HARDNESS TESTING

Hardness is the ability to withstand indentation

or scratches

 The indenter is pressed into the metal

 Softer materials leave a deeper
indentation

• Kekerasan suatu benda

menyatakan ketahanan
bahan tersebut terhadap
deformasi, baik itu
deformasi plastik maupun
deformasi permanen bila
pada bahan tersebut
diberi benda/gaya dari
luar.
 Brinell hardness test
Brinell hardness test is
 Uses ball shaped indentor. used to test materials that
have a structure that is
too coarse or that have a
 Cannot be used for thin surface that is too rough
to be tested using another
materials.
test method, e.g., castings
and forgings.
 Ball may deform on very Brinell testing often use a
hard materials very high test load (3000
kgf) and a 10 mm wide
indenter so that the
 Surface area of indentation resulting indentation
averages out most surface
is measured. and sub-surface
inconsistencies.
 Vickers hardness test

Vickers hardness test (a microhardness

test method) is mostly used for small
parts, thin sections

 Uses square shaped pyramid

indentor.
 Accurate results.
 Measures length of diagonal on
indentation.
 Usually used on very hard
materials
 Rockwell hardness test

 Gives direct reading.

 Rockwell B (ball) used for soft

materials.

 Rockwell C (cone) uses diamond

cone for hard materials.

 Flexible, quick and easy to use.

 INDENTATION TEST

Durometer
 Contoh karakterisasi hasil uji kekerasan
Aluminium 5083 is used as a base metal and SiC is a reinforced material (MMC)
Aluminum 5083 material is fabricated with SiC on various wt% compositions
Elemental mapping (SEM-EDS)
 Contoh karakterisasi hasil uji kekerasan

Gambar 1 menunjukkan hasil uji

kekerasan (hardness Vickers) pada
material baja (Steel) setelah di roll
dingin (cold rolling) hingga 85%
reduction (reduksi ketebalan), kemudian
di anil pada suhu yang berbeda (590,
600, 625 dan 650C) selama 2 jam.

Gambar 1. Efek suhu anil terhadap kekerasan baja setelah

diroll dingin (85% reduksi)
Microstructure after 85% of cold rolling reduction
Gambar 2 menampilkan
perubahan
strukturmikro setelah
aniling. Jika anda
mempunyai hasil
pengujian seperti Gb. 1
dan 2, bagaimana anda
harus
mengkarakterisasi hasil
tersebut.

Gambar 2 Perubahan strukturmikro setelah roll dingin dan aniling selama 2 jam
pada suhu yang berbeda (a) 590C, (b) 600C, (c) 625C dan (d) 650C
 TENSILE TESTING

Tensile properties are included in material specifications

to ensure quality.

Ductility is included in material specifications to ensure

quality and toughness.
Low ductility in tensile test is accompanied by low resistant
to fracture.
 Deformation and failure

Typical tensile test specimen

X (gage length) should be great relative to its d (diameter)

 Stress-Strain Curve

(a) Load-elongation curve from a tensile test and (b) corresponding

engineering stress-strain curve (X= 50 mm, d= 12.5 mm)
Engineering stress (s) = F (tensile force) / A0 (initial cross-sectional area at the gage)

s = F/A0

Engineering strain (e) = L / L0 (initial gage length)

L = L - L0

The slope of the linier region is the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus:

E = s /e

Elastic vs Plastic Deformation

When a solid material is subjected to small stresses, the bonds between the atoms are
stretched. When the stress is removed, the bonds relax and the material returns to its
original shape (elastic deformation).

At higher stress, planes of atoms slide over one another (plastic deformation).
Illustration elastic and plastic deformation
The tensile strength (ultimate strength) is defined as the highest value of engineering stress

Stress-strain curves showing that the tensile strength is the maximum engineering stress
regardless of whether the specimen necks (a) or fractures before necking (b and c)
Ductile materials have a fracture
strength lower than the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS), whereas in brittle
materials the fracture strength is
equivalent to the UTS
Brittle fracture
In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes
place before fracture. In brittle crystalline materials, fracture
can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile stress acting
normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage
planes). These planes are relatively weakness as a result of
the regular locations of atoms and ions in the crystal, which
Brittle fracture in glass
create smooth repeating surfaces that are visible both in the
microscope and to the naked eye.

Brittle fracture

Typical cleavage

Fatigue fracture
Ductile fracture
In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation
(necking) takes place before fracture. Rather than
cracking, the material "pulls apart," generally leaving a
rough surface. In this case there is slow propagation and
an absorption of a large amount energy before fracture

Many ductile metals, especially materials with high

purity, can sustain very large deformation of 50–100% or
more strain before fracture under favorable loading
condition and environmental condition. The strain at
which the fracture happens is controlled by the purity of
the materials. At room temperature, pure iron (Fe) can
undergo deformation up to 100% strain before breaking,
while cast iron or high-carbon steels can barely sustain
3% of strain
 TENSILE TEST FOR FIBER SPECIMENS

3 cm

Cross-section of
kenaf fiber
Fiber

5 cm 9 cm

σ = F/A
2 cm
where σ is tensile strength (N/mm2),
Fiber
F is force at failure (N) and A is the
Schematic tensile test specimen surface area of the fiber (mm).
of kenaf fiber (ASTM D-3379)
Pangkal Tengah Ujung
Fibers reinforced composite
The tensile test may require interpretation, and
interpretation requires a knowledge of the factors
that influence the test results.
The factors that influence the test results such as

- Alloy composition

- Grain size

- Prior deformation

- Test temperature

- Heat treatment
Dislocations are line defects
 Fig. 8. Optical micrograph of SS-304. The apparent defects
include grain boundaries, twin boundaries and inclusions.

