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Research Article

Origin and reservoir characteristics of Ordovician dolostones in the Ordos

Basin
Bao Hongping a,b,*, Yang Fan a,b, Cai Zhenghong a,b, Wang Qianping a,b, Wu Chunying a,b
a
PetroChina Changqing Oilfield Company, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710018, China
b
State Engineering Laboratory of Exploration and Development for Low-Permeability Oil and Gas Fields, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710018, China
Received 25 October 2016; accepted 25 January 2017
Available online 12 August 2017

Abstract

Dolomite is one of the most important rock types for the development of the Ordovician effective reservoirs in the Ordos Basin. Its genesis
remains controversial due to its complex and variable rock texture and occurrence. In this paper, through analysis of macroscopic regional
geological background, microscopic rock texture, mineralogy, and geochemistry, the Ordovician dolomites in this area are divided into three
types, i.e., micriteefine-powder crystal, coarse-powder crystal, and fine (medium) crystal. It is pointed out that they were formed in three
different dolomitization diagenetic environments, namely, penecontemporaneous dolomitization by evaporative pumping, mixture dolomitiza-
tion of freshwater and magnesium-rich brine, and seepageereflux dolomitization, respectively. In terms of horizon and spatial distribution, they
represent the features of “strata-controlled” and “region-specific”. The analysis of genesis provides the following findings. First, the three types
of dolomitization are correlated to certain extent in terms of temporalespatial evolution. In other words, they were all originated along with the
deposition of gypsum mineral under evaporation background. Second, the main pore types, i.e., dissolved pores, intercrystalline pores, and
organic framework, were respectively formed in three types of dolomites. They generally distributed in “specific” type of dolomite, which
indicates that the pore genesis is closely related to dolomitization diagenesis environment. Third, the development and distribution of effective
dolomite reservoirs is mainly subject to three types of elements, such as primary sedimentary facies belts, diagenetic environment controlling
regional dolomitization, and sequence boundary caused by variation of relative sea level.
© 2017 Sichuan Petroleum Administration. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
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Keywords: Ordos Basin; Ordovician; Genesis of dolomite; Geochemistry; Reservoir; Distribution of dolomites; Strata-controlled; Region-specific

Dolomitization and origin of dolostones remain contro-
versial for a long period of time in the field of geoscience.
They have never been addressed efficiently since various
complex aspects are involved, such as the source of Mg2þ,
stability of thermodynamics and geological settings for dolo-
mitized metasomatism, and circulation dynamics of diagenetic
fluids. However, a variety of hypotheses on the origin were
formed, such as the Sabkha evaporative pump mode, seep-
ageereflux mode, capillary concentration mode, underground
mixing water belt mode, regional deep burial mode and hy-
drothermal dolomitization mode [1,2]. Each of these
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bhp_cq@petrochina.com.cn (Bao HP).
Peer review under responsibility of Sichuan Petroleum Administration.
hypotheses may apply to specific regions. In recent years,
influences of hydrothermal process and microbial action on
dolomitization have been increasingly concerned [3e5].
Particularly, the investigation on dolomitic authigenic sedi-
ments in modern salt lake environment and the microbial
dolostone precipitation tests simulating the natural environ-
ment have proved that dolomitization under the supergene
condition is basically universal [6e8]. Furthermore, the study
on dolomitization of the Neogene marine sediments has pre-
liminarily clarified that the (near-surface) shallow burial
environment possesses the fundamental conditions required
for the occurrence of large-scale dolomitization [9].
The Ordovician strata deposited in the Ordos Basin contain
widespread marine carbonate rocks and evaporite sediments.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ngib.2017.07.015
2352-8540/© 2017 Sichuan Petroleum Administration. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
Dolostones is one of the most important rock types for the
development of effective reservoirs and hence becomes the
focus in natural gas exploration in the Lower Paleozoic strata
in the basin. Since the rock texture and the occurrence feature
of dolostones formed in this area are complex and variable, the
understandings on its origin are different [10e14]. The au-
thors, through analysis of texture, geochemical feature and
regional distribution law of the Ordovician dolostones in this
area, together with the study of dolostones and associated
rocks and the study of its relationship with the sequence
evolution, attempt to determine the regional geological setting
for the origin of dolostones and its possible genetic mecha-
nism, and look for possible clues for understanding the
development and distribution laws of effective reservoirs in
dolostones.
