BIO 330-INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE

LABORATORY MANUAL
BIO 330
Diploma in Science
 BIO 330-INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENT

NO TITLE PAGE

1 BASIC POPULATION ECOLOGY 1

2 DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES 9
IN A HABITAT
3 CAPTURE-RECAPTURE TECHNIQUES 14
4 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS 19
5 SOIL ANALYSIS 23
6 ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEM

Prepared by:
Siti Suhaila Binti Harith
Resource Person
Contact Number: 09 4602622 / 019 5704724
 Demography - Human Population Ecology

Experiment 1: Demography - Human Population Ecology

Introduction

A cemetery is an excellent place to study human demography.

Demography is defined as "the study of the characteristics of human populations,
such as size, growth, density, distribution and vital statistics". Gravestones record
the dates of birth and death, which can be used to calculate death rates and
draw survivorship curves. A survivorship curve is simply a graphical
representation of the chance that an individual will survive from birth to a
particular age. By comparing survivorship curves for different periods of time, we
may look for historical trends in demography over the decades.

Over the last few centuries, advances in health care and large-scale
global political conflict have left opposing marks on the demographics of our
population. Two major time intervals stand out: before 1950 and after 1950.
People who died before 1950 witnessed the industrial revolution, the ravaging
effects of polio, as well as World Wars I and II. Following 1956, Malaysia getting
it stability through it independent day, and with the exception of a ratial riots on
May 13, 1969. What do you predict about how the demographics of the human
population have changed during these two time periods?

Demographics from local cemeteries can be used, but in order to get a

broader scope of life in we can used the population in US since the world wide
web can be used to gather data about birth and death rates all over the country.
Many cemeteries now have databases that list all individuals buried there. This is
a much faster way than visiting all cemeteries in an area and making
assumptions about the overall World population.

Objectives:

1. Some of the basic concepts of population demography

2. How factors such as advances in medicine and environmental protection
may have affected human demography over the past 150 years
3. How human demography might change in the future, based on the current
socio-political reality and the presence of incurable diseases (such as AIDS)

1
 Demography - Human Population Ecology

Hypotheses

Write your answers to each question below before you start collecting data (use
separate page)

1. In general, what are your predictions about death rates of people before or
after 1950?

2. For infants of both sexes, would you expect infant mortality to be higher or
lower before or after 1950? Why?

3. How might the survivorship of females differ from that of males in the 20-30
age groups? (Why?)

Procedure

1. Using the data from Appendix A or you can extract the data from cemetery
database found at www.interment.net or you also can collect data from
local cemeteries nearest to your place
2 Record your data in table 1 and use it to calculate and answer all questions
provided in this lab

2
 Females who died Females who died Males who died Males who died
before 1950 after 1950 before 1950 after 1950
Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:
Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Data Table I

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

3
Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Name Death Years: Name Death: Name Death: Name Death:

Birth: Birth: Birth: Birth:

Age of death: Age of death: Age of death: Age of death:

Demography - Human Population Ecology
 Demography - Human Population Ecology

Data Table II: Calculations of Survivorship and Mortality

1. To calculate the number alive, place your total number of deaths in the first
row (0-9) of column B. This is the total number of people in your group upon
which death took its toll as they grew older.

2. Subtract the number who died in each age interval (column A) from the
number who were "alive" in your sample from the beginning of that age
interval. Write this number in the next row in column B. Repeat to fill out
column

3. Calculate the survivorship - for each row in column C, divide the number in
column B by the TOTAL you found at the bottom of column A. This gives you
the fraction of people that survived to each age interval. By definition, the
survivorship of the first age interval equals 1.0 (all living newborns have
survived to that point)

Age Group # of deaths # alive

0-9 2 20 (what you
start with)
10-19 4 18 (20-2)

20-29 1 14 (18-4)

30-39 2 13 (14-1)

Females Who Died Before 1950

Column A Column B Column C
Mortality (M) = # # "alive" at the be-
of deaths per age ginning of age Survivorship (S)
interval interval
0-9 3 1.0 (by definition)
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
Total Number of Deaths for data set___________

4
 Demography - Human Population Ecology

Females Who Died After 1950

Column A Column B Column C

Mortality (M) = # of deaths # "alive" at the beginning of age
Survivorship (S)
per age interval interval
0-9 1.0 (by definition)

