Geology for

Environmental
Engineers
 Geology for
Environmental
Engineers

David Woodhouse and

James Lambrechts

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Geology for Environmental Engineers

Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2018.

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 Abstract

The environmental field has evolved since its beginnings in 1970 with
the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and
further with the 1980 passage of CERCLA legislation (Comprehensive
­Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), commonly
known as Superfund. Many site characterization studies and remediation
designs have also evolved since that time. In order for the E ­ nvironmental
Engineer to understand the behavior and design remediation of the
­chemicals and pollutants in the environment, knowledge of the principles
and tenets of geology is critical. Geology means the study of the Earth and
is the science that seeks to collect, correlate, and interpret facts concerning
the Earth. Its scope is almost boundless. The cycle that gives origin to the
different types of rock and the geologic processes that produce the soils is
discussed. On a macro scale, it seeks to discover the origin of the Earth,
of mountains, valleys, glaciers, rocks, volcanoes, and a myriad number of
other phenomena. Plate tectonics, continental drift, and subduction zones
all played a role in the formation of our planet. On the micro scale, geology
seeks to understand fluid flow through small pores and fractures. The fate
and transport of chemicals through soils and especially through b­ edrock
is a function of the geology. The rock structure and its understanding of
the geologic processes which produce fractures and allows fluid flow is a
major factor in remediation design.

KeyWords

faults, geologic processes, igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, minerals,

sedimentary rocks, sediments, soils, structural geology, weathering
 Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xv
Acknowledgments xvii
1  Introduction 1
1.1  What Is Geology? 2
1.2 In the Beginning—Magmas, Volcanoes, and Minerals 2
2  The Rock Cycle—A Continuous Circle 13
2.1  Igneous—The Fire Rocks 15
2.2 The Sedimentary Rocks—Rock to Soil, then Back to Rock,
and Back to Soil 35
2.3 The Metamorphic Rocks—Just Apply Heat and Pressure 50
3   ow the Earth’s Crust Folds and Fractures—
H
Structural Geology 63
3.1 Folds 64
3.2 Faults 80
3.3  Joints and Fractures 91
4  Geologic Processes of Weathering and Erosion 97
4.1 Weathering—Disintegration and Decomposition of Rock 97
4.2  Weathering in Karst Landscapes 107
4.3 Erosion 110
5   oils/Overburden—Types/Sources, Characteristics,
S
and Field Identification 115
5.1  Residual Soils 116
5.2  River and Stream/Fluvial Deposits 120
5.3  Lake Deposits 128
5.4  Marine Clay Deposits 130
5.5 Aeolian Deposits (Wind-Transported Sediment) 131
viii  •   Contents

5.6  Glacial Soils 139

5.7 Classifications of In-Place Developed Soils 155
6  Groundwater 165
6.1  Groundwater in Soils 166
6.2  Groundwater in Bedrock 170
7  Applications in Volume II 173
Glossary 175
Bibliography 183
About the Authors 185
Index 187
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1.  Lava and ash spewing from a volcano. 3

Figure 1.2.  Principal types of Earth’s crust margin collisions. 4
Figure 1.3. Spreading and subduction of Earth’s lithosphere (crust)
caused by internal convection. 4
Figure 1.4.  Different directions of cleavage in minerals. 7
Figure 1.5.  Nonplanar fractures in obsidian. 8
Figure 1.6.  Steep-sided cinder cone volcano spewing ash. 11
Figure 1.7.  Lava flowing from a rift in volcano. 11
Figure 2.1. The rock cycle—Overview of how the three types
of rock formed. 14
Figure 2.2.  Geology of the U.S. showing areas of different rocks. 14
Figure 2.3.  Flow charts for identifying rocks. 16
Figure 2.4.  Analysis and classification of sedimentary rocks. 17
Figure 2.5.  Analysis and classification of metamorphic rocks. 18
Figure 2.6.  Classification chart for igneous rocks. 19
Figure 2.7.  Different compositions of igneous rocks. 20
Figure 2.8.  Rhyolite is a fine-grained aphanitic igneous rock. 21
Figure 2.9.  Granite is a coarse-grained phaneritic igneous rock. 22
Figure 2.10. Gabbro and Diorite are coarse-grained phaneritic
­igneous rock. Diorite (right) is composed mostly of
­orthoclase feldspar (white) and hornblende (black),
while Gabbro (left) has sodium-rich plagioclase
­feldspar (dark gray). 23
Figure 2.11.  Basalt is fine-grained aphanitic extrusive igneous rock. 24
Figure 2.12. Bowen’s reaction series showing sequence of igneous
rock crystallization temperatures. 25
x  •   List of Figures

Figure 2.13.  Pegmatite and Porphyry. 26

Figure 2.14.  Various type of igneous plutons. 27
Figure 2.15.  Part of the Sierra Nevada batholith in Yosemite Park. 29
Figure 2.16.  “New Jersey Palisades” is a massive basalt sill. 30
Figure 2.17.  Basalt cooled into hexagonal columns. 31
Figure 2.18.  Textural features of sedimentary rocks. 36
Figure 2.19.  Characteristics of sedimentary grains. 37
Figure 2.20.  Comparison of Arkose and Graywacke. 38
Figure 2.21.  Comparison of Conglomerate and Breccia. 39
Figure 2.22.  Fissility in fine-grained sedimentary rock. 39
Figure 2.23.  Cambridge Argillite photo. 40
Figure 2.24.  Comparison of different Limestones and Dolomite. 41
Figure 2.25. Tillite. 42
Figure 2.26.  Ferruginous sedimentary rock. 43
Figure 2.27. Mud cracks filled with sand, now Shale bedrock
with Sandstone fillings. 49
Figure 2.28.  Ripple marks in Shale bedrock. 50
Figure 2.29.  Sources of metamorphism, contact and regional. 51
Figure 2.30.  Grades of metamorphism by minerals formed. 54
Figure 2.31.  Progression of metamorphism. 56
Figure 2.32.  Photo of Schist exposed in the field. 57
Figure 2.33.  Examples of banding in Gneiss. 57
Figure 2.34.  Examples of Marble. 58
Figure 2.35.  Slatey cleavage in parallel layers. 60
Figure 3.1.  Intense fold in sedimentary rock. 65
Figure 3.2. Bending by plastic deformation in sedimentary rock. 66
Figure 3.3.  Folded sedimentary rock worn to near level plane. 67
Figure 3.4.  Simply folded sedimentary rock. 68
Figure 3.5.  Intensely folded sedimentary rock. 68
Figure 3.6. Overturning of folds caused by great horizontal
­tectonic  forces. 68
Figure 3.7.  Uplifting of folded rock causes plunging. 69
Figure 3.8.  Cross sections of (a) an anticline and (b) a syncline. 70
Figure 3.9. Relative age of folded sedimentary rock beds exposed
in anticline (left) and syncline (right). 71
 List of Figures   •   xi

