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Literature Review

Group Topic: Facilitating engagement within the classroom to achieve positive student outcomes in
secondary schools.

Focus question: Teacher strategies to facilitate engagement and promote positive student outcomes
in the secondary classroom.

Student engagement has been the focus of extensive research and analysis throughout recent
educational literature, prompted by growing awareness of the relationship between student
engagement and positive student outcomes (Gallagher, Bennett, Keen & Muspratt, 2017; Harris,
2010). However, despite this interest in engagement by both researchers and educators, student
engagement remains a complex concept, that educators and researchers alike, find difficult to define
(Skilling, Bobis, Martin, Anderson & Way, 2016). The intention of this critical review of the literature,
is to investigate the instructional strategies utilised by educators in secondary school settings, and
the discuss the challenges to their implementation in a classroom context. For this reason, the
following literature review will present a synthesis of the perspectives and conclusions of recent
research into the topic of student engagement. In accordance with the research literature, explicit
areas of consideration will include, what is meant by the term engagement, incorporating the
different forms and overall importance of student engagement, along with the instructional
strategies utilised by educators, and the impact of teacher self-efficacy on the implementation of
strategies to facilitate engagement within the classroom.

Defining student engagement

Student engagement is a complex concept which encompasses a diverse range of influential factors,
and observable indicators (Skilling et al., 2016). According to Strambler and McKown (2013),
“academic engagement [is] defined as student identification with, and participation in academic
learning [and] has important applications for academic and behavioural outcomes” (p.87). This
definition is supported by Turner, Christensen, Kackar-Cam, Trucano and Fulmer (2014), who suggest
that engagement incorporates students’ effort towards, and investment in, the development of
knowledge, skills and understanding through the processes of classroom learning. However, despite
this apparent consistency of interpretations of what constitutes student engagement, these
definitions do not provide an entirely accurate representation of the complexities of student
engagement as educators experience it in the classroom. Therefore, in accordance with the
statement by Harris (2010), “the concept of engagement must be explicitly defined within academic
research . . . to avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretations” (p.147).
Critical analysis of research literature, highlights three distinct categories of student engagement,
along with how these types of engagement manifest within the classroom. These categories of
engagement, as identified by Harris (2010), Gallagher, Bennett, Keen & Muspratt (2017), Skilling et
al., (2016) and Turner et al., (2014) are behavioural, emotional and cognitive. Behavioural
engagement is the form of student engagement that is most readily recognised by educators within
the classroom, and includes students on task behaviours, perceptible “effort, attention and
concentration” (Gluvenc, 2015, p.648) and participation (Dotterer & Lowe, 2011; Gallagher et al.,
2017). Emotional engagement incorporates the attitudes, enthusiasm, and interest that students
have towards the learning that is taking place, and though not directly observable, can be
distinguished through student dialogue (Gluvenc, 2015; Gallagher et al., 2017; Turner et al., 2014;
Harris, 2010). The final category of engagement identified within the research literature is cognitive
engagement, which is related to students’ self-regulation and investment in learning (Gallagher et
al., 2017; Harris, 2010; Turner et al., 2014).

Together, these distinct categories of student engagement, represent the diverse ways that students
engage with learning. According to Skilling et al., (2016) educators can measure these types of
engagement according to the extent of student engagement, on a scale of disengaging, variably
engaged and substantial engagement. Therefore, an intimate understanding of these types of
engagement is essential to empower educators to actively facilitate student engagement in their
classrooms (Harris, 2010).

Instructional strategies to promote engagement

Research into the instructional strategies utilised by teachers to promote student engagement in
classroom learning, supports the assertion made by Harris (2010), that there does not exist a single
instructional strategy that is universally proven to improve student engagement. Instead the various
research papers investigating teacher practices to promote engagement reveal that the instructional
strategies utilised, are as diverse as the teachers that implement them. A study by Truner et al.,
(2014) into the engagement strategies used by teachers in classrooms, consisted of a 3-year
university-led intervention, involving 32 teachers. Despite the narrow focus of the study on only a
single school, the duration of the study provides valuable insight into teacher instructional strategies
as a variable within the classroom which have the potential to positively impact student engagement
(Turner et al., 2014). The findings of this study identified a range of instructional strategies,
predicated on research evidence that “students are more engaged when they feel related to others,
competent, autonomous and when academic learning is valued and meaningful” (Turner et al., 2014,
p.1201). Therefore the identified strategies were classified according to the basic human need they
represent, and include students’ sense of belonging, promoted through student collaboration and
group work; competence, developed through “appropriately challenging tasks and scaffolding”
(Turner et al., 2014, p.1200); student autonomy, facilitated through student discussion and
justification of their thinking; and meaningfulness, which incorporates students’ existing knowledge
and real world applications of learning.

