European Journal of Education, Vol. 44, No.

3, 2009, Part II

The Work Values of Teacher Training Students in a

Spanish University. Symbiosis between Schwartz
and Meaning of Work (MOW) Study Group ejed_1395 441..454

M.P. ALEJANDRA CORTÉS PASCUAL

Introduction
Work values are linked with other relevant variables in career development, such as
professional interests or vocational personality (Finegan, 2000; Berings, Fruyt &
Bouwen, 2004; Xenikou, 2005; Rottinghaus & Zytowski, 2006), are formed in a
specific work context (Mukherfee, 2006) and influence the orientation interven-
tion designed, for example, as an element of the professional portfolio or the
development of transversal participatory and personal skills (Valentine, 2004;
Hirsch, 2006). These values were analysed from various theoretical perspectives
(Cortés, 2006; 2008; Porfeli, 2006). In an Iranian context (Ali & Amirshahi, 2002),
768 executives appreciated values that were closer to collectivism than to individu-
alism. Ghorpade, Lackritz & Singh (2001) carried out a research with 749 uni-
versity students (West Coast University) in various courses of study, concluding
that work values of altruism, initiative and collectivism correlated positively with
the capacity to lead in the working world, while individualism correlated negatively.
Also, in the American context, Leong, Herdin & Gaylor (2005) measured the
work values of medical students through the Values Scale (Super & Nevill, 1986),
confirming that the use of skills, success, promotion, aesthetics, altruism, authority
and independence were the most appreciated and the least were psychological
resistance and risk. Within the same scope and using identical instruments, Duffy
& Sedlacek (2007) used a sample of 3,570 students to confirm that they preferred
intrinsic values (especially females), followed by high salaries, contribution to
society and prestige.
This project follows two theoretical lines: Schwartz and Meaning of Work
(MOW). The Schwartz model (1990; 1992; 1994; 1999) derives from Rokeach
(1973) and divides values into two types: instrumental and terminal.The Schwartz
domain structure is classified in two dimensions: openness to change (self-
direction, stimulation and hedonism) vs. conservation (tradition, conformity and
security); and self-improvement (fulfilment and authority) vs. self-transcendence
(universalism and benevolence).We agree with Arciniega & González (2000; 2002;
2005; 2006) that the Schwartz model is very appropriate for the issue of work
values because of its structure and widely verified multicultural validation
(Schwartz, Lehmann & Roccas, 1999; Grand & Schwartz, 1998; 1999; Schwartz &
Boehnke, 2004) and because it holds an inference in the intervention.We relate the
Schwartz perspective to building up the professional and career development and
the entrepreneurial capacity.

© 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ,
UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
442 European Journal of Education, Part II

Regarding the first, Myyry & Helkama (2001; 2002) established a relationship
between values, professional development and moral sensitivity. They concluded
that the values of benevolence and universalism influenced high ethical professional
skills and that exactly the contrary occurred with the priorities of power and
hedonism.This study can be compared to that of Schwartz and Bardi (2001) which
was carried out using workers in various professions. It constituted the basis for the
study carried out by Abbott,White & Charles (2005) in a business context. Lyons,
Duxbury & Higgins (2006), with a sample of 549 Canadian workers in the public,
semi-public and private sectors, discovered that those in the first two sectors showed
high values of universalism and benevolence and that those of the private sector
showed high values in the latter and in self-direction. It was also influenced by a
cultural argument. For example, Siu (2003) highlighted that the Confucian phi-
losophy (social harmony, reciprocity in relationships, collectivism, resistance, etc.)
was apparent in the work values and in the meaning of life of Oriental workers.
Concerning entrepreneurial capacity, Moriano, Palací & Morales (2006) sur-
veyed a sample of 340 wage-earners and self-employed people in Spain, Bulgaria
and the Czech Republic with the help of various questionnaires, including the
Schwartz values questionnaire (with 37 items) and The Meaning of Working of the
MOW Group (1987). Generally, entrepreneurs identified themselves with indi-
vidualist and hedonist values such as power, achievement, acknowledgement and
promotion. As for motivation, leadership values and ability to work within a group
(Berings et al., 2004) were also relevant for the placement and development in the
world of work. The authors believe that professional training and orientation bear
on the psycho-social profile of the university entrepreneur, since they offer self-
employment as a work option.
Our other theoretical reference is the MOW (Meaning of Working Study)
Group. The MOW International Research Group (1987) differentiates between
five components of the meaning of work: centrality of work, societal norms, results
assessed, importance of work objectives, and identification with the work function.
The MOW Group prepared a questionnaire, The Meaning of Working: An interna-
tional View, (1987), with 27 items researching the aspects mentioned above. The
authors have extended the studies, especially at an empiric level, to various con-
texts (Ruiz Quintanilla & Wilpert, 1991), for example, Israel (Harpaz, 1988;
Cinemon & Hellman, 2006). The MOW questionnaire was also used in Spain,
adapted to Castilian Spanish and validated by a research group from the Univer-
sidad de Valencia (Gracia et al., 1995; Salanova, 1992). It was used by various
authors (García Martínez & Berrios, 1999; Gracia, Martín, Rodríguez y Peiró,
2001; Zacarés, Ruiz-Alfonso y Llinares, 2004; Moriano et al., 2006).
This group (MOW, 1987) emphasises that the most important result of work is
income (35% of responses) and, secondly, its interesting and satisfactory nature
(19.5%). It did not find any significant differences between men and women.
As for work aims or values, an interesting job and learning were the most appre-
ciated by both sexes, followed by a good salary, i.e. they tended to prefer more
intrinsic aspects, which also correlates with greater initiative in work. There were
also no differences regarding age. Though some authors, like Claes (1987), who
belongs to the MOW group, emphasise that the youngest prefer instrumental
values because they lack financial security and the oldest prefer expressive or
intrinsic values, something also often noticed in persons with a higher level of
training. Concerning the sex variable, Salanova et al. (1991) reviewed several

