Smooth-wheel rollers

- are suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with sandy and clayey soils.
These rollers provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380
kn/m2. They are not suitable for producing high unit weights of compaction when used on thicker layers.

Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

- are better in many respects than the
smooth-wheel rollers. The former is heavily loaded with several rows of tires. These tires
are closely spaced—four to six in a row. The contact pressure under the tires can range
from 600 to 700 kN/m2, and they produce about 70 to 80% coverage. Pneumatic rollers
can be used for sandy and clayey soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a combination
of pressure and kneading action.

Sheepsfoot rollers
- are drums with a large number of projections. The area of each projection may range from 25 to 85 cm2.
These rollers are most effective in compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure under the projections can range
from 1400 to 7000 kN/m2. During compaction in the field, the initial passes compact the lower portion of a lift.
Compaction at the top and middle of a lift is done at a later stage.
Vibratory rollers
- are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel,
pneumatic rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil. Handheld vibrating plates can
be used for effective compaction of granular soils over a limited area. Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted on
machines. These plates can be used in less restricted areas.
Vibroflotation
- is a technique for in situ densification of thick layers of loose granular soil
deposits. It was developed in Germany in the 1930s. The first vibroflotation device was
used in the United States about 10 years later. The process involves the use of a Vibroflot unit (also called the
vibrating unit), which is about 2.1 m long.

This vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and can develop a centrifugal force,
which enables the vibrating unit to vibrate horizontally. There are openings at the bottom
and top of the vibrating unit for water jets. The vibrating unit is attached to a follow-up
pipe.
The entire vibroflotation compaction process in the field can be divided into four
stages:

Stage 1: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the
ground.
Stage 2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil and it allows the vibrating
unit to sink into the ground.
Stage 3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the
lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water
carries the granular material down the hole.
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3 m lifts and held vibrating
for about 30 seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the desired unit weight.

Dynamic compaction
- is a technique that has gained popularity in the United States for the densification of granular soil
deposits. This process consists primarily of dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals.
The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of 80 to 360 kN, and the height of the hammer drop varies
between 7.5 and 30.5 m. The stress waves generated by the hammer drops aid in the densification.
The degree of compaction achieved at a given site depends on the following three factors:
1. Weight of hammer
2. Height of hammer drop
3. Spacing of locations at which the hammer is dropped

Blasting
-is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects (Mitchell,1970) for the densification of
granular soils. The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by blasting are the same as those for
compaction by vibroflotation. The process involves the detonation of explosive charges, such as 60% dynamite
at a certain depth below the ground surface in saturated soil. The lateral spacing of the charges vary from about
3 to 9 m. Three to five successful detonations are usually necessary to achieve the desired compaction.
Compaction (up to a relative density of about 80%) up to a depth of about 18 m over a large area can easily be
achieved by using this process. Usually, the explosive charges are placed at a depth of about two-thirds of the
thickness of the soil layer desired to be compacted.