Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure

Truss structure[edit]
Main article: Truss
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box
truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box
structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric
covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

Geodesic construction[edit]
Main article: Geodesic airframe

Geodesic airframe fuselage structure is exposed by battle damage

Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and
into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of
construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in
the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The
geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this
is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in
differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

Monocoque shell[edit]
The Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.
In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form
of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are
formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated
with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some
amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering,
eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan
VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are
incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly finished product)
is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for
fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing
787 Dreamliner (using pressure-molding on female molds).

Semi-monocoque[edit]

Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of aluminium
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the
shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then
disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring,
controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built
using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined
with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined
largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of
identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-
2 and DC-3civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed
using this process.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all or a
portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the
engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the
dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not
a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

Materials[edit]

Inside view of the wooden, fabric-covered fuselage of a Fisher FP-202.

Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular,
metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal aircraft with metal covering all
surfaces. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces,
wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce
operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs 1500 lb less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.[citation
needed]

Windows[edit]
Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made
of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or
plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3
mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating.
It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from −50 °C (−58 °F), this was previously done
with thin wires similar to a rear car window, but now is a transparent, nanometers
thick coating of indium tin oxide siting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting
heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit
windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an
average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly
between OEM and higher margins aftermarket.[1]
Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple
panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for
redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of
fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing
typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.[1]

Wing integration[edit]
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit
bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the
wing structure.
Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but
use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's
experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.
A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a
fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this
design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

Gallery

Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure

Truss structure[edit]
Main article: Truss
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box
truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box
structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric
covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

Geodesic construction[edit]
Main article: Geodesic airframe
Geodesic airframe fuselage structure is exposed by battle damage
Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and
into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of
construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in
the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The
geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this
is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in
differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

Monocoque shell[edit]

The Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form
of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are
formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated
with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some
amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering,
eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan
VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are
incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly finished product)
is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for
fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing
787 Dreamliner (using pressure-molding on female molds).

Semi-monocoque[edit]
Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of aluminium
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the
shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then
disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring,
controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built
using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined
with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined
largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of
identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-
2 and DC-3civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed
using this process.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all or a
portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the
engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the
dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not
a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

Materials[edit]
Inside view of the wooden, fabric-covered fuselage of a Fisher FP-202.
Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular,
metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal aircraft with metal covering all
surfaces. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces,
wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce
operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs 1500 lb less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.[citation
needed]

Windows[edit]
Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made
of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or
plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3
mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating.
It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from −50 °C (−58 °F), this was previously done
with thin wires similar to a rear car window, but now is a transparent, nanometers
thick coating of indium tin oxide siting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting
heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit
windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an
average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly
between OEM and higher margins aftermarket.[1]
Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple
panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for
redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of
fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing
typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.[1]

Wing integration[edit]
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit
bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the
wing structure.
Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but
use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's
experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.
A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a
fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this
design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

Gallery

Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure

Truss structure[edit]
Main article: Truss
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box
truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box
structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric
covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

Geodesic construction[edit]
Main article: Geodesic airframe

Geodesic airframe fuselage structure is exposed by battle damage

Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and
into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of
construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in
the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The
geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this
is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in
differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

Monocoque shell[edit]

The Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form
of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are
formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated
with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some
amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering,
eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan
VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are
incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly finished product)
is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for
fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing
787 Dreamliner (using pressure-molding on female molds).

Semi-monocoque[edit]

Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of aluminium
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the
shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then
disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring,
controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built
using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined
with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined
largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of
identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-
2 and DC-3civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed
using this process.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all or a
portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the
engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the
dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not
a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

Materials[edit]

Inside view of the wooden, fabric-covered fuselage of a Fisher FP-202.

Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular,
metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal aircraft with metal covering all
surfaces. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces,
wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce
operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs 1500 lb less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.[citation
needed]

Windows[edit]
Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made
of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or
plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3
mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating.
It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from −50 °C (−58 °F), this was previously done
with thin wires similar to a rear car window, but now is a transparent, nanometers
thick coating of indium tin oxide siting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting
heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit
windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an
average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly
between OEM and higher margins aftermarket.[1]
Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple
panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for
redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of
fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing
typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.[1]

Wing integration[edit]
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit
bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the
wing structure.
Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but
use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's
experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.
A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a
fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this
design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

Gallery

Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure

Truss structure[edit]
Main article: Truss
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box
truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box
structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric
covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

Geodesic construction[edit]
Main article: Geodesic airframe
Geodesic airframe fuselage structure is exposed by battle damage
Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and
into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of
construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in
the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The
geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this
is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in
differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

Monocoque shell[edit]

The Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form
of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are
formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated
with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some
amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering,
eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan
VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are
incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly finished product)
is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for
fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing
787 Dreamliner (using pressure-molding on female molds).