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 M.P. Alejandra Cortés Pascual 443

studies carried out to date in which it is claimed that women give more importance
to social and emotional aspects at work, whilst men give it to salaries, promotion
and independence.Yet, as already pointed out, the MOW Group did not find these
distinctions.
Gracia et al. (2001) carried out a longitudinal research (at intervals of 6
months, one and then two years) on two groups totalling 238 youths on their first
jobs (clerks and metal workers).The results indicate that the different components
of the meaning of work vary in different degrees with time, i.e. as work progresses,
less importance is given to work in itself, while extrinsic values of work (mainly
monetary) increase. This is often linked with work precariousness and instability.
The fact is that security is often related with work satisfaction and intrinsic work
values, as may be seen in a study with hired teachers (greater esteem for money)
and permanent teachers (greater esteem for intrinsic values) carried out by Feather
& Rauter (2004). Hattrup, Ghorpade & Lackritz (2007), in trans-cultural work
with 1,882 university students from Ecuador, Germany, the Indies, Mexico and
USA, found a positive correlation between the value of collectivism and centrality
at work, but it was not significantly different in the five countries. These data are
similar to those found in the work of Hansström & Kjellberg (2007) in which
centrality is greater among nurses than engineers and especially among women,
who defend the value of altruism.
Schwartz (1999) linked domains with the work values of the MOW (1987)
group. Thus, intrinsic values are coherent with independence and hedonism, but
conflict with the values of conservatism. Extrinsic values are compatible with the
latter and with power, but not with independence and hedonism. Social values are
congruent with universalism and benevolence, but conflict with power and com-
petitiveness (Schwartz, 1999; Roe, Schwartz & Surkiss, 1999).

Method
Participants
The sample is made up of 374 university students (283 women and 91 men) with
different specialities in Teaching (first year): Musical Education, Primary Educa-
tion, Physical Education, Hearing and Language, Education, Foreign Language,
Special Education; and 2° cycle in Psychopedagogy. All are from the Faculty of
Education in Zaragoza in which we teach (see Table I).

Table I. Sample distribution by sex and speciality

Specialities in Teaching Men Women Total

Musical Education 9 24 33
Primary Education 12 58 70
Physical Education 56 34 90
Hearing and Language Education 0 3 3
Foreign Language 7 52 59
Special Education 4 89 93
Psychopedagogy 3 23 26
Total 91 283 374

