Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

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Distance protection of block transformer units T

a b a,⁎ b a a
D. Bejmert , M. Kereit , W. Rebizant , L. Schiel , K. Solak , A. Wiszniewski
a
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
b
Siemens AG, Berlin, Germany

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The main protection of block transformer units is usually realized with use of differential relays. For back-up
Power transformers protection distance relays are mostly employed. Their second and third zones provide also coverage of faults
Distance protection along the adjacent line connecting the power plant with the nearest substation. This paper deals with a challenge
Phase-to-ground faults related to proper impedance measurement across the transformer for the configurations where the currents from
Turn-to-turn internal short-circuits
the HV star terminals are not available. Commonly used algorithms of the distance relays may be prone to
Measurement correction
serious under-reaching in such situations, which calls for a new approach with correction of the measurement
procedure. The inclusion of zero-sequence current is proposed, and the improved protection algorithm is ana-
lyzed theoretically and thoroughly tested with the signals obtained from EMTP-ATP simulations. Rules for new
protection settings are also provided.

1. Introduction - distance protection coordination with use of the IEC61850 GOOSE

In this paper problems related to protection of block units are dis-
cussed, where distance relay is usually a back-up for given transformer
and adjacent lines [1]. Special attention is paid to the configurations
when the distance relays are installed at the triangle side of a block
transformer, as shown in Fig. 1. It is usually the case that the star side
signals are not available or are not used, which may be a source of
impedance measurement errors and relay maloperation [2,3]. It is even
stated in [3] that the operation errors of the distance relays are un-
avoidable for behind located ground faults. Although the distance relay
is meant as a back-up for faults along the adjacent line, its operation
should be reliable and safe, which cannot be guaranteed with standard
solutions and algorithms.
There exist a number of decent publications related to distance
protection principle. Nevertheless, not many of them are related to
block transformer or in-zone transformer applications. If any, they
mostly deal with different aspects of distance protection, e.g. discussing
the protection under-reach for in-zone phase shifting transformers [4]
or the influence of power swings on block unit distance protection [5].
Some proposals to overcome the problems with transformer distance
protection operation may be found, introducing e.g.:
- zero-sequence based compensation of the transformer tertiary
winding influence (first zone is analyzed only) [6],
- employing a three-relay arrangement based on resistance elements [7],
message-based scheme [8],
which do not solve the basic problem of wrong impedance calculation
through the transformer for behind located faults.
Since none of the abovementioned approaches is 100% efficient or the
ideas described require a lot of effort and costly installations, an efficient
and comprehensive approach to the problems with distance relay under-
reaching for single-phase faults behind the in-zone transformer is still to be
developed. In this paper the following points have been addressed. First,
present solution performance for d and Y transformer side faults is in-
vestigated. Then a proposal of improvements for correction of through-
transformer impedance measurement errors as well as development of
settings recommendation for the new protection is discussed.
It is shown that substantial improvement of the distance protection
operation may be reached with introduction of the zero-sequence cur-
rent and appropriate settings of the protection algorithms.
2. Distance measurement for ground and line faults at transformer
star side
The following analyses have been done for a selected configuration
of Yd11 transformer, presented in Fig. 2. Similar investigations and
results may easily be provided for other transformer connection groups.
In relation to Fig. 2 one can introduce the winding turn ratio Nz and
transformation ratio N defined as:

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: daniel.bejmert@pwr.edu.pl (D. Bejmert), matthias.kereit@siemens.com (M. Kereit), waldemar.rebizant@pwr.edu.pl (W. Rebizant),
ludwig.schiel@siemens.com (L. Schiel), krzysztof.solak@pwr.edu.pl (K. Solak), andrzej.wiszniewski@pwr.edu.pl (A. Wiszniewski).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2018.05.012
Received 7 December 2017; Received in revised form 8 May 2018; Accepted 10 May 2018
0142-0615/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Bejmert et al. Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339

approx. 90% of Zgen 0,7s Z1 – impedance between the transformer delta terminals (measure-
(depends on x’d)
0,4s ment point) and the fault point (star side), Z1 = ZT1 + ZL1,
Z0 – zero-sequence impedance to the fault point, Z0 = ZT0 + ZL0,
0,1s
Z2 appr. ZTr ZT1 – transformer short-circuit impedance (referred to the star side
Z1=0,7 ZTr voltage level),
ZL1 – positive sequence impedance from the transformer star term-
inals to the fault point,
ZT0 – transformer zero-sequence impedance (ZT0 = ZT1),
Z< ZL0 – zero-sequence impedance between the transformer star term-
Z<
inals and the fault point.
Fig. 1. Basic configuration of block unit with distance protection.
Then the measurement of phase A loop impedance is done with the
following equations:

