LAB MANUAL

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

TAXILA

SOIL MECHANICS 1

NAME: AURANGZAIB

REG NO: 16-CE-139

SECTION: C

SUBMITTED TO

ENGR: HAMMAD HAIDER

 LAB NO: 1

LAYOUT OF SOIL MECHANICS LAB NORTH

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12

11
21
10

22
9

23
8

24
7

25
6

26

4
27 3

OFFICE DOOR 1

OFFICE
 Apparatus details
Apparatus Purpose PICS
Name
1 A mechanical device for removing a
Sample sample from a sampling tube or mold;
Extruder usually consists of a piston driven by a
jackscrew or a hydraulic mechanism.
Molds of different diameter can be
used.
2 Boring machines are mechanized tools
that are used to drill holes in the ground
Boring up to few ft. without disturbing surface
Machine conditions. Bore of different diameter can
be bored

3 A device used to shake a stackedColum

Sieve n of standardsievetest trays tocause soli
ds to sift progressively from the top(lar
Shaker ge openings) to the bottom (small open
ings and a final pan), according to parti
cle size. Operates Electrically. Operates
at various frequencies
4 To display different sieve sizes.
Sieve
Stand

5 Used for determining the in-place density

Sand Cone of soil sand to find in-situ density of soil.
Apparatus ASTM and BS standard cone apparatus
are available.
 6 Max. Capacity is 30kg. Least count
Electronic is 5g. Used to find mass.
Balance

7 Used for the determination of the in-situ

Rubber density and unit weight of compacted or
Balloon grimly bonded soil
Apparatus

8 Used to mix different admixtures to the

Mixing soil
Machin
e

9 To dry the soil samples. range is 250

Oven degree Celsius

10 Used to burn organic matter present in

High soil to calculate organic content. Range 11
Temperature degree Celsius. Another same apparatus
Furnace adjacent to it has a range of 1200 degree
Celsius
 Apparatus Details
Apparatus Name Purpose Pic
11 Used to find out the permeability of
Permeability soil.
Apparatus

12 To dry the soil sample

Oven

13 To dry the soil sample

Oven

14 To dry the soil sample

Oven

15 To dry the soil sample

Oven
 16 Used to find out consolidation
behavior of clayey soil. The
Consolidatio one-dimensional consolidation
test of a soil sample enables to
n Apparatus ascertain the settlement
characteristic over a given
period of time.

17 To dry the soil sample

Oven

18 Used to find out shear strength

Mercury behavior of soil
Operated
Tri- axial
Compression
Machine

19 Used to find out CBR of soil.

Electrically CBR stands for California
Controlled CBR bearing ratio. Used to load the
penetration piston into the soil
Machine sample at a constant rate and to
measure the applied loads and
piston’s penetrations at
determined intervals.
2 Used to find out California
CBR Machine bearing ratio of soil
 21 Used to find out shear strength
Tri-axial behavior of soil
Compression
Machine
Electrically
Controlled

22 To find shear strength. Shear test

Shear Box machines are universal testing
Machine machines specially configured to
evaluate shear strength or maximum
shear stress

23 Used to find out shear strength

Tri-axial behavior of soil
Compression
Machine
Computerized
Controlled
 24 To find shear strength. Shear test
Direct machines are universal testing
Shear test machines specially configured to
Machine evaluate shear strength or maximum
shear stress

25 To compact, CBR and compaction

Auto molds at a const. rate. The
Compactor Mechanical Compactor
automatically compacts and
rotates mold after each blow while
keeping track of the number of
hammer blows and shutting off
once a preset number of blows is
reached
26 Used to find out CBR of soil
CBR
Machine
Electricall
y
Controlled

27 Used to find out liquid limit of soil

Casagrande
Apparatus
 Lab No: 02
To find out Moisture content of soil by Oven Drying Method.

Designation:
ASTM D 2216, IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973
Scope:
Through this practical, we found the moisture content of three samples of soil by mass
taken from the field. This method may be applied to fine, medium and coarse grained soil
for particle size from 2mm to 10mm.

Significance and use:

Water content testing is used to provide quality-control information
that can be used as a guide during construction on whether water needs to be added or
removed from the soil. In fine-grained (cohesive) soils, the consistency of a given soil
type depends on its water content.

Theory:
Water Content:
Water content is the ratio of the mass of water in a sample to the mass of solids in the
sample, expressed as a percentage.

Apparatus andmaterials:
 A thermostatically controlled oven
 Weighing balance readable and accurate
 Specimen container.
 Scoop
 Soil samples (fine, medium and coarse)

Procedure:
1. Weight out the clean and dry empty containers on electronic weight balance and
mark the identification number
2. Note weight as W1.
3. Take the moist soil samples from the field.
4. Weight out the bulk soil mass i.e. the mass of soil in containers and weight it as W2.
5. Store into oven provided 110 ± 5 °C and for 24hrs.
6. Weight the oven dried soil mass and mark it asW3.
 7. Calculate the weight of the water
Ww =W2-W3
8. Calculate the weight of dry solid soil
Wd= W3-W1
9. Find the water content by usingformula:
W = [W2-W3] / [W3-W1]*100%.

Observations and calculations:

Serial Description
# Repetitions
1 Container Number A B C
2 Mass of empty container , W1
3 Mass of Soil + container , W2
4 Mass of oven Dry Soil +
container ,W3
5 Mass of Dry Soil= Wd=W3-W1
6 Mass of water =Ww=W2-W3
7 Moisture
Content=W=(Ww/Wd)*100

Results and discussion:

Moisture Content ofSample1=%
Moisture Content ofSample2=%
Moisture Content of Sample 3=%
The oven-dry test can be a useful tool not only for verifying the readings from
electronic moisture meters, but also for understanding what is happening inside of the
wood as it dries.

