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MODULE 1

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

I. Matter
II. Types of Reaction
III. Structure of Atoms
IV. Quantum Numbers
V. Periodic Table
VI. Chemical Bonds
VII. Thermochemistry
VIII. Chemical Kinetics
IX. Chemical Equilibrium
X. Acids and Bases
XI. Radioactivity

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Module 1 – General Chemistry
I. MATTER

General Chemistry: study of matter (structures, composition, changes, energy)

Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass or volume


Properties of Matter

1. Intensive / Intrinsic Properties : Dependent structure or composition arrangement of atoms


: Not dependent on amount or mass
: Example: Melting Point, Freezing Point, Optical Activity

2. Extensive / Intrinsic Properties : Dependent on the amount or mass


: Example: Mass, Weight, Volume, Heat Content

Classification of Matter

Based on Physical Properties:

SOLID LIQUID GAS


Volume Definite Definite Indefinite
Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
Forces of Attraction Strongest Strong Weakest
Molecular Motion Vibration Gliding Constant random movement
Entropy (s) Lowest Low Highest
* Entropy – thermodynamic function; degree of randomness; degree of disorder

Liquid Crystal : 4th state of matter Plasma : is an ionized gas


: Crystalline structure (solid)
: Flow properties (liquid)

Based on Composition
Matter

Pure Substance Mixture / Impure Substance

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Solution Colloid Suspension

Pure Substance : Has definite composition; Distinct properties


: Composed on only one (1) type of particle

Element : Cannot be separated by chemical means


: Represented by Symbols (H, O, N, F)

Compound : Two or more element chemically combined in a fixed proportion


: Represented by a Chemical Formula (NaCl, NaOH, H2O)

IUPAC : International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

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Laws Governing Compounds

Law of Definite Proportion : Elements combine in a fixed ratio of whole numbers


: H + O 2:1 → H2O
: C + O 1:1 → CO

Law of Multiple Proportion : Elements may combine in a different ratios to form compounds
: H + O 2:2 → H2O2
: C + O 1:2 → CO2

Mixture or Impure Substances : Physical combination of 2 or more substances which identities are retained
: NaCl + H2O → NaCl solution

Homogeneous : Single phase system


: Solution – smallest particle size
: Suspension – largest particle size
: Colloid

Heterogeneous : Two or more phase system

Properties of Colloid
1) Tyndall Effect : Light scattering effect (see path of light)
2) Brownian Movement : Zigzag motion
: Bumping to transfer kinetic energy and colloidal particle remain suspended
3) Electrically Charged : Electrophoresis – use of electricity to breakdown, separate or decompose lipids
: Cathode (-) : where cations go (Reduction)
: Anode (+) : where anions go (Oxidation)
4) Adsorption : Attachment of the surface

Suspension
• Ideal : Insoluble particle suspended in a liquid
• Non-Ideal : Caking – compacted suspended particles

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II. Types of Reaction
1. Phase Change / Phase Transformation

2. Chemical Change

a. Direct Union / Synthesis / Composition : Fe + S → FeS


: Mg + O → MgO
: S + O2 → SO2
: Metal + H2O → Basic Oxides MgO + H2O → Mg (OH)2
: Nonmetal + H2O → Acidic Oxides SO2 + 2H2O → H2SO4 + H2 ↑

b. Decomposition / Analysis : Breakdown of complex substance into simpler substance


: 2NaHCO3 → Na2O + 2CO2 + H2O
: 2H2O → H2 ↑ + O2 ↑

c. Single Displacement : A + BC → AC + B
: 2Na + HCl → 2NaCl + H2 ↑

Activity Series
• Lithium : Most Reactive : Li + NaCl → LiCl + Na
• Gold : Least Reactive : Na + LiCl → No Reaction

Metals : Li, Rb, K, Cs, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au
Non Metals : F, Cl, Br, I, S

d. Double Displacement / Metathesis : AB + CD → AD + CB


: NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO

Special Type of Double Displacement is Neutralization


• HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

e. Redox Reaction : Dependent on pH and concentration


: MnO3 in acidic medium will form Mn2+ (colorless)
: MnO3 in basic medium will form MnO2 ↓ (brown precipitate)

REDUCTION OXIDATION
Gain of electrons Loss of electrons
Decrease in Oxidation State / Valence (+7 → +2) Increase in Oxidation State / Valence (+2 → +7)
Addition of H Removal of H
Removal of O Addition of O
Oxidizing Agent Reducing Agent

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III. STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

1. Democritus : “Atomos” – tiny invisible particles

2. John Dalton : “Atoms” – smallest particle of matter


: Billiard Board Model – hard indestructible sphere
: Accepted for 100 years until the discover of Subatomic Particles (Proton, Neutron, Electron)

Subatomic Particles
• Protons : (+) Charged : Eugen Goldstein (Anode); Ernest Rutherford
• Electrons : (-) Charged : JJ Thomsom
• Neutrons : Neutral Charged : James Chadwick