Uca 3 1 UA
Za = = UA N
=
I1−I3 N (3IA−3I0) N 2 (IA−I0)
3 (6a)

This may be rewritten in the form:

0 I0
Z 1 + IA Z1 −1
Za = 12
( Z
)
I
N 1− I 0 (6b)
A

which finally yields:

Fig. 2. Yd11 transformer and line configuration studied. Z I Z

Za = ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎡1 + ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟

⎝ N ⎠⎢ ⎣ ⎝ IA− I0 ⎠ ⎝ Z1 ⎠ ⎥
⎦ (6c)
w
Nz = Y The formula (6c) shows the relative increase of the measured im-
wd (1a)
pedance caused by the current I0 and impedance Z0.
I 1
N= 3 Nz (1b) For the A-phase faults it holds I 0 = 3 (the most probable value),
A
therefore:
With this in mind one can write the following relationships between
triangle and star currents: 2 1
1 3 Z1 + 3 Z0 Z 1 Z0 ⎞
Za = 2
= 12 ⎛1 + ⎜ ⎟

Ia = Nz IA (2a) N2 N ⎝ 2 Z1 ⎠ (7a)
3

Ib = Nz IB (2b) Z
If the ratio of impedances ZL0 = 3 (it is so just for the line impedance
L1
Ic = Nz IC (2c) or for the case when the line is long and the transformer impedance can
be neglected), then:
I1 = Ia−Ib = Nz (IA−IB ) (3a)
ZL1 3 Z Z
Za = ⎛1 + ⎞ = 2.5 L1 = 2.5 1
I2 = Ib−Ic = Nz (IB−IC ) (3b) N2 ⎝ 2⎠ N2 N2 (7b)

I3 = Ic−Ia = Nz (IC−IA) (3c) One can see that the measured impedance (7b) is 2.5 times higher
than in reality and thus the relay is prone to serious under-reaching. In
For the voltage signals it holds: reality this coefficient may change between 1.5 and 2.5 and depends on
the fault place. For faults at transformer terminals one should replace
1 3
Uab = UB = UB the total impedances with the ones of block transformer, which yields:
Nz N (4a)
ZT 1 ⎛ 1 ZT 0 ⎞ Z Z
1 3 Za = ⎜ 1+ = 1.5 T21 = 1.5 12
⎟

Ubc = UC = UC N2 ⎝ 2 ZT 1 ⎠ N N (7c)
Nz N (4b)
One should of course understand that for the relay installed at the
1 3 delta side the star side signals may not be available. Measurement of the
Uca = UA = UA
Nz N (4c) phase current as well as more accurate impedance measurement during
ground faults at Y side calls for “measurability” of the zero-sequence
Measurement of impedance seen from the transformer delta side is
current 3I0. Then
further analyzed. For ground faults at the star side (at transformer
terminals or along the adjacent line) the following relations for star side 3
voltages are valid: 3IA = 3I0− (I3−I1)
N (8)
Z −Z
UA = IA Z1 + 3I0 0 1 With introduction of the corrected current Ir:
3 (5a)
N N
Z0−Z1 Ir = [3IA + 3I0 (n−1)] = I1−I3 + n3I0
UB = IB Z1 + 3I0 3 3 (9)
3 (5b)
one may derive the following relations for impedance measurement:
Z0−Z1
UC = IC Z1 + 3I0
3 (5c) 3 IA Z1 + I0 (Z0−Z1)
Za =
where N Ir (10a)

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D. Bejmert et al. Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339

