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LECTURE 3
1 z z0 x x0 i ( y y0 )
V ( z ) i i i
2 z z0 2 z z0 2
2 ( x x0 ) ( y y0 )
2 2
y y0 x x0
i u i
2 ( x x0 ) ( y y0 )
2 2
2 ( x x0 ) ( y y0 )
2 2
y y0 x x0
u ,
2 ( x x0 ) 2 ( y y0 ) 2 2 ( x x0 ) 2 ( y y0 ) 2
AERODYNAMICS I
The Cartesian components of the velocity field induced by this line are
1
S
( s)[ y Y (s)] 1
S
(s)[ x X (s)]
u
2 0 [ x X ( s)] [ y Y (s)]
2 2 ds ,
2 0 [ x X (s)] [ y Y (s)]
2 2 ds
AERODYNAMICS I
Assume that the velocity induced by the VL at the point P (located on the VL) is finite. Then:
Velocity normal to the line computed along any line crossing the VL at this point changes
continuously.
Velocity tangent to the VL computed along any line crossing the VL at the point P
experiences a jump (meaning – it is discontinuous) equal to the value of the function at
the point
ABCD
υ ds dxdy (s)ds
s1
ABCD
Exercise: using the ST and continuity of the normal velocity across the VL, show that
lim υ lim υ
X P X P
P ( sP )
AERODYNAMICS I
Variant 1
Vocabulary
Polish English
szkieletowa camber line
Flow past a thin airfoil is due to the superposition of the free-stream and the velocity induced
by the vortex line shaped identically as the camber line. The distribution of the circulation is
such that the camber line is the streamline of this flow.
But, if the vertical deflection of the camber line, i.e., the camber of the airfoil, is small, then …
AERODYNAMICS I
Variant 2 (final)
Vocabulary
Polish English
cięciwa chord
The circulation is distributed continuously along the chord line, in the interval [0, c].
We assume small values of the camber, hence the velocity induced at any point [ x, Y ( x)]
lying on the camber line does not significantly differ from the velocity induced at the point
[ x,0].
AERODYNAMICS I
Consequently, the normal velocity induced along the camber line can be expressed by the
approximate formula
Hence
w ,n[ x,Y ( x)] u [ x,0]nx[ x,Y ( x)] [ x,0]n y [ x,Y ( x)]
1 ( )d
c
2 0 x
u [ x,0]Y ( x) [ x,0] [ x,0]
The condition of airfoil impermeability – a complete normal velocity at the camber line is
zero
V,n w ,n 0
AERODYNAMICS I
1 ( ) d
c
V [ Y ( x)]
2 0 x
0
AERODYNAMICS I
We introduce the coordinate transformation …
12 c(1 cos ) , x 12 c(1 cos0 )
0 1 cos 0 0 leading edge
Then d c sin
1
and
c 1 cos 2 trailing edge
2
Consider thin symmetric airfoil (within this theory – equivalent to the flat, infinitely thin
plate), i.e., assume that Y ( x) 0 .
The basic equation takes the following form
1 ( )sin d
2 0 cos cos0
V
From the properties of the velocity field induced by the vortex, it follows that we must impose
the additional condition
( ) 0
Otherwise, the velocity at the trailing edge will be ambiguous – the Kutta-Joukovsky
condition will be violated!
AERODYNAMICS I
In order to find the solution, the following Glauert integrals are needed
cos n sin n 0
0 cos cos0 d sin 0 , n 0,1, 2,...
sin n sin
0 cos cos0 d cos n0 , n 0,1, 2,...
cos
In particular … 0 cos cos0 d
Consider the function 1 ( ) K cos / sin
1 1 ( )sin d K cos d K
We have
2 0 cos cos 0 2 0 cos cos 0 2
Finally
cos 1 2cos2 ( 12 )
( ) 2V 2V 2V cot( 1 )
sin 2sin( 12 )cos( 12 ) 2
Let us calculate the total charge of circulation of the vortex line. In spite of the leading-edge
singularity, this charge is finite.
Indeed, we have
1 cos c
c
( )d 2V sin d Vc (1 cos ) d Vc
0 sin
0
2 0
AERODYNAMICS I
Aerodynamic force and moment
From the Kutta-Joukovsky formula one obtains the aerodynamic force vector (only lift
component exist!)
0
sin 2 2
0
12 12 V2c 2 14 c V2c 14 c L
We conclude that – for small angles of attack – the point where the aerodynamic (lift) force is
applied – called the center of pressure - is located at the distance ¼ c (a quarter of the
chord length) from the leading edge.
M 0 14 c L
The moment coefficient is defined as
M0 1cL
1 L 1
Cm,0 2
4
2
CL
qc qc 4 qc 4
Note that the moment with respect to an arbitrary point P such that x xP is equal
c c
M P ( x xP )dL( x) x dL( x) xP L ( 14 c xP ) L
0 0
M0
In terms of the aerodynamic coefficients …
( 14 c xP ) L 1
Cm,P 2
( xP )CL Cm,0 xPCL
qc 4
AERODYNAMICS I
If in particular xP 1
4 , then we have Cm,c /4 0 .
One can see that the coefficient of the aerodynamic moment with respect to the center of
pressure xP 14 is identically zero and hence it does not depend on the angle of attack (at least
for sufficiently small angles), i.e.,
dCm,c /4
0
d
According to the definition, such point is called the aerodynamic center. Thus, for thin
symmetric airfoils the aerodynamic center coincides with the center of pressure.