1. Types of dolostones
Regardless of the residual sedimentary structure and orig-
inal sedimentary structure, the Ordovician dolostones in this
area can be divided into three types depending on its crys-
talline granular texture, i.e., micriteefine-powder crystal,
coarse powder crystal, and fine (medium) crystal. Since they
present a certain regularity in horizon and spatial distribution
(Table 1), which allows for the ease of analysis based on
macroscopic geological setting, their genetic mechanism
models were built respectively.
1.1. Fine-powder crystal dolostones
This type of dolostones has fine to small crystal grains, with
grain size mostly ranging from 5 to 30 mm, and hence retains
relatively more original sedimentary structure and structural
features (Fig. 1-a and b). It presents a relatively low euhedral
degree and is dominated by subhedral to anhedral crystal
grains in a compact mosaic texture, resulting in the tight na-
ture and low porosity of the rock matrix. This type of dolo-
stones often exhibits a micro-to fine-laminated texture, with
gypsum salt mineral pseudocrystal or mold pores present in
partial layers, indicating its correlation with evaporite minerals
in origin. Fine-powder crystal dolostones often transit or
change to gypsum rocks and salt rocks in the lateral direction,
and usually present an “associated assemblage” in the vertical
direction by interbedding or intercalating with gypsum salt
rocks. These evidences suggest that, this type of dolostones is
Table 1
Texture, occurrence and distribution features of major types of Ordovician, in the Ordos Basin.
Major types Crystal grain Occurrence
size/mm feature
Micriteefine-powder 5e30 Medium to thin layers
crystal dolostones
Coarse-powder crystal 50e80 Medium to thick layers
dolostones
Fine (medium) crystal 100e300 Thick layers to
dolostones massive structures
107
closely connected to evaporites (i.e., gypsum rocks and salt
rocks) in origin.
1.2. Coarse-powder crystal dolostones
This type of dolostones has relatively coarser crystal grains,
with grain sizes mostly ranging from 50 to 80 mm. The size of
crystal grain is homogeneous. It tends to present a significantly
higher euhedral degree and is dominated by euhedral to sub-
hedral crystal grains (Fig. 1-c and d). Intercrystalline pores
were formed in partial layers, enabling it to act as effective
intercrystalline pore-type dolostones reservoir. Due to the in-
fluence of the strong modification by re-crystallization, crystal
grains are relatively coarse, original sedimentary structures
and textures are poorly retained, and rocks mostly present a
homogeneous massive structural feature and few evident
beddings. Relatively clear residual grain structure feature is
present in layers with heterogeneous crystal grain structures.
In the vertical direction, it is common that thick layers of
this type of dolostones are interbedded with the fine-powder
crystal dolostones. In the lateral direction, they either transit
to or distribute in micritic limestones as thin interlayers. The
associated assembly relationship of coarse powder crystal
dolostones and limestones becomes particularly evident in the
fifth sub-layer of the Lower Ordovician Majiagou Fm Ma 5
Member (O1 m55 ).
1.3. Fine (medium) crystal dolostones
This type of dolostones was previously named “sucrosic
dolostones”. It contains significantly coarser crystal grains
than other types, with grain sizes mostly ranging from 100 to
300 mm. The size of crystal grains is homogeneous. The
dolomite usually has a high euhedral degree and is dominated
by subhedral to euhedral crystal grains. Dolomite intercrys-
talline pores are distributed evenly in most of the layers,
allowing for the formation of high-quality intercrystalline
pore-type dolostone reservoirs (Fig. 1-e and f).
This type of dolostones is often thick-bedded and distrib-
uted laterally in thick limestone. This associated assembly
relationship becomes particularly prominent in O1m4 in the
Ordos Basin. Vertically, fine (medium) crystal dolostones are
in abrupt contact with limestones or gypsum salt rocks (and
fine-powder crystal dolostones transitioning from gypsum salt
rocks).
Associated minerals Associated rocks Distribution
(pseudocrystal) horizons
Anhydrite, rock salt Anhydrite rocks, O1 m15 to O1 m45 , O1 m85 , O1 m10
5 ,
salt rocks and O1 m65 (partial layers),
O1m3, and O1m1
Occasional gypsum- Limestones O1 m55 , O1 m75 , O1 m95 and O1 m65
pseudocrystals (partial layers)
Relatively pure dolostones Limestones O1m4 (Zhuozishan Fm), and O1m6
at the southern margin of the basin
108 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119

Fig. 1. Microscopic texture features of three types of dolostones in the Ordovician strata, Ordos Basin.

