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Themes
Archaeology, epigraphy, and material culture

Cults are always practised in a local material context (sanctuaries, dedications, etc.). This section
addresses the evidence for these cults and the methodological problems inherent to this kind of
material. In the epigraphic record one can find references to monotheistic tendencies (e.g. heis theos
inscriptions; theos hypsistos). What evidence is there for possible pagan monotheistic cults; can we
map this evidence and see an evolution in time? Is it possible to identify monotheistic cults on a local
level, and if so, can we reconstruct the material context in which they practiced their worship? Studies
of this kind might inform us about the local world in which these cults flourished and about their
interaction with local neighbours, or with other religions. They can also offer us insight into the social
and economical context of such cults.

 G. Bowersock, Polytheism and monotheism in Arabia and the three Palestines, DOP 51,
1997, 1-10 L.
 Di Segni, Heis theos in Palestinian inscriptions, SCI 13, 1994, 94-115
 W. Horbury, A proselyte's heis theos inscription near Caesarea, PalEQ 129, 1997, 133-137
 T. Kaizer, The religious life of Palmyra: a study of the social patterns of worship in the
Roman period (Oriens et Occidens 4), Stuttgart, 2002
 S. Mitchell, Wer waren die Gottesfürchtigen?, Chiron 28, 1998, 55-64
 S. Mitchell, Inscriptions from Melli (Kocaaliler) in Pisidia, in Anatolian Studies 53, 2003,
139-159
 E. Peterson, Heis theos. Epigrafische, formgeschichtliche und religionsgeschichtliche
Untersuchungen (Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
24), Göttingen, 1926; new ed. by C. Markschies.
 J. Reynolds e.a, Jews and god-fearers at Aphrodisias: Greek inscriptions with commentary,
Cambridge, 1987
 J. Rives, Religion and Authority in Roman Carthage from Augustus to Constantine, Oxford,
1995
 R.M. Rothaus, Corinth: the first city of Greece: an urban history of late antique cult and
religion (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 139), Leiden, 2000
 M. Stein, Die Verehrung des Theos Hypsistos: ein allumfassender pagan-jüdischer
Synkretismus?, EA 33, 2001, 119-126

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The intellectual basis of pagan monotheism

We know since long that most thinkers of the Roman Period were monotheistic in a certain sense. At
the same time, many of the authors from this period show a strong interest in religion, both Greek and
foreign, even recognizing that the ‘ancient wisdom’ was revealed in them. Plutarch constitutes a
conspicuous example of both tendencies. This implies that we must question their attitude towards the
traditional polytheistic religion as it was handed down to them (myths, rituals etc.), and that we must
study how they tried to reconcile their philosophical convictions with the traditional religious practice
 if they did so. Issues related to allegorical interpretation of myths and gods, the re-interpretation of
ancient rituals and cults, the re-ordering of the pantheon in order to reconcile it with a monotheistic
philosophy will have to be addressed. Another question to be addressed is the origin of this
monotheistic philosophy. Was it an autonomous development, internal to the philosophical tradition, or
did various influences (hermetism, gnosticism) play a role? Or should we think that the literary and
philosophical production of this time was influenced by a deeply religious atmosphere?

 G.R. Boys-Stones, Post-hellenistic Philosophy, Oxford, 2001

 L. Brisson, How philosophers saved myths: allegorical interpretation and classical
mythology, Chicago, 2004
 D.C. Feeney, The Gods in Epic. Poets and Critics of the Classical Tradition, Oxford, 1991
 A.-J. Festugière, La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste. 2: Le Dieu cosmique, Paris, 1949
 M. Frede, 'Galen's Theology', in J. Barnes et J. Jouanna, ed., Galien et la Philosophie. Huit
Exposés suivis de Discussions. 2 - 6 septembre 2002 (Entretiens sur l' Antiquité Classique.
Tome XLIX.). Vandoeuvres Genève, 2003, 73-126
 L.P. Gerson, God and Greek Philosophy. Studies in the Early History of Natural Theology,
London, 1990
 J.P. Kenney, 'Monotheistic and Polytheistic Elements in Classical Mediterranean Spirituality',
in A.H. Armstrong, ed., Classical Mediterranean Spirituality, Egyptian Greek, Roman, New
York, 1986, 269-292
 J.P. Kenney, Mystical Monotheism. A study in Ancient Platonic Theology, London, 1991
 C. Moreschini, 'Monoteismo cristiano e monoteismo platonico nella cultura latina dell’età
imperiale', in H.-D. Blume F. Mann, ed., Platonismus und Christentum. Festschrift für
Heinrich Dörrie (JbAC Erg. Band 10), Münster, 1983, 133-161
 R. Smith, Julian’s Gods. Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian the
Apostate, London, 1995

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Monotheism, politics and social order

Religion was an important political factor in the Ancient World. In the Roman Empire, religion
became more and more centred on the emperor, being the pontifex maximus and a god himself. The
promotion of a single god as supreme god of the empire, as happened with the solar cult in the third
century, illustrates the political role of monotheism. This suggests a link between political ideology (a
single emperor) and religious thinking (one god). Conceptions about the divine world were also
closely related to ideas about social and political order. The attribution of tutelary deities to each
people, or the fundamental concept of imitation of the divine as principle for imperial conduct, can
illustrate this. We also see that the social and political order in the cities is very often compared to the
cosmological order created or preserved by the deity. It is possible that many of the religious debates
of this time were actually debates about concepts of social order.