AERODYNAMICS I
1 ( ) d
c
V[ Y ( x)]
2 0 x
0
Solution of this equation in the non-symmetric case is more complex. We seek the distribution
of the circulation along the chord line in the form of the Fourier series
cos 1
( ) 2V A0
sin n1
An sin n
AERODYNAMICS I
After insertion to the equation, one obtains
A0 cos 1 1 sin n sin
d An d Y [ x( 0 )]
0 cos cos0 n1 0 cos cos 0
Using again the Glauert integrals
sin n sin
0 cos cos0 d cos n0
cos 1 1 cos
0 cos cos0 d 0 cos cos0 d 0 cos cos0 d
0
1st Glauert integral
for n1
the above equation is transformed to the form
A0 An cos n0 Y [ x(0 )]
n1
AERODYNAMICS I
Equivalently
Y [ x(0 )] ( A0 ) An cos n0
n1
Let us denote P(0 ) Y [ x(0 )]. We expand the function P( 0 ) in a trigonometric series
P( 0 ) B0 Bn cos n0
n 1
cos 1
( ) 2V A0
sin n1
An sin n
Note that the Kutta-Joukovsky condition is automatically fulfilled as ( ) 0 .
c
( )d 2 ( )sin d cV A0 (1 cos )d An sin n sin d
c
0 0 0 n1 0
AERODYNAMICS I
Since
2 for n 1
(1 cos )d
0
, 0 sin n sin d 0 for n 1
then
cV ( A0 12 A1)
Lift force L and lift coefficient CL are
0
CL 2 P( )(cos 1) d
1
dCL
We see that the slope 2 , i.e., it does not depend on the airfoil camber.
d
AERODYNAMICS I
Comment:
In the Lecture 2, we have asked the Reader to demonstrate that the slope of the lift force
characteristics for the Joukovsky’s non-symmetric airfoil with zero thickness is expressed by
dCL
the approximate formula 2 (1 2 f 2 ) . The small correction – proportional to the
d
square of the camber – appears. However, the theory of a thin airfoil does not see this
correction – this theory is sensitive to only “1st-order” effects. Can you explain why?
The formula for the lift force coefficient can be written as follows
CL 2 ( 0 )
where 0 1 P( )(cos 1) d
0
is the (negative) angle of attack, at which the cambered airfoil is not producing any lift. It
follows also that
CL ( 0) 2 P( )(cos 1) d
0
AERODYNAMICS I
Let us again determine the aerodynamic moment with respect to the leading edge
c c
M 0 V x ( x) dx V x ( x) dx 14 Vc 2 (1 cos ) ( )sin d
0 0 0
cos 1
2
1 V2c 2(1 cos ) A0
sin n1
An sin n sin d
0
1
0
2
n1
2 V c A0 (1 cos )d An (1 cos )sin n sin d
2 2
0
d 12
2 2
(1 cos ) d sin
0 0
2 for n 1
1 sin n sin 2 d 4 for n 2
0 (1 cos )sin n sin d 0 sin n sin d 2
0 0 for n {1, 2}
AERODYNAMICS I
M 0 14 V2c2 ( A0 A1 12 A2 )
Adjusting sign to the standard aerodynamic convention, one has
M 0 14 V2c2 ( A0 A1 12 A2 ) 12 ( A0 A1 12 A2 ) qc 2
The moment coefficient is equal
Cm,0 12 ( A0 A1 12 A2 ) 14 [CL ( A1 A2 )]
qc 2 ( A0 A1 12 A2 ) 12 c[ A0 12 A1 12 ( A1 A2 )]
1
xP 2
2 ( A0 2 A1 ) qc
1 2 ( A0 2 A1 )
1
CL
c c c
( A1 A2 ) 1 ( A1 A2 )
4 4 CL 4 CL
AERODYNAMICS I
We will discussed shortly the model of a thin symmetric airfoil with the (rear) flap
0 for x [0, x f ]
Y ( x) , x f (1 f )c
tan ( x x f ) for x ( x f , c]
0 for x [0, x f )
Y ( x)
tan for x [ x f , c]
AERODYNAMICS I
x f (1 f )c 12 c(1 cos f ) (1 f )c
Hence cos f 2 f 1
0 for [0, f )
P( ) Y [ 12 c(1 cos )]
tan for [ f , ]
AERODYNAMICS I
We have to calculate three first Fourier coefficients …
f
0
f
1
P( )d (tg )d 1
1
tg
Hence A0 (1 f )tg
Next …
A1 2 P( )cos d 2 (tg ) cos d 2 (tg )( sin f ) 2 sin f tg
0 f
A2 2 P( )cos 2 d 2 (tg ) cos 2 d 1 (tg )( sin 2 f ) 1 sin 2 f tg
0 f
AERODYNAMICS I
The lift coefficient of the this symmetric airfoil with the flap is expressed as follows
Cm,0 12 ( A0 A1 12 A2 )
Upon insertion, we have the formula
Exercise: Perform analogous analysis for the thin symmetric airfoil with the short flap at the
leading angle (the slot). Assume that the hinge of the slot is located at the distance equal f c
from the leading edge. Compare the effects of 10% slot and 15% rear flap on the aerodynamic
coefficients.