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70-79

80-89

Total Number of Deaths for data set___________

Males Who Died Before 1950

Column A Column B Column C
Mortality (M) = # of deaths # "alive" at the beginning of
Survivorship (S)
per age interval age interval
0-9 1.0 (by definition)

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70-79

80-89
Total Number of Deaths for data set___________

5
 Demography - Human Population Ecology

Males Who Died After 1950

Column A Column B Column C
Mortality (M) = # of deaths # "alive" at the beginning of
Survivorship (S)
per age interval age interval
0-9 1.0 (by definition)

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69
70-79

80-89
Total Number of Deaths for data set___________

Data Analysis

Make a graph of survivorship (Y axis) as a function of age group (X axis). Each

data set should have its own line (one line for females who died before 1950,
one line for females who died after 1950, one line for males who died before
1950, and a line for males who died after 1950. Use Create A Graph or
another program to construct your graph. Hand drawn graphs are acceptable
as long as they are neat and constructed on graph paper.

1. What is your interpretation of the juvenile (age 0-19) mortality pre and post
1950 for males and for females. List all factors that might account for any
differences you see.

2. What is your interpretation of mortality for reproductive age adults (20-40) for
pre and post 1950 for males and for females? List all factors that might
account for any differences you see.

3. In Africa, AIDS takes its toll on the population, but deaths occur most
frequently in the 20-40 age group. Show a survivorship curve that would
illustrate this pattern.

6
 Demography - Human Population Ecology

4. What shifts in survivorship and mortality curves would you expect if significant cuts
were made in social services such as prenatal and infant care?