2. Occurrence and distribution features
2.1. Regional overall lithologic distribution framework
of the Ordovician strata
Fig. 2 is the sketch diagram showing the EW lithologic
profile of the Ordos Basin. It can be seen that the Ordovician
strata deposited in the basin generally can be divided into three
lithology zones, i.e., the gypsum salt rockecarbonate rock
interaction zone in the centraleeastern part, the dolostone
zone in the central paleo-uplift, and the limestoneedolostone
zone in the western part.
2.1.1. Gypsum salt rockecarbonate rock interaction zone in
the centraleeastern part
In the centraleeastern part, the lithology is dominated by
evaporative gypsum-salt rocks alternating with carbonate
rocks in a cyclic sedimentation mode, except for the local
presence of the Ordovician YelieLiangjiashan Fm siliceous
dolostones in the southeastern margin. O1m1, O1m3 and O1m5
are evaporative gypsum-salt rock strata (transiting into dolo-
stones towards both sides of the Mizhi salt depression), while
O1m2, O1m4 and O1m6 are limestone-dominated carbonate
rock strata (O1m6 was retained in localized areas only due to
the weathering denudation after the late Caledonian).
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
Fig. 2. Ordovician sedimentary rock facies and dolostone distribution in the Ordos Basin (EW).
2.1.2. Dolostone zone in the central paleo-uplift
The Ordovician strata deposited in this area have pure li-
thology and is dominated by thick-bedded, massive dolostones
with fineemedium crystal grain textures.
2.1.3. Limestoneedolostone zone in the western part
This zone is located in the western part of the basin to the
west of the central paleo-uplift, in which the Ordovician strata
consist mainly of carbonate rocks or argillaceous carbonate
sedimentary layers. The lithology in the lower section (San-
daokaneZhuozishaneKelimoli formations) is dominated by
limestone alternating with dolostones, with dolomite content
decreasing significantly upwards; and the upper section
(WulalikeeLashizhongeGongwusu formations) is dominate
by argillaceous limestone, marlstone and mud shale, with mud
content increasing progressively upwards, which presents a
relatively deep-water slope facies sedimentary environment.
Dolostone strata are absent.
2.2. Development and distribution features of dolostones
in different sequences
2.2.1. Development and distribution features of dolostones
in regressive sequence cycle
It was formed during the large-scale regression, together
with the formation of evaporite. Evaporite rocks sedimentary
layers, such as anhydrite rocks and salt rocks, were formed in
the Mizhi salt depression zone, in the eastern Ordos Basin. In
the JingbianeAnbian region, near the central paleo-uplift, it
has transited to dolostones deposited in the evaporative tidal
flat environment, which are mostly micrite-crystal type.
Gypsum dolomitic nodules are present in some dolostone
beds. Therefore, it is possible to form high-quality weathering
curst dissolved pore-type dolostone reservoirs by late-stage
karstification reformation occurred during the weathering
crust period. O1 m1þ2
5 gas layers encountered in the Jingbian
region were formed in this type of dolostone beds.
2.2.2. Development and distribution features of dolostones
in short-stage transgressive sequence
Dolostones discussed here refer to those formed in short-
stage transgressive sequence, which is the secondary stage
109
under a long-period transgression setting. For example, O1m5
was deposited generally during the lowstand period (i.e.,
regressive cycle) of a large evaporative cycle with associated
short-stage transgressive cycles, and O1 m55 represents an
important short-stage transgressive deposition in that period.
Lithofacies paleo-geographic framework during the deposition
of O1 m55 was distributed in rings and belts from east to west.
The eastern part was controlled by a subtidal environment in a
low-lying position, where lithology is dominated by dolo-
stones, and the sedimentary zone to the west near the central
paleo-uplift was controlled by a relatively shallow-water
platform flat environment, where lithology becomes
dolostone-dominated, showing the “facies-controlled” devel-
opment and distribution features of dolostones. Coarse-powder
crystal grain textures, high euhedral dolomite and rich inter-
crystalline pores make this type of dolostones effective inter-
crystalline pore-type dolostone reservoirs.
2.2.3. Development and distribution features of dolostones
in long-stage transgressive sequence
This type of dolostones was formed mainly in long-stage
transgressive sequence, such as O1m4 and O1m6, and mostly
present in pure carbonate strata as thick and massive rock
beds, in association with pure limestone. Rock textures are
dominated by dolomite with fine crystal grains, or with
exceptional medium or powder crystal in some layers.
