ABSTRACT

Safety remains a top concern for automobile industries and new-car shoppers.
Detection of Blind Spots is a major concern for safety issues. So automobiles have
been constantly updating their products with new technologies to detect blind spots,
so that they can add more safety to the vehicle and also reduce the road accidents.
Almost 1.5 million people die in road accidents each year. Blind spot of an
automobile is the region of the vehicle which cannot be observed properly while
looking either through side or rear mirror view. To meet the above requirements, this
paper describes detecting blind spot by using ultrasonic sensor and controlling the
direction of car by automatic steering. The technology embedded in the system is
capable of automatically steer the vehicle away from an obstacle if the system
determines that a collision is impending or if the vehicle is in the vicinity of our car.

1
 INTRODUCTION

In the present days the toll of road accidents has been in the increasing graph
and many accidents are caused due to negligence of the driver. Most of the accidents
also happen in the highway driving, where driver have negligence during lane
departure/switching of vehicles. Thus, detecting the obstacle near the vicinity of our
vehicle during lane switching/departure or during highway driving is vital and many
research and development is still under process to make the vehicle safer to drive
and control it automatically during these situations. The advanced automotive
technology has been developing better systems to enhance the driver safety. The
automotive technology is always on the thought of enhancing and bettering the
safety of the vehicle than their predecessors. Automobile manufactures have
proposed any safety schemes till date, like, collisionforewarning technology, lane
departure warning system (LDWS), Blind spot information systems, vehicle back
assist systems.

This paper describes about the driver negligence at the blind spot, and
detecting the obstacle in order to automatically steer the car by providing partial
braking to the individual wheels. Blind spot is the area where the driver cannot
observe properly during driving due to many factors like head rest, pillar obstacle,
passenger height etc., and many accidents occur on the blind spot and hence this area
needs to be monitored and obstacle needs to be detected. Automotive technology has
developed Blind Spot Information System (BLIS) and it was first developed by the
giant car manufacturer Volvo in the year 2007. This system detects any obstacle like
pedestrian crossing suddenly, cars overtaking etc. and the driver is alerted. The
system uses two door mounted lenses to check the blind spot for an impeding
collision on the vicinity of the vehicle. The overtaking of vehicles is a big factor
were the accidents happen on the blind spot area. The mirrors become helpless
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during this situation and there could be a technology to avoid the collision on the
blind spot during overtaking, lane switching etc. The system uses the ultrasonic
sensors around the vehicle to detect the incoming obstacle in the specified range and
sensor feedback is given to the Arduino microcontroller as to control the motors
connected to wheels to reduce the speed when an obstacle is detected, the decreasing
of speed or partial braking as in. The different sections in the paper will explain the
different aspects of the system. Section II explains about the hardware description,
Blind Spot detection is briefed in section III, section IV describes the working of the
system,

HARDWARE SETUP

The system is based on Arduino microcontroller. The system consist

ultrasonic sensor, motor IC, DC motor. The obstacle when detected in the blind spot,
the data is acquired by ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 with a specified range and then
it is fed to the input for Arduino mega 2560. The ultrasonic sensor measures the time
difference of the obstacle in the vicinity of the vehicle and then calculates the
distance with time. Then the data is manipulated to control the motors and to reduce
the speed of motor by specified amount.

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 CHAPTER – II

BLIND SPOT DETECTION

A Collision Avoidance system is that a safety to the automobile system to

reduce the immense damage and to reduce the effect of the accident. It is also known
as Precrash system; the system rather uses radar or Ultrasonic sensors and also
nowadays the LIDAR technology is also being used as to implement the system. All
the safety schemes can be put under the collision avoidance system. And this system
can be used in the Blind spot techniques. When the vehicle gets into the blind spot
region, then the sensor detects the obstacle and the data is used to alert or manipulate
the vehicle for the safety measure. And the improvised version of Blind Spot
monitoring is been used in the Blind Spot Information System, developed and
implemented in Volvo S80 Sedan class in 2007. The car being fixed with two lenses
which is mounted to check the Blind Spot region for an impending collision. Once
obstacle detected it is send to the processing unit and then alerted the system. The
system is imposed with Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller board, once the obstacle
is detected, the data acquired by the sensor is used to process the distance and then
it is used to control the four Dc motors connected to the individual four wheels of
the vehicle. The motor is driven by the L293D motor IC.