Atomic Number : # of Protons or Equal to the number of Protons


Atomic Mass / Mass Number : # of Protons + # of Neutrons

Neutral : # of Protons = # of Electrons


(+) : # of Protons > # of Electrons
(-) : # of Protons + # of Electrons

Isotopes : Same atomic number = Same Number of Protons


: Different Mass Number = Different Number of Neutrons

Carbon 12: most abundant


Carbon 13: NMR Active
Carbon 14: Carbon Dating (t ½ = 5700 years)

NMR Active : mass number of odd numbers


NMR Inactive : mass number if even numbers

Isobars : Different elements, Same Mass Number


Isotones : Different elements, Same Number of Neutrons
Isomers : Not included because it is Optically Activity

3. JJ Thomson : Raisin Bread Model / Plum Pudding Model


: Atom is a sphere of (+) particle to which (-) particles are embedded

4. Ernest Rutherford : Disapproved Thomson’s Theory


: Gold Foil / Film Theory / Nuclear Theory
• Atom is an empty space
• Most of the mass and (+) charge particles are concentrated in a small region called
Nucleus
• Atom : football field
• Nucleus : coin

5. Neil Bohr : Planetary Model


: Electrons move in a circular path called Orbitals
: Energy of orbitals are Quantized (definite quantity)

6. Erwin Schrodinger: The Quantum Mechanical Model


: Electrons moves in 3D Space which is called Electron Clouds
• 3 Main Levels: Main Energy Level, Sublevel/Subshell, Orbitals
• Orbitals – regions in space where there is highest probability to find an electron

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IV. QUANTUM NUMBERS

Quantum Numbers : set of numbers used to described electrons


Symbol Value Function
1. Principal n 1, 2, 3, 4 Size of electron cloud
Total energy of electrons
1 – K Shell (closest to nucleus) Main energy level
2 – L Shell
3 – M Shell
4 – N – Shell
2. Angular / Azimuthal l 0 to n = 1 Shape of electron cloud
Momentum Subshell / Sublevel
(small letter L) n=1 ;l=0
n=2 ; l = 0, 1 0 = S Subshell
n=3 ; l = 0, 1, 2 1 = P Subshell
n=4 ; l = 0, 1, 2, 3 2 = D Subshell
3 = F Subshell
3. Magnetic m -1 to + 1 (small letter L) Orientation of electron cloud
Orbital
n=1 l=0 m=0
n=2 l=1 m=0 0 = S = 2e = 1 orbitals
l=1 m = -l + l 1 = P = 6e = 3 orbitals
n=3 l=0 m=0 2 = D = 10e = 5 orbitals
l=1 m = -l, 0, +1 3 = F = 14e = 7 orbitals
l=2 m = -2, -1, 0,
+1, +2
n=4 l=0 m=0
l=1 m = -l, 0, +1
l=2 m = -2, -1, 0,
l=3 +1, +2
l=4 m = -3, -2, -1,
0, +1, +2, +3
4. Spin s/ms + ½ (spin up) Direction of electron cloud
- ½ (spin down)
* PAMS *
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle : No electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers
• Same n = Same energy level
• Same 1 = Same subshell
• Same m = Same orbital
• Same s = ↿⇂ (yes); ↿↿ (not possible), ⇂⇂ (not possible)

Aufbau Principle : Lower electron orbitals are filled first


1s2
2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6 3d10
4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14
5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14
6s2 6p6 6d10 6f14

Hund’s Rule : If 2 or more orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons will occupy them singly
before filling them in pairs
e = 25
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
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V. PERIODIC TABLE
1. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier : 1st extensive list of elements
: Separated metals and non metals
• Gases: O, N, H
• Metals: Fe, Ni, Mg, Ca

2. Dobereiner : “Triads”
• Li, Na, K
• Ca, Ba, Sr
• Cl, Br, I
• S, Se, Te

3. John Newlands : Law of Octaves


: When elements are arranged in order of atomic weight, every 8 th element had similar
properties

4. Julius Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev : 1st Periodic Law


: The physical and chemical properties of elements are functions of atomic weights
• K = noble gas
• Ar = Alkaline Earth Metal

5. Henry Moseley : Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers; increasing atomic numbers

D+F = Transition Elements

Group = Column (top to bottom)


= 18 (excluding the F block)

Period = row (left to right)


=7

Increase IEE

Elements 118 as of 2016


• 113 Nh Nihonium Increase RM
• 115 Mc Moscovium
• 117 Ts Tennessine
• 118 Og Oganesson

1st 14 Elements: Rare Earth Metal (Lanthanoids / Lanthanide)


2nd 14 Elements: Heavy Rare Earth Metals (Actinoids, Actinide)

Periodic Trends

1. Atomic Radius / Size :

2. Ionization Energy : energy required to remove electrons from the outermost shell to form (+) ions

3. Electron Affinity : energy released when neutral atom accepts an electron to convert to a (-) ion

4. Electronegativity : the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself

5. Metallic Property :
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VI. CHEMICAL BONDS
Chemical Bonds : atomic quest for stability to noble gas