The O1m4 dolostones are distributed mainly in the central
paleo-uplift and its adjoining areas, and the O1m6 dolostone
(Kelimoli Fm) in the dolomitized reef-beach body strata in the
platform margin facies belt in the southern margin of the
basin.
Vertically, this type of dolostones shows large cyclic dis-
tribution, together with the evaporative gypsum salt rocks and
micrite-crystal dolostones in regression and highstand system
tracts.
2.3. Macroscopic distribution law of dolostone beds
2.3.1. Significant strata-controlled distribution feature in
the vertical direction
The Ordovician dolostone bed in the Ordos Basin exhibits a
significant strata-controlled distribution feature. Dolomitization
110 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
effect can be extremely strong in some layers, even within the
same thick-bedded carbonate strata and within the same re-
gion. As a result, a thick section of strata would be wholly
dolomitized but some layers may remain unchanged. Fig. 3
shows that, in the Ordovician strata in the southern margin
of the Ordos Basin, the O1m6 layer, which is located in the
upper section of the Majiagou Fm, is almost entirely thick-
bedded dolostone bed and, however, the lithology of the
overlying Pingliang and Beiguoshan formations is limestone
and argillaceous limestone, with nearly no trace of dolostones.
Dolomitization appears to be highly selective to geologic
beds.
2.3.2. Evident region-specific distribution feature in the
lateral direction
Another distribution feature of the Ordovician dolostones in
the Ordos Basin is its evident region-specific nature. Dolo-
mitization effect can be extremely strong in some regions,
even within the same layer and within the same carbonate rock
bed. As a result, a thick section of strata would be wholly
dolomitized but dolomitization in other regions may remain
weak. Therefore, dolomitization may occur in some layers and
the majority of the strata are still limestone-dominated.
Dolostones are mostly intercalated between or interbedded
with these thick carbonate beds, showing an evident “region-
specific” distribution feature.
For example, O1m5 in the central eastern part of the Ordos
Basin is a 23e28 m thick, pure carbonate beds, which show an
evident “region-specific” distribution feature in the lateral di-
rection (Fig. 4). Dolostones is dominated by the powder
crystal type in regions to the west of Jingbian and transits to
limestones with thin dolostone interlayers in and to the east of
Fig. 3. Well correlation section showing the Ordovician strata in the southern margin of the Ordos Basin (near EW).
Jingbian. The region-specific distribution feature of dolostones
in relatively thin short-stage transgressive sequence is possibly
due to the control of sedimentary facies belt over dolomiti-
zation and the influence of its succession.
3. Origin mechanism
Through an integrated analysis of macroscopic distribution,
geologic occurrence and texture feature of the Ordovician
dolostones in this area, it is considered that, the origin of the
dolostones is controlled by three dolomitization mechanisms,
i.e., penecontemporaneous dolomitization by evaporative
pumping, mixture dolomitization of freshwater and
magnesium-rich brine, and seepageereflux dolomitization,
under which the micriteefineepowder crystal, coarse powder
crystal and fine (medium) crystal dolostones were formed,
respectively. In the following sections, a discussion on the
diagenetic environment and dolomitization mechanism of each
type of dolostones will be presented based on mineralogical,
crystallographic and petrogeochemical analysis of dolostones,
for the purpose of arousing the interest in dolomitization study
and in deepening the understanding.
3.1. Penecontemporaneous dolomitization by
evaporative pumping
This is the origin mode of dolomitization that applies
broadly to the Ordovician evaporative tidal flat dolostones in
the centraleeastern part of the Ordos Basin. Study of the
Holocene dolomite-bearing sediments [1] and experimental
study of formation condition of dolomite [15e17] enable
sedimentologists to believe that broad occurrence of
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119 111

Fig. 4. The net/gross ratio of dolostones and lithological zones of O1 m55 in the centraleeastern part of the Ordos Basin.

dolomitization in evaporative tidal flat and lagoon environ-
ment with high-salinity and high Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio during the
sedimentary period or under the subsequent “pene-
contemporaneous” condition is possible. This type of dolo-
stones was formed primarily in a highstandelowstand system
tract in the transgressiveeregressive sequence. Regionally, the
lithology consists of associated evaporative gypsum and salt
rocks. This dolomitization mechanism is basically similar with
the penecontemporaneous dolomitization mode of Sabkha
evaporative tidal flat; that is, calcite carbonate sediments
formed earlier were dolomitized and replaced before burial in
the hot and dry evaporative tidal flat depositional environment.