Remarks:
The average value of moisture content comes out to be .
 LAB NO3

TO FIND THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS

DESIGNATION

ASTM D 854

SCOPE

Soil solids for these test methods do not include solids which can
be altered by these methods, contaminated with a substance that
prohibits the use of these methods, or are highly organic soil
solids, such as fibrous matter which floats in water.
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
The specific gravity of soil solids is used in calculating the phase
relationships of soils, such as void ratio and degree of saturation.
THEORY
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The mass of a substance, given as a multiple of the mass of the same volume of a standard substance (usually water)

APPRATUS AND MATERIAL

 PYCNOMETER
Balance

PROCEDURE

(1) Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry PYCNOMETER, WP.

(2) Place 200 g of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10) in the PYCNOMETER. Determine and record the
weight of the PYCNOMETER containing the dry soil, WPS

. (3) Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the PYCNOMETER. Soak the sample for 10 minutes.

(4) Shake the sample up and down to remove entrapped air

 (6) Fill the PYCNOMETER with distilled (water to the mark), clean the exterior surface of the PYCNOMETER with a
clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of the PYCNOMETER and contents, WB.

(7) Empty the PYCNOMETER and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only (to the mark). Clean the exterior surface
of the PYCNOMETER with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of the PYCNOMETER and distilled water, WA.

(8) Empty the PYCNOMETER and clean it.

DATA ANALYSIS

Calculate the specific gravity of the soil solids using the following formula:

Specific Gravity, GS= [W0/W0+ (WA-WB)]*α

Where:

W0 = weight of sample of oven-dry soil, g = WPS – WP

WA = weight of PYCNOMETER filled with water

WB = weight of PYCNOMETER filled with water and soil

OBSERVATIONS AND CALULATIONS

Specimen number 1 2 3
WP = Mass of empty, clean PYCNOMETER (grams)
WPS = Mass of empty PYCNOMETER + dry soil (grams)
WB = Mass of PYCNOMETER + dry soil + water (grams)
WA = Mass of PYCNOMETER + water (grams)
Specific gravity (GS)

GS = ?

PYSNOMETER
 Lab No: 04
Determination of Particle Size Distribution of a given soil
sample by set of sieves

Designation:-
AASHTO T 88-97, ASTM D-6913

Scope:-
Soils consist of particles with various shapes and sizes.This test method is used to
separate particles into size ranges and to determine quantitatively the mass of particles
in each range. These data are combined to determine the particle-size distribution
(gradation). This test method uses a square opening sieve criterion in determining the
gradation of soil between the 3-in. (75-mm) and No. 200 (75-μm) sieves.

Significance and use:-

The gradation (particle-size distribution) curve is used to calculate the coefficient of
uniformity and the coefficient of curvature.
Shear strength of soil, soil settlement and permeability of soil can also found by this
method. It is also required in the classification of soil.1
Selection and acceptance of fill materials are often based on gradation. For example,
highway embankments, backfills, and earthen dams may have gradation requirements.
The gradation of the soil often controls the design and quality control of drainage
filters, and groundwater drainage.
Selection of options for dynamic compaction and grouting is related to gradation of the
soil.

Definitions:-

2
Well graded
A well graded soil is a soil that contains particles of a wide range of sizes and has a good
representation of all sizes from the No. 4 to No. 200 sieves.
2
Poorly Graded
A poorly graded soil is a soil that does not have a good representation of all sizes of particles
from the No. 4 to No. 200 sieve.

2
Gap Graded
A gap-graded soil is a soil that has an excess or deficiency of certain particle sizes or a soil that
has at least one particle size missing.

3
Co-efficient of Uniformity
The uniformity coefficient Cu is defined as the ratio of D60 by D10.

Range: When Cu is greater than 4 to 6, it is understood as a well graded soil and when the
Cu is less than 4, they are considered to be poorly graded or uniformly graded.Higher the value
of Cu the larger the range of the particle sizes in the soil. So if the Cu value is high it indicates
that the soil mass consists of different ranges of particle sizes.

Co-efficient of Curvature
Cc—Coefficient of Curvature is the ratio (D30)2/ (D10. D60), where D60,
D30, and D10 are the particle diameters corresponding to 60, 30, and 10% finer on the
cumulative particle-size distribution curve, respectively.4

Range: For the soil to be well graded the value of coefficient of curvature Cc should be in the
range of 1 to 3.

Apparatus and materials:-

1) Sieves of different sizes i.e.(NO.4,NO.10,NO.16,NO.40,NO.50,NO.100,NO.200)
2) Soil sample
3) Tray
4) Weight balance
 Procedure:-
1) Take a soil sample of about 503.3g.
2) Sieves are arranged in descending order of their sizes with a pan atbottom.
 3) Shake the sieves for 5 to 10 minutes.
4) The sieve operation should be conducted by lateral and vertical motionof
sieves.
5) Sieving should be continue until not more than 1% by mass of residue passes
through any sieve duringmotion.
6) Remove the sieve one by one and note the weight of retained material on
eachsieve.
7) Then we find the weight of passing material.
8) And we find the percentage passing or %age finer ofmaterial.

Observations and calculations:

Mass of
Sieve Diameter Mass of Soil Cumulative Cumulative
Soil
Number (mm) Retained (g) Percentage Percentage Passing
Retained
Retained (%) (%)
(%)

#4 4.75

#10 2.00

#16 1.18

#40 0.43

#50 0.25

#100 0.150
 #200 0.075

Pan

Graph:-
Y AXIS =CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE PASSING
X AXIS=GRAIN SIZE

Results and discussion:-

D60 =
D30 =
D10 =
Cu =D60/D10
=
Cu=
Cc= (D30)2 / (D60)(D10)
=

Cc=

% Gravel =

% Sand =

% Fines =
3
Remarks:-
When Cu is greater than 4 to 6, it is understood as a well graded soil and when the Cu is less
than 4, they are considered to be poorly graded or uniformly graded.Higher the value of Cu the
larger the range of the particle sizes in the soil. So if the Cu value is high it indicates that the
soil mass consists of different ranges of particle sizes.