The research findings of Turner et al., (2014) are further substantiated by the work of Skilling et al.,
(2016), which identified comparable instructional strategies, that have also demonstrated
measurable impacts on student classroom engagement. According to Skilling et al., (2014) the most
effective and enduring strategies for engagement developed students’ interests, autonomy, sense of
belonging and the meaningfulness of learning, to “promote longer-term and more substantial levels
of student engagement” (p. 54). Further corroboration of this assessment is reflected by Gluvenc
(2015), Strambler et al. (2013), Shoulders and Krei (2015), and Gallagher et al., (2017) who also
identify the positive impact of high expectations and positive student-teacher relationships on
student engagement in learning.

Teacher self-efficacy and student engagement

Research into teacher’s perceptions of student engagement, and how these perceptions influence
instructional strategies, conducted by Skilling et al., (2016) incorporated the semi-structured
interviews of 31 mathematics teachers from across 10 Australian high schools. Questions posed
during the interview processes asked participant teachers to reflect on how they recognise the
varying degrees of student engagement within their classrooms, along with the instructional
strategies used to actively encourage student engagement (Skilling et al., 2016). The deductive
analysis and qualitative coding of interview responses, revealed a relationship between teacher self-
efficacy and their implementation of engagement strategies (Skilling et al., 2016).

Teacher self-efficacy is defined by Shoulders et al., (2015) as a teachers’ belief in their own capacity
to positively impact student learning, engagement and achievement of outcomes. The relationship
between teacher self-efficacy and student engagement was investigated by Shoulders et al., (2015)
using a 12 question, “9 point-Likert scale” (p.53) self-reflection survey, to collect data on the self-
efficacy of 256 teachers, across 21 rural high schools. Based on the results of this study, Shoulders et
al., (2015) argue that high teacher self-efficacy is essential for the active promotion of student
engagement in the classroom. Similar findings are reported in the study by Gallagher et al., (2017)
into the learner engagement strategies of 739 Canadian teachers, which asserts that “engagement is
. . . fostered by teachers who have high self-efficacy beliefs” (p.52), and who “regard learner
engagement as affected by what they do to facilitate instruction” (p.57). Therefore, when research
into the impact of teacher self-efficacy on student engagement, is synthesised, research evidence
reveals that it is the teachers who are observant of the signs of student engagement and who
possess high self-efficacy beliefs in their abilities to influence student engagement, that actively
implement evidence-based instructional strategies to promote engagement in their classrooms
(Skilling et al., 2016).

Conclusions and implications for future research

The critical synthesis of recent educational research literature into the topic of student engagement,
and teachers associated instructional strategies, suggests that although a diverse range of research
exists, there remains a need for more focused research studies. Among the limitations of the
research literature evaluated throughout this literature review, is the deficiency of educational
research that explicitly targets the strategies and perceptions of secondary school teachers in
Australia. Therefore, the data collection protocol that has been created to accompany this critical
review of the literature, represents the subsequent stage in extending the available research into
this educational field.
Dear Potential Participant:

I am working on a project titled ‘facilitating engagement within the classroom to achieve positive
student outcomes in secondary schools’, for the class, ‘Researching Teaching and Learning 2,’ at
Western Sydney University. As part of the project, I am collecting information to help inform the
design of a teacher research proposal.

Attached is a 10-question survey, designed to collect data on secondary teacher perceptions of


student engagement and to identify the specific strategies utilised by teachers to actively promote
student engagement in their classrooms.

By signing this form, I acknowledge that:

 I have read the project information and have been given the opportunity to discuss the
information and my involvement in the project with the researcher/s.
 The procedures required for the project and the time involved have been explained to me,
and any questions I have about the project have been answered to my satisfaction.
 I consent to complete the attached survey.
 I understand that my involvement is confidential, and that the information gained during
this data collection experience will only be reported within the confines of the ‘Researching
Teaching and Learning 2’ unit, and that all personal details will be de-identified from the
data.
 I understand that I can withdraw from the project at any time, without affecting my
relationship with the researcher/s, now or in the future.

By signing below, I acknowledge that I am 18 years of age or older, or I am a full-time university


student who is 17 years old.

Signed: __________________________________

Name: __________________________________

Date: __________________________________
Data Collection Protocol: Survey
1. In your own words, describe what student engagement looks like in your classroom.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

2. How important do you consider student engagement to be in your classroom?

1 2 3 4

Not important somewhat important very important most important

3. How often do you include considerations for student engagement as part of your lesson
planning?

1 2 3 4

Never rarely regularly always

4. Based on your teaching experience, do you believe there is a relationship between student
engagement and student achievement of learning outcomes? Explain your answer.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

5. Do you think your beliefs described in question 4, influence the instructional strategies you
use within the classroom? Why? Why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

6. Describe an instructional strategy that you use to promote student engagement in your
classroom.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

7. Describe the impact of the strategy described in question 6, on student engagement in your
classroom.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

8. Describe a second instructional strategy that you use to promote student engagement in
your classroom.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe the impact of the strategy described in question 8, on student engagement in your
classroom.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

10. To what extent do your instructional strategies used to promote student engagement, vary
according to student groups and classroom contexts?