Figure 3.10. Exposed beds of plunging syncline and anticline

(note symbols used to indicate direction of stratum dip). 71
Figure 3.11. Illustration of strike and dip of inclined sedimentary
rock bed. 72
Figure 3.12.  Brunton compass and its use to measure rock bed dip. 73
Figure 3.13. Symbols used to indicate dip of beds in folded
sedimentary rock. 74
Figure 3.14.  Different types of folding in layered sedimentary rock. 75
Figure 3.15.  Recumbent fold. 76
Figure 3.16.  Different types of folds in layered rock. 77
Figure 3.17.  Monocline fold. 78
Figure 3.18.  Drag folds in incompetent bed. 78
Figure 3.19.  Dome and basin sedimentary rock structures. 79
Figure 3.20.  Thrust fault in Glacier National Park, MT. 80
Figure 3.21.  Transform fault shown by San Andreas Fault in CA. 81
Figure 3.22. Geologic map showing faults in Iron Wash area of
­central  Utah. 82
Figure 3.23.  Block diagrams showing thrust and transform faults. 83
Figure 3.24. Mechanics of horst and graben formation in Basin and
Range area of Nevada and Utah. 84
Figure 3.25. Horsts and grabens of U.S. basin and range area in
Nevada and Utah. 84
Figure 3.26.  Slickenside surface in rocks of San Francisco Bay area. 87
Figure 3.27. Displacement of igneous dike showing relative
movement.88
Figure 3.28.  Buckle-folding in slate. 89
Figure 3.29.  Examples of fault breccia. 89
Figure 3.30. Mylonite remineralization in eastern Piedmont region
of Virginia. 90
Figure 3.31.  Joint in granite rock made wide by seepage weathering. 92
Figure 3.32.  Intersecting joints make a conjugate joint set. 92
Figure 3.33. Steeply dipping joints in Paleozoic Gneiss.  93
Figure 3.34. Sheeting joints in granite from pressure relief
exfoliation.93
Figure 3.35. Columnar jointing in basalt in Central America
and Devil’s Tower, Wyoming. 94
xii  •   List of Figures

Figure 4.1.  Factors involved in weathering of rock. 98

Figure 4.2.  Factors involved with weathering of igneous rock. 99
Figure 4.3.  Spheroidal weathering of jointed bedrock. 103
Figure 4.4. (a) Goldich stability series and (b) Bowen’s reaction
series.105
Figure 4.5.  Topographic features typical of karst geology. 107
Figure 4.6.  Examples of large sinkholes. 109
Figure 4.7.  Stalactites and stalagmites. 109
Figure 4.8.  Severe rill erosion in crop field. 113
Figure 4.9.  Progressively enlarging gully in agricultural land. 113
Figure 5.1. Mature soil profile from topsoil through weathered
bedrock.117
Figure 5.2. Weathered limestone with pinnacles between deeply
­dissolved zones. 119
Figure 5.3. Progression of weathering through Laterite soil
­profile of humid tropical environment. 121
Figure 5.4. Braided stream with intertwining channels and greatly
­varying composition of sediments deposited. 123
Figure 5.5. Alluvial Fan deposit at mouth where mountain stream
spreads onto the plain at edge of the mountain. 124
Figure 5.6.  Various features of a Flood plain. 125
Figure 5.7. Terraces develop as stream cuts down through prior
flood plain level. 126
Figure 5.8.  Sediment beds development in deltas. 128
Figure 5.9. Thin varves of silt (light) and clay (dark) that develop
in lacustrine sediment deposits. 129
Figure 5.10.  Development of wind blown sand in dunes. 132
Figure 5.11.  Different types of sand dune formations. 133
Figure 5.12.  Barchan dunes developed in a desert. 134
Figure 5.13. Cross-bedded sand dunes turned into Sandstone
(Zion Canyon National Park, Utah). 135
Figure 5.14.  Preference of loess to form vertical slopes. 138
Figure 5.15. Extent of glaciations across North America in
past 2 million years. 140
Figure 5.16. Soil deposits commonly left behind by continental
glaciers.141
Figure 5.17.  Placement of lodgement and ablation tills. 141
Figure 5.18.  Two different compositions of lodgement tills. 142
Figure 5.19.  Glacial erratic boulder. 143
Figure 5.20. Glacial end and recessional moraines of Great Lakes
glaciers in Illinois, and their formation. 144
 List of Figures   •   xiii

Figure 5.21.  Pervious gravel layer within stratified glacial till. 145
Figure 5.22. Glacial soil deposits provided sand and silt for sand
dunes and loess. 148
Figure 5.23.  Common soil deposits from valley glaciation. 149
Figure 5.24.  Glacial Kame and Esker. 150
Figure 5.25.  Development of Outwash Kettles. 152
Figure 5.26.  Glacial drumlin. 153
Figure 5.27. Typical development of soil horizons for Pedalfer
and Pedocal soils. 156
Figure 5.28. General location of Pedalfer and Pedocal soils in the
United States. 158
Figure 5.29.  Distribution of major soil orders in the United States. 159
Figure 5.30. Grain size ranges of different soil engineering
classification systems. 161
Figure 5.31. Grain size graph showing typical differences in ­
soil gradations. 162
Figure 5.32.  Burmister soil descriptions procedures. 163
Figure 5.33.  Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). 164
Figure 6.1.  The hydrologic cycle. 165
Figure 6.2. Various forms of subsurface water, both below and
above the water table. 166
Figure 6.3.  Illustration of how capillary action works. 167
Figure 6.4. Illustration of confined and unconfined aquifers and
perched ­groundwater. 168
Figure 6.5. Various types of geologic settings that produce
groundwater-fed springs. 170
 List of Tables

