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4. Huyghens’ principle another, and of their parts toward the Bodies; every
Body endeavouring to go from the [rarer] parts of
Huyghens’ principle is illustrated in the the Medium towards the [denser]? …
following diagrams of a light plane-wave … And though this [Decrease] of density may at
hitting a glass block:. great distances be exceeding slow, yet is the elastick
force of this Medium be exceeding great, it may
suffice to impel Bodies from the [rarer] parts of the
medium towards the [denser], with all that power
which we call Gravity. …
10. Conclusions
Newton’s aether model arguably represents one [5] Under general relativity, spacetime is a stressable,
of the most serious missed opportunities in the draggable thing that interacts with matter and can
history of gravitational physics. support a range of physical parameters – the
gravitational field parameters (under general
Newton’s repeated attempts to unify various relativity, spacetime is a stressable, draggable thing
branches of physics led him to the concept of that interacts with matter and can support a range of
wave/particle duality and to a model of gravity physical gravitational field parameters (the gµν ).
in which the gravitational field could be [6] D.T.Whiteside (editor) The Mathematical Papers
described as a density gradient, and in which the of Isaac Newton, Volume VI ,1684-1691
deflection of light or matter by the field was (C.U.P. Cambridge 1974),
Appendix 3,4 footnotes pp.422-437.
modelled as the effect of a variation in
refractive index. In singly-connected space, this [7] Kip S. Thorne, Black holes and timewarps:
Einstein’s outrageous legacy
approach can be topologically equivalent to a
(W.W. Norton, NY, 1994)
curved-space model of gravity [7] (by contrast,
general relativity is a curved spacetime model of [8] Ronald Gautreau. “Cosmological Schwarzchild radii
and Newtonian gravitational theory,”
gravity). Am.J.Phys. 64 1457-1467 (1996)
However, Newton’s model inverted a key [9] A. Einstein, "Geometry and Experience” (1921),
lightspeed relationship. Instead of being a translated in Sidelights on Relativity
description in which the gravitational field itself (Dover, NY, 1983) pp.25-56.
was the medium (to misquote Marshall [10] John Michell, “On the Means of discovering … of
McLuhan, “The medium is the metric.”, the Fixed Stars … ,” Phil.Trans.Royal Soc. (1784)
see also: Einstein: “the aether of general relativity” pp. 35-57 & Tab III, sections 30-32.
[4] “If we imagine the gravitational field … to be [11] W. deSitter, "A proof of the constancy of the velocity
removed … no ‘topological space’.” [21]), Newton’s of light," Kon.Acad. Weten. 15 1297-1298 (1913).
model produced a description of a gravitational [12] W. deSitter, "On the constancy of the velocity of
medium that was displaced by the gravitational light," Kon.Acad.Weten. 16 395-396 (1913).
field, and this led to the model and its [13] Kenneth Brecher, "Is the Speed of Light Independent
associated principles and predictions (such as of the Velocity of the Source?,"
wave/particle duality, gravitational light- Phys. Rev. Letters 39 1051-1054 (1977).
bending and gravitational shifts) being largely [14] Clifford M. Will, "Henry Cavendish, Johann von
forgotten until Einstein’s 20th Century work on Soldner, and the deflection of light,"
quantum mechanics and general relativity. Am. J. Phys. 56 413-415 (1988).
[15] Pierre-Simon laPlace Exposition du System du
Rindler has already pointed out that the Monde, page reproduced in
mathematical machinery for general relativity Misner, Thorne and Wheeler Gravitation
was available in the Eighteenth Century [22]. (W.H. Freeman NY 1971) fig 24.1, pp.623.
Given that Michell’s gravity-shift prediction [16] Peter Simon Laplace, essay (1799), translated and
was tantalisingly close to being a prediction of reprinted in The Large-Scale Structure of
gravitational time dilation (the effect missing Spacetime Stephen W. Hawking and G.F. Ellis
from 18th Century curved-space models), it (Cambridge 1973) Appendix A, pp. 365-368
seems that the loss of Newton’s aether model [17] Simon Schaffer, "John Michell and Black Holes,"
may have significantly held back the progress of Journ. Hist. Astronomy 10, 42-43 (1979).
gravitational physics. [18] Gary Gibbons, "The man who invented black holes,"
New Scientist 28 June 1979, 1101 (1979)
REFERENCES [19] Wolfgang Rindler “General Relativity before special
relativity: An unconventional overview of relativity
theory,” Am.J.Phys. 62 (10) 887-893 (1994)
[1] Isaac Newton Principia Vol s. I & II [20] Paul Nahin, Time Machines: Time Travel in
[2] Isaac Newton Opticks (Bell London 1931). Physics, Metaphysics and Science Fiction
(AIP Press, NY, 1993) Tech Note 4:5 pp. 315-316
[3] A. Einstein, "On the Influence of Gravitation on the
Propagation of Light" (1911), [21] A. Einstein Relativity: The Special and the
translated in The Principle of Relativity General Theory, 15th ed. (1954) Appendix V:
(Dover, NY, 1952) pp.97-108. "Relativity and the Problem of Space" pp.135-157.
[4] A. Einstein, "Aether and the Theory of Relativity" [22] Wolfgang Rindler, “General relativity before special
(1920), translated in Sidelights on Relativity relativity: An unconventional view of relativity
(Dover, NY, 1983) pp.1-24. theory,” Am.J.Phys. 62 887- 893 (1994).