Analog Communication

This course will introduce the participants to the signal representation in both time and
frequency domain, basic analog communication techniques like modulation theory,
system design for analog modulator and demodulator, random process and noise
analysis.

Prerequisites
A basic idea regarding the initial concepts of communication is enough to go
through this tutorial. It will definitely help if you use our tutorial Signals and
Systems as a reference. A basic knowledge of the terms involved in
Electronics and Communications would be an added advantage.

Analog Communication - Introduction

The word communication arises from the Latin word commūnicāre, which
means “to share”. Communication is the basic step for exchange of
information.

For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry when she needs
her mother. A cow moos loudly when it is in danger. A person
communicates with the help of a language. Communication is the bridge to
share.

Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information

through means such as words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more
individuals.

Parts of a Communication System

Any system, which provides communication consists of the three important
and basic parts as shown in the following figure.
  Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting station
from where the signal is transmitted.

 Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the
destination.

 Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving

station where the transmitted signal is being received.

Types of Signals
Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds,
actions, etc., can be termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source
of energy which transmits some information. This signal helps to establish a
communication between the sender and the receiver.

An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to

convey a message, can be termed as a signal in communication systems.

Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two

types: Analog and Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further classified,
as shown in the following figure.
Analog Signal
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity
can be termed as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with
respect to time, according to the instantaneous values of the quantity,
which represents it.

Example
Let us consider a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 AM
to 7 AM). The portion of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which
means, after 15 minutes (6:15 AM) the quarter portion of the tank gets
filled, whereas at 6:45 AM, 3/4th of the tank is filled.

If we try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank according to the
varying time, it would look like the following figure.
As the result shown in this image varies (increases) according to time,
this time varying quantity can be understood as Analog quantity. The
signal which represents this condition with an inclined line in the figure, is
an Analog Signal. The communication based on analog signals and analog
values is called as Analog Communication.

Digital Signal
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can
be termed as a Digital signal. This signal has individual values, denoted
separately, which are not based on the previous values, as if they are
derived at that particular instant of time.

Example
Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a
week is plotted, it would look like the following figure.
In this figure, the values are stated separately. For instance, the attendance
of the class on Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values
can be considered individually and separately or discretely, hence they are
called as discrete values.

The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital
values. Hence, the signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called
as digital signals. The communication based on digital signals and digital
values is called as Digital Communication.

Periodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time, is
called as a Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued
repeatedly and is easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

Example
If we consider a machinery in an industry, the process that takes place one
after the other is a continuous procedure. For example, procuring and
grading the raw material, processing the material in batches, packing a load
of products one after the other, etc., follows a certain procedure repeatedly.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically

represented as follows.
Aperiodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of
time is called as Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but
the pattern is not repeated. It is also not so easy to be assumed or to be
calculated.

Example
The daily routine of a person, if considered, consists of various types of
work which take different time intervals for different tasks. The time
interval or the work doesn’t continuously repeat. For example, a person will
not continuously brush his teeth from morning to night, that too with the
same time period.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically

represented as follows.
In general, the signals which are used in communication systems are
analog in nature, which are transmitted in analog or converted to digital
and then transmitted, depending upon the requirement.

Analog Communication - Modulation

For a signal to be transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any
external interferences or noise addition and without getting faded away, it
has to undergo a process called as Modulation. It improves the strength of
the signal without disturbing the parameters of the original signal.
What is Modulation?
A message carrying a signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for
it to establish a reliable communication, it needs to take the help of a high
frequency signal which should not affect the original characteristics of the
message signal.

The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message

contained in it also alters. Hence, it is a must to take care of the message
signal. A high frequency signal can travel up to a longer distance, without
getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such high
frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our
message signal. Such a process is simply called as Modulation.

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal,

in accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation

Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a
signal, to travel longer distances, its strength has to be increased by
modulating with a high frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the
parameters of the modulating signal.

Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was
not introduced. The range of communication gets limited as the wave
cannot travel a distance without getting distorted.

Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the

communication systems.

 Reduction of antenna size

 No signal mixing

 Increased communication range

 Multiplexing of signals

 Possibility of bandwidth adjustments

  Improved reception quality

Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as
a message signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo the
process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is also called as
the modulating signal.

Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency and
phase but contains no information is called as a carrier signal. It is an
empty signal and is used to carry the signal to the receiver after
modulation.

Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as
a modulated signal. This signal is a combination of modulating signal and
carrier signal.

Types of Modulation
There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation
techniques used, they are classified as shown in the following figure.
The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave
modulation and pulse modulation.

Continuous-wave Modulation
In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a
carrier wave. This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.

 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Amplitude Modulation.

 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle
Modulation. Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and
phase modulation.

o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the

instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.

o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance

with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Phase Modulation.
Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a
carrier wave. This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.

In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude or duration or position of a

pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse
Position Modulation (PPM).

In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of
1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM. This
is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM). These digital modulation
techniques are discussed in our Digital Communications tutorial

Amplitude Modulation
A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the
baseband message signal, which contains the information. This wave has to
be modulated.

According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal

varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no
information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information,
at each instant. This can be well explained by the following figures.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal.
The next one is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and
contains no information. While, the last one is the resultant modulated
wave.

It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave,
are interconnected with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the
exact shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier
wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message signal.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

Time-domain Representation of the Waves

Let the modulating signal be,
m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)m(t)=Amcos⁡(2πfmt)

and the carrier signal be,

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)

Where,
AmAm and AcAc are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier
signal respectively.
fmfm and fcfc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier
signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
s(t)=[Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=[Ac+Amcos⁡(2πfmt)]cos⁡(2πfct) (Equa
tion 1)

Modulation Index
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated,
then such an attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation
Depth. It states the level of modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.

Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.

s(t)=Ac[1+(AmAc)cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac[1+
(AmAc)cos⁡(2πfmt)]cos⁡(2πfct)
⇒s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)⇒s(t)=Ac[1+μcos⁡(2πfmt)]cos⁡(2πfct) (Eq
uation 2)
Where, μμ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio
of AmAm and AcAc. Mathematically, we can write it as
μ=AmAcμ=AmAc (Equation 3)
Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above
formula, when the amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are
known.

Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering
Equation 1. We can use this formula for calculating modulation index value,
when the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are
known.

Let AmaxAmax and AminAmin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of

the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfmt)cos⁡(2πfmt)is 1.
⇒Amax=Ac+Am⇒Amax=Ac+Am (Equation 4)
We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfmt)cos⁡(2πfmt)is -1.
⇒Amin=Ac−Am⇒Amin=Ac−Am (Equation 5)
Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.
Amax+Amin=Ac+Am+Ac−Am=2AcAmax+Amin=Ac+Am+Ac−Am=2Ac

⇒Ac=Amax+Amin2⇒Ac=Amax+Amin2 (Equation 6)
Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.
Amax−Amin=Ac+Am−(Ac−Am)=2AmAmax−Amin=Ac+Am−(Ac−Am)=2Am

⇒Am=Amax−Amin2⇒Am=Amax−Amin2 (Equation 7)
The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.
AmAc=(Amax−Amin)/2(Amax+Amin)/2AmAc=(Amax−Amin)/2(Amax+Amin)/2

⇒μ=Amax−AminAmax+Amin⇒μ=Amax−AminAmax+Amin (Equation 8)
Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation
index. The modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in
percentage called as Percentage of Modulation. We will get the percentage
of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation index value with 100.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which

implies the percentage of modulation should be 100%.

For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5,
then the modulated output would look like the following figure. It is called
as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as an under-modulated
wave.
If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then
the wave will be an over-modulated wave. It would look like the following
figure.

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a

180ophase reversal, which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave
gets distorted. Such an over-modulated wave causes interference, which
cannot be eliminated.
Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies of the signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
BW=fmax−fminBW=fmax−fmin

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac[1+μcos⁡(2πfmt)]cos⁡(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμcos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt)⇒s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)
+Acμcos⁡(2πfct)cos⁡(2πfmt)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]
+Acμ2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]⇒s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)+Acμ2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
+Acμ2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]
Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are
carrier frequency fcfc, upper sideband frequency fc+fmfc+fm and lower
sideband frequency fc−fmfc−fm
Here,

fmax=fc+fmfmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fmfmin=fc−fm

Substitute, fmaxfmax and fminfmin values in bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)

⇒BW=2fm⇒BW=2fm

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated
wave is twice the frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ2cos[2π(fc−fm)t] s(t)=Acco
s⁡(2πfct)+Acμ2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband,
and lower sideband frequency components.
Pt=Pc+PUSB+PLSBPt=Pc+PUSB+PLSB
We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is
P=vrms2R=(vm/2–√)22P=vrms2R=(vm/2)22

Where,

vrmsvrms is the rms value of cos signal.

vmvm is the peak value of cos signal.
First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband
one by one.

Carrier power
Pc=(Ac/2–√)2R=Ac22RPc=(Ac/2)2R=Ac22R

Upper sideband power

PUSB=(Acμ/22–√)2R=Ac2μ28RPUSB=(Acμ/22)2R=Ac2μ28R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper
side band power.
PLSB=Ac2μ2/8RPLSB=Ac2μ2/8R

Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.
Pt=Ac22R+Ac2μ28R+Ac2μ28RPt=Ac22R+Ac2μ28R+Ac2μ28R

⇒Pt=(Ac2/2R)(1+μ2/4+μ2/4)⇒Pt=(Ac22R)(1+μ2/4+μ2/4)

⇒Pt=Pc(1+μ2/2)⇒Pt=Pc(1+μ22)

We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the
carrier power and the modulation index are known.

If the modulation index μ=1μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5
times the carrier power. So, the power required for transmitting an AM
wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.

Numerical Problems 1
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in
Amplitude Modulation. Each parameter has its own formula. By using those
formulas, we can find the respective parameter values. In this chapter, let
us solve a few problems based on the concept of amplitude modulation.

Problem 1
A modulating signal m(t)=10cos(2π×103t)m(t)=10cos⁡(2π×103t) is
amplitude modulated with a carrier
signal c(t)=50cos(2π×105t)c(t)=50cos⁡(2π×105t). Find the modulation
index, the carrier power, and the power required for transmitting AM wave.
Solution
Given, the equation of modulating signal as
m(t)=10cos(2π×103t)m(t)=10cos⁡(2π×103t)

We know the standard equation of modulating signal as

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)m(t)=Amcos⁡(2πfmt)

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of modulating signal as Am=10voltsAm=10volts
and Frequency of modulating signal as
fm=103Hz=1KHzfm=103Hz=1KHz

Given, the equation of carrier signal is

c(t)=50cos(2π×105t)c(t)=50cos⁡(2π×105t)

The standard equation of carrier signal is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)

By comparing these two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac=50voltsAc=50volts

and Frequency of carrier signal as fc=105Hz=100KHzfc=105Hz=100KHz
We know the formula for modulation index as
μ=AmAcμ=AmAc
Substitute, AmAm and AcAc values in the above formula.
μ=1050=0.2μ=1050=0.2

Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of

modulation is 20%.
The formula for Carrier power, Pc=Pc= is
Pc=Ac22RPc=Ac22R

Assume R=1ΩR=1Ω and substitute AcAc value in the above formula.

Pc=(50)22(1)=1250WPc=(50)22(1)=1250W

Therefore, the Carrier power, PcPc is 1250 watts.

We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is

⇒Pt=Pc(1+μ22)⇒Pt=Pc(1+μ22)

Substitute PcPc and μμ values in the above formula.

Pt=1250(1+(0.2)22)=1275WPt=1250(1+(0.2)22)=1275W

Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275

watts.

