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1 ∂2V 2 m2 c2
− + ∇ V = V
c2 ∂t2 ~2
To see this, let V = V (r) and write the Laplacian in spherical coordinates. Then we have
m2 c2
1 d 2 dV
r = V
r2 dr dr ~2
d2 V 2 dV m2 c2
+ − V = 0
dr2 r dr ~2
Let U = rV . Then
d2 U
d dV
= V +r
dr2 dr dr
dV d2 V
= 2 +r 2
dr dr
so that we may write the equation as
1 d2 U m2 c2 U
− = 0
r dr2 ~2 r
2
d U m 2 c2
2
− 2 U = 0
dr ~
and this has exponential solutions, mc
U = U0 exp ± r
~
Choosing the decaying exponential for our solution, we have
k r
V = − e− a
r
~
where a = mc , the reduced Compton wavelength of a particle of mass m.
1
2 Bound orbits
We know from our general results that the conserved energy and angular momentum are given by
1 2 L2 k r
E = µṙ + − e− a
2 2µr2 r
2
L = µr ϕ̇
and from the energy expression we see that the radial motion is described by the effective potential
L2 k r
Vef f = 2
− e− a
2µr r
Bound orbits exist if there is a minimum of the effective potential:
L2 k r
V (r) = − e− a
2µr2 r
dV
0 =
dr
L2 k r k r
= − 3 + 2 e− a + e− a
µr r ar
L2
k k r
= − 3+ + e− a
µr r2 ar
L2
k k r
V0 = − 3 + + e− a
µr r2 ar
d2 V 3L2
2k k −ar 1 k k r
= + − 3 − 2 e − + e− a
dr2 µr4 r ar a r2 ar
3L2
k 2 2 1 r
= − + + e− a
µr4 r r2 ar a2
3 r −r k 2 2 1 r
= kr 1 + e a − + + e− a
r4 a r r2 ar a2
k 3 3 2 2 1 r
= + − + + e− a
r r2 ar r2 ar a2
r2
k r r
= 1 + − 2 e− a
r3 a a
2
r
and always if r < a. We take r < a in the following, since it allows us to expand in powers of a, and
guarantees that the extremum is a minimum.
r
Notice that to first order in ar , e− a ≈ 1 − ar and the circular orbits lie at approximately
L2 r −r
= kr 1 + e a
µ a
r r
≈ kr 1 + 1−
a a
r 2
= kr 1 +
a
≈ kr
1 2 L2 k r
E = µṙ + − e− a
2 2µr2 r
2
L = µr ϕ̇
L2 k r0
E = 2 − e− a
2µr0 r0
L = µr02 ϕ˙0
L2 r −r
= kr 1 + e a
µ a
this gives
1 r0 k r0
E = 2 kr 0 1 + − e− a
2r0 a r0
k r0 − r0
= − 1− e a
2r0 a
L = µr02 ϕ˙0
3
or correct to second order,
k r0 r0 1 r0 2
E = − 1− 1− +
2r0 a a 2 a
k 2r0 3 r0
2
= − 1− +
2r0 a 2 a
r s
r0 1 r0 2
L = µka 1−
a 2 a
p 1 r0 2
= µkr0 1 −
4 a
This also gives us the frequency of the circular orbit,
ω0 = ϕ˙0
√ 2
µkr0 1 − 14 ra0
=
µr02
s
k 1 r0 2
= 1−
µr03 4 a
Now suppose we give the system slightly higher energy by instantaneously increasing the angular mo-
mentum by δ. Then
L = µr02 ϕ˙0 + δ
= L0 + δ
2
(L0 + δ) k r0
E = 2 − e− a
2µr0 r0
2
L0 k r0 2L0 δ + δ 2
= 2 − e− a +
2µr0 r0 2µr02
2L0 δ + δ 2
= E0 +
2µr02
Therefore, at general r, ϕ,
2L0 δ + δ 2 1 2 L2 k r
E0 + = µṙ + − e− a
2µr02 2 2µr2 r
The minimum of the potential is still given by
L2 r1 − r1
= kr1 1 + e a
µ a
Expanding about r1 , so that r = r1 + ε with ε r1 < a
2L0 δ + δ 2 1 2 L2 k r
E0 + = µṙ + − e− a
2µr02 2 2µr 2 r
1 2 L2 k r1 +ε
= µε̇ + 2 − e− a
2 2µ (r1 + ε) r1 + ε
2
1 2 L k
r
− a1 1+ rε
= µε̇ + 2 − e 1
2
2µr12 1 + rε1 r1 1 + rε1
4
r1
1 2 kr1 1 + ra1 e− a k
r
− a1 1+ rε
= µε̇ + 2 − e 1
2
2r12 1 + rε1 r1 1 + rε1
r
− a1 r1
1 2 ke 1 + 1 r 1 ε
= µε̇ +
a
2 − e − a r1
2 r1
ε
2 1 + r1 ε 1 + r1
r1 2 !
1 2 ke− a 1 r1 2ε ε
= µε̇ + 1+ 1− +3
2 r1 2 a r1 r1
r1 2 ! 2 !
ke− a
ε ε r1 ε 1 r1 ε
− 1− + 1− +
r1 r1 r1 a r1 2 a r1
r1 2 !
1 2 ke− a 1 r1 r1 ε ε
= µε̇ + 1+ −2 1+ +3
2 r1 2 a a r1 r1
r1 2 !
ke− a 1 r12
r1 ε r1 ε
− 1− 1+ + 1+ +
r1 a r1 a 2 a2 r1
r1 2 !
1 2 ke− a r2
1 r1 r1 r1 ε 1 r1 ε
= µε̇ + − 1− + 1+ − 1+ + 1+ − 12
2 r1 2 a a a r1 2 a a r1
r1 r1 2
r1 ke− a r2 ke− a
1 2 1 1 r1 ε
= µε̇ − 1− + 1+ − 12
2 2 a r1 2 a a r1 r1
so that r1 r1 2
2L0 δ + δ 2 r1 ke− a r12 ke− a
1 1 1 r1 ε
E0 + + 1 − = µε̇2 + 1+ − 2
2µr02 2 a r1 2 2 a a r1 r1
This has the general form
1 2 1 2 2
Eδ = µε̇ + κ ε
2 2
and this is the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator, oscillating around a point at r1 with angular frequency
s r1
r2 ke− a
r1
ω1 = 1+ − 12
a a µr13
5
v
u 1 + r1 − r12
u
a a2
= t
1 + ra1
s
r2
r1 r1 r1 2
≈ 1+ − 12 1− +
a a a a
r
r2
≈ 1 − 12
a
1 r12
≈ 1−
2 a2
and this varies continuously with r1 and is therefore generically irrational, so the orbit doesn’t close. The
oscillation frequency in r is less than the orbital frequency, so the perigee advances. The advance per orbit
r2
is π a12 .