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 The formula being used is Distance (d) = (high level time(t)×velocity of
sound(v) (340M/S) / 2; or uS/58 = centimeters or uS / 148 =inch. After calculating
the distance of the obstacle, the data is provided to the Arduino Mega 2560
processing unit. The arduino is programmed such that, if an obstacle is detected near
to the distance specified then the motors are controlled to reduce the speed of the
motor to control the wheel speed or the speed of the vehicle. Initially, the wheels are
running on a constant speed. We are connecting four Ultrasonic sensors on the four
locations; front, rear, and two sides of the vehicle. So we have different cases to
manipulate the vehicle.

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 CHAPTER - III

MODULE DESCRIPTION

3.1 ARDUINO

Arduino interface boards provide the engineers,artists,designers,hobbyists and

anyone who tinker with technology with a low-cost,easy-to-use technology to create
their creative,interactive objects,useful projects etc.,A whole new breed of projects
can now be built that can be controlled from a computer.

WHAT IS ARDUINO?

Figure 1.1 ARDUINO UNO

Arduino is a open source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible,easy-
to-use hardware and software.It’s intended for artists,designers,hobbyists,and anyone
interested in creating interactive objects or environments.It’s an open-source physical
computing platform based on a microcontroller board,and a development
environment for writing software for the board.

In simple words,Arduino is a small microcontroller board with a USB plug to

connect to your computer and a number of connection sockets that can be wired up

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to external electronics,such as motors,relays,light sensors,laser
diodes,loudspeakers,microphones,etc.,They can either be powered through the USB
connection from the computer or from a 9V battery.They can be controlled from the
computer or programmed by the computer and then disconnected and allowed to
work independently.

Anyone can buy this device through online auction site or search engine.Since
the Arduino is an open-source hardware designs and ccreate their own clones of the
Arduino and sell them,so the market for the boards is competitive.An official
Arduino costs about $30,and a clone often less than $20.

The name “Arduino” is reserved by the original makers. However, clone Arduino
designs often
have the letters “duino” on the end of their name, for example, Freeduino or
DFRduino. The software for programming your Arduino is easy to use and also
freely available for Windows, Mac, and LINUX computers at no cost.

Microcontroller
Microcontroller can be described as a computer embedded on a rather small
circuit board.To describe the function of a microcontroller more precisely,it is a
single chip that can perform various calculations and tasks,and send/receive signals
from other devices via the available pins. Precisely what tasks and
communication with the world it does, is what is governed by what instructions we
give to
the Microcontroller. It is this job of telling the chip what to do, is what we refer to
as programming on it.

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 However, the uC by itself, cannot accomplish much; it needs several external
inputs: power, for one; a steady clock signal, for another. Also, the job of
programming it has to be accomplished by an external circuit. So typically, a uC is
used along with a circuit which provides these things to it; this combination is called
a microcontroller board. The Arduino Uno that you have recieved, is one such
microcontroller board. The actual microcontroller at its heart is the chip called
Atmega328. The advantages that Arduino offers over other microcontroller boards
are largely in terms of reliability of the circuit hardware as well as the ease of
programming and using it.