For the soil to be well graded the value of coefficient of curvature Cc should be in the range of
1 to 3.

References:-
1- cemmlab.webhost.uic.edu/Experiment%206-Grain%20Size%20Analysis.pdf
2- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_gradation
3- textofvideo.nptel.ac.in/105101084/lec7.pdf
4- ftp://ftp.dot.state.tx.us/pub/txdot-info/cst/TMS/100-E_series/pdfs/soi142.pdf
 Lab No:-05
Determination of Liquid Limit of Soil using Casagrande’s Apparatus
Designation:-
ASTM D 4318
BS 1377 (Fall Cone Method)

Scope:-
These test methods cover the determination of the liquid limit, plastic limit, and the plasticity
index of soils. The methods described herein are performed only on that portion of a soil that
passes the 425-µm (No. 40) sieve.

If the liquid and plastic limits of soils are used to correlate or estimate the engineering behavior
of soils in their natural moist state, samples should not be permitted to dry before testing unless
data on dried samples are specifically desired.

The multipoint liquid limit method is generally more precise than the one-point method. It is
recommended that the multipoint method be used in cases where test results may be subject to
dispute, or where greater precision is required.

Significance and Use:-

These test methods are used as an integral part of several engineering classification systems to
characterize the fine grained fractions of soils and to specify the fine-grained fraction of
construction materials.

The liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils are also used extensively, either
individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such
as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity (permeability), compatibility, shrink-swell, and shear
strength.

The liquid and plastic limits of a soil and its water content can be used to express its relative
consistency or liquidity index.

Definitions:-
1
Liquid Limit:Liquid limit is defined as the minimum water content at which a pat of soil
cut by a groove of standard dimension will flow together for a distance of 12 mm (1/2 inch)
under an impact of 25 blows in the device.

2
Casagrande’s Liquid Limit Apparatus:An appliance to determine the liquid
limit of a soil. It consists of a brass dish, handle, and cam mounted on a hard rubber base. The
dish falls through a distance of 1 cm per rotation.

Apparatus:-
 Casagrande”s apparatus
 Grooving tool
 Drying oven .105-115˚C
 Container for moisture content
 Weighing balance
 Soil sample

Procedure:-
 Collect soil sample from field.
 Pass soil sample from sieve no. #40(0.425mm).
 Take 100g of sieved sample.
 Make a paste with addition of 20% water and properly mix.
 Fill this paste in Casagrande”s apparatus.
 Groove in paste (in center).
 Rotate the handle of Casagrande”s apparatus with 2 revolutions per second.
 When paste come in contact with less than of half inch (12.5 mm) than stop revolving
and find the liquid limit.
 3

Observations and calculations:-

S. No. Description Repetitions
1 Container Number 1 2 3 4
2 Weight of Pan=W1
3 Weight of wet soil + pan=W2
4 Weight of dry soil + pan=W3
5 Weight of Dry soil (W4=W3-W1)
6 Weight of moisture (W5= W2-W3)
7 Moisture Content (W5/W4*100)
8 Number of Blows
Flow Type Point curve:-

Liquid Limit =

Results and discussion:

Liquid Limit or the moisture content required to change the soil from plastic to
liquidstateis 24.04%
Liquid Limit is used to calculate the plasticity index which is very important property of soil.
It shows the amount of water at which the soil will remain in plastic state.

Reference:-
1. http://civilblog.org/2015/03/07/liquid-limit-of-soil-what-why-how/
2. https://www.mindat.org/glossary/Casagrande_liquid_limit_apparatus
 PRACTICAL no 6 =PLASTIC LIMIT

DESIGNATION

ASTM D 4318

SCOPE

This section describes the laboratory procedure for determining the plastic limit of soils. The
results of two trials must be obtained for averaging. This method is based upon ASTM
Designation D 4318

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the
oven-dry soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semisolid states of consistency. It is the
moisture content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread ⅛ in. (3
mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other acceptable surface.

THEORY

Moisture content at which soil transform from plastic to Semi solid state is called plastic limit

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

 U.S. No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.

 Spatula, about 3 in. (75 mm) long and approximately ¾ in. (19 mm) wide.
 Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
 Watering bottle, with distilled water de mineralized or tap water.
 Surface for rolling - a ground glass plate or piece of glazed or unglazed paper on
which to roll the soil sample. (Unglazed refers to paper similar to that used for
mimeographing). Paper toweling is not satisfactory.
 Oven - a thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperatures
of 230±9° F (110±5° C) for drying moisture samples.
 A ⅛ in. (3 mm) diameter rod may be used as a guide to help the operator estimate the
thread size.

PROCEDURE
i. Squeeze and roll a 0.3 oz. (8 g) test sample into an ellipsoidal shaped mass. Roll this
mass between the fingers or palm of hand and the ground glass plate or satisfactory paper
on a smooth horizontal surface with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread
of uniform diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling should be between 80 and
90 strokes/min., counting a stroke as one complete motion of the hand forward and back
to the starting position again.
 ii. When the diameter of the thread becomes ⅛ in. (3 mm), break the thread into six or eight
pieces. Squeeze the pieces together between the thumbs and fingers into a uniform mass
roughly ellipsoidal in shape, and reroll.
iii. Continue this alternate rolling to a thread ⅛ in. (3 mm) in diameter, gathering together,
kneading and rerolling, until the thread crumbles under the pressure required for rolling
and the soil can no longer be rolled into a thread.
i. Crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater than ⅛ in. (3
mm). This shall be considered a satisfactory end point, provided the soil has
been previously rolled into a thread ⅛ in. (3 mm) in diameter.