Problem 2
The equation of amplitude wave is given
by s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)]cos(4π×105t)s(t)=20[1+0.8cos⁡(2π×103t)]c
os⁡(4π×105t). Find the carrier power, the total sideband power, and the
band width of AM wave.
Solution
Given, the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is
s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)]cos(4π×105t)s(t)=20[1+0.8cos⁡(2π×103t)]cos⁡(4π×105t)

Re-write the above equation as

s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)]cos(2π×2×105t)s(t)=20[1+0.8cos⁡(2π×103t)]cos⁡(2π×2×10
5t)
We know the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is
s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac[1+μcos⁡(2πfmt)]cos⁡(2πfct)

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac=20voltsAc=20volts
Modulation index as μ=0.8μ=0.8
Frequency of modulating signal as fm=103Hz=1KHzfm=103Hz=1KHz
Frequency of carrier signal as fc=2×105Hz=200KHzfc=2×105Hz=200KHz
The formula for Carrier power, PcPcis
Pc=Ae22RPc=Ae22R

Assume R=1ΩR=1Ω and substitute AcAc value in the above formula.

Pc=(20)22(1)=200WPc=(20)22(1)=200W

Therefore, the Carrier power, PcPc is 200watts.

We know the formula for total side band power is
PSB=Pcμ22PSB=Pcμ22

Substitute PcPc and μμ values in the above formula.

PSB=200×(0.8)22=64WPSB=200×(0.8)22=64W

Therefore, the total side band power is 64 watts.

We know the formula for bandwidth of AM wave is

BW=2fmBW=2fm

Substitute fmfm value in the above formula.

BW=2(1K)=2KHzBW=2(1K)=2KHz

Therefore, the bandwidth of AM wave is 2 KHz.

Analog Communication - AM Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate
amplitude modulated wave. The following two modulators generate AM
wave.

 Square law modulator

  Switching modulator

Square Law Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted

as m(t)m(t) and Acos(2πfct)Acos⁡(2πfct)respectively. These two signals are
applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block produces
an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as
V1t=m(t)+Accos(2πfct)V1t=m(t)+Accos⁡(2πfct)

This signal V1tV1t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode.

The characteristics of the diode are closely related to square law.
V2t=k1V1(t)+k2V21(t)V2t=k1V1(t)+k2V12(t)(Equation 1)
Where, k1k1 and k2k2 are constants.
Substitute V1(t)V1(t) in Equation 1
V2(t)=k1[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]+k2[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]2V2(t)=k1[m(t)+Accos⁡(2πfct)]
+k2[m(t)+Accos⁡(2πfct)]2

⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k1Accos(2πfct)+k2m2(t)+⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k1Accos⁡(2πfct)
+k2m2(t)+
k2A2ccos2(2πfct)+2k2m(t)Accos(2πfct)k2Ac2cos2⁡(2πfct)
+2k2m(t)Accos⁡(2πfct)
⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k2m2(t)+k2A2ccos2(2πfct)+⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k2m2(t)
+k2Ac2cos2⁡(2πfct)+
k1Ac[1+(2k2k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)k1Ac[1+(2k2k1)m(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)
The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and
the first three terms of the above equation are unwanted. So, with the help
of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the first three
terms.

Therefore, the output of square law modulator is

s(t)=k1Ac[1+(2k2k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=k1Ac[1+(2k2k1)m(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

The standard equation of AM wave is

s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

Where, KaKa is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard
equation of AM wave, we will get the scaling factor as k1k1 and the
amplitude sensitivity kaka as 2k2k12k2k1.

Switching Modulator
Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.

Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only

difference is that in the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a
non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the diode has to
operate as an ideal switch.
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted
as m(t)m(t) and c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct) respectively. These
two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer
block produces an output, which is the addition of modulating and carrier
signals. Mathematically, we can write it as
V1(t)=m(t)+c(t)=m(t)+Accos(2πfct)V1(t)=m(t)+c(t)=m(t)+Accos⁡(2πfct)

This signal V1(t)V1(t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the

magnitude of the modulating signal is very small when compared to the
amplitude of carrier signal AcAc. So, the diode’s ON and OFF action is
controlled by carrier signal c(t)c(t). This means, the diode will be forward
biased when c(t)>0c(t)>0 and it will be reverse biased when c(t)<0c(t)<0.
Therefore, the output of the diode is

V2(t)={V1(t)0ififc(t)>0c(t)<0V2(t)={V1(t)ifc(t)>00ifc(t)<0

We can approximate this as

V2(t)=V1(t)x(t)V2(t)=V1(t)x(t)(Equation 2)
Where, x(t)x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T=1fcT=1fc

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

x(t)=12+2π∑n=1∞(−1)n−12n−1cos(2π(2n−1)fct)x(t)=12+2π∑n=1∞(−1)n−12n−1c
os⁡(2π(2n−1)fct)

⇒x(t)=12+2πcos(2πfct)−23πcos(6πfct)+....⇒x(t)=12+2πcos⁡(2πfct)−23πcos⁡(6πfct)+....

Substitute, V1(t)V1(t) and x(t)x(t) values in Equation 2.

V2(t)=[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)][12+2πcos(2πfct)−23πcos(6πfct)+.....]V2(t)=[m(t)
+Accos⁡(2πfct)][12+2πcos⁡(2πfct)−23πcos⁡(6πfct)+.....]
V2(t)=m(t)2+Ac2cos(2πfct)+2m(t)πcos(2πfct)+2Acπcos2(2πfct)
−V2(t)=m(t)2+Ac2cos⁡(2πfct)+2m(t)πcos⁡(2πfct)+2Acπcos2⁡(2πfct)−
2m(t)3πcos(6πfct)−2Ac3πcos(2πfct)cos(6πfct)+.....2m(t)3πcos⁡(6πfct)
−2Ac3πcos⁡(2πfct)cos⁡(6πfct)+.....
V2(t)=Ac2(1+(4πAc)m(t))cos(2πfct)+m(t)2+2Acπcos2(2πfct)
−V2(t)=Ac2(1+(4πAc)m(t))cos⁡(2πfct)+m(t)2+2Acπcos2⁡(2πfct)−
2m(t)3πcos(6πfct)−2Ac3πcos(2πfct)cos(6πfct)+.....2m(t)3πcos⁡(6πfct)
−2Ac3πcos⁡(2πfct)cos⁡(6πfct)+.....
The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the
remaining terms are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass
filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the remaining terms.

Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

s(t)=Ac2(1+(4πAc)m(t))cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac2(1+(4πAc)m(t))cos⁡(2πfct)

We know the standard equation of AM wave is

s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

Where, kaka is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard
equation of AM wave, we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude
sensitivity kaka as 4πAc4πAc .

AM Demodulators
The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated
wave is known as detection or demodulation. The circuit, which
demodulates the modulated wave is known as the demodulator. The
following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM wave.

 Square Law Demodulator

 Envelope Detector
Square Law Demodulator
Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave.
Following is the block diagram of thesquare law demodulator.

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM
wave V1(t)V1(t) is applied as an input to this demodulator.
The standard form of AM wave is
V1(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)V1(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

We know that the mathematical relationship between the input and the
output of square law device is
V2(t)=k1V1(t)+k2V21(t)V2(t)=k1V1(t)+k2V12(t)(Equation 1)
Where,
V1(t)V1(t) is the input of the square law device, which is nothing but the AM
wave
V2(t)V2(t) is the output of the square law device
k1k1 and k2k2 are constants
Substitute V1(t)V1(t) in Equation 1
V2(t)=k1(Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct))
+k2(Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct))2V2(t)=k1(Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct))
+k2(Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct))2

⇒V2(t)=k1Accos(2πfct)+k1Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)+⇒V2(t)=k1Accos⁡(2πfct)
+k1Ackam(t)cos⁡(2πfct)+
k2Ac2[1+Ka2m2(t)+2kam(t)](1+cos(4πfct)2)k2Ac2[1+Ka2m2(t)+2kam(t)]
(1+cos⁡(4πfct)2)
⇒V2(t)=k1Accos(2πfct)+k1Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)
+K2Ac22+⇒V2(t)=k1Accos⁡(2πfct)+k1Ackam(t)cos⁡(2πfct)+K2Ac22+
K2Ac22cos(4πfct)+k2Ac2ka2m2(t)2+k2Ac2ka2m2(t)2cos(4πfct)+K2Ac22cos⁡(4πfct)
+k2Ac2ka2m2(t)2+k2Ac2ka2m2(t)2cos⁡(4πfct)+
k2Ac2kam(t)+k2Ac2kam(t)cos(4πfct)k2Ac2kam(t)+k2Ac2kam(t)cos⁡(4πfct)
In the above equation, the term k2Ac2kam(t)k2Ac2kam(t) is the scaled
version of the message signal. It can be extracted by passing the above
signal through a low pass filter and the DC component k2Ac22k2Ac22 can be
eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.

Envelope Detector
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave.
Following is the block diagram of the envelope detector.

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the
diode is the main detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also
called as the diode detector. The low pass filter contains a parallel
combination of the resistor and the capacitor.
The AM wave s(t)s(t) is applied as an input to this detector.
We know the standard form of AM wave is
s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor
charges to the peak value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less
than this value, the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will
discharge through resistor R till the next positive half cycle of AM wave.
When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode
conducts and the process will be repeated.

We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor
charges very quickly and discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the
capacitor voltage waveform same as that of the envelope of AM wave,
which is almost similar to the modulating signal.
 DSBSC Modulation
In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the
carrier wave and two sidebands. The modulated wave has the information
only in the sidebands. Sideband is nothing but a band of frequencies,
containing power, which are the lower and higher frequencies of the carrier
frequency.

The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two

sidebands can be termed as Double Sideband Full Carrier system or
simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the

power is being wasted in the carrier, which carries no information.

If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two
sidebands, then such a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following
figure.
Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and
carrier signals as we have considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)m(t)=Amcos⁡(2πfmt)

Carrier signal
c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the

product of modulating and carrier signals.
s(t)=m(t)c(t)s(t)=m(t)c(t)

⇒s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)⇒s(t)=AmAccos⁡(2πfmt)cos⁡(2πfct)

Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is
BW=fmax−fminBW=fmax−fmin
Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.
s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)s(t)=AmAccos⁡(2πfmt)cos⁡(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]⇒s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
+AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]

The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum
and minimum frequencies are fc+fmfc+fm and fc−fmfc−fm respectively.
i.e.,

fmax=fc+fmfmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fmfmin=fc−fm

Substitute, fmaxfmax and fminfmin values in the bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)

⇒BW=2fm⇒BW=2fm

Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is

equal to twice the frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.
s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
+AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]

Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and
lower sideband frequency components.
Pt=PUSB+PLSBPt=PUSB+PLSB

We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is

P=vrms2R=(vm2–√)2RP=vrms2R=(vm2)2R

First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by
one.

Upper sideband power

PUSB=(AmAc/22–√)2R=Am2Ac28RPUSB=(AmAc/22)2R=Am2Ac28R
Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper
sideband power.
PUSB=Am2Ac28RPUSB=Am2Ac28R

Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of
DSBSC wave.
Pt=Am2Ac28R+Am2Ac28RPt=Am2Ac28R+Am2Ac28R

⇒Pt=Am2Ac24R⇒Pt=Am2Ac24R

Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the
power of both the sidebands.

DSBSC Modulators
In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate DSBSC
wave. The following two modulators generate DSBSC wave.

 Balanced modulator

 Ring modulator

Balanced Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Balanced modulator.
Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two
modulators are arranged in a balanced configuration in order to suppress
the carrier signal. Hence, it is called as Balanced modulator.

The same carrier signal c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct) is applied as

one of the inputs to these two AM modulators. The modulating
signal m(t)m(t) is applied as another input to the upper AM modulator.
Whereas, the modulating signal m(t)m(t) with opposite polarity,
i.e., −m(t)−m(t) is applied as another input to the lower AM modulator.
Output of the upper AM modulator is
s1(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)s1(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

Output of the lower AM modulator is

s2(t)=Ac[1−kam(t)]cos(2πfct)s2(t)=Ac[1−kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

We get the DSBSC wave s(t)s(t) by subtracting s2(t)s2(t) from s1(t)s1(t).