5. Compare the two curves below: Which country is probably the better place to live?
Defend your answer.

7

Abu Bin Ketuk, b. 1951, d. 2010
Ah Binti Rasid, b. 1921, d. 1975
Aki Bin Akop, b. 1944, d. 1972
Ali Bin Ahmad, 1911, d. 1981
Ali bin Ahmad, b. 1800, d. Jul 01, 1848.
Api Bin Rotan, b. 1888, d. 1923
Apo Bin Selar, b. 1911, d. 1972
Atan Bin Kosim, b. 1891, d. 1902
Awang Bin Anjang, b. 1933, d. 1940
Basah Binti Mat, b, 1941 d. 1953.
Batik Binti Che, b, 1933, d.1946
Bedah Binti Kosi, b. 1925, d. 1965
Biah bin Mat, b. 1916, d. 1983
Biah Binti Li, b. 1931, d. 1990
Buntang Bin Tang, 1925, d. 1968
Burhan Bin Mat, b. 1944, d. 1948.
Cekor Binti Mat, b. 1931, d. 1973.
Che Ah Binti Aki, b. 1933, d 2007
Che Bin Teh, b. 1904, d. 1966
Din Bin Dam, b. 1941, d. 1972
Din Bin Pin, b. 1911, d. 1980
Ecah Binti Awang, b, 1962, d. 1962
Esah binti Ali, b. 1943, d. 1945
Esah Binti Tok, b, 1934, d. 2000
Gambir Bin Mat, b. 1926, d. 1963
Jam Bin Mi, b. 1950, d. 1967
Jantan Bin Mat, b. 1940, d. 1959.
Jenab Binti Mat Long, b. 1935, d. 2012
Jenab Binti Ngah Pi, b. 1934, d. 1977
Jendol Bin Seman b. 1935., d. 1946
Kalsom Binti Jantan, b 1954, d. 1954.
Kalsom Binti Mat, b. 1955, d. 2000
Kalsom Binti Yop, b. 1940, d. 1946
Karim Bin Ratip, b. 1956, d. 1970
Kasih Bin Saleh, b, 1933, d. 1945
Kasih Binti Atan, b. 1930, d 1970.
Katam Bin Somad, b. 1930, d. 1988
Kecom Binti Teh, b. 1970, 1971
Kembang Binti Long, b. 1891, d. 1954
Kesah Binti Kari, b, 1951, d. 2012
Khir Bin Tam, b. 1938, d. 1945
Khir Bin Tam, b. 1938, d. 1945
Kiah Bin Dam, b. 1939, d. 1980
Koi Bin Dan, b. 1930, d. 1962
Koriah Binti Karim, 1902, d. 1980
Kumir Bin Tam, b. 1895, d. 1928
Lang Bin Mat, b. 1903, d. 1966
Leman Bin Chiah, b. 1957, d. 2000
Mawar Binti Long, b. 1939, d. 1999
Melati Binti Awang, b. 1944, d. 1945
Melur Binti Mat, b. 1915, d. 1989.
8
Demography - Human Population Ecology
Merah Bin Jantan, b. 1925, d. 1976
Minah Binti Jantan b. 1840, d. 1908.
Minah Binti Kasim, b. 1937, d. 1967
Misan Bin Uda, b, 1923, d. 1946
Mus Bin Mustam, b. 1918, d. 1943
Nam Bin Mad, 1922, d 1981
Piah Binti Hasan, b, 1923, d. 1945
Pian Bin Jabir, b. 1935, d. 1947
Rabiah Binti Deris, b. 1936, d. 1976
Rokiah Binti Jan, b. 1925, d. 1980
Raden Binti Lang, b 1951, d. 2012
Rambai bin Tikai, b. 1938, d. 1970
Rasid Bin Soh, b. 1964, d. 1964
Redah Bin Mat, b. 1924, d. 1947
Rodiah Binti Zam, b. 1932, d. 1999
Rokiah Binti Awang, b. 1931, d. 1946
Rokiah Binti Ripin, b. 1950, d. 2012
Rom Bin Radin, b. 1890, d. 1923
Ros Binti Man, 1930, d. 1970
Rosid Bin Lazim, b, 1952, d. 2012
Rostam Bin Ali, b. 1953, d. 1988
Rotam Bin Ran, b. 1911, d. 1970
Rotan Bin Takim, b. 1951, d. 2012
Sabar Bin Hitam, b. 1921, d 1937
Saleh Bin Saleh, b. 1926, d. 1980
Salem Bin Man, b. 1934, d. 2006
Salim Bin Ban, b. 1911, d. 1946
Salim Bin Jebat, b. 1918, d. 1964.
Salmah Binti Yop, b. 1940, d. 1946
Salmiah Binti Kasim, b. 1957, d. 1957
Samad Bin Jantan, b. 1914, d. 1969
Samir Bin Rodin, 1927, d. 1947
Sedi Bin Galak, b, 1924, d. 1945
Senah Binti Karim, b, 1921, d. 1947
Senah Binti Rahman, b. 1927, d. 1980
Senah Binti Rom, b. 1988, d. 1935
Siah Binti Jelon, 1940, d. 1941
Som Bin Mat, b. 1943, d. 1945
Som Bin Samad, b. 1958, d. 1958
Som Binti Akop, 1925, d 1999
Soman Bin Sagat, b. 1929, d. 1980
Supi Bin Mok, b, 1922, d. 1989
Syukur Bin Mat, b. 1911, d. 1970
Tukan Bin Jan, b, 1931, d. 1998
Wahid Bin Resam, b. 1970, d. 1970
Walid Bin Tam, b. 1951, d. 1966
Yakob Bin Mat, b. 1912, d. 1965
Yakop Bin Yop, b. 1921, d. 1980
Yop Bin Man, 1911, d. 1946
Zam Bin Putih, b. 1929, d. 1945
Zenab Binti Talik, 1929, d. 1990
 Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

Experiment 2 : Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

Objective 2.1 : Quadrat sampling technique

Material

Quadrats measuring 1 m2

Procedure
1. Systematic sampling procedure-quadrats are placed at the same intervals along
transects which runs across the investigated area at the same intervals.

2. Random sampling procedure-using random number table.

Systematic distribution Random distribution

of quadrats of quadrats

9
 Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

Results: Students must write their reports as follows:Student's

Name....................................Date................................................
Habitat................................................
Location/Place....................................
Type of plant.......................................
Quadrat size .......................................

Table 5.1 Tabulation of data for the measurement of each species cover in
quadrat sampling

Species cover (base/air) in quadrat Total Percentage

species cover
No. cover for (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 quadrats

10

Using table 5.1, Determine the percentage of relative species cover, relative density,
and relative frequency of each plant species.

10
 Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

Objective 2.2 : Sampling technique using line transect

Material

Rope (15.30 meters)

Procedure
1. Determine a base line along the border of the area under investigation.

2. Choose a series of points along this base line either randomly or systematically.
These points are used as the starting points for the transects to run across the
area being investigated.

3. Record only the plants which touch the line as seen vertically above or below
the transect line.

4. 10—20 lines are placed randomly in the area to provide enough samples to
investigate the community.

