FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL

FORMING

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
 Metal Forming

Large group of manufacturing processes in which

plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
 Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses
 Material Properties in Metal
Forming

 Desirable material properties:

 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction
 Basic Types of
Metal Forming Processes

1. Bulk deformation
 Rolling processes
 Forging processes
 Extrusion processes
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
 Bending operations
 Deep or cup drawing
 Shearing processes
 Bulk Deformation Processes

 Characterized by significant deformations and

massive shape changes
 "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface
area-to-volume ratios
 Starting work shapes are usually simple geometries
 Examples:
 Cylindrical billets
 Rectangular bars
 Bulk Deformation Processes

 (a) Rolling and (b) forging

 Bulk Deformation Processes

 (c) Extrusion and (d) wire and bar drawing

 Material Behavior in
Metal Forming

 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest

because material is plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:
  K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress and true strain
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F

Elastic means reversible.

10
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

linear linear
elastic elastic
Plastic means permanent. 
plastic 11
 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UT S
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ  Eε Region
4
fracture
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
Strain (  ) (DL/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 13
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
   L 
Lo Lo wo
wo

L /2
• Shear strain:
q
Dx g = Dx/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 14
 Engineering strain and stress

Tension Compression Shear

L 1 L0 L0 L L
1

𝐿1 − 𝐿0 𝛿
𝐿1 − 𝐿0 𝛾=
𝑒= 𝑒= 𝐿
𝐿0 𝐿0

𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑛 𝑁
𝜎= = = 2 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚
Internal resisting force acting over a unit cross section area

Chapter 6 -
 Example 1
Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy

Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering

stress and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.
Example 1 SOLUTION
 Plastic deformation: Volume
constancy
• Plastic flow is incompressible
– No volume change occurs during plastic
deformation *

𝐿0 𝐴0 𝐿 𝐴

𝐴 0 𝐿0 = A L
 Engineering strain

All dimensions in mm

𝐿0 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4

50 55 60 65 70
Total
𝜹𝑳
𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 0.4
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝑳𝟏 − 𝑳𝟎 + 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟑 − 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑳𝟒 − 𝑳𝟑 𝟐𝟎
= = 𝟎. 𝟒
𝑳𝟎 𝟓𝟎
 Engineering strain- not additive

All dimensions in mm

𝐿0 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4

50 55 60 65 70
Total
𝜹𝑳 𝟓
𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟗0.3512
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟓 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟓
𝑳𝟒 − 𝑳𝟎 𝟐𝟎
= = 𝟎. 𝟒
𝑳𝟎 𝟓𝟎
 True strain
• True strain or natural strain
– Instantaneous length (𝐿) used instead of
original length, 𝐿0
𝑳𝟏 − 𝑳𝟎 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟑 − 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟒 − 𝑳𝟑 𝜹𝑳
𝜺= + + + …..=
𝑳𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑 𝑳
𝑳
𝒅𝑳 𝑳
𝜺= = 𝒍𝒏
𝑳 𝑳𝟎
𝑳𝟎
𝜺 = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒆 = 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒈. 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑳 𝑨𝟎
𝜺 = 𝒍𝒏 = 𝒍𝒏
𝑳𝟎 𝑨

• From Volume constancy: 𝐴0 𝐿0 =

𝐿 𝐴0
𝐴𝐿 → 𝐿0 = 𝐴
 True strain

• Relating Engg and True strain: 𝐿=

𝐿0 + 𝛿𝐿

𝑳 𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝑳 𝜹𝑳
𝜺 = 𝒍𝒏 = 𝒍𝒏 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒆
𝑳𝟎 𝑳𝟎 𝑳𝟎

𝜺 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒆
𝜺 = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒆 = 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒈. 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
 Importance of true strain

Tension Engg Strain True Strain

H=100 mm
H=50 mm
100 % ln (2)

Compression
H=50 mm H=??
100 % ln(1/2)
 Importance of true strain
Guage Length – 50 mm
Deformed Length
(mm) 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Engineering
strain 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

True strain 0.095 0.182 0.262 0.336 0.405 0.470 0.531 0.588 0.642 0.693

1.200
True strain

0.200 Slope =1

-0.3 0.2 0.7 1.2

-0.800
Engg Strain
 True stress

𝑃
• True stress = ; P=load and 𝐴= instantaneous
𝐴
cross section area
𝑃
• Engineering stress = ; 𝐴0 = original cross
𝐴0
section area
• From Volume constancy, 𝐴0 𝐿0 = A L
𝐴 0 𝐿0
• 𝐴=
𝐿
𝑃 𝐿 𝑃 𝐿0 +𝛿𝐿 𝑃
• True stress = = = 1+𝑒
𝐴 0 𝐿0 𝐴0 𝐿0 𝐴0
• 𝝈𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 = 𝝈𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒈 𝟏 + 𝒆
 True Stress and True Strain
 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions, given by εt ln(l/l0).