Open-source hardware
Open-source hardware shares much of the principles and approach of free and
open-source software.The founders of Arduino wanted people to study their
hardware,to understand how it works,make changes to it,and share those changes
with the world.To facilitate this,they release all of the original design files(Eagle
CAD)for the Arduino hardware.These files are licensed under a Creative Common
Attribution Share-Alike license,which allows for both personal and commercial
derivative works,as long as they(people) credit Arduino and release their designs
under the same license.
The Arduino software is also oen-source.The source code for the Java
environment is released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries are
under the LGPL

HISTORY OF ARDUINO
While teaching a physical computing class at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea
in 2005, Massimo Banzi’s students were unwilling to spend the 76 euros for the
BASIC Stamp microcontrollers commonly used in such applications. Banzi and his
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collegues looked for alternatives, finally settling on the wiring platform developed
by one of Banzi’s students. In his own words:
“…we started to figure out how could we make the whole platform even simpler,
even cheaper, even easier to
use. And then we started to essentially reimplement the whole thing as an open
source project.”
Once they had a prototype, a student wrote the software that would allow wiring
programs to run on the new platform. Upon seeing the project, visiting professor
Casey Reas suggested that there might be wider applications than just design schools
for the new product. The prototype was redesigned for mass production and a test
run of 200 boards was made. Orders began coming in from other design schools and
the students looking for Arduinos, and the Arduino project was born and Massimo
Banzi and David Cuartielles became its founders.”ARDUINO” is an Italian
word,meaning “STRONG FRIEND”.The English version of the name is “Hardwin”.
As of May 2011,more than 300,000 Arduino units are “in the wild”.
Design Goals
 Work with a Mac (as most design students use one)
 USB connectivity (MacBooks don’t have serial ports
 Look nice
 Cheap (about 20 euros, the cost of going out for pizza in Europe)
 More powerful than a BASIC stamp
 Something you could build/fix yourself
Simple and easy to use by someone without formal electronics training
Business Models
Since the entire project is open source, anyone can build and sell Arduino-
compatible devices. So in this sense, the Arduino project relies heavily on its

9
branding for it’s financial success . Other projects manufacture compatible and
cheaper boards, however people are loyal to the Arduino branded boards because
they associate quality and a certain image to the
final product .
By the Numbers
Year Units Sold
2005 200
2006 10 000
2010 120 000
2011 300 000
Competitors
Before Arduino, the largest players in the design/hobbyist market segment were
the PIC microcontroller family (made by Microchip) and the BASIC Stamp (made
by Parallax). Since the introduction of the Arduino, other large companies have tried
to enter the hobbyist market, including Texas Instruments , and even Microsoft .
However, the open-sourced tools
of the Arduino and the size of its community are large barriers for new platforms to
overcome.

Figure 2 GOOGLE trends comparing ARDUINO with its biggest competitors

Community

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 As the project is aimed at students and hobbyists who may not have any formal
electronics background, there are many excellent guides online covering everything
from making a light blink to creating a laser harp. The official forum has almost 60
000 registered users, and along with helping users with their projects, is extremely
active in developing new libraries to extend the functionality of the Arduino . The
open-source share and share alike sentiment is very strong, and the vast majority of
users freely publish the code to their projects.

PHYSICAL COMPUTING
Physical Computing is an approach to learn how humans communicate through
computers that starts by considering how humans express themselves physically.

PLATFORM

HARDWARE

ARDUINO Board Layout

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Figure 3 ARDUINO board layout
ARDUINO pin diagram

Figure 4 ARDUINO pin diagram

ATmega8(Microcontroller)

 16 MHz
 8 Kbyte Flash RAM(1K taken by the boot loader)
 1 Kbyte RAM(eg.for auto/local variables and stack)
 14 digital Input/Output Ports

Figure 5 ATmega8

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Single chip USB to async. Serial data transfer interface

 USB 2.0 compatible

 Transmit and receive LED frive signals
 256 Byte receive,128 Byte transmit buffer
 Data transfer rate from 300bits/sec to 2 Mb/sec