iv. The crumbling will manifest itself differently with various soil types: some soils fall
apart in numerous small aggregations of particles; others may form an outside tubular
layer that starts splitting at both ends. The splitting progresses toward the middle, and
finally the thread falls apart in many small platy particles. Heavy clay soils require much
pressure to deform the thread, particularly as they approach the
v. EB 15-025 Page 13 of 16 plastic limit, and finally the thread breaks into a series of barrel
shaped segments each about ¼ to ⅜ in. (6.3 to 9.5 mm) in length. (See Figure 3.)
vi. At no time shall the operator attempt to produce failure at exactly ⅛ in. (3 mm) diameter
by allowing the thread to reach ⅛ in. (3 mm), then reducing the rate of rolling or the hand
pressure or both, and continuing the rolling without further deformation until the thread
falls apart. Maintain the same rate of rolling and the same hand pressure during the entire
test.
vii. When testing very low plastic soils, it is permissible, however, to reduce the total amount
of deformation by making the initial diameter of the mass near the required ⅛ in. (3 mm)
final diameter.
viii. When the plastic limit has been reached, a sample of the soil is immediately taken to
determine its moisture content. Place the crumbled portions of the soil together in a
suitable tarred container. Weigh the container and wet soil and record on Form SM 309
(Appendices B & C). Weigh to the nearest 0.01 g.

ix. Repeat to obtain another plastic limit sample. Weigh and record on Form SM 309. Oven-
dry the soil samples in the uncovered containers to constant weight at 230±9° F (110±5°
C). Place samples in a desiccator (1) and allow to cool. Replace the covers on the
containers and weigh before hygroscopic moisture can be absorbed. Weigh (2) to the
nearest 0.01 g and record. The loss in weight of the soil in each tare, due to drying, is
recorded as the weight of water.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

TABLE OF 1 2 3
CONTENTS
WT of empty
container
W1
WT of empty
container +wet
soil=W2
WT of empty
container +dry
soil=W3
Wt of water
WW=W2-W3
Wt of soil solids
WS=W3-W1
W=WW/WS*100

COMMENTS
When the soil is extremely sandy, the plastic limit test shall be done before the liquid
limit test. If the plastic limit cannot be determined, then report the plasticity index as
NP (non-plastic)
 LAB NO. 7
To determine in-place soil density by using core-cutter method
Designation:-
ASTM D 2937

Scope:-
These test methods cover the determination of the in-place density and unit weight of soil and
rock using a pouring device and calibrated sand to determine the volume of a core cutter. The
word “rock” in these test methods is used to imply that the material being tested will typically
contain particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm).

Significance and use:-

These test methods are used to determine the in-place density of compacted materials in
construction of earth embankments, road fills, and structure backfill. These test methods can be
used to determine the in-place density of natural soil deposits, aggregates, soil mixtures, or
other similar material.

A core cutter is typically a cylindrical seamless steel tube for determination of the dry density of
soil. In the of field density test, the cutter is pressed into the soil mass so that it is filled with the
soil and when The cutter filled with the soil it is lifted up. The mass of the soil in the cutter is
determined.

Definitions:-
1
Bulk Densitydefined as the dry weight of soil per unit volume of soil. Bulk density considers
both the solids and the pore space.
2
Dry Densitythe dry mass of soil per unit volume. The dry density is usually expressed as
either g/cm3 or t/m3, which are alike.

Apparatus and materials:-

1. Cylindrical core cutter, 100mm internal diameter and 130mm long
2. Steel rammer, mass 9kg, overall length with the foot and staff about 900mm.
3. Steel dolly, 25mm high and 100mm internal diameter
4. Weighing balance, accuracy 1g.
5. Palette knife
6. Straight edge, steel rule etc.
Procedure:-
1. Determine the internal diameter and height of the core cutter.
2. Determine the mass (M1) of the cutter.
3. Expose a small area of the soil to be tested. Level the surface, about 300mm square in area.
4. Place the dolly over the top of the core cutter and press the core cutter into the soil mass
using the rammer. Stop the pressing when about 15mm of the dolly protrudes above the soil
surface.
5. Remove the soil surrounding the core cutter, and take out the core cutter. Soil would project
from the lower end of the cutter.
6. Remove the dolly. Trim the top and bottom surface of the core cutter carefully using a
straight edge.
7. Weigh the core cutter filled with the soil (M2).
8. Remove the core of the soil from the cutter. Take a representative sample for the water
content determination.
9. Determine the water content.
Pictures:-
Observations and calculations:-
Sr. No. Observations and Calculations Determination No.
1
Observation
1 Core Cutter No. 1
2 Internal Diameter
3 Internal Height
4 Mass of empty core cutter (M1)
5 Mass of core cutter with soils (M2)
Calculations
6 Mass of soil=M=M2-M1
7 Volume of core cutter=V
8 Water content
9 Bulk density(Yb)(KN/m3)
10 Dry density using formula
Yd=Yb/(1+W)

Remarks:-
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
References:-
1. http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1130447039&top
icorder=6
2. http://tmltesting.com/w/index.php?title=Dry_density
3. http://civilblog.org/2014/03/31/determination-of-field-density-of-soil-by-core-cutter-
method-is-27270-part-29/
4. http://home.iitk.ac.in/~pkbd/Lab-DensityCoreCutter.html
5. https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/dry-density-of-soil-by-core-cutter-method/2680/
 LAB NO 8
Determination of field density of soil by sand replacement method

Designation:-
ASTM D 4914

Scope:-
These test methods cover the determination of the in-place density and unit weight of soil and
rock using a pouring device and calibrated sand to determine the volume of a test pit. The word
“rock” in these test methods is used to imply that the material being tested will typically contain
particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm).