1 2 3 4

No variation minor variations some variations substantial variations


Explanation
The data collection protocol attached, represents an original qualitative survey, designed to collect
data on the instructional strategies that secondary school teachers use to promote student
engagement within their classrooms. This data collection protocol is in alignment with the
accompanying literature review, as it attempts to identify and justify, the instructional strategies
used by secondary educators to influence student engagement. The intended participants that will
be involved in the data collection process, include approximately 12 secondary school teachers from
a single low socio-economic high school in South Western Sydney. The chosen participants will
include a range of male and female teachers from a range of curriculum areas. The decision to
narrow the focus of the study to one specific secondary school setting, is intended to ensure that the
context in which the surveys are completed remains consistent, by removing variables relating to the
socioeconomic factors, regulations and structures that exist in different school settings and which
have the potential to influence the data collected. Therefore, by restricting the research focus to one
school, the remaining variables are related to teachers’ personal beliefs and approaches to student
engagement, and represent an aspect of the data that is being gathered through the data collection
protocol. Furthermore, the involvement of secondary school teachers from a number of different
curriculum areas, will provide a more comprehensive representation of teachers’ instructional
practices than is presented in research which focuses on the practices of teachers within a single
curriculum area.

The data collection protocol attached has been designed as a self-reflective qualitative survey which
requires participants to reflect on their perceptions of student engagement within their classrooms
(Kervin, Vialle, Howard, Herrington & Okely, 2016). The use of a survey as the chosen data collection
protocol, represents a deviation from many of the research practices identified within the literature
review, which typically involved observations, semi-structured interviews and mixed-methods
approaches to data collection (Turner et al., 2014; Harris, 2010; Dotterer et al., 2011; Skilling et al.,
2016). This deviation of research methods is in accordance with the purpose of the research, which
is to have practising secondary school teachers identify and reflect on the strategies they use to
promote student engagement, and for this reason as well as for ease of data collection and analysis,
the survey protocol has been selected. The survey created includes a series of questions which
incorporate the use of a 4-point Likert scale, as well as several questions which require participants
to provide a more extensive written response. The inclusion of a 4-point Likert scale means that
participants are obliged to provide a response that clearly indicates their approach towards student
engagement, to avoid the distortion of data which can arise due to participant tendencies to select
the median response option, where available (Kervin et al., 2016).
The survey begins by asking participants to provide their own definition of student engagement and
this is intended to collect data on the divergent perspectives of student engagement and how this
may influence the implementation of instructional strategies. Participants are then asked to reflect
on how important they consider student engagement and to what extent they explicitly plan for
student engagement within their classrooms. As the survey progresses, participants are then asked
to provide a series of written responses which describe the instructional strategies that they use to
promote student engagement, their perceptions of the impacts of these strategies, along with the
extent to which their use of these strategies varies according to classroom context. Once collected,
the resulting research data will be the focus of logico-inductive analysis (Kervin et al., 2016), which
involves the qualitative coding of data into emerging categories and themes, to evaluate both the
diversity and consistency, of specific instructional strategies implemented by secondary school
teachers to promote student engagement.
References
Dotterer, A. M., & Lowe, K. (2011). Classroom context, school engagement, and academic

achievement in early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(12), 1649-1660.

Retrieved September 5, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s10964-011-9647-5

Gallagher, T. L., Bennett, S., Keen, D., & Muspratt, S. (2017). Examining learner engagement

strategies: Australian and Canadian teachers' self-report. Teacher Education and Special

Education, 40(1), 51-64. Retrieved September 5, 2018. doi: 10.1177/0888406416654213

Gluvenc, H. (2015). The relationship between teachers' motivational support and engagement versus

disaffection. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 15(3), 647-657. Retrieved September

7, 2018 from https://search-proquest-

com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/docview/1720057894?accountid=36155

Harris, L. (2010). Delivering, modifying or collaborating? Examining three teacher conceptions of

how to facilitate student engagement. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 16(1),

131-151. Retrieved September 5, 2018. doi: 10.1080/13540600903478037

Kervin, L., Vialle, W., Howard, S., Herrington, J., & Okely, T. (2016). Research for educators (2nd ed.).

Victoria, Australia: Cengage Learning Australia.

Shoulders, T. L., & Krei, M. S. (2015). Rural high school teachers' self-efficacy in student engagement,

instructional strategies, and classroom management. American Secondary Education, 44(1),

50-61. Retrieved September 5, 2018 from https://search-proquest-

com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/docview/1773224701?accountid=36155

Skilling, K., Bobis, J., Martin, A. J., Anderson, J., & Way, J. (2016). What secondary teachers think and

do about student engagement in mathematics. Mathematics Education Research

Journal, 28(4), 545-566. Retrieved September 5, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s13394-016-0179-x


Strambler, M. J., & McKown, C. (2013). Promoting student engagement through evidence-based

action research with teachers. Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation, 23(2),

87-114. Retrieved September 5, 2018. doi: 10.1080/10474412.2013.757153

Turner, J. C., Christensen, A., Kackar-Cam, H., Trucano, M., & Fulmer, S. M. (2014). Enhancing

students' engagement: Report of a 3-year intervention with middle school

teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 51(6), 1195-1226. Retrieved September 5,

2018. doi: 10.3102/0002831214532515

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