Vacancy is a point defect

Fig. 9. TEM micrograph of dislocations in SS-304.

Reference:
1. Davis, J. R., “Tensile Testing”, 2 ed., ASM International, 2004
High resolution images of grain boundary
FLEXURAL BENDING TEST
 Types of Flexural Tests

A four point bend test is roughly the same

except that instead of the force applied
through a single point on top it is applied
through two points so that the sample
experiences contact at four different points
and is bent more in the shape of a “U”.

A three point bend test consists of

the sample placed horizontally upon
two points and the force applied to
the top of the sample through a single
point so that the sample is bent in the
shape of a “V”.
Purpose of Bend Testing:

1.The main purpose of the Bend testing is to determine the ductility, bend strength, fracture
strength and resistance to fracture of the specimen i.e the characteristics used to determine
whether a material will fail under pressure and are especially important in any construction
process involving ductile materials loaded with bending forces.

2. If a material begins to fracture or completely fractures during a three or four point bend
test it is valid to assume that the material will fail under a similar in any application, which may
lead to catastrophic failure.

Types of Materials Used in Bending Applications:

1.Generally a bending test is performed on metals or metallic materials but can also be applied
to any substance that can experience plastic deformation, such as polymers and plastics. These
materials can take any feasible shape but when used in a bend test most commonly appear in
sheets, strips, bars, shells, and pipes.

2. Bend test machines are normally used on materials that have an acceptably high ductility.
Common Use of this test:

1.One of the more popular uses of bend testing is in the area of welds. It is done to make
sure that the weld has properly fused to the parent metal and that the weld itself does
not contain any defects that may cause it to fail when it experiences bending stresses.

2.The sample weld is deformed using a guided bend test so that it forms a “U” subjecting
the material on the outer surface to a tensile force and the material on the inside to a
compressive force. If the weld holds and shows no sign of fracture it has passed the test
and is deemed an acceptable weld.
The three point flexure test is ideal for the testing of a specific location of
the sample, whereas, the four point flexure test is more suited towards
the testing of a large section of the sample, which highlights the defects of
the sample better than a 3-point bending test.

Typical Materials used for Flexural Test:

1. Polymers/plastics
2. Wood and composites
3. Brittle materials (concrete, ceramics)
Because these materials have a very low ductility
they will break before any permanent deformation
of the sample occurs allowing for the accurate
measurement of the flexural modulus and strength.
 Compression
When an object formed of a single material, like a
steel rod, is bent (Fig. 1), it experiences a range of
stresses across its depth (Fig. 2). At the edge of the
object on the inside of the bend (concave face) the Tension
stress will be at its maximum compressive stress Fig. 1 Beam of material under bending
value. At the outside of the bend (convex face) the
stress will be at its maximum tensile value. These
inner and outer edges of the beam or rod are
known as the 'extreme fibers'. Most materials fail
under tensile stress before they fail under
compressive stress, so the maximum tensile stress
value that can be sustained before the beam or rod
fails is its flexural strength.
Fig. 2 Stress distribution across beam
The flexural strength would be the same as the tensile strength if the material were
homogeneous. In fact, most materials have small or large defects in them which act to
concentrate the stresses locally, effectively causing a localized weakness. When a material is bent
only the extreme fibers are at the largest stress so, if those fibers are free from defects, the
flexural strength will be controlled by the strength of those intact 'fibers'. However, if the same
material was subjected to only tensile forces then all the fibers in the material are at the same
stress and failure will initiate when the weakest fiber reaches its limiting tensile stress.
Therefore, it is common for flexural strengths to be higher than tensile strengths for the same
material. Conversely, a homogeneous material with defects only on its surfaces (e.g., due to
scratches) might have a higher tensile strength than flexural strength.
If we don't take into account defects of any kind, it is clear that the material will fail under a
bending force which is smaller than the corresponding tensile force. Both of these forces will
induce the same failure stress, whose value depends on the strength of the material.
For a rectangular sample under a load in a
three-point bending setup:

• F is the load (force) at the fracture point (N) Three point bend test
•L is the length of the support span
•b is width
•d is thickness
For a rectangular sample under a load in a
four-point bending setup where the
loading span is one-third of the support
span:

• F is the load (force) at the fracture point (N)

•L is the length of the support (outer) span
•b is width Four point bend test
•d is thickness

For the 4 point bend setup, if the loading span is 1/2 of the support span (i.e. Li =
1/2 L):

If the loading span is neither 1/3 nor 1/2 the support span for the 4 point bend
setup:

Li is the length of the loading (inner) span

The flexural modulus or bending modulus is the
ratio of stress to strain in flexural deformation, or
the tendency for a material to bend. It is
determined from the slope of a stress-strain
curve produced by a flexural test.

For a 3-point test of a rectangular beam behaving

as an isotropic linear material, where w and h are
the width and height of the beam, L is the distance Flexural modulus measurement
between the two outer supports and d is the
deflection due to the load F applied at the middle
of the beam, the flexural modulus:

From elastic beam theory and for rectangular beam

thus (Elastic modulus)

Ideally, flexural or bending modulus of elasticity is equivalent to the tensile or compressive

modulus of elasticity. In reality, these values may be different, especially for plastic materials.
 Unit: mm

Bending strength (max) = 3 PL / 2bt2

where P : maximum load (N)

L : span (mm)
b : width of test specimen (mm)
t : thickness of test specimen (mm)