Fig2.1 Android Software Architecture

The OFF-the shelf adapter
 must be a DC adapter (i.e. it has to put out DC, not AC)
 should be between 9V and 12V DC
 must be rated for a minimum of 250mA current output, although you will
likely want something more like 500mA or 1A output, as it gives you the
current necessary to power a servo or twenty LEDs if you want to.
 must have a 2.1mm power plug on the Arduino end, and
 the plug must be "centre positive", that is, the middle pin of the plug has to be
the + connection.
Current rating: Since you'll probably be
connecting other things to the Arduino
(LEDs, LCDs, servos) you should get an adapter
that can supply at least 500mA, or even 1000 mA

13
(1 ampère). That way you can be sure you have enough juice to make each
component of the circuit function reliably.
The Arduino's on-board regulator can actually handle up to 20V or more, so you can
actually use an adapter that puts out 20V DC. The reasons you don't want to do that
are twofold: you'll lose most of that voltage in heat, which is terribly inefficient.
Secondly, the nice 9V pin on the Arduino board will actually be putting out 20V or
so, which could lead to potential disaster when you connect something expensive to
what you thought was the 9V pin. Our advice is to stick with the 9V or 12V DC
adapter.

ARDUINO flavors!!
There have been many revisions of the USB Arduino.some of them are
1. Arduino UNO:
This is the latest revision of the basic Arduino
USB board. It connects to the computer with a
standard USB cable and contains everything
else you need to program and use the board. It
can be extended with a variety of shields:
custom daughter-boards with specific features.
It is similar to the Duemilanove, but has a
different USB-to-serial chip the ATMega8U2,
and newly designed labeling to make
inputs and outputs easier to identify.
2. Arduino Mega 2560:
A larger, more powerful Arduino
board. Has extra digital pins, PWM
pins, analog inputs, serial ports, etc.
The version of the Mega released with

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the Uno, this version features the
Atmega2560, which has twice the memory,
and uses the ATMega 8U2 for USB-to-serial
communication.
3. Arduino Duemilanove:
The Duemilanove automatically
selects the appropriate power supply
(USB or external power), eliminating
the need for the power selection jumper found on previous boards. It also
adds an easiest to cut trace for disabling the auto-reset, along with a solder
jumper for re-enabling it.
Note: around March 1st, 2009, the
Duemilanove started to ship with
the ATmega328p instead of
theATmega168.

4. Arduino Fio:
An Arduino intended for use as a wireless node. Has a header for an XBee radio,
a connector for a LiPobattery, and a battery chargingcircuit.

15
 5. LilyPad Arduino:

A stripped-down, circular Arduino board

designed for stitching into clothing and
other fabric/flexible applications. Needs
an additional adapter to communicate
with a computer.

6. Arduino Diecimila:

The main change in the Arduino Diecimila is that it can be reset from the
computer, without the need to physically press the reset button on the board. The
Diecimila uses a low dropout voltage
regulator which lowers the board's power
consumption when powered by an external
supply (AC/DC adapter or battery). A
resettable polyfuse protects your
computer's USB ports from shorts and
surges. It also provides pin headers for the
reset line and for 3.3V. There is a built-in
LED on pin 13. Some blue Diecimila
boards say "Prototype - Limited Edition"

16
but are in fact fully-tested production boards
(the actual prototypes are red).

7. Lilypad Arduino 03

This revision has a 6-pin programming header

that's compatible with FTDI USB cables and
the Sparkfun FTDI Basic Breakout. It adds
support for automatic reset, allowing sketches
to be uploaded without pressing the reset button on the board. The header is
surface mounted, meaning that the board has no pokey bits sticking out the back.

8. Arduino NG Rev.C

Revision C of the Arduino NG does not

have a built-in LED on pin 13 - instead
you'll see two small unused solder pads
near the labels "GND" and "13". There is,
however, about 1000 ohms of resistance
on pin 13, so you can connect an LED without external resistor.

17
 9. Arduino Extreme

The Arduino Extreme uses many more surface mount components than previous
USB Arduino boards and comes with female pin headers. It also has RX and
TX LEDs that indicate when data is being sent to or from the board.