Significance and use:-

These test methods are used to determine the in-place density of compacted materials in
construction of earth embankments, road fills, and structure backfill. These test methods can be
used to determine the in-place density of natural soil deposits, aggregates, soil mixtures, or
other similar material.

Definitions:-
1
Bulk Density:defined as the dry weight of soil per unit volume of soil. Bulk density
considers both the solids and the pore space.
2
Dry Density:the dry mass of soil per unit volume. The dry density is usually expressed as
either g/cm3 or t/m3, which are alike.

Apparatus and materials:-

1. Sand pouring cylinder
2. Calibrating can
3. Metal tray with a central hole
 4. Dry sand (passing through 600 micron sieve)
5. Balance
6. Moisture content bins
7. Glass plate
8. Metal tray
9. Scraper tool

Procedure:-
STAGE-1 (CALIBRATION OF SAND DENSITY)

1. Measure the internal dimensions (diameter, d and height, h) of the calibrating can and
compute its internal volume, Vc = πd2h/4.
2. Fill the sand cone apparatus with sand with 1 cm top clearance (to avoid any spillover
during operation) and find its weight W1
3. Place the sand cone apparatus on a plate, open the slit above the cone by operating the
valve and allow the sand to run down. When there is no further downward movement of
sand in the cone, close the slit. Let it be W2.
4. Determine the weight of sand required to fill the cone as W3
5. Weight the calibrating container as W4, weight the calibrating container plus sand as W5
and measure the weight of sand in the calibrating container as W6.
6. Finally, determine the bulk density of sand.

STAGE-2 (MEASUREMENT OF SOIL DENSITY)

1. Clean and level the ground surface where the field density is to be determined
2. Place the tray with a central hole over the portion of the soil to be tested.
3. Excavate a pit into the ground, through the hole in the plate, approximately 12 cm deep
(same as the height of the calibrating can). The hole in the tray will guide the diameter of
the pit to be made in the ground.
4. Collect the excavated soil into the tray and weigh the soil (W)
5. Determine the moisture content of the excavated soil.
6. Place the sand cone apparatus, with sand having the latest weight of W7, over the pit so
that the base of the cylinder covers the pit concentrically.
7. Open the slit of the sand cone apparatus and allow the sand to run into the pit freely, till
there is no downward movement of sand level in the sand cone apparatus and then close
the slit.
8. Find the weight of the sand cone apparatus with the remaining sand (W8).
9. Measure the weight of sand in the hole W9.
10.Measure the volume of sand of the hole (Vh).
 11.Finally, determine the bulk and dry density of soil.

Pictures:-

Observations and calculations:-

Part-I: Calibration for bulk Density of Sand

Sr. No. Observation and Calculations Determination No.
Sr. No. Observation and Calculations 1
1 Mass of sand cone apparatus+sand (before
pouring in cone)=W1
2 Mass of sand cone apparatus+sand (after
pouring in cone)=W2
3 Mass of sand in the cone W3=W1-W2
4 Volume of calibrating container=Vc 0.0415ft3
5 Mass of calibrating container=W4
 6 Mass of calibrating container+sand=W5
7 Mass of sand in calibrating container (in
Vc)=W6=W5-W4
8 Dry density of sand=Ys=W6/Vc

Part-II: Bulk and Dry Density of Soil

Sr. No. Observations and calculations Determination No.
Sr. No. Observations and calculations 1
1 Mass of excavated soil (W)
2 Mass of sand cone apparatus+sand (before
pouring in hole)=W7
3 Mass of sand cone apparatus+sand (after
pouring in hole)=W8
4 Mass of sand in the hole=W9=W7-W8-W3
5 Volume of sand in the hole=Vh=W9/Ys
6 Bulk density=Yb=W/Vh
7 Water content
8 Dry density using formula, Yd

Remarks:-
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

References:-
1. http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1130447039&
topicorder=6
2. http://tmltesting.com/w/index.php?title=Dry_density
3. https://civildigital.com/sand-replacement-method/
 LAB NO 9
To perform Standard & Modified compaction test and to obtain Moisture
Density relationship for given compactive effect on particular soil.
Designation:-
ASTM D 1557

Scope:-
These test methods cover the determination of the liquid limit, plastic limit, and the plasticity
index of soils. The methods described herein are performed only on that portion of a soil that
passes the 425-µm (No. 40) sieve.

Significance and Use:-

Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing
soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis of
field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications.
Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum”
density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content.

In general, most engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density. The optimum water
content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified compactive effort.

Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water content results in a
relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more ductile,
less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil
compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the
optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle
orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum
water content to the same density.

Definitions:-
1
Optimum Moisture Content:the water content at which a maximum dry unit weight can
be achieved after a given compaction effort.
2
Moisture Content:The moisture content of soil also referred to as water content is an
indicator of the amount of water present in soil. By definition, moisture content is the ratio of
the mass of water in a sample to the mass of solids in the sample, expressed as a percentage.
3
Maximum Dry Density:The dry density obtained by the compaction of soil at its optimum
moisture content.
4
Dry Density:the dry mass of soil per unit volume. The dry density is usually expressed as
either g/cm3 or t/m3, which are alike.

Apparatus:-
 Mold.
 Manual rammer.
 Drying oven .105-115 c.
 Extruder.
 Weighing balance
 Soil sample.
 #4 sieve.
 Moisture can.
 Graduated Cylinder.
 Straight edge.