The summer block is used to perform this operation. s1(t)s1(t) with positive
sign and s2(t)s2(t)with negative sign are applied as inputs to summer block.
Thus, the summer block produces an output s(t)s(t) which is the difference
of s1(t)s1(t) and s2(t)s2(t).
⇒s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
−Ac[1−kam(t)]cos(2πfct)⇒s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)−Ac[1−kam(t)]cos⁡(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)−Accos(2πfct)+⇒s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)
+Ackam(t)cos⁡(2πfct)−Accos⁡(2πfct)+

Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)Ackam(t)cos⁡(2πfct)
⇒s(t)=2Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)⇒s(t)=2Ackam(t)cos⁡(2πfct)
We know the standard equation of DSBSC wave is
s(t)=Acm(t)cos(2πfct)s(t)=Acm(t)cos⁡(2πfct)

By comparing the output of summer block with the standard equation of

DSBSC wave, we will get the scaling factor as 2ka2ka

Ring Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.

In this diagram, the four diodes D1D1,D2D2,D3D3 and D4D4 are connected
in the ring structure. Hence, this modulator is called as the ring
modulator. Two center tapped transformers are used in this diagram. The
message signal m(t)m(t) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas, the
carrier signals c(t)c(t) is applied between the two center tapped
transformers.
For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1D1 and D3D3 are
switched ON and the other two diodes D2D2 and D4D4 are switched OFF. In
this case, the message signal is multiplied by +1.
For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2D2 and D4D4 are
switched ON and the other two diodes D1D1 and D3D3 are switched OFF. In
this case, the message signal is multiplied by -1. This results
in 18001800 phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.
From the above analysis, we can say that the four
diodes D1D1, D2D2, D3D3 and D4D4are controlled by the carrier signal. If
the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series representation
of c(t)c(t) is represented as
c(t)=4π∑n=1∞(−1)n−12n−1cos[2πfct(2n−1)]c(t)=4π∑n=1∞(−1)n−12n−1cos⁡[2πfct(2
n−1)]

We will get DSBSC wave s(t)s(t), which is just the product of the carrier
signal c(t)c(t) and the message signal m(t)m(t) i.e.,
s(t)=4π∑n=1∞(−1)n−12n−1cos[2πfct(2n−1)]m(t)s(t)=4π∑n=1∞(−1)n−12n−1cos⁡[2
πfct(2n−1)]m(t)

The above equation represents DSBSC wave, which is obtained at the

output transformer of the ring modulator.

DSBSC modulators are also called as product modulators as they produce

the output, which is the product of two input signals.

DSBSC Demodulators
The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is
known as detection or demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators
(detectors) are used for demodulating DSBSC wave.

 Coherent Detector
  Costas Loop

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is
used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection. Following is the block diagram of
the coherent detector.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by
multiplying it with a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of
the carrier used in DSBSC modulation. The resulting signal is then passed
through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the desired message
signal.

Let the DSBSC wave be

s(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)m(t)

The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕ)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+ϕ)

Where, ϕϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the
carrier signal, which is used for DSBSC modulation.
From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as
 v(t)=s(t)c(t)v(t)=s(t)c(t)

Substitute, s(t)s(t) and c(t)c(t) values in the above equation.

⇒v(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)Accos(2πfct+ϕ)⇒v(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)m(t)Accos⁡(2πfct+ϕ)

=Ac2cos(2πfct)cos(2πfct+ϕ)m(t)=Ac2cos⁡(2πfct)cos⁡(2πfct+ϕ)m(t)
=Ac22[cos(4πfct+ϕ)+cosϕ]m(t)=Ac22[cos⁡(4πfct+ϕ)+cos⁡ϕ]m(t)
v(t)=Ac22cosϕm(t)+Ac22cos(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)v(t)=Ac22cos⁡ϕm(t)+Ac22cos⁡(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message
signal. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass
filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

v0t=Ac22cosϕm(t)v0t=Ac22cos⁡ϕm(t)

The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ=00ϕ=00.

That’s why the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be in
phase, i.e., there should not be any phase difference between these two
signals.
The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ=±900ϕ=±900. This
effect is called as quadrature null effect.

Costas Loop
Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC
modulation) and the locally generated signal in phase. Following is the block
diagram of Costas loop.
Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common
input s(t)s(t), which is DSBSC wave. The other input for both product
modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
with −900−900 phase shift to one of the product modulator as shown in
figure.
We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is
s(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)m(t)

Let the output of VCO be

c1(t)=cos(2πfct+ϕ)c1(t)=cos⁡(2πfct+ϕ)

This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product
modulator.

Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is

v1(t)=s(t)c1(t)v1(t)=s(t)c1(t)

Substitute, s(t)s(t) and c1(t)c1(t) values in the above equation.

⇒v1(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)cos(2πfct+ϕ)⇒v1(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)m(t)cos⁡(2πfct+ϕ)
After simplifying, we will get v1(t)v1(t) as
v1(t)=Ac2cosϕm(t)+Ac2cos(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)v1(t)=Ac2cos⁡ϕm(t)+Ac2cos⁡(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)

This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of
this low pass filter is
v01(t)=Ac2cosϕm(t)v01(t)=Ac2cos⁡ϕm(t)

Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the
modulating signal.
The output of −900−900 phase shifter is
c2(t)=cos(2πfct+ϕ−900)=sin(2πfct+ϕ)c2(t)=cos(2πfct+ϕ−900)=sin⁡(2πfct+ϕ)

This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator.

The output of the lower product modulator is

v2(t)=s(t)c2(t)v2(t)=s(t)c2(t)

Substitute, s(t)s(t) and c2(t)c2(t) values in the above equation.

⇒v2(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)sin(2πfct+ϕ)⇒v2(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)m(t)sin⁡(2πfct+ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v2(t)v2(t) as

v2(t)=Ac2sinϕm(t)+Ac2sin(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)v2(t)=Ac2sin⁡ϕm(t)+Ac2sin⁡(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)

This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter. The output of
this low pass filter is
v02(t)=Ac2sinϕm(t)v02(t)=Ac2sin⁡ϕm(t)

The output of this Low pass filter has −900−900 phase difference with the
output of the upper low pass filter.
The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase
discriminator. Based on the phase difference between these two signals, the
phase discriminator produces a DC control signal.