I0 Z0 − Z1
1+ Table 1
1 IA Z1
Za = 2
Z1 I0 Input signals and impedance measurement results for various Yd transformers.
N 1+ (n−1)
IA (10b)
Trafo Fault type Current Voltage 3I0 Measured impedance Za or Zab
Z0
For the case when n = :
Z1 Yd11 AG I1−I3 Uca − I Z
1 + 0 ⎛ 0 − 1⎞
⎜ ⎟

1 Yd5 BG I2−I1 Uab − Z1 IA ⎝ Z1 ⎠

Za = 2 Z1 CG I3−I2 Ubc − N2 I
1− 0
N (10c) IA
AG I1−I3 Uca + I Z − Z1
1+ 0 0
which means that the measurement is now errorless and the under- BG I2−I1 Uab + Z1 IA Z1
2
N 1 + I0 (n − 1)
reaching is eliminated. CG I3−I2 Ubc + IA
Since the exact fault place is unknown before taking the relay de- AB I1 Uca−Uab − Z1
BC I2 Uab−Ubc − N2
cision, it is proposed to use the ratio of impedances n referred to the end
CA I3 Ubc−Uca −
of given protection zone. The justification of this suggestion can be
found in Section 3. Yd1 AG I1−I2 Uab − I Z
1 + 0 ( 0 − 1)
IA Z1
Yd7 BG I2−I3 Ubc − Z1
For the 2-phase and 3-phase faults at the Y transformer side the N2 1− 0
I
CG I3−I1 Uca − IA
following relations are valid:
AG I1−I2 Uab + 1+
I0 Z0 − Z1

UA−UB BG I2−I3 Ubc + Z1 IA Z1

Z1 = N2 1 + I0 (n − 1)
CG I3−I1 Uca +
IA−IB (11a) IA
AB −I2 Uab−Ubc − Z1
BC −I3 Ubc−Uca − N2
3
Uca−Uab N
(UA−UB ) Z1 CA −I1 Uca−Uab −
Zab = = =
3I1 3 N (IA−IB ) N2 (11b)

From Eqs. (11) it results that there is no influence of the zero-se- (a) with measurement of three phase currents at the transformer Y side
quence current and thus no correction is required. The result of (11b) (provided the currents are available), then:
represents correctly measured impedance of the inter-phase A-B loop
3I0 = IA + IB + IC (12a)
for faults at the star side.
Traditional way of calculating the impedance of A-B fault loop with
measurements taken on the triangle side is [9]: (b) direct measurement of 3I0 with use of CT installed in the grounding
Ua Z wire at the Y side;
Zab = = 12 (c) through measurement of current inside transformer delta connec-
I1 N (11c)
tion, e.g. in phase a; in such a case for the transformer Yd11 the
which means that the phase quantities are used. following equations hold:
Comparing (11b) and (11c) one can see that both versions are
Ia + Ib + Ic = Nz (IA + IB + IC ) = Nz (3I0) (12b)
equivalent, since:
Uca−Uab U −U −U + Ua 3Ua Z Ia = Nz IA Ib = Ia−I1 Ic = Ia + I3 (12c)
Zab = = a c b = = 12
3I1 3I1 3I1 N (11d)
1 3
3I0 = (3Ia−I1 + I3) = (3Ia−I1 + I3)
However, the above is correct when Ua + Ub + Uc = 0 , which is Nz N (12d)
usually true, but not always. E.g. in case when there is a ground fault at
The concepts (b) and (c) are illustrated in Fig. 3. Obviously, version
the delta side, the sum of triangle phase voltages amounts to
with additional current transformer in the delta winding is only rea-
Ua + Ub + Uc = 3U0 ≠ 0 . Therefore, correct measurement of impedance
lizable for transformers consisting of separate units for particular
for the simultaneous fault at the star side would require subtracting the
phases.
zero-sequence voltage, according to:
Uca−Uab 3Ua−3U0 U −U Z 3. Distance measurement – simulation studies
Zab = = = a 0 = 12
3I1 3I1 I1 N (13c)
A number of simulation tests and investigations have been per-
Because of that it can stated that one is always on the safe side and
formed with use of EMTP-ATP software [10] in order to confirm the
no error is introduced for the non-zero value of 3U0 when the algorithm
theoretical study results as well as to generate signals for the new relay
with phase-to-phase voltages (11b) is applied. Otherwise, with 3U0
prototype testing. According to the requirements, a system configura-
missing (not measured), serious error of impedance calculation may
tion with the synchronous generator, block transformer (500 MVA,
appear, which would lead to relay under-reaching (phase voltage Ua too
large). Additionally, during the single-phase-to-ground short-circuits at
the star side some zero-sequence voltage from the star side is trans-
ferred to the delta side via the capacitive link, which also may introduce
an error. The delta side zero-sequence voltage may also be corrupted by
higher harmonics, especially the third order ones. Therefore, although
the equation (11c) is very elegant and simple, the Authors are of the
opinion that the algorithm (11b) offers better accuracy.
Similar relationships as above can also be derived for the other fault
loops and other types of considered Yd transformers. The summary of
the analysis for various transformer configurations is given in Table 1.
When the transformer zero-sequence current is available and appro-
priate value of coefficient n is assumed one can reach correct im-
pedance measurement for all fault types.
The required 3I0 current may be reached in one of the following
ways: Fig. 3. Installation of CTs for zero-sequence current measurement.