Electron Transfer Electron Sharing


Ionic bond Covalent Bond
Metal + Nonmetal Nonmetals

How to determine polarity

Differentiate in Electronegativity
• Near – non polar
• Far – polar

Symmetry
• Equal – non polar
• Unequal – polar

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VII. THERMOCHEMISTRY
Thermochemistry : study of heat change in chemical reactions

Energy : capacity to do work

System : part of the universe that is of interest in the study

Types of System
1) Open : allows exchange of matter and energy
2) Closed : allows exchange of energy
3) Isolated : does not allow exchange of matter and energy

Types of Reaction
1) Exothermic : energy is released (system to surrounding)
2) Endothermic: energy is absorbed (surrounding to system)

Entropy (S) : measure of randomness / disorder


Enthalpy (H) : heat content of the system
: H = U + PV U = internal energy P = Pressure V = Volume

Hess Law : the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in single or multiple steps

Specific Heat (s) : heat required to raise the raise temperature of 1g of substances by 1°C
Heat Capacity (c) : heat required to raise the temperature of a given amount of substance by 1°C

First Law of Thermodynamics : Energy can be converted from one form to another but it cannot be created / destroyed
Second Law of Thermodynamics : The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remain unchanged
in an equilibrium
Third Law of Thermodynamics : Entropy of pure crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero temperature (Kelvin)

Gibb’s Free Energy (G) : amount of reversible work


: If (+) reaction is nonspontaneous
: If (-) reaction is spontaneous
: If 0 reaction is in equilibrium

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VIII. CHEMICAL KINETICS
Chemical Kinetics : change in concentration of reactants or product with time

Theories:

1. Collision Theory : rate of reaction is directly proportional to the number of effective collisions per unit time
: Orientation Activation Energy

2. Transition State Theory : rate of reaction is directly proportional to the activation energy require to form intermediate
state

Factors Reacting Reaction Rate


1) Nature of Reactants
2) Surface area
3) Catalyst
4) Temperature of Reactants

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IX. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Chemical Equilibrium : is achieved when rate forward = rate backward
: Concentration of R + P are constant

Law of Mass Action


• A+B→C+D
• If K > 1 proceed with forward
• If K < 1 proceed with backward

Le Chateliers Principle : is an external stress is applied to a system, the system adjust in such as way that the stress is
partially relieved

Changes in Concentration
• N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
• Increase N2 = forward
• Increase NH3 = backward

Changes in Volume and Pressure


• Increase volume → shift to more moles
• Decrease volume → shift to less moles
• Increase pressure → shift to less moles = forward
• Decrease pressure → shift to more moles = backward

Changes in Temperature
• Endothermic: A + B + heat → C
• Increase temperature = forward
• Decrease temperature = backward
• Exothermic: A + B → C + Heat
• Increase temperature = backward
• Decrease temperature = forward

Addition of Catalyst
• Does not shift the position of equilibrium
• System will equilibrium faster

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X. ACIDS AND BASES
Arrhenius Acid: produce H+ ions in water
Base: produce OH- ions in water

Bronsted Acid: proton donor


Base: proton acceptor

Lewis Acid: electron acceptor


Base electron donor

pH – measure of acidity; power of hydrogen


• pH = 14 – pOH

Water : auto-ionized
Kw : ionization constant of water = 1x10-14

Strong Acid : pH = -log [H+]


Strong Base : pOH = -log [OH-]
: pH = pKw – pOH

Henderson Hasselbalch:

Weak Acid : pH + log [salt] / [weak acid]


: pKa = -log Ka

Weak Base : pH = pKa + log [weak base] / [salt]


: pKa = pKw – pKb

Buffer : composed of weak acid/base and the salt of a weak acid/base


: ability to resist change in pH
: Maximum buffer capacity when pH = pKa

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XI. RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity : spontaneous emission of particles by unstable nuclei of heavier elements
: depends on nuclear stability (n/p)

Natural Radioactivity
1) Alpha Radiation : highest ionizing power / radiation
: capacity to produce ions
: lowest penetrating power (difficulty in penetrating cells)
: 42He or 42 Alpha
2) Beta Radiation : high ionizing power
: high penetrating power
: 0 -1 e or 0 -1 B
3) Gamma Radiation: lowest ionizing power
: highest penetrating power

Artificial Radioactivity
1) Positron Emission : happens to nuclei with too many protons
2) K-electron Capture : capture of 1s electron by nucleus of unstable nuclei

Units of Radioactivity
1) Curie (Ci) : Amount of radioactive material emitting 2.22 x 1012 DPM
: DPM – Disintegration per minute
2) Becquerel : 1 DPS – Disintegration per second

Units of Exposure
1) Roentgen (R) (1R): quantity of gamma / x-ray that will produce ions carrying a charge of 2.58x10 -4 c/kg of air
: C = Coulumb
2) Radiation Absorb Dose (RAD) : unit of absorbed dose
3) Gray : 1 Gray = 100 rads
4) Radiation Equivalent Man (REM): unit of human exposure
5) Sievert (Sv) : Sv = 100 rems

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