This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO
output. Therefore, the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the
locally generated signal (VCO output) are in phase.

SSBSC Modulation
In the previous chapters, we have discussed DSBSC modulation and
demodulation. The DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the
two sidebands carry the same information, there is no need to transmit
both sidebands. We can eliminate one sideband.

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and
transmitting a single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following
figure.

In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed.
Hence, the upper sideband is used for transmission. Similarly, we can
suppress the carrier and the upper sideband while transmitting the lower
sideband.

This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as
the power allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in
transmitting this Single Sideband.

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and
the carrier signals as we have considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal
m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)m(t)=Amcos⁡(2πfmt)

Carrier signal
c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]for the upper sideband
Or
s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]for the lower sideband
Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave
We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its
bandwidth is 2fm2fm. Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one
sideband, its bandwidth is half of the bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave =2fm2=fm2fm2=fm
Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fmfm and it is equal
to the frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.
s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]for the upper sideband
Or
s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]for the lower sideband
Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency
components.
Pt=PUSB=PLSBPt=PUSB=PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

P=vrms2R=(vm/2–√)2RP=vrms2R=(vm/2)2R

In this case, the power of the upper sideband is

PUSB=(AmAc/22–√)2R=Am2Ac28RPUSB=(AmAc/22)2R=Am2Ac28R
Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper
side band power.
PLSB=Am2Ac28RPLSB=Am2Ac28R

Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is

Pt=PUSB=PLSB=Am2Ac28RPt=PUSB=PLSB=Am2Ac28R

Advantages
 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.

 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.

 Power is saved.

 High power signal can be transmitted.

 Less amount of noise is present.

 Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages
 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.

 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver
have an excellent frequency stability.

Applications
 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.

 In point-to-point communications.

 In radio communications.

 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.

 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

SSBSC Modulators
In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate SSBSC
wave. We can generate SSBSC wave using the following two methods.
  Frequency discrimination method

 Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using
frequency discrimination method.

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the
product modulator. Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass
filter. This band pass filter produces an output, which is SSBSC wave.

Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the
desired SSBSC wave. This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either
upper sideband or lower sideband frequencies to get the respective SSBSC
wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using
phase discrimination method.
This block diagram consists of two product modulators,
two −900−900 phase shifters, one local oscillator and one summer block.
The product modulator produces an output, which is the product of two
inputs. The −900−900 phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase
lag of −900−900 with respect to the input.
The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block
produces an output, which is either the sum of two inputs or the difference
of two inputs based on the polarity of inputs.
The modulating signal Amcos(2πfmt)Amcos⁡(2πfmt) and the carrier
signal Accos(2πfct)Accos⁡(2πfct)are directly applied as inputs to the upper
product modulator. So, the upper product modulator produces an output,
which is the product of these two inputs.
The output of upper product modulator is
s1(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)s1(t)=AmAccos⁡(2πfmt)cos⁡(2πfct)

⇒s1(t)=AmAc2{cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+cos[2π(fc−fm)t]}⇒s1(t)=AmAc2{cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
+cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]}
The modulating signal Amcos(2πfmt)Amcos⁡(2πfmt) and the carrier
signal Accos(2πfct)Accos⁡(2πfct)are phase shifted by −900−900 before
applying as inputs to the lower product modulator. So, the lower product
modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.
The output of lower product modulator is
s2(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt−900)cos(2πfct−900)s2(t)=AmAccos⁡(2πfmt−900)cos⁡(2πfct−900)

⇒s2(t)=AmAcsin(2πfmt)sin(2πfct)⇒s2(t)=AmAcsin⁡(2πfmt)sin⁡(2πfct)
⇒s2(t)=AmAc2{cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
−cos[2π(fc+fm)t]}⇒s2(t)=AmAc2{cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]−cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]}
Add s1(t)s1(t) and s2(t)s2(t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated
wave s(t)s(t) having a lower sideband.
s(t)=AmAc2{cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+cos[2π(fc−fm)t]}+s(t)=AmAc2{cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
+cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]}+
AmAc2{cos[2π(fc−fm)t]−cos[2π(fc+fm)t]}AmAc2{cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]
−cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]}
⇒s(t)=AmAccos[2π(fc−fm)t]⇒s(t)=AmAccos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]
Subtract s2(t)s2(t) from s1(t)s1(t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated
wave s(t)s(t)having a upper sideband.
s(t)=AmAc2{cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+cos[2π(fc−fm)t]}−s(t)=AmAc2{cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
+cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]}−
AmAc2{cos[2π(fc−fm)t]−cos[2π(fc+fm)t]}AmAc2{cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]
−cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]}
⇒s(t)=AmAccos[2π(fc+fm)t]⇒s(t)=AmAccos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]
Hence, by properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we
will get SSBSC wave having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.

SSBSC Demodulator
The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is
known as detection or demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used
for demodulating SSBSC wave.

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating SSBSC wave) is
used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection. Following is the block diagram of
coherent detector.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by
multiplying it with a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of
the carrier used in SSBSC modulation. The resulting signal is then passed
through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired message
signal.

Consider the following SSBSC wave having a lower sideband.

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]

The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v(t)=s(t)c(t)v(t)=s(t)c(t)

Substitute s(t)s(t) and c(t)c(t) values in the above equation.

v(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]Accos(2πfct)v(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]Accos⁡(2πfct)

=AmAc22cos[2π(fc−fm)t]cos(2πfct)=AmAc22cos⁡[2π(fc−fm)t]cos⁡(2πfct)
=AmAc24{cos[2π(2fc−fm)]+cos(2πfm)t}=AmAc24{cos⁡[2π(2fc−fm)]
+cos⁡(2πfm)t}
v(t)=AmAc24cos(2πfmt)+AmAc24cos[2π(2fc−fm)t]v(t)=AmAc24cos⁡(2πfmt)
+AmAc24cos⁡[2π(2fc−fm)t]
In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message
signal. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass
filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

v0(t)=AmAc24cos(2πfmt)v0(t)=AmAc24cos⁡(2πfmt)

Here, the scaling factor is Ac24Ac24.