 G. Chesnut, The Ruler and the Logos in Neopythagorean, Middle

Platonic and Later Stoic Political Philosophy, ANRW II.16.2, 1979,
1310-1333
 G. Fowden, From Empire to Commonwealth. Consequences of
Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton, 1993
  A. Fürst, Monotheismus und Gewalt. Fragen an die Frühzeit des
Christentums, in: Stimmen der Zeit 222, 2004, 521—531
 J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, Continuity and change in Roman Religion,
Oxford, 1979
 A. Momigliano, The disadvantages of monotheism for a universal
state, CPh 81, 1986, 285-297
 D.J. O’Meara, Platonopolis. Platonic Political Philosophy in Late
Antiquity, Oxford, 2003
 L. Perrone, Die “Verfassung der Juden”: das biblische Judentum als
politisches Modell in Origenes’ Contra Celsum, ZAC 7, 2003, 310-
328
 J.M. Schott, Founding Platonopolis: The Platonic Politeia in
Eusebius, Porphyry, and Iamblichus, JECS 11, 2003, 501-531

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Monotheism and religious pluralism

Monotheism is often seen as inherently opposed to pluralism. Pagan monotheistic cults, however,
operated in a pluralistic religious environment. This raises the question of how they related to other
cults. Did they try to separate themselves from other cults and demand absolute and exclusive worship
from their followers? Or did they have a larger impact on the religious environment? The position of
traditions like hermetism or orphism in the Roman Empire can be discussed here. Another question to
ask is: did the idea of a single divine will or force behind all different gods, which we suppose to be
common sense among intellectuals, also spread to ordinary worshippers, and did this influence their
religious attitude?

 A. Bendlin, 'Looking beyond the civic compromise: religious

pluralism in Late Republican Rome', in E. Bispham C. Smith, eds.,
Religion in archaic and republican Rome: evidence and experience,
Edinburgh, 2000, 115-135
 L. Brisson, Orphée et l’orphisme à l’époque impériale: témoignages
et interprétations philosophiques, de Plutarque à Jamblique, ANRW
II 36.4, 1990, 2867-2931
 V. Burch, Orphic Mysteries in Syria and Early Christianity, 2001
 G. Fowden, The Egyptian Hermes, Cambridge, 1986
 R. Gordon, 'Religion in the Roman Empire: The Civic Compromise
and Its Limits', in Mary Beard J. North, eds., Pagan Priests.
Religion and Power in the Ancient World, London, 1990, 235-255
 J. North, 'The Development of Religious Pluralism', in J. Lieu J.
North T. Rajak, ed., The Jews among pagans and christians in the
Roman Empire, London, 1992, 174-193

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Interaction among pagans, Christians and Jews

In the ancient world there were two strongly monotheistic religions: Judaism and Christianity. Recent
research has stressed the fluid boundaries and lively interaction between them, on a social and
intellectual level. There is also evidence for the close religious interaction between Jews, Christians
and pagans, often on a local level (e.g. the cult in Mambre). Moreover, the attraction Judaism
exercised on pagans is very well known. We want to look again at this evidence to trace mutual
interest and possible influences. Did Jews and Christians see monotheists among the pagans? Is there
evidence for pagan and Judaeo-Christian interaction on the level of cult and was monotheism a
decisive factor? Is there mutual influence or is the rise of Christianity to be considered an evolution
parallel to pagan monotheism? This will allow us to have a better appreciation of its role in
relationship to Christianity and Judaism, which will go beyond the stereotypes of pagan monotheism
as a consequence of Jewish influence or as a preparation for Christianity.

 John R. Bartlett, ed., Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities.

London and New York, 2002
 L.H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the ancient world: attitudes and
interactions from Alexander to Justinian, Princeton, 1993
 W. Horbury, Jews and Christians in Contact and Controversy,
Edinburgh, 1998
 W. Kinzig, "Non-separation": closeness and co-operation between
Jews and Christians in the fourth century, VChr 45, 1991, 27-53
 J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, The Influence of Judaism among Non-Jews
in the Imperial Period, JJS 52, 2004, 235-252
 J.M. Lieu, Christian Identity in the Jewish and Graeco-Roman
World. Oxford, 2004
 C. Markschies, 'Heis Theos Ein Gott? Der Monotheismus und das
antike Christentum', in: Polytheismus und Monotheismus in den
Religionen des Vorderen Orients, hg. v. M. Krebernik u. J. van
Oorschot, AOAT 298, Münster 2002, S. 209-234.
 Tessa Rajak, The Jewish Dialogue with Greece and Rome. Studies in
Cultural and Social Interaction, Leiden, 2001

 Glen W. Bowersock, 'Polytheism and Monotheism in Arabia and the Three Palaestines',
Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 51. (1997), pp. 1-10.