Table 1.1.  Physical properties of common rock-forming minerals 6

Table 1.2.  Mohs scale of hardness 10
Table 4.1. Principal mechanical and chemical weathering processes
acting on bedrock 104
Table 5.1. Definitions of soil orders in soil taxonomy classification
system160
Table 6.1. Typical ranges of hydraulic conductivity (permeability)
for different soil types 169
 Acknowledgments

The authors wish to extend sincere gratitude to Deborah Cooper who

performed much of the word processing and provided valuable sug-
­
gestions regarding the format. Many photographs used in the figures
were from the public domain, and are appropriately credited. Several
­photographs were taken by the lead author. Many figures and tables are
from ­previously ­published source materials, referenced as noted, and
­permission of the original publishers to reuse these materials is grate-
fully acknowledged. The book in itself represents a synopsis of the
many disciplines of ­geology and would be too voluminous otherwise.
The authors recommend the f­ollowing publications cited in the book for
more detailed and expanded discussions of the book’s subjects: Earth by
F. Press and R. Siever; G ­ lacial and ­Quaternary Geology by R.F. Flint;
­Principles of ­Geomorphology by W.D. Thornbury; Applied Hydrogeology
by C.W. ­Fetter; ­Structural ­Geology by M.P. Billings; and Dana’s Manual
of ­Mineralogy by C.S. Hurlburt.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

An understanding of geology is essential for the success of environmental

engineering projects. It does not matter whether the project is resource
development, hydrocarbons, minerals, water, or the containment and/
or cleanup of hazardous substances that will be buried in the ground, or
have gotten into the ground. Only with a thorough understanding of the
­geology at the site, and throughout the surrounding area, can the environ-
mental engineer make rational and reasonable plans and be confident that
the environment will not be harmed. How might chemicals move through
the ground? Or how might they interact with types of bedrock and soils
present at the site. These questions revolve around the site geology. So, the
study of environmental engineering must include learning about geology;
first come the fundamentals of geology, the topic of this book. Then comes
the study of the means by which geology is studied, investigated, tested,
quantified, and modeled.
Therefore, this portion of the environmental engineering series pres-
ents two volumes. Volume I describes the basic principles and tenets of
geology. Questions to be addressed include: how was the rock and soil of
the earth formed? what are the various types of bedrock and soils that can
be present? and how have bedrock and soil been distorted and weathered?
Volume I provides the environmental engineer with the necessary tools to
understand what lies below the subsurface, and how the site-specific con-
ditions can affect project design. Volume II describes methods and tools
used by environmental engineers to investigate the subsurface conditions
at a site for developing the information needed to conduct environmental
­assessments, to adequately address the environmental issues associated with
a project, or to design appropriate environmental remediation. The Envi-
ronmental Engineer therefore must be a detective who collects evidence
about a site and then compiles a picture of the geology. An understanding
of the geology is critical in assessing the behavior of chemicals and pol-
lutants, whether in the soils or the bedrock. The success of environmental
2  •   Geology for Environmental Engineers

design for a new project or for remediation design begins with understand-
ing the geology of the site, and its potential nuances. Currently used meth-
ods of subsurface investigation are described in Volume II, many of which
have seen substantial evolution since the beginnings of the environmental
engineering field in the 1970s, which is often pegged to the passage of
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act of 1980) statutes that created the “Superfund” and creation of
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.-EPA).

1.1  What Is Geology?

Geology is the study of the Earth and is the science that seeks to col-
lect, correlate, and interpret facts concerning the Earth. Its scope is almost
boundless, and today it is being used to investigate conditions on even the
Moon and Mars. However, this study will stay focused on planet Earth. To
understand the rock and soil present, the “macro scale” must be used, and
an understanding of the origin of the mountains, valleys, plains, and the
mechanisms that have acted over billions of years is needed. Geology on
the macro scale studies plate tectonics, continental drift, subduction zones,
upheavals of mountain ranges and their weathering to hills, ­volcanoes,
glacial carving and subsequent deposition of soils, the action of water at
beaches, along rivers, and in seas, and a myriad number of other phe-
nomena. On the minute “micro scale,” geology aids the environmental
engineer in understanding fluid flow through soil and bedrock, whether
it be through small pores, or fractures, or caverns and tubes. Geology is
not an exact science such as math, chemistry, or physics, and usually does
not fit nicely into readily derived formulas. Geology is a natural science,
but it is process and evidence driven. What processes caused the rocks
and soils at a site today to be there? Nobody was there in the past when
the ancient soils and rocks were formed. Thus, ample use must be made
of the fundamental principle that geologic processes at work today are the
same as were occurring through time. The first topic to be studied is the
minerals, the little bits of geologic matter that make up all rocks and soils,
and their sources.

1.2 In the Beginning—Magmas, Volcanoes,

and Minerals

To understand the origin of the rocks, their different types, and composition,
it is necessary to go back to the time when a much greater quantity of liquid
 Introduction   •  3

Figure 1.1.  Lava and ash spewing from a volcano.

Source: https://img.rt.com/files/2016.04/original/570392d1c361881e058b456e.jpg

rock, called magma, was being spewed forth onto the surface of the Earth
than occurs today. Magma that reaches the surface is called lava (­Figure
1.1), and the amount that is spewed forth today is far less than occurred at
times hundreds of millions or billions of years ago. Magma, as described
in Section 1.2.1, was, and is, the parent material for the igneous rocks.
­Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks were, and are, ultimately derived from
igneous rocks. Many of the various types of rocks in these three categories
are described in Chapter 2. The process of weathering that created the sedi-
ment from which sedimentary rocks have formed is described in Chapter 4.

1.2.1 Magma

Magma is a complex, high-temperature, fluid substance. Temperatures of

most magmas are in the range of 1,300°F to 2,400°F (700°C to 1,300°C).
However, some rare magmas may be as cool as 1,000°F (600°C) and others
may be as hot as 2,900°F (1,600°C) (Popp 2007). Theories abound as to the
origin of the magma, and most go back to the original formation of the Earth.
A widely accepted theory suggests that, below the solid crust of the
earth, there is a world‑circling layer of rock about 50 to 100 miles (80 to
160 km) below the surface, which is potentially liquid, or at least plastic
and deformable. Portions of this latter layer become liquid due to accu-
mulation of radioactive energy. Due to this phase change to liquid, there
is expansion in certain areas, which leads to cracking of the solid crustal
rocks above. Liquid magma can then flow into and/or through the cracks
formed in the crust. The molten material, being a mixture of several to
4  •   Geology for Environmental Engineers

many chemicals, will then solidify as numerous different minerals form

out of the cooling liquid mass. The final assemblage of these minerals then
creates the many types of igneous rocks.
Modern seismology studies have found that the Earth is layered
­(Figures 1.2 and 1.3). The lithosphere, which contains the crust of the

Figure 1.2.  Principal types of Earth’s crust margin collisions.