Geological conditions required for the occurrence of this
type of large-scale dolomitization was available in this area
(Fig. 5).
(1) Under the large-scale regressive sedimentary setting, the
central pale-uplift acted as a great barrier, which sepa-
rated the salt depression zone in the eastern part from the
Qinqi open sea in the western part, forming a restricted
sea evaporation environment, in which an evaporative
gypsum-salt basin was formed in a certain period.
(2) The salt basin margin zone to the east of the paleo-uplift
was under an evaporative tidal flat sedimentary
112 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
Fig. 5. The penecontemporaneous dolomitization mode in an evaporative environment in the centraleeastern part of the Ordos Basin.
environment, which is a special diagenetic environment
due to the availability of preexisting tidal flat facies
calcite lime mud sediments. In other words, the pre-
cipitation of gypsum minerals (CaSO4) in the salt
depression zone resulted in a significant increase of
Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio in the sedimentary water body and
diagenetic medium. Magnesium-rich fluid, driven by
“capillary force” or “evaporative pumping”, migrated
towards the supratidal flat. As a result, strong dolomi-
tization occurred in preexisting lime sediments.
Since dolomitization occurred at a relatively high ion
concentration, dolomite crystals were formed at a fast rate
with a large number of nodules. Therefore, dolomites formed
generally have tiny crystal and retain the original laminated
sedimentary textures. Gypsum-salt mineral crystals (or crystal
mold pore and pseudocrystal) formed simultaneously with
gypsum salt minerals and gypsumedolomite nodules (or mold
pore of nodule) are sometimes present, indicating the close
relationship between dolomitization and formation of evapo-
rative gypsum and salt minerals.
3.2. Mixture dolomitization of freshwater and
magnesium-rich brine
As for the O1 m55
in the central part of the Ordos Basin, the
mixture dolomitization of freshwater and magnesium-rich
brine mode provides a reasonable explanation for the forma-
tion of coarse powder crystal dolostones in short-stage trans-
gressive sequence under an overall regression setting.
However, this mode differs from the traditional mixture water
dolomitization mode [18] (the latter refers to the mixture
dolomitization of meteoric freshwater and normal seawater,
however, mixture dolomitization of freshwater and
magnesium-rich brine).
(1) O1 m55 was deposited during a short-stage transgressive
period, between the O1 m45 and O1 m65 , which are evapo-
rite sequences. Its lithofacies paleo-geographic frame-
work was distributed in rings or belts, with Huanlu
dolomitic flat, Jingxi platform flat, Jingbian gentle slope
and east limestone depression developed from west to
east. In the Jingxi platform flat zone near the paleo-
uplift, algal limy flat, algal clastic beach and limy
dolomitic flat sedimentary micro-facies were developed,
which are deemed to be favorable for the subsequent
occurrence of dolomitization.
(2) The depositional period of O1 m45 has witnessed a great
change in a sedimentary environment. As sea level
relatively dropped, evaporite began to deposit and a dry
evaporative environment that is favorable for the depo-
sition of gypsum and salt rocks was formed in the cen-
traleeastern part of the basin. Along with the deposition
of gypsum at the basin margin and the formation of
gypsum dolomitic flat-bearing gypsum dolostones,
content of Ca2þ and SO2 4 decreased greatly and, as a
result, the Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio in the sedimentary water
body increased significantly, forming the “magnesium-
rich brine”.
The high Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio fluid will inevitably exert an
influence on the preexisting O1 m55 sediments. As a result, fluid
medium formed in a normal sea environment would be
replaced gradually by high Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio fluid, leading to
the occurrence of the dolomitization alternation from calcite to
dolomite. Ca2þ generated in this process would be utilized for
the precipitation of gypsum and hence created a geochemical
circulation dynamic equilibrium system that involves the
interdependence of gypsum precipitation and dolomitization
alternation.
(3) The paleo-uplift zone during the deposition of O1 m45 was
under an intermittent exposure sedimentary environment
in most of the time. In the case where atmospheric
precipitation occurs, rainwater that covers a large area
would converge on land and then infiltrate into the areas
at both sides of the paleo-uplift, flowing into the previ-
ously deposited O1 m55 (in a shallowly buried diagenetic
environment) to the east of the paleo-uplift. The avail-
ability of meteoric freshwater allows for the formation
of a mixed water zone of freshwater and “magnesium-
rich brine” in O1 m55 in areas to the east of the paleo-
uplift. This diagenetic medium environment would
have a significant influence on the dolomitization of
O1 m55 and enable the crystal textures to be more coarser
and the dolomite euhedral degree to increase. This is the
reason why the O1 m55 dolostones in areas to the east of
the paleo-uplift has coarser crystal grains and is more
euhedral than O1 m1þ2
5 micrite-crystal dolostones formed
in evaporative tidal flat (Fig. 1).