© 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

444 European Journal of Education, Part II

Procedure, Measurement Instrument and Type of Analysis

Three instruments were given to the university students during classes from
February to May 2006. Before that, they were asked to provide some personal data
(sex, specialty, level of studies and work situation of father/mother). There were
two quantitative tests: 1) Schwartz’s work projection questionnaire (Arciniega &
González, 2002), and 2) the MOW questionnaire (social norms, work values and
work centrality), adapted by Gracia et al. (1995; 2001); and one qualitative test
through a hypothetic ethical dilemma and the request for a real one. We gathered
the results of the first test and part of the second.The first questionnaire, validated
in Arciniega and González (2000) and self-correctable, contains 40 items. Par-
ticipants are asked to select the box indicating how far the person described is
similar to the one answering the questionnaire. Six options are given: very like me
(6 points), like me (5 points), somewhat like me (4 points), rather like me (3
points), not like me (2 points) and not like me at all (1 point). All the items are
divided into the 10 domains/values proposed by Schwartz.The points for each one
of 10 values range from 1 to 6. The second test consists of data on work values
(graded from 1 to 5), the relative centrality (share 100% between leisure, social
participation, work, religion and family) and absolute centrality (graded from 0 to
7). The reliability of the scales was satisfactory since it resulted in a Cronbach’s
alpha of 0.73. in the first case and of 0.80. in the second, i.e. they adequately
measured what they needed to measure, since they were close to a unit. The
Statistical Package for Social Sciences software programme (version 14.00) was
used for the results with the descriptive tests on the situation between the domains,
the correlation tests to check the strength and direction of the linear relation
between the domains (the closer to 1, the greater the correlation), and the variance
analysis, in order to find the probability that one score group average is different
from the average of another group, as detailed below.

Results
Objective I. Knowing work values from Schwartz’s perspective

Hypothesis I. Students favour values of benevolence and universalism as well as authority

and achievement. Regarding the first objective, i.e. knowing the profile of students’
work values following the theory of Schwartz, it can be observed that the most
representative are benevolence and universalism, and the least are fulfilment and
authority, as shown in Table II. The hypothesis is therefore fulfilled.
For an in-depth description of the objective, a correlation was carried out
between domains, of which the most relevant were highlighted. The domain of
benevolence positively correlated with universalism (.280), security (.126), con-
formity (.286) and tradition (.261), but negatively with achievement (.111) and
authority (.183). The domain of universalism correlated positively with benevo-
lence (.280) and self-direction (.202), and negatively with authority (.119). The
domain of achievement correlated positively with self-direction (.178), stimula-
tion (.229), hedonism (.336), authority (.548), security (.306) and conformity
(.103), and negatively with benevolence (.111). The domain of authority corre-
lated positively with self-direction (.178), stimulation (.186), hedonism (.236),
achievement (.548) and security (.174), and negatively with benevolence (.183)

© 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

 M.P. Alejandra Cortés Pascual 445

Table II. Work values (Schwartz) of university students

Domains/values Minimum Maximum Mean

Benevolence 2.5 6.5 4.83

Universalism 2.8 8.67 4.72
Self-direction 2 8 4.63
Hedonism 2 8.2 4.45
Stimulation 1.3 6.3 4.06
Security 1.3 5.8 3.81
Conformity 1 6 3.78
Tradition 1 5.5 3.28
Fulfilment 1 6 3.27
Authoriy 0 5.3 2.31

and universalism (.119). Likewise, when a factorial analysis was carried out in
order to find the relation between the 10 domains, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) test was first carried out, whose value is 0.655, relatively close to the
unit, which indicates the exactitude of our data (see Table III).

Table III. Bartlett’s table for contrasts

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin. .655
Bartlett Chi-cuadrado 645.913
Gl 45
Sig. .000

From here, a matrix of components is proposed and 3 appear (see Figure 1). In
the first, self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement, authority and security
positively correlate with one another. In the second, benevolence and universalism
positively correlate with security, conformity and tradition. And in the last, benevo-
lence and universalism positively correlate with self-direction, stimulation and
hedonism. Generally, two groups of values and domains were observed: one,
universalism, benevolence, tradition, conservation and security; and the other,
achievement, authority, hedonism, stimulation and self-direction. However,
benevolence and universalism positively correlate with security, conformity and
tradition, as well as with self-direction, stimulation and hedonism, though far more
with the first three.