Source: http://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fosrec/images/MetzgerFig5.gif

Figure 1.3.  Spreading and subduction of Earth’s lithosphere (crust) caused by

internal convection.
Source: http://ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/dynamic/session1/images_sess1/
subduction.jpg
 Introduction   •  5

Earth on the top, is about 45 miles (70 km) thick. Below the lithosphere
is the asthenosphere, which may be about 110 miles thick (180 km), and
comprises the upper mantle. The asthenosphere is believed to be partially
melted and the source of magma, and in turn overlies the lower man-
tle. The deeper layers are the liquid outer core and the solid inner core
(Figure 1.3).

1.2.2 Minerals

Knowledge of the characteristics of minerals is necessary to identify dif-

ferent rocks. The magma contains an abundance of common elements,
such as oxygen, iron, magnesium, hydrogen, silicon, calcium, sodium,
potassium, and aluminum. These elements in the fluid are combined
chemically by hot magma. As the magma cools or experiences lower pres-
sure, different molecules are created that conglomerate together to become
minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring, solid, inorganic substances
with definite physical and chemical properties. They are characterized
by a definite composition created by the specific, regular architecture of
their atoms. All rocks are made of minerals. The combinations of minerals
define the name of the rock. Rocks consisting of one mineral are called
­monomineralic rocks as contrasted with polymineralic rocks that contain
two or more minerals. Nearly all rocks are polymineralic.
Several thousands of minerals can be distinguished, but there are
only about 40 that are most commonly found in rocks. There are several
physical properties of minerals that serve as aids in the identification of
minerals. These include crystallinity and crystal form, cleavage, fracture,
specific gravity, streak color, luster, and hardness. A list of 20 of the most
common minerals and their properties is given in Table 1.1 (Kehew 1995).

1.2.2.1  Crystal Structure of Minerals

Matter is said to be crystalline when it possesses both a regular, repeating

distribution of the different constituent atoms, and a definite geometric
pattern that repeats throughout the entire mass. If there is not this regular
geometric pattern, then the solid matter is said to be amorphous (with-
out form). When the internal geometric pattern of the atoms is reflected
as a regular repeating geometric pattern, its outward form is known as
a ­crystal. Crystals are most often cubes, tetragonal prisms, or hexagonal
pyramids, but there are sometimes a few other forms. The general appear-
ance of any one crystal helps to identify the mineral, since the geometric
form of its crystals is essentially constant for a given mineral type.
Table 1.1.  Physical properties of common rock-forming minerals
Mineral Chemical formula Color Cleavage Mohs Specific Other properties
­ irections
d Hardness gravity
Silicates
Augite (pyroxene) Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si2O6) Dark green to black 2 at 90° 5–6 3.2–3.6
Biotite (mica) K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2 Black 1 2½–3 2.8–3.2
Garnet (Ca,Mg,Fe,Mn)3(Al,Fe,Cr)2 Dark red, brown, green 0 6½–7½ 3.5–4.3
(SiO4)3
Hornblende (amphibole) (Na,Ca)2(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si6(Si,Al)2O22 Dark green to black 2 at 56° and 124° 5–6 2.9–3.2
(OH)2
Muscovite (mica) KAl3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Colorless to pale green 1 2–2½ 2.8–2.9
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Pale green to black None 6½–7 3.3–4.4
Orthoclase (feldspar) KAlSi3O8 White, gray, or pink 2 at 90° 6 2.6
Plagioclase (feldspar) (Ca,Na)(Al2Si)AlSi2O8 White to gray 2 at 90° 6 2.6–2.7 Striations
Quartz SiO2 Colorless to white but often None 7 2.6
tinted
Oxides of Iron
Hematite Fe2O3 Reddish brown to black None 5½–6½ 5.26
Goethite (limonite) FeO • OH Yellowish brown to dark brown None 5–5½ 4.37 Limonite is
­noncrystalline
Magnetite Fe3O4 Black None 6 5.18 Strongly magnetic
Halides and Sulfides
Halite NaCl Colorless to white 3 at 90° 2½ 2.16
Pyrite FeS2 Pale brassy yellow 3 at 90° 6–6½ 5.02 called “fool’s gold”
6  •   Geology for Environmental Engineers

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Brassy yellow 2 at 90° 3½–4 4.1–4.3 Ore of copper

Sphalerite ZnS Brown to yellow 6 at 120° 3½–4 3.9 Ore of Zinc
Galena PbS Lead gray 3 at 90° 2½ 7.54 Ore of lead

Sulfates and Carbonates

Gypsum CaSO4 • 2H2O Colorless to white 1 2 2.32
Calcite CaCO3 White to colorless 3 at 75° 3 2.72 Forms limestone
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Pink, white, or gray 3 at 74° 3.5–4 2.85

Source: Kehew (1995).

 Introduction   •  7

1.2.2.2  Cleavage in Minerals

Since the atoms or molecules of mineral crystals are arranged in regular lat-
tice-like patterns, there will be planes of separation between the various units
in the crystalline structure. If the atomic attraction forces across these planes
are very weak, there will be a tendency to break parallel to these planes,
which is referred to as cleavage. Consequently, if a homogeneous crystalline
mass, with or without external form, is struck a blow, a perfectly planar sur-
face may develop, and this planar surface will reflect light like a crystal face
or mirror. The smoothness of the cleavage surface will depend largely upon
the magnitude of the interatomic forces between two layers in the structure.
Minerals may have one to six different planes of cleavage. The num-
ber of cleavage planes and their quality are a constant physical property
for any one mineral species, and help in the identification of minerals. For
example, Figure 1.4 shows the cleavage of four common minerals halite,
mica (muscovite), calcite, and feldspar. Many minerals may possess no

Figure 1.4.  Different directions of cleavage in minerals.

Source: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/0b/b5/21/0bb52117760
d4684e471370025bd6a15.jpg
8  •   Geology for Environmental Engineers

Figure 1.5.  Nonplanar fractures in obsidian.