334
D. Bejmert et al.
Fig. 4. Correct (stars) and measured (circles) impedances for line-line, line-line-
to-ground and three-phase faults.
short-circuit voltage 15%, Yd5, 400 kV/20 kV, Y-side solidly grounded)
and transmission line (ZL0′ = (0.1604 + j0.7193) Ω/km,
ZL1′ = (0.0288 + j0.3235) Ω/km, l = 150 km) has been modelled. It
was assumed that third zone of distance protection should cover 1/3 of
the line length (lIII = 50 km), therefore the fault spots were placed at
locations lF every 10 km from transformer terminals up to the third zone
reach (every 20% of lIII). The impedances seen from the generator side
were calculated for the following fault types: phase-to-ground, phase-
to-phase, phase-phase-to-ground, and three-phase. The way of simula-
tion of transformer internal faults and appropriate ATP-EMTP model is
described in our previous paper [11].
Below only selected results of simulations are shown in an ag-
gregated form. In the following figures black star points represent exact
locations of fault, while red circles mark the calculated fault im-
pedances (steady-state of measurement).
In Fig. 4 the impedance measurement results for multi-phase faults
along the line are presented. It is seen that accuracy of measurement is
good, especially as the reactance is concerned (certain error for fault
resistance is seen); thus no correction for the zero-sequence current is
required.
In Fig. 5 the results for phase-to-ground faults are shown. Measured
impedances are much higher than correct values, with factor 1.43 (at
transformer star terminals) up to 1.55 (last measurement point at the
Fig. 5. Correct (stars) and measured (circles) impedances for phase-to-ground
faults; calculation without correction (n = 0).
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Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339
Fig. 6. Impedance measurement for phase-to-ground faults without (black
stars) and with correction (red symbols) for various levels of n. (For inter-
pretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
end of 3rd zone reach), which means that the relay sees the faults as
located much further than in reality. Of importance is of course the
reach in reactance axis, although also the resistance measured is much
bigger than in reality (note that the axis range in R direction is different
than in X direction, only for the sake of better picture readability).
Introduction of the zero-sequence correction according to (10b) (see
also Table 1) brings significant improvement of fault distance estima-
tion accuracy, which is shown in Figs. 6–9. Unfortunately, it is im-
possible to reach perfect measurement for all fault places, since the
ideal value of correction factor n depends on unknown fault location.
In Fig. 6 the ratios of absolute values of measured impedance Za to the
actual fault loop impedance Z1 are shown as a function of the fault distance
from transformer Y terminals to the end of the 3rd zone reach. One can see
that the errors of distance measurement without correction (black star
points) are the highest. The results obtained with correction are much
better; however, depending on the correction coefficient n they may be
slightly overestimated (for n too small) or underestimated (n too large). The
best results are obtained for the zero- to positive-sequence impedance ratio
set for the end of the assumed third zone reach.
In Figs. 7–9 the results of measurement correction expressed in R-X
coordinates are shown for three levels of the zero- to positive-sequence
Fig. 7. Correct (stars) and measured (circles) impedances for phase-to-ground
faults; calculation with correction (n = 1).
D. Bejmert et al. Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339

Fig. 10. Measured impedances for transformer turn-to-turn faults for all six
Fig. 8. Correct (stars) and measured (circles) impedances for phase-to-ground
distance relay loops; no correction applied.
faults; calculation with correction (n = ZL0/ ZL1 = 3).