10.Arduino Mini 04

On this version of the Arduino Mini, two of the

pins changed. The third pin became reset
(instead of ground) and fourth pin became
ground (instead of being unconnected). These
boards are labelled "Mini 04".

Still there are ,Arduino Serial,Arduino

Serial v2.0,Arduino Nano 3.0,Arduino
Nano 2.x,Serverino(S3V3),Arduino Stamp
02,Mini USB adapter 03,Mini USB
Adapter,Arduino Bluetooth.

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Basic

Figure 6 Different Flavours Of ARDUINO with their Configuration

Terminologies in ARDUINO:
1.Analog to digital converter(ADC)
The process of Analog to digital conversion is shown in figure.
The Arduino has 10 bits of Resolution when reading analog
signals.
2 power 10=1024 increments
Influence also by how fast you sample

2.Pulse width modulation (PWM)

The Arduino has 8bit of resolution,when outputting a signal using PWM.The range
of output voltage is from 0 to 5 Volts

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2power 8=255 Increments
Average of on/off(digital signals to make an average voltage),Duty cycle in 100%
of 5Volts.
LANGUAGE REFERENCES:
The Microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino
programming language(based on wiring) and the arduino development
environment(based on processing).
Arduino Programming Language(APL)(based on wiring)
The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar
physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia
programming environment.
Wiring
Wiring is an open-source programming framework for microcontrollers.
Wiring allows writing cross-platform software to control devices attached to a wide
range of microcontroller boards to create all kinds of creative coding, interactive
objects, spaces or physical experiences. The framework is thoughtfully created with
designers and artists in mind to encourage a community where beginners through
experts from around the world share ideas, knowledge and their collective
experience. There are thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and
hobbyists who use Wiring for learning, prototyping, and finished professional work
production.
Arduino development environment(based on processing)
Processing
Processing is an open source programming language and environment for
people who want to create images, animations, and interactions. Initially developed
to serve as a software sketchbook and to teach fundamentals of computer
programming within a visual context, Processing also has evolved into a tool for
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generating finished professional work. Today, there are tens of thousands of
students, artists, designers, researchers, and hobbyists who use Processing for
learning, prototyping, and production.

Software
The software used by the arduino is Arduino IDE.

he Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from

the IDE for the Processing programming language and the Wiringproject. It is
designed to introduce programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with
software development. It includes a code editor with features such as syntax
highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of
compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There is typically
no need to edit makefiles or run programs on acommand-line interface. Although
building on command-line is possible if required with some third-party tools such
as Ino.

The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of
the same name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier.
Arduino programs are written in C/C++, although users only need define two
functions to make a runnable program:

 setup() – a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings
 loop() – a function called repeatedly until the board powers off

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3.2 LCD DISPLAY
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find
a wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very
commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over
seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are
economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even
custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.A 16x2 LCD
means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.The command register stores the command instructions given
to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like
initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc.
The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII
value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

PIN DIAGRAM

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Pin Description:

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register Register

when high Select
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+

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16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

3.3 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

All electronic circuits works only in low DC voltage, so we need a power

supply unit to provide the appropriate voltage supply for their proper functioning
.This unit consists of transformer, rectifier, filter & regulator. AC voltage of typically
230v rms is connected to a transformer voltage down to the level to the desired
ac voltage. A diode rectifier that provides the full wave rectified voltage that is
initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting
dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation . A regulator circuit
can use this dc input to provide dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage
but also remains the same dc value even the dc voltage varies some what, or the load
connected to the output dc voltages changes.

Fig 24.General Block of Power Supply Unit

DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

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Fig25 : Diode Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes

connected in a bridge circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of
output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC)
output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave
rectification from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped
transformer) but has two diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a
center tap based design for the same output voltage.