Source: http://lh3.googleusercontent.com/-GSGkYylLX20/USn7Fo-DcUI/AAA
AAAAAIBg/0vqqtpQ7yMQ/s720/00588%252520IMG_8210%25252011%252
520cm%252520obsidian%252520Dzaraber%252520Armenia.jpg

distinct direction of weakness in the crystalline mass. In this case, they

are apt to break in a manner similar to glass or flint. Such a break is called
conchoidal (shell-like) fracture because of the similarity of the fracture
surface to the inside of a clam shell (Figure 1.5). There are several other
types of fracture, but any break of a crystalline mass that is neither a
cleavage nor a conchoidal fracture may be termed an uneven fracture.

1.2.2.3  Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a mineral is one of its most constant properties.

Specific gravity means the number of times heavier the mineral is than an
equal volume of water. Ice, for example, is nine-tenths as heavy as water
(which is why it floats); so its specific gravity is 0.9. Gold has a specific
 Introduction   •  9

gravity of 19.3, which means that any specimen of pure gold would weigh
19.3 times as much as an equal volume of water. Iron ore has a specific
gravity between 4.5 and 5.3, while for cast iron it is about 7.1 (cast iron
contains about 2 percent carbon whereas iron ore is only about 45 to 60
percent iron).

1.2.2.4 Color

One of the most variable of mineral properties is color, but it is often

very unsatisfactory for identification purposes. Certain minerals do have
a constant, unique color, and in such cases the color is important. For
example, the mineral biotite mica consistently exhibits the color black.
When a small amount of the element iron is present, it can produce differ-
ent colors from brown (as one would expect from rust color) to the purple
of amethyst (quartz) that has been irradiated. However, the color of an
intact mineral can differ greatly from the color of its powder. The powder
may be obtained by scratching the mineral with something harder, or by
rubbing the mineral on a rough, unpolished porcelain plate. The resulting
color of the powder is said to be the streak of the mineral. Most stonelike
or transparent minerals have a colorless or white streak, while metallic
minerals have dark or colored streaks.

1.2.2.5 Luster

Some minerals such as galena and pyrite (fool’s gold) have a reflective appear-
ance in light, such that the minerals reflect light like well-known pure metals
such as iron, silver, gold, or lead. When such reflection occurs, the mineral is
said to have metallic luster. If such metallic reflection does not occur, the lus-
ter is said to be nonmetallic. Nonmetallic luster can be further described, for
example, as vitreous, resinous, pearly, or silky. Care must be taken to observe
luster on surfaces other than cleavage or crystal planes, because these planes
frequently shine with a silvery sheen, which is deceptive.

1.2.2.6 Hardness

The hardness of a mineral may be defined as its ability to be scratched

by certain standard minerals, such as glass, steel, copper, or vice versa.
Some minerals, such as talc, are so very soft that they rub off on the hand;
10   •   Geology for Environmental Engineers

Table 1.2.  Mohs scale of hardness

Minerals Hardness Useful tools
Talc gypsum 1 Fingernail 2.5
2 Copper penny 3
Calcite 3 Steel knife blade
Fluorite
­
4 or glass plate 5.5
­Apatite 5
Orthoclase 6 Unglazed
quartz 7 ­porcelain plate
(streak plate) 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
Source: West (1995).

others may be so hard that very few substances will scratch them. Rubies
and sapphires are extremely hard but diamond is the hardest of all known
substances. In order that hardness may be used in the identification of an
unknown mineral, certain standard minerals have been arbitrarily chosen
with which to compare the unknown. The interval of hardness between
each mineral in the series is not constant, but the results obtained are usu-
ally satisfactory for most purposes.
The hardness of minerals is based on the Mohs scale, in which differ-
ent minerals have been assigned different values of increasing hardness as
shown in Table 1.2. Mineral hardness is an extremely constant character
of minerals and may be used with specific gravity as a quick means of
attributing the mineral to a small group among the approximately 2,000
known minerals. Minerals are chemical compounds in the sense that the
various atomic constituents are in constant proportions in all specimens of
the same mineral species. Actually, there may be considerable variation
in composition, but only within defined limits. From a chemical analysis,
the atomic proportions of the various elements present can be determined.

1.2.3 Volcanoes

There is no spectacle in all the cataclysms staged in Mother Nature’s show

of forces that has so inspired the awe of man down through the ages as
that demonstrated by volcanoes. In recorded history, volcanoes have wiped
 Introduction   •   11

out entire cities (e.g., Pompeii, Italy). In the extreme, there are two types
of volcanic eruptions, but there are many different combinations. Also,
no volcano remains only one or the other type throughout its history. The
first type may be said to be explosive and is characterized by a steep cone
made up of cinder-like fragments of rock (Figure 1.6). The second is termed
quiet or flowing because it spews quietly flowing liquid rock, called lava
­(Figure 1.7), which then cools and solidifies into rock magma. The cone
of a flowing volcano is much less steeper than a cinder cone. Most of the
well-known v­ olcanoes are of the explosive type. It is true that, with every

Figure 1.6.  Steep-sided cinder cone volcano spewing ash.

Source: https://i2.wp.com/www.7continents5oceans.com/wp-content/uploads/
2015/05/Volcanoes-2.jpg

Figure 1.7.  Lava flowing from a rift in volcano.

Source: https://terragalleria.com/images/black-white/np-tropics/havo3701-bw.jpeg
12   •   Geology for Environmental Engineers

explosive eruption, there is generally a pouring out or extrusion of lava, but

it is the explosions from the volcanic crater that usually determine the form
of the cone.
Lava flows are also of two types, plastic and liquid. The plastic lava
flow is the most common at the beginning of the eruption. It presents a
completely solid but extremely hot exterior while, within the lava flow,
a sort of plastic flow continues, which keeps the solid front ever moving.
A liquid lava flow moves along with sometimes great fluidity. The out-
standing difference in composition of the two flows stems from the much
greater content of water and gases in the liquid flows, which probably
account for the higher fluidity.
 Index