Procedure:-
(1) Select a representative quantity of air-dried soil that passes the No. 4 Sieve. If the
material must be broken-up, it should be accomplished in a manner that does not crush
the soil particles.
(2) Take 3 kg of the selected soil and mix with a 3% of water for modified compaction test
and 6% of water for standard compaction test.
(3) Determine the weight of the compaction mold without its base (without the collar) by
using the balance.
(4) Measure the dimensions of compaction mold to determine its volume. Attach the collar
and base plate to the mold.
(5) Use the standard compaction method and compact the soil in three equal layers, each
layer being given 25 blows from the rammer weighting 5.5 lbs. (2.5 kg) dropping from a
height of 12 inches (30.5 cm). The blows should be uniformly distributed over the
surface of each layer. The amount of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mold
leaving about ¼ in (5mm) to be struck off when the collar is removed. Use the modified
compaction method and compact the soil in five equal layers, each layer being given 25
blows from the rammer weighting 10 lbs. (4.5 kg) dropping from a height of 18 inches
(45.7 cm). The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer. The
 amount of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mold leaving about ¼ in (5mm) to
be struck off when the collar is removed.

(6) Remove the collar and base plate carefully, strike both the top and base of the compacted
cylinder of soil with a straight edge. Fill in any holes in the compacted specimen with
soil if the smoothing process removes any small pebbles

(7) Clean the mold from outside and weight it.

(8) Extrude the cylinder of soil from the mold, split it, take samples and put them in the oven
for moisture determination.

(9) Repeat the same process by adding 3% more water in each trial. Carefully remix and
repeat steps 5 to 9 until, based on wet weights, a peak value is followed by two slightly
lesser compacted weights.

(10) Return to the laboratory the following day and weight the oven-dry water content
samples to find the actual water content of test trial.

(11) Plot graph between dry density and moisture content.

(12) Plot zero air void line/saturation curve.

5
Picture:-
 Modified Compaction Test
Trials 1 2 3 4 5 6
Can no.
Can+wet soil
Can+dry soil
wt of water
wt of Can
wt of dry soil
w(%)
Density
wt of soil+Mould
wt of Mould
wt of soil in mould
wt of soil(kN)
Observations and calculations:-

rb(kN/m3)
rd(kN/m3)
For plotting zero air void curve (Sr=100%) and curves for degree of saturation <100%
d(m) A(m2) rd=(Gs.rw)/(1+w.Gs/Sr) Gs= assume
h(m) V(m3) w(%) (assumed) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
rd (kN/m3) (Sr=100%)
RESULTS rd (kN/m3) (Sr=90%)
rd max OMC in %
in kN/m3
Graph:-

Remarks:-

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

References:-

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimum_water_content_for_tillage
2. https://eng.ucmerced.edu/snsjho/files/MHWG/Laboratory/Soils/Proto
col/Chapter_3_Moisture_content.pdf
3. https://www.mindat.org/glossary/maximum_dry_density
4. http://tmltesting.com/w/index.php?title=Pd
4. http://www.civilengineeringforum.me/standard-proctor-compaction-
test/
 LAB NO 10
To perform Standard & Modified compaction test and to obtain Moisture Density
relationship for given compactive effect on particular soil.
Designation:-
ASTM D 1557

Scope:-
These test methods cover the determination of the liquid limit, plastic limit, and the plasticity
index of soils. The methods described herein are performed only on that portion of a soil that
passes the 425-µm (No. 40) sieve.

Significance and Use:-

Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing
soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis of
field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications.
Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum”
density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content.

In general, most engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density. The optimum water
content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified compactive effort.

Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water content results in a
relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more ductile,
less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil
compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the
optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle
orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum
water content to the same density.

Definitions:-
1
Optimum Moisture Content:the water content at which a maximum dry unit weight can
be achieved after a given compaction effort.
2
Moisture Content:The moisture content of soil also referred to as water content is an
indicator of the amount of water present in soil. By definition, moisture content is the ratio of
the mass of water in a sample to the mass of solids in the sample, expressed as a percentage.
3
Maximum Dry Density:The dry density obtained by the compaction of soil at its optimum
moisture content.
4
Dry Density:the dry mass of soil per unit volume. The dry density is usually expressed as
either g/cm3 or t/m3, which are alike.

Apparatus:-
 Mold.
 Manual rammer.
 Drying oven .105-115 c.
 Extruder.
 Weighing balance
 Soil sample.
 #4 sieve.
 Moisture can.
 Graduated Cylinder.
 Straight edge.

Procedure:-
(13) Select a representative quantity of air-dried soil that passes the No. 4 Sieve. If the
material must be broken-up, it should be accomplished in a manner that does not crush
the soil particles.
(14) Take 3 kg of the selected soil and mix with a 3% of water for modified compaction
test and 6% of water for standard compaction test.
(15) Determine the weight of the compaction mold without its base (without the collar)
by using the balance.
(16) Measure the dimensions of compaction mold to determine its volume. Attach the
collar and base plate to the mold.
(17) Use the standard compaction method and compact the soil in three equal layers,
each layer being given 25 blows from the rammer weighting 5.5 lbs. (2.5 kg) dropping
from a height of 12 inches (30.5 cm). The blows should be uniformly distributed over the
surface of each layer. The amount of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mold
leaving about ¼ in (5mm) to be struck off when the collar is removed. Use the modified
compaction method and compact the soil in five equal layers, each layer being given 25
blows from the rammer weighting 10 lbs. (4.5 kg) dropping from a height of 18 inches
(45.7 cm). The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer. The
 amount of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mold leaving about ¼ in (5mm) to
be struck off when the collar is removed.

(18) Remove the collar and base plate carefully, strike both the top and base of the
compacted cylinder of soil with a straight edge. Fill in any holes in the compacted
specimen with soil if the smoothing process removes any small pebbles

(19) Clean the mold from outside and weight it.

(20) Extrude the cylinder of soil from the mold, split it, take samples and put them in
the oven for moisture determination.

(21) Repeat the same process by adding 3% more water in each trial. Carefully remix
and repeat steps 5 to 9 until, based on wet weights, a peak value is followed by two
slightly lesser compacted weights.

(22) Return to the laboratory the following day and weight the oven-dry water content
samples to find the actual water content of test trial.

(23) Plot graph between dry density and moisture content.

(24) Plot zero air void line/saturation curve.