Results: Students must write their reports as follows:

Student's name .............................................. Date ...............................

Habitat............................................................
Location/Place ................................................
Type of plant...................................................
Distance of each interval .................................
Total number of intervals................................
Total length of line transect.............................

11
 Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

Number of interval
No. Name of
species
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10

(a) Calculate the frequency of a species using the following formula:

Total cross sectional length of a species

% species cover = X 100%
Total length of transect

b) Calculate % surface cover of each species.

Total number of intervals where the species are found

Frequency = X 100%
Total number of intervals of transect

12
 Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

(c) Calculate the relative species cover.

Total cross sectional length of species

Relative species cover = X 100%
Total cross sectional length of all species

Summary of the measurements obtained by the line transect technique

Number of intervals
No. Name of where species are Percentage Relative Frequency
species cover cover
recorded

13
 Capture-recapture techniques

14
 Capture-recapture techniques

Experiment 3.0 : Capture-recapture techniques

Objective: To estimate the population size of animals

Material:

Rope
Measuring tape
Non toxic paint for marking
Net (option)

Procedure

1. Determine the size of the study area .

2. Use traps to capture a group of individuals alive. Each of these individuals is

marked with a unique identifier (e.g., non toxic paint, a numbered tag or band),
and then is released unharmed back into the environment.

3. Sufficient time is allowed to pass for the marked individuals to redistribute

themselves among the unmarked population.

4. Return and captures once again individual alive. Record the marked and
unmarked.

Estimated population size is:

MxC
N=
R

where

N= Estimate of total population size

M= Total number of animals captured and marked on the first visit
C= Total number of animals captured on the second visit
R= Number of animals captured on the first visit that were then recaptured
on the second visit

Example:

Some of the individuals in this second sample will have been marked during the initial
visit and are now known as recaptures. Other animals captured during the second visit
will not have been captured during the first visit to the study area. These unmarked
animals usually are given a tag or band Population size can be estimated from as few
as two visits to the study area.

15
 Capture-recapture techniques

Commonly, more than two visits are made, particularly if estimates of survival or
movement are desired. Regardless of the total number of visits, the researcher simply
records the date of each capture of each individual. The "capture histories" generated
are analyzed mathematically to estimate population size, survival, or movement.

The Lincoln-Petersen method can be used to estimate population size if only two
visits are made to the study area. This method assumes that the study population is
"closed." In other words, the two visits to the study area are close enough in time so
that no individuals die, are born, move into the study area (immigrate) or move out of
the study area (emigrate) between visits. The model also assumes that no marks fall off
animals between visits to the field site by the researcher, and that the researcher
correctly records all marks.

Sample calculation

A biologist wants to estimate the size of a population of turtles in a lake. She captures
10 turtles on her first visit to the lake, and marks their backs with paint. A week later she
returns to the lake and captures 15 turtles. Five of these 15 turtles have paint on their
backs, indicating that they are recaptured animals.

MxC 10 x 15
N= = = 30
R 5

In this example, the Lincoln-Petersen Method estimates that there are 30 turtles in the
lake.

A refined form

A slightly better estimate of population size can be obtained with a modified version of
the first formula above. This modified formula reduces bias in the population estimate:

16
 Capture-recapture techniques

(M + 1) ( C + 1)
N= - 1
(R + 1)

where, as before,

N= Estimate of total population size

M= Total number of animals captured and marked on the first visit
C= Total number of animals captured on the second visit
R= Number of animals captured on the first visit that were then recaptured
on the second visit.

An approximately unbiased variance of N, or var(N), can be estimated as:

(M + 1) ( C + 1) (M—R)(C—R)
var (N) =
(R + 1) (R + 1) (R + 2)

17
 Water Quality Analysis

18
 Water Quality Analysis

Experiment 4 : Water Quality Analysis

Objective 4.1 : To investigate the oxygen content of a water sample Dissolved

oxygen

The technique described here is the Winkler method which gives an accurate measure
of oxygen content but requires many reagents.

