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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
I. Matter
II. Types of Reaction
III. Structure of Atoms
IV. Quantum Numbers
V. Periodic Table
VI. Chemical Bonds
VII. Thermochemistry
VIII. Chemical Kinetics
IX. Chemical Equilibrium
X. Acids and Bases
XI. Radioactivity
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I. MATTER
Classification of Matter
Based on Composition
Matter
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Laws Governing Compounds
Law of Multiple Proportion : Elements may combine in a different ratios to form compounds
: H + O 2:2 → H2O2
: C + O 1:2 → CO2
Mixture or Impure Substances : Physical combination of 2 or more substances which identities are retained
: NaCl + H2O → NaCl solution
Properties of Colloid
1) Tyndall Effect : Light scattering effect (see path of light)
2) Brownian Movement : Zigzag motion
: Bumping to transfer kinetic energy and colloidal particle remain suspended
3) Electrically Charged : Electrophoresis – use of electricity to breakdown, separate or decompose lipids
: Cathode (-) : where cations go (Reduction)
: Anode (+) : where anions go (Oxidation)
4) Adsorption : Attachment of the surface
Suspension
• Ideal : Insoluble particle suspended in a liquid
• Non-Ideal : Caking – compacted suspended particles
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II. Types of Reaction
1. Phase Change / Phase Transformation
2. Chemical Change
c. Single Displacement : A + BC → AC + B
: 2Na + HCl → 2NaCl + H2 ↑
Activity Series
• Lithium : Most Reactive : Li + NaCl → LiCl + Na
• Gold : Least Reactive : Na + LiCl → No Reaction
Metals : Li, Rb, K, Cs, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au
Non Metals : F, Cl, Br, I, S
REDUCTION OXIDATION
Gain of electrons Loss of electrons
Decrease in Oxidation State / Valence (+7 → +2) Increase in Oxidation State / Valence (+2 → +7)
Addition of H Removal of H
Removal of O Addition of O
Oxidizing Agent Reducing Agent
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III. STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
Subatomic Particles
• Protons : (+) Charged : Eugen Goldstein (Anode); Ernest Rutherford
• Electrons : (-) Charged : JJ Thomsom
• Neutrons : Neutral Charged : James Chadwick
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IV. QUANTUM NUMBERS
Hund’s Rule : If 2 or more orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons will occupy them singly
before filling them in pairs
e = 25
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
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V. PERIODIC TABLE
1. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier : 1st extensive list of elements
: Separated metals and non metals
• Gases: O, N, H
• Metals: Fe, Ni, Mg, Ca
2. Dobereiner : “Triads”
• Li, Na, K
• Ca, Ba, Sr
• Cl, Br, I
• S, Se, Te
5. Henry Moseley : Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers; increasing atomic numbers
Increase IEE
Periodic Trends
2. Ionization Energy : energy required to remove electrons from the outermost shell to form (+) ions
3. Electron Affinity : energy released when neutral atom accepts an electron to convert to a (-) ion
5. Metallic Property :
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VI. CHEMICAL BONDS
Chemical Bonds : atomic quest for stability to noble gas
Differentiate in Electronegativity
• Near – non polar
• Far – polar
Symmetry
• Equal – non polar
• Unequal – polar
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VII. THERMOCHEMISTRY
Thermochemistry : study of heat change in chemical reactions
Types of System
1) Open : allows exchange of matter and energy
2) Closed : allows exchange of energy
3) Isolated : does not allow exchange of matter and energy
Types of Reaction
1) Exothermic : energy is released (system to surrounding)
2) Endothermic: energy is absorbed (surrounding to system)
Hess Law : the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in single or multiple steps
Specific Heat (s) : heat required to raise the raise temperature of 1g of substances by 1°C
Heat Capacity (c) : heat required to raise the temperature of a given amount of substance by 1°C
First Law of Thermodynamics : Energy can be converted from one form to another but it cannot be created / destroyed
Second Law of Thermodynamics : The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remain unchanged
in an equilibrium
Third Law of Thermodynamics : Entropy of pure crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero temperature (Kelvin)
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VIII. CHEMICAL KINETICS
Chemical Kinetics : change in concentration of reactants or product with time
Theories:
1. Collision Theory : rate of reaction is directly proportional to the number of effective collisions per unit time
: Orientation Activation Energy
2. Transition State Theory : rate of reaction is directly proportional to the activation energy require to form intermediate
state
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IX. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Chemical Equilibrium : is achieved when rate forward = rate backward
: Concentration of R + P are constant
Le Chateliers Principle : is an external stress is applied to a system, the system adjust in such as way that the stress is
partially relieved
Changes in Concentration
• N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
• Increase N2 = forward
• Increase NH3 = backward
Changes in Temperature
• Endothermic: A + B + heat → C
• Increase temperature = forward
• Decrease temperature = backward
• Exothermic: A + B → C + Heat
• Increase temperature = backward
• Decrease temperature = forward
Addition of Catalyst
• Does not shift the position of equilibrium
• System will equilibrium faster
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X. ACIDS AND BASES
Arrhenius Acid: produce H+ ions in water
Base: produce OH- ions in water
Water : auto-ionized
Kw : ionization constant of water = 1x10-14
Henderson Hasselbalch:
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XI. RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity : spontaneous emission of particles by unstable nuclei of heavier elements
: depends on nuclear stability (n/p)
Natural Radioactivity
1) Alpha Radiation : highest ionizing power / radiation
: capacity to produce ions
: lowest penetrating power (difficulty in penetrating cells)
: 42He or 42 Alpha
2) Beta Radiation : high ionizing power
: high penetrating power
: 0 -1 e or 0 -1 B
3) Gamma Radiation: lowest ionizing power
: highest penetrating power
Artificial Radioactivity
1) Positron Emission : happens to nuclei with too many protons
2) K-electron Capture : capture of 1s electron by nucleus of unstable nuclei
Units of Radioactivity
1) Curie (Ci) : Amount of radioactive material emitting 2.22 x 1012 DPM
: DPM – Disintegration per minute
2) Becquerel : 1 DPS – Disintegration per second
Units of Exposure
1) Roentgen (R) (1R): quantity of gamma / x-ray that will produce ions carrying a charge of 2.58x10 -4 c/kg of air
: C = Coulumb
2) Radiation Absorb Dose (RAD) : unit of absorbed dose
3) Gray : 1 Gray = 100 rads
4) Radiation Equivalent Man (REM): unit of human exposure
5) Sievert (Sv) : Sv = 100 rems
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