We can use the same block diagram for demodulating SSBSC wave having
an upper sideband. Consider the following SSBSC wave having an upper
sideband.
s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]s(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]

The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)

We can write the output of the product modulator as

v(t)=s(t)c(t)v(t)=s(t)c(t)

Substitute s(t)s(t) and c(t)c(t) values in the above equation.

⇒v(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]Accos(2πfct)⇒v(t)=AmAc2cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]Accos⁡(2πfct)

=AmAc22cos[2π(fc+fm)t]cos(2πfct)=AmAc22cos⁡[2π(fc+fm)t]cos⁡(2πfct)
=AmAc24{cos[2π(2fc+fm)t]+cos(2πfmt)}=AmAc24{cos⁡[2π(2fc+fm)t]
+cos⁡(2πfmt)}
v(t)=AmAc24cos(2πfmt)+AmAc24cos[2π(2fc+fm)t]v(t)=AmAc24cos⁡(2πfmt)
+AmAc24cos⁡[2π(2fc+fm)t]
In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message
signal. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass
filter.

Therefore, the output of the low pass filter is

v0(t)=AmAc24cos(2πfmt)v0(t)=AmAc24cos⁡(2πfmt)
Here too the scaling factor is Ac24Ac24.
Therefore, we get the same demodulated output in both the cases by using
coherent detector.

VSBSC Modulation
In the previous chapters, we have discussed SSBSC modulation and
demodulation. SSBSC modulated signal has only one sideband frequency.
Theoretically, we can get one sideband frequency component completely by
using an ideal band pass filter. However, practically we may not get the
entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some information gets
lost.

To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between

DSBSC and SSBSC. This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band
Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique. The word “vestige” means “a
part” from which, the name is derived.

VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as

vestige is modulated along with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of
VSBSC wave is shown in the following figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being
transmitted in this technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband
along with a part of the upper sideband. A guard band of very small width is
laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the interferences. VSB
modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fmfm. Since the
VSBSC modulated wave contains the frequency components of one side
band along with the vestige of other sideband, the bandwidth of it will be
the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave and vestige
frequency fvfv.
i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = fm+fvfm+fv
Advantages
Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.

 Highly efficient.

 Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.

 Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.

 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.

 Possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.

 Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.

 Demodulation is complex.

Applications
The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the
transmission of television signals. Also, this is the most convenient and
efficient technique when bandwidth usage is considered.

Now, let us discuss about the modulator which generates VSBSC wave and
the demodulator which demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.
Generation of VSBSC
Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. The
VSBSC modulator is shown in the following figure.

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the
product modulator. Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband
shaping filter. This filter produces an output, which is VSBSC wave.

The modulating signal m(t)m(t) and carrier

signal Accos(2πfct)Accos⁡(2πfct) are applied as inputs to the product
modulator. Hence, the product modulator produces an output, which is the
product of these two inputs.
Therefore, the output of the product modulator is
p(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)p(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)m(t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

P(f)=Ac2[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]P(f)=Ac2[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]

The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f)H(f). This
filter has the input p(t)p(t) and the output is VSBSC modulated
wave s(t)s(t). The Fourier transforms
of p(t)p(t) and s(t)s(t) are P(t)P(t) and S(t)S(t) respectively.
Mathematically, we can write S(f)S(f) as
S(t)=P(f)H(f)S(t)=P(f)H(f)

Substitute P(f)P(f) value in the above equation.

S(f)=Ac2[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)S(f)=Ac2[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)

The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.

Demodulation of VSBSC
Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC
wave. Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC
wave) is used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of
detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection. The VSBSC
demodulator is shown in the following figure.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by
multiplying it with a carrier, which is having the same frequency and the
phase of the carrier used in VSBSC modulation. The resulting signal is then
passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired
message signal.
Let the VSBSC wave be s(t)s(t) and the carrier signal
is Accos(2πfct)Accos⁡(2πfct).
From the figure, we can write the output of the product modulator as
v(t)=Accos(2πfct)s(t)v(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct)s(t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

V(f)=Ac2[S(f−fc)+S(f+fc)]V(f)=Ac2[S(f−fc)+S(f+fc)]

We know thatS(f)=Ac2[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)S(f)=Ac2[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)
From the above equation, let us find S(f−fc)S(f−fc) and S(f+fc)S(f+fc).
S(f−fc)=Ac2[M(f−fc−fc)+M(f−fc+fc)]H(f−fc)S(f−fc)=Ac2[M(f−fc−fc)
+M(f−fc+fc)]H(f−fc)

⇒S(f−fc)=Ac2[M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc)⇒S(f−fc)=Ac2[M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc)
S(f+fc)=Ac2[M(f+fc−fc)+M(f+fc+fc)]H(f+fc)S(f+fc)=Ac2[M(f+fc−fc)
+M(f+fc+fc)]H(f+fc)

⇒S(f+fc)=Ac2[M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)⇒S(f+fc)=Ac2[M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)
Substitute, S(f−fc)S(f−fc) and S(f+fc)S(f+fc) values in V(f)V(f).
V(f)=Ac2[Ac2[M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc)+V(f)=Ac2[Ac2[M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc)+
Ac2[M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)]Ac2[M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)]
⇒V(f)=Ac24M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)]⇒V(f)=Ac24M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)]
+Ac24[M(f−2fc)H(f−fc)+M(f+2fc)H(f+fc)]+Ac24[M(f−2fc)H(f−fc)
+M(f+2fc)H(f+fc)]
In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of the
desired message signal frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by passing
the above signal through a low pass filter.
V0(f)=Ac24M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)]

Angle Modulation
The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle
Modulation. Angle Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the
phase of the carrier signal varies according to the message signal.