A asymmetrical fold, 74–76

ablation tills, 141, 142 axial plane, 69
aeolian deposits, 131
loess, 137–139 B
sand deposits and dunes (see barchan dunes, 134
sand deposits and dunes) basalts, 21, 23, 24
agglomerate mixture rock, 33 basin and range, 83
agricultural soil classifications, basins, 79
158–160 batholith rock, 25, 28–29
agricultural soil horizons, 156–157 bedding joints, 92
A-horizon, 157 bedding plane, 42
airborne epositions, 42–43 bedrock, groundwater in, 170–171
albite-epidote-amphibole schists, bedrock type, 118
59 B-horizon, 157
alluvial fans deposit, 123, 124 bituminous coal, 44
alluvial terrace, 124–125 bituminous shales, 40
amorphous, 5 block faulting, 82–84
amygdaloidal structure, 35 Bluff formation, 139
amygdules, 33 bog iron ore, 43
angle of plunge, 69 bombs, 32–33
anhydrite rock, 41, 47, 48 Boston Blue Clay, 131
anticlinal fan fold, 77 boulders
anticlines, 70–72 granite, 118
aphanitic rocks, 19–20, 23 morainal deposits, 142–143
aphanitic texture, 34–35 Bowen’s reaction series, 24, 25,
aquitards/aquicludes, 167 105
arenaceous shale, 40 braided streams, 122, 123, 124
arenite, 37 breccia, 33, 88–89
argillaceous limestone, 41 breccia sedimentary rock, 38, 39,
argillaceous sandstone, 40 46
argillite, 40 brittle folding, 65
arkose sedimentary rock, 38 Brunton compass/Pocket Transit,
ash, 32 72, 73
asthenosphere, 4, 5 Burmister soil descriptions, 163
188   •   Index
C columnar joint, 94
calcareous fossils, 40
calcium carbonate, sedimentary
rock, 45
caliche, 159
Cape Cod recessional moraine,
146
capillary action, 167
carbonaceous sedimentary rock,
44–45
carbonatization, chemical
weathering, 104–105
cataclasites, 88
cataclastic rock, 59
caves, 108–109
chalk, 41, 47
Champlain Sea Clay, 131
chemical composition, igneous
rocks, 24
chemical rock
formations, 48–49
types, 47–48
chemical weathering, 99, 100,
102–103
clay and sand, 105–106
dissolved chemicals in seas, 106
hydration/hydrolysis and
carbonatization, 104–105
in karst landscapes, 107–110
oxidation, 104
principal, 104
residual soil, 116, 117
solutions results, 106
chert, 41, 46, 47, 48
chevron folds, 77
C-horizon, 157
clastic limestone, 41
clastic sedimentary rocks, 35
clay and sand, chemical
weathering, 105–106
clay soils, 169–170
cleavage , minerals, 7–8
coarse-grained soils, 167
collisions, crust margin, 4
color, mineral, 9
complex folds, 73–74
domes and basins, 79
drag folds, 78–79
isoclinal fold, 76–77
monocline and homocline folds,
77–78
overturned and recumbent folds,
74–76
composition, mineral, 23
conchoidal (shell-like) fracture, 8
concordant intrusions, 27, 29–30
confined aquifer, 167, 168
confining beds, 167
conglomerate sedimentary rock,
38, 39, 46
conjugate joint set, 92
connate water, 53
contact metamorphic rocks, 51
contact metamorphism, 55
continental drift, 2
coquina, 47, 48
crest, 70
crevasse fillings /ice-channel
fillings, 151
cross-bedding, 49, 133
crust margin collisions, 4
crystallinity, 20
crystal structure of minerals, 5
D
deflation, 137
delta deposits, 127–128
depositions, sedimentary rock,
42–43
calcium carbonate, 45
carbonaceous, 44–45
chert, 46
ferruginous, 43
flint, 46
gypsum, 45
halite, 45
detrital rock
formations, 47
types, 46–47
 Index   •   189

detrital sediments, 35 wind, 111

diastrophism, 64–65 eruptions, volcanic, 11–12
digitations, 76 eskers, 150
dike rock, 27–28 estuarine deposits, 148
diorite, 22, 23 evaporite rocks, 47
dip, 69, 72–73, 81 chemical weathering, 107–108
dip joints, 91–92, 93 evaporites sedimentary rock, 41
dip-slip fault, 85 exfoliation, 102
discordant intrusions, 27 extrusive igneous rocks, 32
dissolved chemicals, chemical amygdules, 33
weathering, 106 ash, 32
diurnal shifts, 101 bombs, 32–33
dolines. See sinkholes lava, 33
dolomite, 45, 46 massive lava flows, 33–34
dolomite sedimentary rock, 40 pumice, 33
domes, 79 scoria, 33
drag along faults, 87 tuff, 32
drag folds, 78–79
drainage/katabatic, 133 F
draperies, 109 fan fold, 77
drumlins, 153–154 fault breccia, 88, 89
dunes fault line, 81
barchan, 134 faults, 80–82
formation types, 133 block faulting, 82–84
heights of, 135 dip-slip and strike-slip, 85
longitudinal, 134–135 drag along, 87
neutral, 135 gouge and breccia, 87–89
ridges, 135 mylonite, 90–91
stabilized sand, 136–137 normal and reverse/thrust, 83, 85
wind blown sand, 132 recognition, 86–87
dune sands, 132 feldspars, 26
felsenmeer, 100
E felsic rock, 17, 23
E-horizon, 157 ferruginous sedimentary rock, 43
end/terminal moraine, 143 first rule of anticlines, 71
eolian deposits. See aeolian fissility, 39
deposits flint, 41, 46, 47, 48
epeirogenic movement, 63 flinty crush-rock, 90–91
erosion, 110 flood-plain/valley fill deposits,
gully, 112–113 124–127
rainfall, 112 flow till, 146
rates of, 110–111 fluvial soils, 120
rill, 112, 113 folds, 64
sheet, 112 causes of, 64–66
splash, 112 complex, 73–79
190   •   Index
significance, 79–80
simple, 67–73
weathering, 66–67
foliation, metamorphic rock,
56–58
footwall, 81, 82
fossiliferous limestones, 40
fracture cleavage, 91
fractures. See also joints
identification of, 94–95
mineral, 8
shear, 94, 95
significance, 95
frost, mechanical weathering, 101
fully squeezed fold, 76–77
G gypsum, sedimentary rock, 45
gabbro, 22, 23
gabbro-diorite, 22
geological/engineering soil
classifications, 161–164
geologic processes, 97. See also
erosion; weathering process
geology, 2
glacial erratic boulder, 142, 143
glacial organic deposits, 154–155
glacial outwash plains, 146
glacial soils, 139–140
drumlins, 153–154
glacial organic deposits, 154–155
glaciofluvial/outwash, 146–148
glaciomarine/outwash, 148–149
ice contact deposits, 149–151
kettles, 151–152
morainal deposits, 140–146
glacial till, 140–141
glaciofluvial, 146
glaciofluvial/outwash, 146–148
glaciomarine/outwash, 148–149
glass-rocks, 23
glassy rocks, 35
gneiss, 57–58
Goldich’s chart, 105
gouge, 87–88
graben, 83, 84
grades of metamorphism, 54
grain size
metamorphic rock, 56–58
soil classifications, 161–162
granite, 22
granite boulders, 118
granite-gneiss/granulite, 57
granitoids rocks, 18
granular soils, 168–169
graywacke sedimentary rock, 38
greensands, 48
groundwater, 165
in bedrock, 170–171
in soils, 166–170
gully erosion, 112–113
gypsiferous rock, 48
H
halite, 45, 47, 48–49
hanging wall, 81, 82
hardness of minerals, 9–10
heat, metamorphic rock, 53
homocline fold, 77
horst, 83, 84
hot liquid, metamorphic rock,
53–54
hydration/hydrolysis, chemical
weathering, 104–105
hydraulic conductivity of soil, 169
hydrologic cycle, 165
I
ice contact deposits, 149–150
eskers, 150
kames, 150–151
kame terraces, 151
identification
of igneous rocks, 34–35
of joints, 94–95
of metamorphic rock, 60–61
identification of faults
drag along, 87
gouge and breccia, 87–89
mylonite, 90–91