Materials

10 cm3 of alkaline iodide solution (3.3 g NaOH, 2.0 g KI in 10 cm3 distilled water)
(CARE)
10 cm3 of manganese chloride solution (4.0 g MnCl2 in 10 cm3 distilled water)
5 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloride acid (CARE)
starch solution (as indicator)
distilled water in a wash bottle
0.01 M sodium thiosulphate solution (see point (8) in method)
3 x 5 cm3 graduated pipettes
burette
white tile
3 conical flasks
250 cm3 water sample in glass bottle with ground glass stopper

Method

1. Collect the water sample carefully without splashing and stopper the bottle
under water to prevent entry of air bubbles.

2. Add 2 cm3 of manganese chloride solution and 2 cm3 of alkaline iodide

solution to the sample using pipettes whose tips are placed at the bottom of
sample bottle. The heavier salt solutions will displace an equal volume of water
from the top of the sample bottle.

Replace the stopper carefully (the bottle should be completely filled by the
sample). Shake well to mix reagents throughout the water sample. A complex
precipitate of manganic-oxide-hyroxide will form in direct proportion to the
amount of oxygen present in the sample. The sample may now be set aside
(e.g transported back to the laboratory before continuing the analysis)

3. Add 2 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloride acid and stopper the bottle so that no
air bubbles are trapped. Shake the bottle thoroughly to dissolve the precipitate.
This leaves a solution of iodide in an excess of potassium iodide. The dissolved
oxygen is now fixed and exposure to air will not affect the result.

19
 Water Quality Analysis

4. Remove a 50 cm3 sample of this solution and place it in a conical flask. Titrate
with 0.01 M sodium thiosulphate solution from the burette as follows:

a) add thiosulphate solution and at the same time shake the flask until the
yellow colour becomes pale;
b) add three drops of starch solution and continue to titrate and shake until
blue-black coloration of the starch dissappears. Record the volume of
thiosulphate used

5. Repeat stage (4) with two further 50 cm3 samples of water and obtain the mean
volume used (x).

6. Using these solutions, 1 cm3 of 0.01 M thiosulphate solution corresponds to

0.056 cm3 of oxygen at STP (Standard temperature and pressure).

7. Calculate the concentration of oxygen per liter of water using the following
formula:

Oxygen in cm3 dm-3 = 0.056 X x X 1000 at STP

50

Where x = volume of thiosulphate solution required for the titration of 50 cm3 of

samples.

8. In comparative studies for water pollution.

20
 Water Quality Analysis

Objective 4.2: Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

A. Preparation of HACH digestion solution

Standard Potassium Dichromate Digestion Solution 0.075 N

Dry K2Cr2O7 at 103oC for 2 hours

Weigh 306847 grams of K2Cr2O7 and dissolve in about 500 ml distilled water

Add 125 ml concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and 25 grams mercuric sulphate
(HgSO4)

Dissolve, cool and make up to 1 liter with distilled water

Standard Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate Solution 0.025 N

Weigh 9.8 grams ammonium ferrous sulphate and dissolve in 500 mls distilled water.

Add 10 ml concentrated sulphuric acid and make up to 1 liter

Sulphuric Acid/Silver Sulphuric Reagent

Add 5.5 grams silver sulphate/kg of concentrated sulphuric acid or dissolved 10.12
grams in 1 liter H2SO4 (concentrate)

Allow to dissolve for 24 – 48 hours and shake before using

Ferroin Indicator Solution

Dissolve 1.485 grams 1,10-phenanthroline monohydrate and 0.695 grams FeSO4.7H2O

in 100 ml distilled water

Dichromate Value

Closed Reflux Method using Hach COD Reactor.

This procedure is suitable for a COD range of 0 – 600 mg/l (2 ml samples) and 0 –
1200 mg/l (1 ml samples). Higher ranges are covered by the appropriate sample
dilution

21
 Water Quality Analysis

B. Methods

Add 2 ml of Standard Potassium Dichromate Digestion Solution 0.075 N with 3.5 ml of

Sulphuric acid (silver sulphate reagent) in a COD tube. Do duplicate for each
sample.

Mix well with vortex

Add 2 ml dilution sample (dilution using distilled water). Cap the tube tightly.

Mix well with vortex.

Reflux using COD digestion block for 2 hours.

Cool at room temperature.

Transfer into 100 ml conical flask. Add 1 drop ferroin indicator.

Titrate with 0.025 N ferrous ammonium sulphate.

Final color – blue green to reddish brown.

Duplicate each sample.

Blank – use 2 ml distilled water

Pre heat reactor block while preparing sample to the present temperature (appropriate
150oC) for 1 hour

Heat – adjust timer to 120 minutes.