Objective II. Knowing work values according to the MOW perspective

Hypothesis II.The work value with the highest grade is that of having an interesting job,
especially among women. The values that obtain the highest scores are those related
with working in an interesting job, good interpersonal relations, job stability and
opportunities to learn new things.The following subsequently appear from highest
to lowest, in that order: good physical work conditions, a good balance between work

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446 European Journal of Education, Part II

Gráfico de componentes

CO
0,9 SE
TR
0,6

Componente 2
BE LO
AU
0,3
UN HE
0,0 AD ES

-0,3

-0,6

-0,9

-0,
-0,9 -0,6 -0, -0, 9
-0,3 0,0
0,3 0,3 0,0 3 6
0,6 0,9 0,6
0,9
te 3
Component onen
e1 Comp

Figure 1. Representation of components related with work values (Schwartz) of

university students
Note: Gráfico de componentes (Components’ graph), BE (Benevolence), UN
(Universalism), TR (Tradition), CO (Conformity), SE (Security), AD (Self-
direction), ES (Stimulation), HE (Hedonism), AU (Authority), LO (Fulfilment).

demands and training, appropriate schedule, good salary, independence, setting

new challenges, possibility of innovation, opportunities for promotion and variety.
Those with the least points are acknowledgement and power. There are significant
differences in those two values, as well as in good salary, variety and good balance
between work and training: women gave higher grades to the last value, while men
gave them to the remaining four (see Table IV).

Hypothesis III. Family and leisure are the most valued familiar environments selected by
the students. Concerning the relative centrality, the family is the most valued aspect
(37% approximately and an average of 36.89 points); then leisure (26%; 26.20
points); work (19%; 18.74 points); social participation (11%; 10.98 points) and
last, religion (7%; 7.16 points). Hence, the hypothesis is verified, since family and
leisure are those given most points by the university students. It may be observed
that, from absolute centrality, work has a medium-high centrality, i.e. 4.18 over 7
(see Table V).

Objective III. Correlating results from Schwartz and MOW perspectives

Hypothesis IV. The values of promotion, a good salary, power and acknowledgement
positively correlate with authority and achievement. Considering that, as may be
observed in the first objective, achievement relevantly correlates with authority
(.548), and it verifies that the four values proposed positively correlate with both
domains, especially with reference to achievement, the hypothesis is confirmed.
Though the average correlation between achievement and acknowledgement

© 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

 M.P. Alejandra Cortés Pascual 447

Table IV. Work values (MOW)

N Average Typical F Sig.
deviation

Opportunities to learn new Men 91 4.04 .815 2.902 .089

things Women 281 4.20 .759
Total 372 4.16 .775
Good interpersonal Men 91 4.19 .815 1.743 .188
relationships (with Women 281 4.31 .726
supervisors and colleagues) Total 372 4.28 .750
Good opportunities for Men 90 3.64 .865 2.050 .153
promotion Women 280 3.50 .794
Total 370 3.54 .813
Appropriate schedule Men 91 3.92 .957 1.320 .251
Women 280 3.81 .793
Total 371 3.84 .837
Variety Men 91 3.45 .820 7.190 .008*
Women 275 3.18 .846
Total 366 3.25 .847
Doing an interesting job (that Men 91 4.49 .673 .391 .532
you may like) Women 281 4.54 .659
Total 372 4.53 .662
Good job stability Men 91 4.25 .754 .363 .547
Women 280 4.20 .715
Total 371 4.21 .724
A good adjustment between Men 91 3.74 .743 4.863 .028*
your work requirements and Women 281 3.94 .753
training and experience Total 372 3.89 .755
Good salary Men 91 3.99 .901 11.612 .001**
Women 280 3.67 .738
Total 371 3.75 .792
Good physical work conditions Men 90 3.94 .798 .026 .871
(temperature, cleanliness, Women 281 3.93 .794
reduced noise) Total 371 3.93 .794
Independence (deciding on how Men 91 3.77 .955 1.874 .172
to do your work) Women 280 3.63 .815
Total 371 3.66 .852
Possibility of constantly setting Men 91 3.77 .908 2.185 .140
new challenges and Women 280 3.61 .856
surpassing yourself to reach
them Total 371 3.65 .870
Power (to direct and have Men 91 2.64 .901 15.425 .000**
influence over others) Women 281 2.26 .761
Total 372 2.35 .812
Possibilities of innovation Men 91 3.53 .861 .125 .724
(doing new things) Women 281 3.56 .800
Total 372 3.55 .814
Acknowledgement (gaining of Men 91 3.19 1.032 10.059 .002**
social prestige and Women 280 2.80 .991
admiration from others) Total 371 2.90 1.014

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448 European Journal of Education, Part II

Table V. Variance analysis. Relative centrality of work (MOW)

N Overage Typical F Sig.
deviation

My leisure time (likings, hobbies, Men 87 30.29 13.674 15.645 .000

sports, entertainment and Women 272 24.89 10.107
contact with friends) Total 359 26.20 11.296
My social participation (for Men 87 11.580 9.0611 .621 .431
example, in voluntary, political Women 272 10.794 7.7741
and union organizations) Total 359 10.985 8.0986
My job Men 87 18.05 9.840 .591 .443
Women 272 18.96 9.640
Total 359 18.74 9.683
My religion (religious beliefs and Men 87 6.65 8.093 .584 .445
activities) Women 272 7.32 6.839
Total 359 7.16 7.157
My family Men 87 33.44 14.453 6.773 .010
Women 272 38.00 14.151
Total 359 36.89 14.339

(.459) and between authority and power (.354) may be highlighted, the correlation
is not very high in either of the two cases (see Table VI).