Fig. 6 shows the mixture dolomitization of freshwater and
magnesium-rich brine for the O1 m55 dolostones in areas to the
east of the paleo-uplift. During the deposition of O1 m55 , east
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
Fig. 6. The mixture dolomitization mode of O1 m55 dolostones (based on Yang Hua et al. [19]).
depression, Jingbian gentle slope, West Jingbian platform flat
and Huanlu dolomitic flat were formed successively from east
to west, and shallow-water grain beach facies sediments were
deposited in the west Jingbian platform flat zone to the east of
the paleo-uplift (Fig. 6-a). During the deposition of the O1 m45
evaporite, the diagenetic environment of the mixture dolomi-
tization of freshwater and magnesium-rich brine was formed
as a result of intermittent exposure of paleo-uplift caused by
regional sea level fall, which resulted in the formation of
coarse-powder crystal dolostone reservoir on the basis of
preexisting grain beach facies sediments in the shallow-water
carbonate sedimentary zone to the east of the paleo-uplift
(Fig. 6-b).
The similarity between this dolomitization and the evapo-
rative tidal flat dolomitization is that the occurrence of dolo-
mitization is related to the increase in Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio caused
by precipitation of gypsum minerals. The difference is that,
the penecontemporaneous dolomitization in the evaporative
tidal flat environment occurred mainly during the same period
of deposition and remained within the original sedimentary
environment, while the mixture dolomitization occurred in the
post-depositional near-surface shallow burial diagenetic
environment.
3.3. Seepageereflux dolomitization
The “seepageereflux” mode provides an opportunity to
make a reasonable explanation about the origin of the thick-
bedded fine (medium) crystal dolostones (e.g., O1 m4 ) formed
in the centralewestern part of the Ordos Basin. This type of
dolostones is present mainly in the long-stage transgressive
sequence, and its dolomitization occurred mainly under the
post-sedimentation shallow burial diagenetic environment. At
that time, the long-stage regressive sedimentary period
commenced, during which the O1 m5 evaporative gypsum salt
rockedolostone sedimentary cycle was formed. The sedi-
mentary environment, in which the penecontemporaneous
dolomitization of O1 m5 occurred, also exerted a significant
113
influence on the diagenetic environment of the underlying
O1 m4 (preexisting carbonate sediments). In addition to sup-
porting the penecontemporaneous dolomitization of the syn-
chronous carbonate sediments of O1 m5 , magnesium-rich brine
formed by precipitation of evaporative gypsum salt minerals
during the deposition of O1 m5 had a long-term and steady
influence on the dolomitization of the underlying O1 m4 limy
carbonate sediments. In other words, these two dolomitization
processes may occur synchronously: one occurs on the sur-
face, the other under the ground. Their hydrologic condition,
circulation dynamics and crystallization geologic environment
for dolomite growth are different.
Geologic conditions that enable the occurrence of large-
scale dolomitization in O1 m4 are briefly summarized as
follows:
(1) Following the deposition of O1 m4 , the evaporite depo-
sition stage commenced under a large-scale trans-
gressive setting, i.e., the O1 m5 period. At that time, the
regional tectonic and sedimentary setting was the envi-
ronment for the formation of O1 m5 micriteefine-powder
crystal dolostones as discussed earlier: under the barrier
effect exerted by the central paleo-uplift, the salt
depression zone to the east was mainly under a restricted
sea sedimentary environment characterized by strong
evaporation. As gypsum minerals precipitated, with
significantly increased Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio, the sedimen-
tary water body became the high-salinity “magnesium-
rich brine”.
(2) Due to high density, this “magnesium-rich brine” infil-
trated continually towards the paleo-uplift to the west,
resulting in a continual increase in salinity and Mg2þ/
Ca2þ ratio of pore fluids in the underlying sedimentary
layer. As a result, the diagenetic medium environment
for the underlying O1 m4 sediments changed and funda-
mental geochemical conditions (e.g., salinity and Mg2þ/
Ca2þ) for the occurrence of large-scale dolomitization
became available.