Fig 26: Schematic Of A Diode Bridge Rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at
the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

25
BASIC OPERATION OF DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along
the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower
one.

operation of diode bridge rectifier

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows
along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.

AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower
right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only

26
produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning
when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its
wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that might occur
without this circuit in place).

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was

always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-
terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration
became a standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage
and current ratings.

TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a static piece of which electric power in one

circuit is transformed into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in the circuit, but with a corresponding decrease or increase
in current. It works with the principle of mutual induction. In our project we are using
a step down transformer to providing a necessary supply for the electronic circuits. Here
we step down a 230v ac into 12v ac.

RECTIFIER: A dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using
a process called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave rectification
we use bridge rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that two diodes(say
D2 & D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are in off state during
the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for the negative cycle of the input the conducting
diodes are D1 & D4 .Thus the polarity across the load is the same.
In the bridge rectifier the diodes may be of variable types like 1N4001, 1N4003,
1N4004, 1N4005, IN4007 etc… can be used . But here we use 1N4007, because it can
withstand up to 1000v.
27
FILTERS: In order to obtain a dc voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter. so
that a capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier
output& a dc is obtained across it. The filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage
with negligible ripples & it is ultimately fed to the load.

REGULATORS: The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered & finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of the change in supply variations, load variations & temperature changes.
Here we use fixed voltage regulator namely LM7805.The IC LM7805 is a +5v regulator
which is used for microcontroller.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig29 power supply unit

FEATURES & DESCRIPTION OF REGULATORS

• Output Current up to 1A

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

28
 • Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are
available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over
1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

3.5 Ultrasonic Sensor

Introduction
The main purpose of this project is to measure the distance to
unreachable objects, obstacles or places using a portable device.

Figure 2.1: The hand-held ultrasonic range meter device.

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2.2 Motivation
The motivation of using this device is when construction engineers at any sites need
to measure distances to unreachable places in a quick and easy way using this device
with high efficiency and accuracy.

2.3 Characteristics
This device detects the distance to an object and shows the result in centimeters. This
device is activated by a trigger mechanism, pressing the trigger for one time will
give us the distance to an object if there was no error like poor aiming. The distance
to an object is displayed using a digital display with a high intensity in order to be
seen in any lighting conditions.

It is a simple and portable device similar to a gun as shown in Figure 2.2 that uses a
laser pointer to aim at a specific area to get the reflection at the receiver side.

Figure 2.2: Description of each part of the device.

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3.3 Target range
The target range is the distance range between the person who is using the hand-held
ultrasonic range meter device and the targeted object. The target range consists of
two boundaries, one is the minimum distance limit and the other is the maximum
distance limit. If the operator of the hand-held ultrasonic range meter device exceeds
these two boundaries, the hand-held ultrasonic range meter device may not detect
the distance or may display a false detection.

Frequency, wavelength and attenuation:

The frequency of the ultrasonic sensing system is determined by the resonant

frequency of the ultrasonic transducer. The selection of this transducer is made
considering number of factors such as transducer size, measurement resolution,

31
measurement range, background noise and attenuation. The wavelength of the
ultrasonic wave can be found out with the following formula,

λ = C/f (6.1)

Where λ is the wavelength, C is the velocity of sound equal to 340 m/s at 20º C
and f is the frequency equal to 40 KHz.

C, velocity of sound varies with variation in temperature, pressure, medium type,

humidity, air turbulence, conventional currents. So before calculating the
wavelength, the speed of sound is required to be calculated.

32
 CHAPTER – IV

PREPARATION OF PRINTIG CIRCUITED BOARD

PCB DESGNING AND FABRICATION

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING THE PCB

PREPARING OF LAYOUT

With the diagram and all the hand, draw a complete layout plan of the circuit
on a sheet of a tracing paper. As a model, for laying the circuit, a thermo cole base
may be used to hold components. Avoid over crowding of components while making
full space utilization. Keep the ground line on the side of the PCB and the supply
line on other side as far as possible. When all the components have been mounted
on the tracing paper sheet fixed on a piece of thermo cole base, take out a sketch pen
for making in such a way that all the connecting wires are equal in width, termination
rounded off. Re-draw draw it on a fresh paper if required.