Semi-monocoque[edit]
Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of aluminium
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the
shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then
disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring,
controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built
using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined
with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined
largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of
identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-
2 and DC-3civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed
using this process.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all or a
portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the
engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the
dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not
a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

Materials[edit]
Inside view of the wooden, fabric-covered fuselage of a Fisher FP-202.
Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular,
metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal aircraft with metal covering all
surfaces. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces,
wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce
operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs 1500 lb less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.[citation
needed]

Windows[edit]
Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made
of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or
plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3
mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating.
It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from −50 °C (−58 °F), this was previously done
with thin wires similar to a rear car window, but now is a transparent, nanometers
thick coating of indium tin oxide siting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting
heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit
windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an
average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly
between OEM and higher margins aftermarket.[1]
Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple
panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for
redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of
fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing
typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.[1]

Wing integration[edit]
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit
bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the
wing structure.
Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but
use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's
experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.
A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a
fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this
design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

Gallery

Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure

Truss structure[edit]
Main article: Truss
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box
truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box
structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric
covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

Geodesic construction[edit]
Main article: Geodesic airframe

Geodesic airframe fuselage structure is exposed by battle damage

Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and
into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of
construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in
the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The
geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this
is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in
differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

Monocoque shell[edit]

The Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form
of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are
formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated
with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some
amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering,
eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan
VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are
incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly finished product)
is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for
fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing
787 Dreamliner (using pressure-molding on female molds).

Semi-monocoque[edit]

Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of aluminium
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the
shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then
disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring,
controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built
using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined
with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined
largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of
identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-
2 and DC-3civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed
using this process.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all or a
portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the
engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the
dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not
a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

Materials[edit]

Inside view of the wooden, fabric-covered fuselage of a Fisher FP-202.

Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular,
metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal aircraft with metal covering all
surfaces. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces,
wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce
operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs 1500 lb less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.[citation
needed]

Windows[edit]
Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made
of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or
plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3
mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating.
It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from −50 °C (−58 °F), this was previously done
with thin wires similar to a rear car window, but now is a transparent, nanometers
thick coating of indium tin oxide siting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting
heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit
windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an
average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly
between OEM and higher margins aftermarket.[1]
Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple
panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for
redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of
fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing
typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.[1]

Wing integration[edit]
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit
bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the
wing structure.
Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but
use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's
experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.
A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a
fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this
design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

Gallery

Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure

Truss structure[edit]
Main article: Truss
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box
truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box
structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric
covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

Geodesic construction[edit]
Main article: Geodesic airframe
Geodesic airframe fuselage structure is exposed by battle damage
Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and
into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of
construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in
the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The
geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this
is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in
differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

Monocoque shell[edit]

The Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form
of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are
formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated
with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some
amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering,
eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan
VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are
incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly finished product)
is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for
fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing
787 Dreamliner (using pressure-molding on female molds).

Semi-monocoque[edit]
Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of aluminium
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the
shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then
disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring,
controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built
using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined
with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined
largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of
identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-
2 and DC-3civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed
using this process.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all or a
portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the
engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the
dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not
a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

Materials[edit]
Inside view of the wooden, fabric-covered fuselage of a Fisher FP-202.
Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular,
metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal aircraft with metal covering all
surfaces. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces,
wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce
operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs 1500 lb less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.[citation
needed]

Windows[edit]
Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made
of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or
plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3
mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating.
It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from −50 °C (−58 °F), this was previously done
with thin wires similar to a rear car window, but now is a transparent, nanometers
thick coating of indium tin oxide siting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting
heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit
windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an
average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly
between OEM and higher margins aftermarket.[1]
Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple
panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for
redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of
fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing
typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.[1]

Wing integration[edit]
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit
bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the
wing structure.
Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but
use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's
experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack.
A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a
fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this
design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

Gallery