114 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
(3) The salt depression basin located to the east of the paleo-
uplift, although affected by strong evaporative precipi-
tation and tended to be drying, received the reflux supply
of normal seawater from the west of the paleo-uplift
under the effect of high tidal and short-stage intermit-
tent transgression. Therefore, the precipitation of gyp-
sum salt sediments and dolomitization of the underlying
strata would continue (Fig. 7). In particular, long-term
and stable supply of Mg2þ required for the occurrence
of large-scale dolomitization was available.
Since this dolomitization occurred mainly under the
shallow burial diagenetic environment underground, with
lower salinity and a more stable diagenetic medium environ-
ment (i.e., Mg2þ/Ca2þ ratio, temperature and pH) than the
evaporative pumping mode. Therefore, the crystallization rate
of dolomite is relatively slow and the dolomite crystal grains
formed are generally relatively coarse and highly euhedral,
thereby favoring the formation of thick-bedded fine or medium
crystal dolostones.
4. Mineralogical and geochemical features of different
origins of dolostones
In addition to rock textures and macroscopic regional dis-
tribution features, dolostones formed by different dolomitiza-
tion processes have different geochemical features, which may
provide the microscopic evidence or clue for analyzing their
dolomitization origin.
Fig. 7. The seepageereflux dolomitization mode of O1m4 in the centralewestern part of the Ordos Basin.
4.1. Dolomite order degree and Mg/Ca ratio
Micriteefine-powder crystal dolostones exhibits a gener-
ally low dolomite order degree, which ranges from 0.45 to
0.85, and a relatively high Mg/Ca ratio, which mostly ranges
from 0.9 to 1.0 (Fig. 8), reflecting a rapid crystal growth of
dolomite under a high mineralization degree.
Coarse-powder crystal dolostones and fine (medium) crystal
dolostones have clearly a high order degree and a relatively low
Mg/Ca ratio. As for Mg/Ca ratio, fine (medium) crystal dolo-
stones is somewhere in between but exhibits more concentrated
distribution, indicating that the dolomitization might occur
under a relatively stable burial diagenetic environment.
Huang [21] proposed similar conclusion from the study of
dolomite order degree of the third and fourth members of the
Triassic Jialingjiang Fm in the Sichuan Basin, namely, dolo-
mites formed by intertidalesupratidal evaporative pumping
had a relatively low order degree, and those formed in shallow
shoal environment had a relatively high order degree.
4.2. Trace elements
Micriteefine-powder crystal dolostones usually has higher
content of Fe and Mn than coarse powder crystal dolostones,
with Mn content ranging from 60 to 400 mg/g and Fe content
from 0.5% to 3.5%. In general, it has a high Ba content, which
ranges from 20 to 200 mg/g, and a low Sr content, which
ranges from 60 to 150 mg/g (Fig. 9). These indexes indicate
that, as dolomite crystallized rapidly in a relatively stable
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119 115

Fig. 10. Comparison of carbon and oxygen isotopes of different dolostones.

4.3. Carboneoxygen isotopes

Fig. 8. Comparison of distribution of dolomite order degree and Mg/Ca ratio
between different Ordovician dolostones. Note: 1. Dolomite order degree and Micriteefine-powder crystal dolostones has significantly
Mg/Ca ratio data are obtained using the X-ray powder crystal diffraction
technique [20]; 2. Due to the lack of Mg/Ca ratio data, data noted by the brown
different carboneoxygen isotopes from fine (medium) crystal
square is replaced by the whole rock Mg/Ca ratio to ensure that the dolomite dolostones (Fig. 10), with minus d13C and d18O values (d13C
order degree data are representative. ranges from 0 to 4‰ and d18O ranges from 7.5 to 11‰).
This reveals that, this type of dolostones is highly selective to
high-salinity environment, more Fe2þ and Mn2þ isomorphism
light carbon and light oxygen during its rapid crystallization
with small ion diameter were mixed than Sr2þ and Ba2þ
(alternation) process, due to the influence of CO2 in the air.
isomorphism with large ion diameter (high Ba content is
However, it is also possible that the penecontemporaneous
possibly due to the presence of few barite minerals, i.e.,
dolomitization alternation is related to microbial action.