5
Picture:-
 Modified Compaction Test
Trials 1 2 3 4 5 6
Can no.
Can+wet soil
Can+dry soil
wt of water
wt of Can
wt of dry soil
w(%)
Density
wt of soil+Mould
wt of Mould
wt of soil in mould
wt of soil(kN)
Observations and calculations:-

rb(kN/m3)
rd(kN/m3)
For plotting zero air void curve (Sr=100%) and curves for degree of saturation <100%
d(m) A(m2) rd=(Gs.rw)/(1+w.Gs/Sr) Gs= assume
h(m) V(m3) w(%) (assumed) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
rd (kN/m3) (Sr=100%)
RESULTS rd (kN/m3) (Sr=90%)
rd max OMC in %
in kN/m3
Graph:-

Remarks:-
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

References:-

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimum_water_content_for_tillage
6. https://eng.ucmerced.edu/snsjho/files/MHWG/Laboratory/Soils/Proto
col/Chapter_3_Moisture_content.pdf
7. https://www.mindat.org/glossary/maximum_dry_density
8. http://tmltesting.com/w/index.php?title=Pd
9. http://www.civilengineeringforum.me/standard-proctor-compaction-
test/
 LAB NO: 11

Determination of Permeability of soil by CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

Designation:-
ASTMD 2434

Scope: -The scope/purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic

conductivity) of a sandy soil by the constant head test method. There are two general types of
permeability test methods that are routinely performed in the laboratory:

(1) The constant head test method, and

(2) The falling head test method.
The constant head test method is used for permeable soils (k>10-4 cm/s) and the falling head
test is mainly used for less permeable soils (k<10-4 cm/s).

Significance and Use: -

Permeability refers to the porosity of a soil to allow water to move through its void spaces.
Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow through a
soil. This property is necessary for the calculation of seepage through earth dams or under sheet
pile walls, the calculation of the seepage rate from waste storage facilities (landfills, ponds,
etc.), and the calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil deposits.

Definitions: -
1
Permeability of soil:The ease with which water can flow through the soil is permeability of
soilOr Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air
2
Coefficient of permeabilityis equal to the rate of flow of water through a unit cross
section area under a unit hydraulic gradient.

Equipment:-
 Permeameter
 Weigh balance
  Vernier caliper
 Stop watch
 Container
Procedure:-
1. Calculate the volume of permeability from its diameter and length.
2. For the given bulk density and moisture, calculate the weight of the soil needed for the
volume.
3. Place the specimen in the Permeameter and allow to flow through the sample for at least
10 min in order to saturate it. Longer periods are sometimes required to ensure complete
saturation of the sample. Bubbles that appear (entrapped air) should be removed by
tapping gently on the Permeameter.
4. When constant flow conditions have been achieved, measure the hydraulic head “h”
across the sample.
5. Using a 500 or 1000 cu-cm container (preferably 1000cu-cm), record the time “t”
required to collect 1000 cu-cm of water. Repeat two or three additional times until two
runs agree reasonably well.
6. Measure and record the water temperature as T˚C
7. Compute the K value at test temperature and K20 (co-efficient of permeability at 20˚C)
by using formula
K=QL/Aht

Where,

K= Co-efficient of permeability

Q=Volume of outflow

L= Distance between manometers

A=Cross- sectional area

t =test duration

h= difference in head

Picture:-
Formula:-

The coefficient of permeability (k) is obtained from the relation

Where,

q= discharge

Q=total volume of water

t=time period

h=head causing flow

L= length of specimen

A= cross-sectional area.

Observations and calculations:-

Diameter = 100mm

Length =____

Volume=______ ml

G=____

Area=_____

Sr. No. Observations and Calculations Determination No.

Sr. No. Observations and Calculations 1
Observation
1 Mass of empty mold with base plate
2 Mass of mold, soil and base plate
3 Hydraulic head=h
4 Time interval=t
5 Quantity of flow=Q
(a) First time in period t

(b) Second time in period t

(c) Third time in period t

Average=Q
Calculations
6 Mass of soil=(2)-(1)
7 Bulk Density=Yb=Mass/Volume
8 Water content=W
9 Dry Density=Yd=Yb/(1+W)
10 Void Ratio=e=(YwG)/Yd -1
11 K=(QL)/(Aht)
Coefficient of permeability of the given soil =_______ mm/sec.

Remarks:-
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

References:-
1. http://www.fao.org/fishery/static/FAO_Training/FAO_Training/Gene
ral/x6706e/x6706e09.htm
2. https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/permeability-of-soil-by-
constant-head-permeameter/2993/
3. https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/permeability-of-soil-by-
constant-head-permeameter/2993/
 LAB NO: 12
Determination of Permeability of soil by VARIABLE HEAD METHOD

Designation:-
ASTMD 2434.

Scope:-
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which water can flow through a soil volume. It is one
of the most important geotechnical parameters. However, it is probably the most difficult
parameter to determine. In large part, it controls the strength and deformation behavior of soils.

It directly affects the following:

 Quantity of water that will flow toward an excavation

 Design of cutoffs beneath dams on permeable foundations
 Design of the clay layer for a landfill liner.
For fine grained soil Falling head permeability test is done, whereas constant head permeability
test is done for the coarse grained soil.

Significance and Use:-

The falling head permeability test is a common laboratory testing method used to determine the
permeability of fine grained soils with intermediate and low permeability such as silts and
clays. This testing method can be applied to an undisturbed sample.