PAINTING OF PCB

The tracing so prepared has to be imposed over the copper printed circuit
board keeping in view that the component would be mounted from the non-clad side
of the board. Take a PCB lamination sheet and cur a piece of required size of the
board by using hacksaw file edges, put the copper clad sheet on the table keeping
side on the runway the dirt grease and oxide with a sand paper with its marked side
tracing the carbon paper and at her side on top. Since the tracing paper is transformed
you can now reproduce a carbon point over a surface but using ball pen on a hard

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pencil over the drawing on the transparent side. When the carbon print has been
obtained over the copper clad board drill ropes in the board using a hand drill. The
holes may be draw with 1/32 bit for component lead sand the carbon should be raised
or wiped by mistake.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRINTED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

After painting the board, it will be made by the cool air for sometime. Now
take a plastic tray and get some Fe Cl3 chemical powder. The ferric chloride salt is
then added with 500ml of water. The color of the solution is pink. Color of the salt
is in yellow, now we add three to five drops of dilute HCL or H2SO4. This is
necessary to quicken the process.

ETCHING OF PCB

Now we take the painted copper clad board and dip it in the solution kept in
the tray. After 15 to 25 minutes we see the board, with only printed pattern portion
remaining in other place the copper coating is removed due to the chemical action.
Then the board is taken out and washes in water. After wash the board by using
thinner solution. Now a printed circuit has been formed on the board.

Take fresh water and mix a few teaspoons of FeCL3 add a few drops of dilute
HCL to it, as it speeds the etching process. Shake well immerse the PC Bin the
solution for about 20 minutes occasionally altering the solution by giving the seesaw
reaction to the disk storing reduces the etching time. Observe the changing color on
the copper surface. Take out the PCB only when the unpainted portion of the copper
surface is completely dissolved in the

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3solution wash the PCB with the water. After the PCB is thoroughly washed remove
the paint by soft pieces of the cloth dipped in thinner or turpentine.

DRILLING OF HOLES

Then take a drilling machine with 1/32 drill bit to make holes for the incretion
of the components use 1/18 drill bit for inset wires and other thick components.

Now the PCB is ready to use.

ADVANTAGES

 Reliability in operation and low cost.

 Space required becomes less.

DIS ADVANTAGES

 It can’t withstand larger weight such as transformer.

MATERIAL REQUIRED

 Copper clad sheet (It is made of hylam or board over

which the sheet copper is pressed.)
 “Paint or Nail polish” or even “PCB Ink”.
 Painting brush, tray.
 Ferric chloride solution and also few drop of dilute HCL or
H2so4.
 Thinner or kerosene or petrol.
 Cotton cloth.
 Trace paper.

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 CONCLUSION

Thus, by the following system developed, the vehicle detects the blind spot
area and then controls the speed of the individual motors connected to the axial of
the wheel. As per the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), road accidents
occur mostly due to overtaking in the highway due to the negligence of the driver.
And therefore, with this kind of system developed, the accidents caused due to driver
negligence can be brought down by an extent.

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 REFERENCES

[1] Techmer, ―Real-time Motion Analysis for Monitoring the Rear and
Lateral Road‖, Proceedings of 2004 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Vol. 11,
pp. (11)704 – 709.

[2] R. Sosa and G. Velazquez, ―Obstacles detection and collision avoidance

system developed with virtual models,‖ in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety, Beijing, China, Dec. 13-15, 2007, pp. 1-8.

[3] Chen, C., Chen, Y.: Real time approaching vehicle detection in blindspot
area. In: Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2009. ITSC ’09.

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