outline, giving
reasons, three variables which should have been measured as part of a baseline study
prior to starting construction.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
42
(c) With reference to Figure 5 and other resources in the booklet describe and explain how
water discharge and suspended sediment discharge changed as a result of the
construction of dams along the Colorado River.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(5)
(d) Use the resource booklet to complete the table below to show how abiotic conditions
have changed as a result of the construction of Glen Canyon Dam
Increased or decreased
Abiotic factor in the
after construction of Reason for change
Colorado river
Glen Canyon Dam
Replenishing sediment
Size of the beach and sand bar habitats decreased
held back behind dam
Riverine habitat diversity
Water temperature range
Nutrient content of water in river

(3)
43
(e) Identify a non-native species now present within the Colorado River because of the
construction of Glen Canyon Dam, and suggest possible impacts this might have on
native species.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(f) Discuss, using evidence from the resource booklet, why the decision to construct dams
along the Colorado River could be described as a “technocentric” approach to resource
management.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
44
(g) With reference to the checklist for “good” dams in Figure 8 and the information from the
resource booklet, justify to what extent you consider Glen Canyon Dam to be a “good”
dam.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(6)
(Total 25 marks)
45

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1.

Figure 1 Location map of Madagascar

[© Conservation International Foundation]

[© Conservation International Foundation]

[Courtesy of Columbus Travel Media]

Area / km2 600 461

Vegetation remaining / km2 60 046

[© Conservation International Foundation]

[© Conservation International Foundation]

[Source: Tropical Forest Foundation]

Efforts at species-focused conservation represent important progress for the future of

[© Conservation International Foundation]

Photograph of a black and white ruffed lemur

[Source: adapted from www.images.wildmadagascar.org/pictures/1997/sifaka1.gif]

[© Conservation International Foundation]

(i) high biodiversity.

[Source: www.usu.edu. Reproduced by permission of Utah State University]

Production zone 50%

Buffer zone 30%

Strict reserve 20%

Mechanically logged forest Undisturbed forest

[M Penrow and A Davy, Handbook of Ecological Restoration, (2002).

General Secretary, LC II, Nyabweya Parish, 6 June 2000

Resource User, Nyakarongo Parish, 2 March 2000

LC II Office, Kiziba Parish, 8 November 2000

User Group Member, Kakooga

Strategy 1 – allowing local people access to park resources

Decentralization is the process whereby a central government gives up some of its

Note: N = the number of organizations surveyed in each category.

District Parish Support

Initial cost: $300 million (in 1963)

[In public domain, US Gov: http://www.saltonsea.water.ca.gov ]

A major source of energy

1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

Impacts due to existence of dam and reservoir:

Impacts due to pattern of dam operation:

2. Water-development projects should only be undertaken if they can be shown to benefit

3. Schemes should favour labour-intensive rather than capital-intensive economic

5. They should not compromise public health and safety.

9. The funding should be based on sustainable long-term resource enhancement rather

11. There must be no potential significant engineering or safety problems.

Riverine habitat diversity

Water temperature range

Nutrient content of water in river

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