Applications:-
 Estimation of quantity of underground seepage water under various hydraulic conditions
 Quantification of water during pumping for underground construction
 Stability analysis of slopes, earth dams, and earth retaining structures
 Design of landfill liner

Definitions:-
2
Permeability:The ease with which water can flow through the soil is permeability of soil.
4
Coefficient of permeability:is equal to the rate of flow of water through a unit cross
section area under a unit hydraulic gradient.
1
Formula:-

The variable head permeability is used to measure the permeability of relatively less pervious
soils. The coefficient of permeability is given by

Where

= initial head = final head

t= time intervala= cross-sectional area of the liquid stand pipe

A=cross-sectional area of the specimenL= length of specimen

Equipment:-
 Permeameter
 Weigh balance
 Vernier caliper
 Stop watch
 Container
 Stand pipe
Procedure:-
1. Take a sample of soil and weigh it.
2. Sieve the soil sample and collect the soil passing through 19mm sieve.
3. Now take Permeameterand measure length between two manometers and its diameter.
4. Weight the Permeametermold and record as W1.
5. Place the undisturbed soil sample in the mold and record the weight of the mold with soil
sample as W2.
6. Calculate the weight of soil sample in the mold W3=W2-W1.
7. Attach the Permeameter with water supply and allow water to flow. This pretest flow
period should be permitted to continue until the specimen saturated.
8. Once the soil is saturated close the stand pipe valve. Measure the height of the water in
the stand pipe with respect to some convenient datum and record as h1.
9. Open the stand pipe valve and start the stop watch simultaneously.
10.After a reasonable period, or after a reasonable quantity of water has flowed out of stand
pipe, close the stand pipe valve and record the time as “t”. Measure the height to the
stand pipe water level from the same datum used in step 7 and record as h2.
 11.Measure and record the water temperature as T˚C.
12.Compute the K value at test temperature and K20 (co-efficient of permeability at 20˚C)
by using formula

Where,

K=co-efficient of permeability A= Cross-sectional area of Permeameter a = Cross-

sectional area of stand pipe. t = time duration in falling head. L= length
of specimen h1 = initial height h2= final height

3
Picture:-

5
Observations and calculations:-
Specimen height, L = _________m

Specimen diameter, D = ________ m

Cross-sectional areas, A =____________=____________ m2

Specimen volume, V = ______________ = ___________ m3

Mass of mold, = _________ kg

Mass of mold + wet specimen, = _________ kg

Specimen mass, M = _________ kg

Specimen bulk unit weight, b = W/V = ____________ = ____________ kN/m3

Internal diameter of tube, = ___________m

Tube cross-sectional area, a = ________________ =______________ m2

Sr. No. Time, t (Sec) h1 h2

(mm/sec)
1

2
3
4
Average

Remarks:-
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

References:-
1. https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/variable-head-permeability-test-of-soil/3024/
2. ecs.fullerton.edu/~btiwari/geotech_Lab/mainpage_files/other/Permeability.pdf
3. http://www.geotechdata.info/geotest/falling-head-permeability-test.html
4. https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/permeability-of-soil-by-constant-head-
permeameter/2993/
5. http://www.utm.my/labmanagementunitkl/files/2013/06/DDPA-3052-
PERMEABILITY_2013.pdf
 LAB NO 13
Determination of particles size distribution by hydrometric method

Designation:-
ASTM D-422
Scope:-
This test method covers the quantitative determination of the distribution of particle sizes in
soils. The distribution of particle sizes larger than 75μm (retained on the No. 200 sieve) is
determined by sieving, while the distribution of particle sizes smaller than 75μm is determined
by a sedimentation process.

Significance and use:-

The percentage of sand, silt and clay in the inorganic fraction of soil is measured in this
procedure. The method is based on Stoke’s law governing the rate of sedimentation of particles
suspended in water.

Definitions:-

Apparatus and materials:-

1. Glass measuring cylinder (jar), 1000ml
2. Mechanical stirrer
3. Weighing balance, accuracy 0.01g
4. Oven
5. Conical flask or beaker, 1000ml
6. Stop watch
7. Hydrometer
8. Thermometer
9. Glass rod
10.75 sieve
11.Scale
12.Deflocculating agent.
Reagents:-
Dispersing solution, 5%: Dissolve 50 g of sodium hexametaphosphate, Na6(PO3)6 in deionized
water and dilute to 1 liter.

Procedure:-
1. Mix 100 ml of the 5% dispersing solution and 880 ml of deionized water in a 1000 ml
cylinder. This mixture is the blank. (Note: 100 ml + 880 ml = 980 ml. This blank is not
diluted to 1000 ml; the other 20 ml is the volume occupied by 50 g of soil.).
2. Weigh 25-50 g of soil and transfer to a dispersing cup.
3. Add 100-ml of 5% dispersing solution.
4. Attach dispersing cup to mixer and mix the sample for 30 – 60 sec.
5. Transfer the suspension quantitatively from the dispersing cup to a 1000 ml cylinder.
6. Fill to the 1000-ml mark with deionized water equilibrated to room temperature, or allow
to stand overnight to equilibrate.
7. At the beginning of each set, record the temperature, and the hydrometer reading of the
blank, using the procedure described below.
8. To determine the density insert plunger into suspension, and carefully mix for 30 sec.
until a uniform suspension is obtained. Remove plunger (begin 40 second timer) and
gently insert the hydrometer into the suspension.
9. Record the hydrometer reading at 40 sec. This is the amount of silt plus clay suspended.
The sand has settled to the bottom of the cylinder by this time. (Repeat 7.8 – 7.9 for each
sample)
10.Record the hydrometer reading again after 6 hours, 52 minutes. This is the amount of
clay in suspension. The silt has settled to the bottom of the cylinder by this time.
Observations and calculations:
Pictures
Observations and Calculations
Zero Error =

Specific Gravity =

Sample Mass =

Agent Na6(PO3)6 =

Cont. Sieve #200 =

a=

Date Time Time Temp Actual Corrected %Fine Hydrometer

Of Hydrometer Hydrometer Corrected
Reading Reading Reading for
Meniscus

L K L/t √L/t D=kx√L/t

Remarks
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

References