recognition, 86–87
identification of sedimentary
rocks, 46
chemical rock, 47–49
detrital rock, 46–47
igneous plutons, 27
igneous rocks, 13, 15
chemical composition, 24
chemistry of, 15, 17
classification chart, 19
creation of, 3–4
extrusive (see extrusive igneous
rocks)
identification of, 34–35
intrusion (see intrusive igneous
rocks)
mineralogic composition, 24–25
texture of, 18–21
types, 22–24
in-place developed soils, 155–156
agricultural soil classifications,
158–160
agricultural soil horizons,
156–157
geological/engineering soil
classifications, 161–164
intensely folded sedimentary rock,
68
intrusive igneous rocks, 27
batholiths, 28–29
concordant intrusions, 29–30
dikes, 27–28
laccoliths and lopoliths, 31–32
necks, 28
sills, 30–31
iron formation, 43
ironstone, 43
isoclinal fold, 76–77
J longitudinal dunes/seifs, 134–135
jasper, 47
joints, 81, 91. See also fractures;
specific joints
conjugate set, 92
identification of, 94–95
Index   •   191
orthogonal set, 92
significance of, 95
weathering process, 95
K
kames, 150–151
kame terraces, 151
karst landscapes (chemical
weathering), 107
evaporite rocks, 107–108
limestone, 107–109
surface topography, 110
karst topography, 48
kettles, 147, 150, 151–152
L
laccolith rock, 31–32
lacustrine deposits, 128
lake deposits, 128–130
lamination, 133
laterite soil, 120, 121
lava flows, 11, 12, 33–34
law of horizontality, 42
law of superposition, 42
Leda Clay, 131
left-lateral strike-slip fault, 85
Lexington Outwash, 147
lignite, 44
limestone, 46
chemical weathering, 107–109
residual soil on, 119–120
sedimentary rock, 40
lineaments, 94
liquid lava flow, 12
lithographic limestone, 47
lithosphere, 4–5
load metamorphism, 52
lodgement tills, 141, 142
loess, 137–139
lopolith rock, 31–32
luster, mineral, 9
M
mafic minerals, 24
192   •   Index
mafic rock, 17
magma, 3–5
magnesite, 45
magnetite, 48
mantle, 5
marble, 58, 59
marine clay deposits, 130–131
marl, 40
massive lava flows, 33–34
mechanical weathering, 99–101
frost, 101
plant root, 102
principal, 104
spheroidal weathering, 102, 103
temperature changes, 101–102
meltwaters, 146
metallic luster, 9
metamorphic rocks, 13, 15, 50–51
analysis and classification, 18
contact metamorphism, 55
heat, 53
hot liquid, 53–54
identification of, 60–61
pressure, 52
regional metamorphism, 55–56
types (see types of metamorphic
rocks)
mineralogic composition, igneous
rocks, 24–25
mineralogy, 15, 36
minerals, 5
cleavage in, 7–8
color, 9
composition, 23
crystal structure of, 5
hardness of, 9–10
luster, 9
of metamorphic rock, 59–60
physical properties of, 6
specific gravity of, 8–9
Mohs scale of hardness, 10
monocline fold, 77, 78
monomineralic rocks, 5
morainal deposits, 140–142
boulders, 142–143
end/terminal, 143
recessional, 143–144
soils, 145–146
till plains, 144–145
mud cracks, 49, 50
mudstone sedimentary rock, 39
mylonites, 59, 90–91
N
neck rock, 28
neutral dunes, 135
New Jersey Palisades (sills), 30
non-foliated, metamorphic rocks,
58–59
nonmetallic luster, 9
nonplanar fractures, 8
normal faults, 83, 85
O
oblique/diagonal joints, 92
oblique-slip fault, 85
O-horizon, 157
olivine, 26
oolitic limestone, 47
orthogonal joint set, 92
outwash head, 147
outwash kettles, 151–152
outwash soil deposits, 146–148
overthrust blocks, 79
overturned fold, 74–75
overturning, 49
overturning of folds, 68
oxidation, chemical weathering,
104
P
pahoehoe lava, 33
peat, 44, 155
pedalfer soil, 158
pedocal soil, 158–159
pegmatitic rock, 25, 26
perched water table, 168
periglacial winds, 137
permeability of soil, 168, 169
phaneritic rocks, 18, 23