•The relation between the true stress-

true strain diagram and engineering
stress-engineering strain diagram.
•The curves are identical to the yield
point.
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress T  F Ai T  1   

• True Strain T  lni o  T  ln 1   

Validity of relation
Adapted from Fig. 6.16,
Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 27
 Hardening
HARDENING: An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

 T  K n n = hardening exponent
n = 0.15 (some steels)
T
n = 0.5 (some copper)
Chapter 6 - 22
Chapter 6 -
Idealized stress strain curves

Mechanical Engineering Department ME2280: Manufacturing Technology 30

IIT Madras
 Flow Stress

 For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required
to continue deforming the material
Yf  K n

where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield

strength as a function of strain
 Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve equation

between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest
_
K n
Yf 
1 n
_
where Yf = average flow stress; and  = maximum
strain during deformation process
 Stress-Strain Relationship

 Average flow stress Y f

in relation to
 Flow stress Yf
 Yield strength Y
 Example 1

Question: The strength coefficient = 550 MPa and strain-

hardening exponent = 0.22 for a certain metal. During a
forming operation, the final true strain that the metal
experiences = 0.85. Determine the flow stress at this
strain and the average flow stress that the metal
experienced during the operation.

Solution: Flow stress Y = 550(0.85) = 531 MPa.

f 0.22

Average flow stress Y = 550(0.85) /1.22 = 435 MPa

f 0.22
 Example 2

Question: Determine the value of the strain-hardening

exponent for a metal that will cause the average flow
stress to be 3/4 of the final flow stress after deformation

Solution: n = 0.333
 Example 3

Question: In a tensile test, two pairs of values of stress and

strain were measured for the specimen metal after it had
yielded: (1) True stress = 217 MPa and true strain = 0.35, and
(2) true stress = 259 MPa and true strain = 0.68. Based on
these data points, determine the strength coefficient and
strain-hardening exponent.

Solution: n = 0.2664 and K = 287 MPa

 Temperature in Metal Forming

 For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
Temperature in Metal Forming
 Temperature in Metal Forming

 Any deformation operation can be accomplished with

lower forces and power at elevated temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
 Hot Working

 Deformation at temperatures above the

recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage
of hot working above this level
Effect of annealing
(In case of sheet metal)
Original material

Heat treatment conditions

900 ℃, holding time 3min
800 ℃, holding time 3min
700 ℃, holding time 3min

Y.S T.S El Hardness

Material
(MPa) (MPa) (%) (Hv)
Original
651.4 851.8 38.4 270.07
material

STS 304-1/2H 700℃ 618.5 845.7 52.5 258.76

800℃ 552.5 827.3 57.2 237.32
900℃ 272.1 691.3 60.9 155.08
Hot Working (Recrystallization)
 Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation - far more

than is possible with cold working or warm working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than
at room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased
 Strain Rate Sensitivity

 Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a

perfectly plastic material, with strain hardening
exponent n = 0
 The metal should continue to flow at the same
flow stress, once that stress is reached
 However, an additional phenomenon occurs
during deformation, especially at elevated
temperatures:
 Strain rate sensitivity
 What is Strain Rate?

 Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of

deformation v
 Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other
movement of the equipment
 Strain rate is defined: . v

. h
where  = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed
 Effect of Strain Rate on Flow
Stress

 Flow stress is a function of temperature

 At hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on strain rate
 As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
 This is the effect known as strain-rate
sensitivity
Yield strength changes as a function of (a) temperature and (b) strain

47
 Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Yf = Cεm

where C = strength constant (analogous but

not equal to strength coefficient in flow curve
equation), and m = strain-rate sensitivity
exponent
 Strain Rate Sensitivity

 (a) Effect of strain

rate on flow stress
at an elevated
work temperature
 (b) Same
relationship
plotted on log-log
coordinates
 Effect of Temperature on
Flow Stress

 The constant C, indicated

by the intersection of each
plot with the vertical dashed
line at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases
 And m (slope of each plot)
increases with increasing
temperature
 Observations about
Strain Rate Sensitivity

 Increasing temperature decreases C and increases m

 At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost
negligible
 Flow curve alone is a good representation of
material behavior
 As temperature increases
 Strain rate becomes increasingly important in
determining flow stress
 Other mechanical properties