The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is

s(t)=Accosθi(t)s(t)=Accos⁡θi(t)
Where,

AcAc is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the
amplitude of the carrier signal
θi(t)θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase
modulation.

 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier

signal linearly with the message signal.

 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.

Now, let us discuss these in detail.

Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies.
Whereas, in Frequency Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier
signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
signal remains constant. This can be better understood by observing the
following figures.
The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the
modulating or message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the
modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of the modulating signal
decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains
constant and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous frequency fifi in FM modulation is
fi=fc+kfm(t)fi=fc+kfm(t)
Where,

fcfc is the carrier frequency

ktkt is the frequency sensitivity
m(t)m(t) is the message signal
We know the relationship between angular frequency ωiωi and
angle θi(t)θi(t) as
ωi=dθi(t)dtωi=dθi(t)dt

⇒2πfi=dθi(t)dt⇒2πfi=dθi(t)dt
⇒θi(t)=2π∫fidt⇒θi(t)=2π∫fidt
Substitute, fifi value in the above equation.
θi(t)=2π∫(fc+kfm(t))dtθi(t)=2π∫(fc+kfm(t))dt

⇒θi(t)=2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt⇒θi(t)=2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt
Substitute, θi(t)θi(t) value in the standard equation of angle modulated
wave.
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt)s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt)

This is the equation of FM wave.

If the modulating signal is m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)m(t)=Amcos⁡(2πfmt), then

the equation of FM wave will be
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βsin(2πfmt))s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+βsin⁡(2πfmt))

Where,

ββ = modulation index =Δfm=kfAmfm=Δffm=kfAmfm

The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency)
and normal carrier frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is
denoted by ΔfΔf, which is equal to the product of kfkf and AmAm.
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the
values of modulation index ββ.
Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.
  This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband
FM.

 The modulation index ββ is small, i.e., less than 1.

 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.

 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances,

taxicabs, etc.

Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.

 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

 The modulation index ββ is large, i.e., higher than 1.

 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are
located around it.

 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV,

etc.

Phase Modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas,
in Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier
signal remains constant. This can be better understood by observing the
following figures.
The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase
shift in a wave can take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier signal. When the
amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the
amplitude is negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕiϕi in phase modulation is
ϕi=kpm(t)ϕi=kpm(t)

Where,

 kpkp is the phase sensitivity

 m(t)m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕi)s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+ϕi)

Substitute, ϕiϕi value in the above equation.

s(t)=Accos(2πfct+kpm(t))s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+kpm(t))

This is the equation of PM wave.

If the modulating signal, m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)m(t)=Amcos⁡(2πfmt), then the

equation of PM wave will be
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+βcos⁡(2πfmt))

Where,

 ββ = modulation index = Δϕ=kpAmΔϕ=kpAm

 ΔϕΔϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while
frequency modulation is used mainly for FM broadcasting.

Numerical Problems 2
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in Angle
modulation. Each parameter has its own formula. By using those formulas,
we can find the respective parameter values. In this chapter, let us solve a
few problems based on the concept of Frequency Modulation.
Problem 1
A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2
KHz is applied to FM generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40
Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index, and
bandwidth.

Solution
Given, the amplitude of modulating signal, Am=5VAm=5V
Frequency of modulating signal, fm=2KHzfm=2KHz
Frequency sensitivity, kf=40Hz/voltkf=40Hz/volt
We know the formula for Frequency deviation as
Δf=kfAmΔf=kfAm

Substitute kfkf and AmAm values in the above formula.

Δf=40×5=200HzΔf=40×5=200Hz

Therefore, frequency deviation, ΔfΔf is 200Hz200Hz

The formula for modulation index is
β=Δfmβ=Δffm

Substitute ΔfΔf and fmfm values in the above formula.

β=2002×1000=0.1β=2002×1000=0.1

Here, the value of modulation index, ββ is 0.1, which is less than one.
Hence, it is Narrow Band FM.
The formula for Bandwidth of Narrow Band FM is the same as that of AM
wave.
BW=2fmBW=2fm

Substitute fmfm value in the above formula.

BW=2×2K=4KHzBW=2×2K=4KHz

Therefore, the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4KHz4KHz.

Problem 2
An FM wave is given
by s(t)=20cos(8π×106t+9sin(2π×103t))s(t)=20cos⁡(8π×106t+9sin⁡(2π×103t)
). Calculate the frequency deviation, bandwidth, and power of FM wave.
Solution
Given, the equation of an FM wave as
s(t)=20cos(8π×106t+9sin(2π×103t))s(t)=20cos⁡(8π×106t+9sin⁡(2π×103t))

We know the standard equation of an FM wave as

s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βsin(2πfmt))s(t)=Accos⁡(2πfct+βsin⁡(2πfmt))

We will get the following values by comparing the above two equations.
Amplitude of the carrier signal, Ac=20VAc=20V
Frequency of the carrier signal, fc=4×106Hz=4MHzfc=4×106Hz=4MHz
Frequency of the message signal, fm=1×103Hz=1KHzfm=1×103Hz=1KHz
Modulation index, β=9β=9
Here, the value of modulation index is greater than one. Hence, it is Wide
Band FM.

We know the formula for modulation index as

β=Δfmβ=Δffm

Rearrange the above equation as follows.

Δ=βfmΔ=βfm

Substitute ββ and fmfm values in the above equation.

Δ=9×1K=9KHzΔ=9×1K=9KHz

Therefore, frequency deviation, ΔfΔf is 9KHz9KHz.

The formula for Bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is
BW=2(β+1)fmBW=2(β+1)fm

Substitute ββ and fmfm values in the above formula.

BW=2(9+1)1K=20KHzBW=2(9+1)1K=20KHz
Therefore, the bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is 20KHz20KHz
Formula for power of FM wave is
Pc=Ac22RPc=Ac22R

Assume, R=1ΩR=1Ω and substitute AcAc value in the above equation.

P=(20)22(1)=200WP=(20)22(1)=200W

Therefore, the power of FM wave is 200200 watts.