phaneritic texture, 34
phenocrysts, 19
phosphorite, 47
phreatic zone, 166
phyllites, 59
physical weathering. See
mechanical weathering
piece-meal stoping, 28
pitted outwash plains, 147
placer depositions, 28
plagioclase feldspar minerals, 24
plant root mechanical weathering,
102
plastic deformation, 66
Plasticity Chart, 162, 164
plastic lava flow, 12
plateau areas, 77–78
plate tectonics, 2
Pleistocene Epoch, 139
plunge, 69
plutons, 27
polymineralic rocks, 5
porphyritic rock, 19, 25, 26
porphyritic texture, 34
potash soils, 116
powder, mineral, 9
precambrian iron deposits, 43
precipitates, calcium carbonate, 45
pressure, metamorphic rock, 52
primary porosity, 171
progression of metamorphism, 56
pseudo-tachylite, 90–91
pumice, 23, 33
pyroxene, 26
pyroxene hornfels, 59
Q rock strata, 64–67, 72
quartzite, 58–59
quartzose sandstone/quartz
arenites, 37
R rubies, 10
rainfall erosion, 112
reaction series, 24, 25
recessional moraine, 143–144
Index   •   193
recognition, fault, 86–87
recrystallization of rock, 53
recumbent fold, 75–76
regional metamorphic rocks,
50–51
regional metamorphism, 55–56
regional stresses, 94
residual soils, 116–117
laterite, 120, 121
on limestone, 119–120
saprolite, 118
thickness, 118–119
weathering process, 116
reverse/thrust faults, 85
rhyolite, 21, 23
ribbon chert, 48
ridges, dune, 135
right-lateral strike-slip fault, 85
rill erosion, 112, 113
ripple marks, 50
river and streams/fluvial deposits,
120–122
delta, 127–128
flood-plain/valley fill, 124–127
stream channel, 122, 123
torrential outwash, 123–124
rock cycle, 13, 14
rock flour, 100, 130, 148–149
rocks. See also igneous
rocks; metamorphic rocks;
sedimentary rocks
aphanitic, 19–20, 23
flow charts, 16
phaneritic, 18, 23
siliceous, 46
types of, 13–14
rock weathering, 98–99. See
also chemical weathering;
mechanical weathering
rotten rock, 120
S
saltation, 111
194   •   Index

sand deposits and dunes, 132–133 significance, fold, 79–80

barchan dunes, 134 siliceous rocks, 46
dune ridges, 135 silicification, 91
heights of dunes, 135 sill rock, 30–31
longitudinal dunes/seifs, siltstone sedimentary rock, 40
134–135 simple folds, 67–68
neutral dunes, 135 direction and inclination, 69
sand sheet, 136 strike and dip, 72–73
stabilized sand dunes, 136–137 symbols used, 73, 74
surface lowering, 137 synclines and anticlines, 70–72
undulations, 136 sinkholes, 108–109
whalebacks, 136 slate, 58
sand drifts, 132 slatey cleavage, 58, 60
sand dunes, 132 slickenside surface, 86, 87
sandfalls, 132 soapstone, 59
Sandhills of Nebraska ( stabilized Soil Classification Chart, 162,
sand dunes), 136–137 164
sand levees. See whalebacks soil formation, 115
sand shadow, 132 soil orders, 159, 160
sand sheet, 136 soils, groundwater in, 166–170
sandstone sedimentary rock, 36–38 soils of moraines, 145–146
sapphires, 10 soils/overburden, 97, 115–116
saprolite, residual soil, 118 aeolian deposits, 131–139
schists, 57, 58 glacial soils (see glacial soils)
scoria, 33 in-place developed soils (see
secondary porosity, 95, 171 in-place developed soils)
second rule of anticlines, 72 lake deposits, 128–130
sedimentary grains, 37 marine clay deposits, 130–131
sedimentary rocks, 13, 15, 35 residual soils, 116–120
analysis and classification, 17 river and streams/fluvial
depositions (see depositions, deposits, 120–128
sedimentary rock) solidification temperature, 33
features of, 36, 49–50 solutions results, chemical
identification (see identification weathering, 106
of sedimentary rocks) specific gravity of mineral, 8–9
types of, 36–42 spheroidal weathering, 102, 103
sediment beds development, splash erosion, 112
127–128 stabilized sand dunes, 136–137
seifs, 135 stalactites, 109
shale sedimentary rock, 39, 40 stalagmites, 109
shards, 33 standard minerals, 9
shear fractures, 94, 95 steep-sided cinder cone volcano,
sheet erosion, 112 11
sheeting, 94 stocks, 29
sheeting joints, 93 streak of mineral, 9
 Index   •   195

stream channel deposits, 122, 123 types of metamorphic rocks

strike, 69, 72–73, 81 foliation type and grain size,
strike joints, 91 56–58
strike-slip fault, 85 minerals, 59–60
structural terrace, 77 non-foliated, 58–59
subduction zone, 2 well-foliated, 58
subsidiary recumbent anticlines, types of sedimentary rocks, 36–37
75–76 arkose, 38
subsurface water, 166 breccia, 38
sulfation, 106 claystone, 39–40
surface boulders, 142 conglomerate, 38
surface lowering, 137 dolomite, 40
surface tension, 167 evaporites, 41
surface topography, karst graywackes, 38
landscape, 110 limestone, 40
symbols, simple folds, 73, 74 mudstone, 39
symmetrical fold, 67 sandstone, 37–38
synclines, 70–72 shale, 39, 40
siltstone, 40
T
talc, 9 U
talc schist, 58 ultra-mylonite, 90
talus, 100 unconfined aquifer, 167
talus slope, 100 undermelt, 142
telltale sign of faults, 86, 87 undulations, 136
temperature changes, mechanical uneven fracture. See conchoidal
weathering, 101–102 (shell-like) fracture
temperature, solidification, 33 Unified Soil Classification System
terminal/end moraine, 146 (USCS), 161–162, 164
terra rossa, 120
texture of igneous rocks, 18–21 V
thermal gradient, 53 vadose zone/zone of aeration, 166
thickness, residual soil, 118–119 valley trains, 124, 146–147
thrust fault, 80, 83, 85 varves, 129–130
tillite, 41–42, 46 volcanic eruptions, 11–12
till plains, morainal deposits, volcanoes, 10–12
144–145 volcano explosion, 32
topsoil/loam. See A-horizon
torrential outwash stream flow, W
123–124 water table, 168
transform fault, 80, 81, 83 weathering process, 97–98. See
travertine, 45 also chemical weathering;
trough fold, 70 mechanical weathering; rock
T-shaped symbol, 73 weathering
tuff, 32 factors, 98
196   •   Index

folds, 66–67 windblown sands, 133

joints, 95 wind deposits. See aeolian deposits
residual soils, 116–117 wind erosion, 111
well-foliated, metamorphic rocks,
58 Z
whalebacks, 136 zebra stripes, 60