 Fatigue
 Creep
 Hardness
 Compression
Forging
Rolling

Manufacturing processes

http://www.wikihow.com/Make-Rotis-Indian-Style
http://www.hallowellco.com/nrba_fall_conference%202012.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forging
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/metal-forming-2/forging.php
http://core.materials.ac.uk/search/detail.php?id=3270
 Compression testing

Specimen
Rigid plate

Compression test of Cu foam

Force
Schematic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNyrE9JAvp4
 Compression testing

Problems with Compression test

Bulging due to friction at
interface

Schematic Compression test results Buckling at

high h/r values
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107146/lects%20&%20picts/image/lect12/lecture12.htm

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Hosford

Shear Blanking
Shearing

Spinning

Source :
Kalpakjain, Manufacturing Engg and Tech
Torsion Tests

FIGURE 2.19 A typical torsion-test specimen. It is

mounted between the two heads of a machine and is
twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in
the reduced section.
 Shear test- direct

Shear stress and

strain can be directly
estimated from force
and displacement

(a) ASTM B831-05 standard specimen (b)

modified specimen to facilitate reverse load Shear stress- shear strain curve for steel D
Yin, Q. et al. An experimental and numerical investigation of different shear test configurations for sheet metal characterization. Int. J. Solids Struct. 51, 1066–1074 (2014).
 Fatigue

FIGURE 2.26 Typical S-N curves for

two metals. Note that, unlike steel,
aluminum does not have an endurance
limit.

FIGURE 2.27 Ratio of fatigue strength to tensile

strength for various metals, as a function of tensile
strength.
 Creep & Impact

FIGURE 2.29 Impact test specimens: (a)

Charpy; (b) lzod.

FIGURE 2.28 Schematic illustration of a

typical creep curve. The linear segment of the
curve (constant slope) is useful in designing
components for a specific creep life.
 Hardness

 Resistance to indentation

Hardness=
Load/
projected area
FIGURE 2.23 Indentation geometry for
Brinell hardness testing: (a) annealed
metal; (b) work-hardened metal. Note the
For many engg materials, difference in metal flow at the periphery of
UTS= 3.45 HB the impressions.
Hardness Tests

FIGURE 2.22 General

characteristics of hardness
testing methods. The Knoop
test is known as a
microhardness test because of
the light load and small
impressions. Source: After
H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt,
and V. Wulff.
 Friction
Contact force reaction

Friction
Push/pull

Weight or normal force

http://www.clinicalgaitanalysis.com/teach-in/friction.html
 Friction in Metal Forming

 In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable:
 Metal flow is reduced
 Forces and power are increased
 Tools wear faster
 Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working
Factors affecting friction in metal forming
Production
Sheet condition (Stroke
rate, humidity, temp,
material machine)
Forming tool
(Mechanical (Material-
properties, Friction & Lubrication hardness,
surface (Galling, Scoring surface finish;
coating, etc..) Die coating,
geometry) Lubricant Geometry)
(viscosity, film
thickness,
pressure and
temp stability)
 Friction and Lubrication

 Friction is undesirable:
 retard metal flow causing residual stress
 increase forces and power
 rapid wear of tooling
 Lubrication is used to reduce friction at the
workpiece-tool interface
 Friction

 Attractive electric force between the atoms of

contacting surfaces cause friction
 Surface texture

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials

Coloumb friction
Shear friction

FRICTION MODELS
 Coefficient of friction

 Friction models - quantify complex interface

phenomenon into a non-dimensional factor,
coefficient of friction- 

 Coloumb friction model

𝐹 𝜏
 𝜇= =
𝑁 𝜎
 F=tangential force; N= normal force; 𝜏=shear
stress at junction; 𝜎=normal stress
 Coefficient of friction

𝐹 𝜏
 𝜇= =
𝑁 𝜎
 F=tangential force; N=
normal force; 𝜏=shear stress
at junction; 𝜎=normal stress

 At higher loads, plastic

deformation occurs and
asperities strain harden.
 Leads to increase in real
contact area (Coulomb model
breaks)
 Shear friction model- Sticking friction

 With increase in normal load, real area of contact = apparent

area
 Sticking
 No increase in friction force with further increase in normal
load
 Friction stress at interface = shear yield stress
𝜏𝑓
 Friction factor 𝑚 = (independent of normal stress)
𝑘
𝜏𝑓 = interface shear strength; k= shear yield stress of weaker
material

Friction- complex interactions of load, temperature, velocity,

surface contamination etc
 Shear friction model

𝜏𝑓
 Friction factor 𝑚 = ; 𝜏𝑓 − 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑘
𝝉𝒇
 No friction -> m=0 𝝉𝒇 = 𝒎𝒌
 Sticking friction -> m=1 𝒌

𝝉𝒇 = 𝝁𝒑
 0<m<1- sliding friction
𝒑