Fig. 9. Correct (stars) and measured (circles) impedances for phase-to-ground Fig. 11. Measured impedances (magnified) for transformer turn-to-turn faults
(
faults; calculation with correction n =
ZT 0 + lIII / l ZL0
ZT 1 + lIII / l ZL1 ) . for A-G loop; no correction applied.

impedance ratio n. One can see again that the best results are obtained
for n related to the end of the third zone reach, where all in zone faults
are seen correctly, i.e. the impedance measured is equal or less than the
zone settings.
Further simulation cases have been generated for transformer in-
ternal faults. Since it is very difficult to derive theoretical relationships
for inter-turn faults and ground faults (nonlinear dependencies with
respect to fault spot and number of short-circuited turns) [11], the si-
mulation results bring valuable information on the fault current levels
and measured impedances. In Fig. 10 one can see the families of points
for all six protection fault loops for simulated turn-to-turn faults with
10% up to 90% of short-circuited turns and their location with respect
to transformer impedance ZT (black star). According to expectations,
the smallest measured impedance values were noted for the phase A
where the faults took place.
Fig. 11 shows magnified part of Fig. 10 for the fault loop A-G only.
One can see that all fault cases (10% up to 90% of shorted turns, seen
from transformer terminals) are identified by the distance protection as
located in the second zone.
When the zero-sequence correction is applied (Fig. 12, n = 1), the mea-
Fig. 12. Measured impedances (magnified) for transformer turn-to-turn faults
sured impedances are only slightly changed (small influence of the zero-se-
for A-G loop; correction applied, n = 1.
quence current). The proposed settings of the relay with applied correction
are inappropriate, the internal faults are still seen as located in the 3rd zone.