Table VI. Correlation of authority and achievement (Schwartz) and values of

promotion, good salary, power and acknowledgement (MOW)
Values MOW/Domains Schwartz Fulfilment Authority

Promotion .267 .251

Good salary .217 .308
Power .377 .354
Acknowledgement .459 .292

HypothesisV. Interpersonal value positively correlates with universalism and benevolence.

The correlation between benevolence and universalism (.280) was verified in the first
objective and though both correlate positively with the interpersonal value, it is done
on a low scale, that is, with benevolence (.164) and universalism (.103). The
hypothesis is therefore confirmed.

Discussion
The first aspect that comes to light is the relation between Schwartz’s approach
and that of the MOW Group, as may be observed in the results according to the
third objective. Schwartz’s research in this area (Schwartz, 1999; Roe et al., 1999)
is verified.

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 M.P. Alejandra Cortés Pascual 449

Our university students prefer the benevolence and universalism domains

(objective I), as well as intrinsic (doing interesting jobs, learning new things) and
social (interpersonal relationships) values (objective II). It is more of a tendency
towards a mature career development; however, it is argued that domains such as
power and fulfilment, as well as extrinsic values (setting up new challenges,
opportunities for promotion, innovation, etc.), which, though not given high
points in the current research, may also be significant in the building of an
academic and professional lifelong project. Thus, the development of the capac-
ity for independence and entrepreneurship is advocated, although it is not
stressed enough during tertiary education. Self-direction, good use of worker
skills and the promotion of continuous training are of key importance in coun-
tries with a better economic development (Teichler, 2007) and, consequently,
the values of the economic system may be drawn closer to those of the education
system (Levin, 2006), thus avoiding limitation to only this reductionist vision.
Hence, the merging of both intrinsic and extrinsic elements, in our opinion,
constitutes an essential basis for the progress of workers and for their personal
and professional satisfaction, as pointed out in the research of Berings et al.
(2004) in which university students and employers correlate both direction
values (individualists) as well as working in groups (social) with an entrepre-
neurial attitude.
Regarding relative centrality, the results demonstrate the relevance of family
and leisure versus lack of interest in social participation and religion, since they are
more vitally relevant in the development of the young. Work, in relative terms,
appears in third place, which is coherent with scoring work as an absolute value,
perhaps due to the evolution of the sample and to the itinerary of Psychopedagogy
studies which lean towards collective and social values along the lines suggested by
Hattrup et al. (2007).
Regarding the future of work values research, some relevant aspects could
enrich the picture. They include carrying out longitudinal studies because they
would help us to see how work values may continue to undergo modification
through time, as suggested by Smola & Sutton (2002) and Porfeli (2006), inter-
cultural studies (Hattrup et al., 2007) and interoccupational studies (Hansström &
Kjellberg, 2007). Ethnographical studies are also suggested (Loughlin & Barling,
2001) to pay methodological attention to the issue.
As regards intervention, there is a limitation that the study of work values is
merely theoretical and only becomes practical when a code of ethics or of
conduct in specific work fields is regulated (Shardlow, 2001). We believe that
work values should be extrapolated in the manner of participatory ethical socio-
professional (knowing what to do) and personal (knowing how to be) skills in
order to transversally include and develop them in various tertiary education
courses like the author of this article is developing in an ongoing project (year
2007–2008) through practicals for Professional Orientation students (Psychope-
dagogy). Specifically, the competence of ethical reflection is developed through
the following activities: preparation and discussion of the questionnaire on work
values (of the MOW group, used here), debate on an ethical professional
dilemma and reflection on the contents of a lecture by education professionals
describing the ethical problems that are encountered in practice. These exercises
are valued as 8.3 over 10. Hence, the students react to this professional axiologi-
cal learning in a positive way.

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450 European Journal of Education, Part II

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