Calculation of COD value:

(A - B) C x 8000
mg/l = x dilution factor
ml sample

where,

A= titration for blank

B= titration for sample
C= Normality of ferrous ammonium sulphate

22
 Soil Analysis

Experiment 5 : Soil Analysis

Objective 5.1 : To investigate the water content of soil samples

Materials
soils from three different location - about 80 g for each soil sample
petri dishes
balance accurate to 0.1 g
thermostatically controlled oven
thermometer reading up to 150°C
desiccators
tongs

Procedure

1. Weigh the petri dish while still empty. Record the mass (a).

2. Add a broken-up soil sample to the petri dish and weigh. Record the mass (b).

3. Place the petri dish with the soil sample in the oven at 110°C for 24 hours.

4. Remove the sample from the oven and cool in a desiccator.

5. Weigh the sample when cool and record the mass.

6. Return the sample to the oven at 110°C for a further 24 hours.

7. Repeat stages (4) and (5) until consistent weighings are recorded (constant
mass). Record the mass (c).

8. Calculate the percentage water content as follows:

bc
 100%
ba

9. Repeat the experiment on other soil samples and compare the variation of
water content in the samples.

10. Retain the soil sample in the desiccator for experiment 2.2

23
 Soil Analysis

Objective 5.2: To investigate the organic (humus) content of soil samples

Material
dried soil samples from experiment 1 in desiccator’s crucible and lid tripod
bunsen burner
heat proof mat
fireclay triangle
desiccator
tongs

Procedure

1. Heat the crucible and lid strongly in oven 110 ˚C for an hour to remove all traces
of moisture. Place in the desiccator to cool. Weigh and record the mass (a).

2. Add the dried soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) from the
desiccator into the crucible and weigh. Record the mass (b).

3. Heat the soil sample in the crucible, covered with the lid in furnace, temperature
250 –300 ˚C to red-heat for 1 hour to burn off all the organic matter. Allow to
cool and remove to the desiccator. Preheat furnace, 1 hour before start.

4. Weigh the crucible and sample when cool.

5. Repeat (3) and (4) until constant mass is recorded. Record the mass (c).

6. Calculate the percentage organic content as follows:

bc
 100%
ba
7. Repeat the experiment on other soil samples to demonstrate variations in
organic content.

24
 Soil Analysis

Objective 5.3 : To investigate the air content of soil samples

Material
tin can of volume about 200 cm3
500 cm3 beaker
water
100 cm3 measuring cylinder
China graph pencil
drill
metal seeker

Procedure
1. Place the empty can, open end uppermost, into the 500 cm 3 beaker and fill the
beaker with water above the level of the can. Mark the water level in the beaker.

2. Carefully remove the can containing the water and measure this volume of
water in a measuring cylinder. Record the volume (a). The water level in the
beaker will fall by an amount corresponding to the volume-of water in the can.

3. Perforate the base of the can using a drill, making about eight small holes.

4. Push the open end of the can into soil from which the surface vegetation has
been removed until soil begins to come through the perforations. Gently dig out
the can, turn it over and remove soil from the surface until it is level with the top
of can.

5. Place the can of soil, with open end uppermost, gently back into the beaker of
water and loosen soil in the can with seeker to allow air to escape.

6. The water level in the beaker will be lower than the original level because water
will be used to replace the air which was present in the soil.

7. Add water to the beaker from a full 100 cm 3 measuring cylinder until the original
level is restored. Record volume of water added (b).

8. The percentage air content of the soil sample can be determined as follows:

b
100%
a

9. Repeat the experiment on other soil samples.

25
 Soil Analysis

Objective 5.4 : To investigate the pH of the soil.

Material

Long test-tube and stopper

test-tube rack
barium sulphate
BDH universal indicator solution and colour chart
soil sample
spatula
10 cm3 pipette

Procedure

1. Add about 1 cm of soil to the test-tube and 1cm of barium sulphate, which
ensures flocculation of clay soil that remain in the suspension.

2. Add 10 cm3 of distilled water and 5 cm3 of BDH universal indicator solution. Seal
the test-tube with the stopper. Shake vigorously and allow contents to settle for
5 minutes.

3. Compare the colour of liquid in the test-tube with the colours on the BDH
reference colour chart and read off the corresponding pH.

4. Repeat the experiment on soil samples from three different locations.

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