336
D. Bejmert et al.
Fig. 13. Measured impedances for transformer internal ground faults for all six
distance relay loops; no correction applied.
Similar analysis was performed for the cases of transformer internal
ground faults spotted at 10% up to 90% of the star winding, counted
from transformer terminals. Again, the smallest impedances are mea-
sured for the A-G loop where the faults took place, see Fig. 13.
Closer analysis of the results for A-G loop indicate that such faults
are seen mostly as external ones (out of the second zone reach), Fig. 14.
The effects of zero-sequence correction (Fig. 15) is much stronger here
due to higher level of the zero-sequence current. Yet, with the proposed
relay settings the internal ground faults are still seen as external ones.
One can state here that the operation of distance protection with/
without measurement correction for such internal faults is not sa-
tisfactory. Other protection principles (e.g. REF) ought to be applied to
detect such events.
4. Protection logic and settings
Before the protection logic is outlined one should be aware of the
following.
(a) Ground faults at the transformer triangle side (inside of generator,
at generator-transformer terminals) cannot be detected by the dis-
tance protection.
(b) Double-phase fault inside the generator is very unlikely, since it
would require breaking of the main insulation. If any, then it can
Fig. 14. Measured impedances (magnified) for transformer internal ground
faults for A-G loop; no correction applied.
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Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339
Fig. 15. Measured impedances (magnified) for transformer internal ground
faults for A-G loop; correction applied, n = 1.
happen at the machine front terminals. Operation of the distance
protection in such cases is very limited (CTs at the neutral point
side, VTs at the terminals). Such faults should be cleared by the
differential protection. If converted to ground faults (quite prob-
able) it will be detected by ground fault relays.
(c) The most likely to occur are double or three phase short-circuits
between generator terminals and transformer triangle terminals.
Such events should evoke firm operation of the distance protection.
(d) Ground faults and phase-to-phase faults inside the block trans-
former are very unlikely, since they would also require breaking of
the main insulation. Such faults may occur as a result of inter-turn
faults (much more likely) that become developed into ground
faults. Operation of distance protection for inter-turn transformer
faults at any of transformer windings depends upon the number of
short-circuited turns and their location.
(e) Distance protection should pick up for phase-to-phase faults at the
terminals of the triangle side as well as for phase-to-phase and
ground faults at the transformer star side.
The distance protection installed at transformer triangle side should be
equipped with all six impedance loops operating independently, with
measurements running in parallel. Three of the loops cover ground
faults at the star side and phase-to-phase faults at the triangle side,
whereas the remaining three are to respond to phase-to-phase faults at
the star side. The input signals and impedance measurement results for
various Yd transformers and particular loops are gathered in Table 1.
The following distance protection logic is proposed:
- the distance relay located at the delta side should have three ad-
justable zones of operation; the first zone with the shortest delay
must not reach beyond the circuit breaker on the star side, the
second zone with the delay 0.4 s must cover the transformer and the
connection to the circuit breaker, the third zone with the delay 0.7 s
must provide a back-up protection of the adjacent line,
- in case of unavailable I0 current the protection reach is to be set as
for phase-to-phase faults at the triangle side; should the protection
operate, one has to diagnose fault at the triangle side,
- in case of measurable zero-sequence current detection of significant
I0 flow leads to confirmation of ground fault at the star side; then
one has to increase the measurement current by the required part of
I0 and proceed with the required zone reach for ground faults.
With the above in mind and having observed the results of im-
pedance measurement effects with and without zero-sequence current
D. Bejmert et al.
Fig. 16. Distance protection logic for ground faults at Y side and phase-to-phase
faults at d side with I0 measurable.
available, the following zone settings are proposed.
4.1. Three loops covering the phase-to-ground faults at the star side and the
phase-to-phase short-circuits at the delta side
A1 – relay settings for the configuration with I0 measurable
In this case the fault loop impedance is correctly measured, both for
inter-phase and ground faults. Therefore the relay settings can be de-
fined as follows:
ZI = 0.9Za = 0.9ZT1 (13a)
ZII = 1.2Za = 1.2ZT1 (13b)
ZIII = Za = ZT 1 + kZL1 (13c)
where k is the portion (0…1) of the line to be covered with the third
zone.
One should remember to select the right value of the correction
coefficient n that should be adjusted to the reach of the third zone in-
cluding protected transformer and the adjacent line or its part, i.e.
Z +l /l Z
n = ZT 0 + lIII / l ZL0 . If in (13c) one assumes full line length to be protected
T 1 III L1
in the third zone (k = 1), then the correction factor should amount to
ZT 0 + ZL0
n = Z +Z .
T1 L1
For the phase-to-phase fault detected (I0 measured close to zero)
there is only one zone to be set:
ZI = ZGT (13d)
where ZGT is the impedance between relay location and transformer
terminals.
One should note that for the interphase short-circuits on the delta
side the value measured represents the impedance between the fault
and the location of the VTs. Therefore it is very small, unless the short-
circuits are inside the generator or transformer windings. Therefore, if
the impedance measured becomes Za ⩽ ZT1 the fault may be diagnosed
as an inter-phase short-circuit at the delta side. If all the loops measure
low value of the impedance, then it is a three-phase short-circuit. If only
one loop measures the low impedance, then the short-circuit may be
diagnosed as a two-phase short-circuit between the phases which cor-
respond to the voltage in the numerator of the impedance measurement
algorithms. If the measured impedance is larger than ZT1, the short-
circuit may be diagnosed as a single-phase-to-ground fault at the star
side. The faulted phase is the one, which corresponds to the voltages of
the loop that measured the lowest impedance. The block scheme of the
protection logic for this part is presented in Fig. 16.
A2 – relay settings for the configuration with I0 not available
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Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339
In this case the ground fault loop impedance (7) is measured in
excess and the relay is prone to under-reach (factor 1.5). Therefore the
relay settings should be defined as:
ZI = 0.9Za = 1.35ZT1 (14a)
ZII = 1.2Za = 1.8ZT1 (14b)
ZII = 2.5Za = 2.5(ZT 1 + kZL1) (14c)
4.2. Three loops covering the phase-to-phase short-circuits at the star side
The relay settings for the inter-phase faults at the star side (no zero-
sequence correction needed) are defined in the same way as for option
A2 (ground faults with correction), i.e.:
ZI = 0.9Za = 0.9ZT1 (15a)
ZII = 1.2Za = 1.2ZT1 (15b)
ZIII = Za = ZT 1 + kZL1 (15c)
If all the three loops measure the same impedance, then one may
diagnose a three-phase short-circuit at the star side. If only one loop
measures the low impedance, then it is a phase- to-phase fault at the
star side, and the faulted phases are the ones which correspond to the
current of the loop.
5. Conclusions
In this paper the results of theoretical and simulative analyses of
block transformer distance protection are presented. A proposal for
improvement of protection operation for ground faults at the star side
with use of zero-sequence current is developed. Relay logic and settings
rules are given both for the configuration with I0 measurable and when
the zero-sequence current is not available. The algorithms for im-
pedance/distance calculation proposed assure correct relay operation,
especially for the second and third zone, which provides useful backup
for faults along the adjacent line.
Thorough simulation tests performed with EMTP-ATP software have
shown that the developed distance relay may face some problems under
transformer internal inter-turn and ground faults, since such faults are
most frequently not detected by the relay (they are mostly located in
the second or even in the third zone). For such faults other principles
and criteria should be used, employing e.g. the zero-sequence quantities
[12] or the commonly applied restricted earth fault protection.
References
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D. Bejmert et al.
Daniel Bejmert was born in 1979 in Walbrzych, Poland. He
received his M.Sc., Ph.D. degrees from the Wroclaw
University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland in
2004, and 2008, respectively. Since 2008 he has been a
faculty member of Electrical Engineering Faculty at the
WUST, at present at the position of the Assistant Professor.
His research interests include: application of intelligent al-
gorithms in digital protection and control systems, multi-
criterial and adaptive systems for power system protection
and control and digital simulation of transient phenomena
in power systems.
Matthias Kereit was born in 1968 in Berlin, Germany. He
studied electrical engineering in Berlin and graduated in
1992. He has been working with Siemens since 1992 and is
now developing algorithms for digital protection devices,
especially for distance protection relays. Since 2008 he has
also been responsible for the university cooperations of the
Berlin development department as a project manager.
Waldemar Rebizant was born in Wroclaw, Poland, in
1966. He received his M.Sc., Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees from
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology (WUST),
Wroclaw, Poland in 1991, 1995 and 2004, respectively. In
2012 he got the professorship degree. Since 1991 he has
been a faculty member of Electrical Engineering Faculty at
the WUST, at present at the position of the Dean of the
Faculty. He is also Doctor Honoris Causa of the University
of Magdeburg, Germany. In the scope of his research in-
terests are: digital signal processing and artificial in-
telligence for power system protection. Prof. Rebizant has
published more than 180 scientific papers, is an author of
11 patents and several patent applications. Details can be
found at http://zas.pwr.edu.pl/WR.
Engineers.
339
Electrical Power and Energy Systems 102 (2018) 332–339
Ludwig Schiel was born in Weimar, Germany, in 1957. He
studied Electrical Engineering at the Zittau Institute of
Technology Zittau, Germany, finishing with the Dipl.-Ing.
degree in 1984. In 1991 he received the Dr.-Ing. degree. In
the same year he joined the Siemens AG, Germany. He is
working in the Energy Management Division Digital Grid
Automation Products concerning transformer protection.
Krzysztof Solak was born in 1982 in Sroda Slaska, Poland.
He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the Wroclaw
University of Science and Technology (WUST), Wroclaw,
Poland, in 2006 and in 2010, respectively. At present he is
an assistant professor in the Department of Electrical Power
Engineering at WUST. His field of study is artificial in-
telligence (neural networks, fuzzy systems and genetic al-
gorithms) for power system protection.
Andrzej Wiszniewski graduated from the Electrical
Engineering Faculty of the Wroclaw University of Science
and Technology (WUST), Wroclaw, Poland, in 1957. In
1961 he received the Ph.D. degree, in 1967 the D.Sc. de-
gree, and in 1972 the professorship in Electrical
Engineering. All his life he has been working in the field of
power apparatus and systems, being a specialist in protec-
tion and control of power systems. He is an author of 9
books and over 130 publications. All the time attached to
the WUST he became the University Rector and had this
position for 2 terms (1990 – 1996). In 1997 he took the
position of the Minister for Science and had it for 4 years.
Prof. Wiszniewski is a Distinguished Member of CIGRE and
Honorary Member of the Polish Institution of Electrical