BaSO4, in a high salinity, rather than the mixing of isomor-
Coarse powder crystal dolostones share similar oxygen
phism into dolomite).
isotope value (d18O) with fine (medium) crystal dolostones but
Coarse powder crystal dolostones and fine (medium) dolo-
significantly different carbon isotope value (d13C). Fine (me-
stones have low content of Fe and Mn. In particular, coarse
dium) crystal dolostones has clearly positive d13C, possibly
powder crystal dolostones has Mn content ranging from 30 to
indicating a relatively weak exchanging degree with CO2 in
150 mg/g and Fe content ranging from 0.1% to 0.6%, which
the air during its dolomitization.
possibly indicate that, under a relatively desalinating condition
caused by near-surface shallow burial, Fe2þ and Mn2þ are less
5. Control factors for the development of dolostone
likely to enter the dolomite mineral crystal lattice due to the
reservoir
influence of oxidation-reduction potential (Eh).
Coarse powder crystal dolostones and fine (medium) crystal
5.1. Reservoir (origin) types
dolostones have significantly different Sr and Ba content from
the micritic powder crystal dolostones. Both of them have low Ba
Exploration of natural gas in the Lower Paleozoic carbon-
content. However, fine (medium) crystal dolostones sometimes
ate strata in this area has proved that, effective Ordovician
exhibits high Sr content, which possibly indicates a gradual
reservoirs are developed primarily in dolostone beds, with few
concentration of fluid medium during the burial diagenesis.

Fig. 9. Comparison of microelement content distribution between different types of Ordovician dolostones in the Ordos Basin.
116 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
karst fracture-cave-type and dissolved-pore-type reservoirs
present in the Ordovician limestone beds in the Tianhuan re-
gion, the western Ordos Basin. Thus, dolostone reservoirs are
particularly important for natural gas to accumulate in car-
bonate strata in this area. An integrated analysis indicates that,
dissolved pores, dolomite intercrystalline pores, organic
framework and micro-fractures are main pore types developed
in the Ordovician dolostones in this area, and they generally
distribute in a “specific” type of dolomite. Dissolved pores and
micro-fractures are developed in micriteefine-powder crystal
dolostones, as a result of dissolution of soluble gypsum-salt
minerals during the weathering crust period and the tectonic
uplifting. Intercrystalline pores are distributed mainly in
coarse powder crystal and fine (medium) crystal dolostones.
Organic framework is developed mainly in fine (medium)
crystal dolostones, which is the residue of original organic
framework pores reserved in porous organic reef limestone
from strong dolomitization during the early shallow burial
stage. Therefore, the Ordovician dolostone reservoirs in this
area can be divided into three main reservoir rock types
depending on their main pore type and rock type matching
relationship, i.e., micriteefine-powder crystal dolostones dis-
solved pore-type, coarse powder crystal dolostone intercrys-
talline pore-type, and fine (medium) crystal dolostone
intercrystalline pore (framework pore)-type.
5.1.1. Micriteefine-powder crystal dolostone dissolved
pore-type reservoirs
Reservoir rock matrix mainly has fine-powder crystal tex-
tures and is relatively tight, but contains abundant spherical
dissolved pores and weathered micro-fractures. In some
layers, gypsum mold pores serve as the main reservoir space
(Fig. 11-a and b). With relatively high porosity and perme-
ability, this type of reservoir is the major reservoir rock of the
paleo-weathering crust gas reservoir in the Jingbian Gas field
and is present primarily in gypsum-bearing dolomitic flat
sedimentary facies belts.
5.1.2. Coarse powder crystal dolostone intercrystalline
pore-type reservoirs
Rock matrix is dominated by coarse-powder crystal dolo-
mites, which are uniformly sized and subhedral to euhedral.
This type of reservoirs contains rich dolomite intercrystalline
pores (Fig. 11-c and d) and few dissolved pores that are pre-
sent locally, and has a moderate reservoir performance. They
are commonly present in a short-stage transgressive sedi-
mentary sequence in the Middle Ordovician assemblage (e.g.,
O1 m55 ) to the east of the paleo-uplift. Algal clastic beach
microfacies deposited in the west Jingbian platform flat has an
optimal porosity, where multiple blocks with high gas reserves
and productivity have been discovered, such as the Su 203
well block.
5.1.3. Fine (medium) crystal dolostone intercrystalline pore
(framework pore)-type reservoirs
Rock matrix is dominated by fine or medium crystal do-
lomites, which are uniformly sized. This type of reservoirs
contains dolomite intercrystalline pores (Fig. 11-c and d) and
is distributed uniformly. Intercrystalline pores, dissolved pores
and organic reef framework pores (Fig. 11-f) are present in
some areas, making high reservoir permeability possible.
Usually, the reservoir is thick-bedded and distributed over a
large area. It was formed primarily in strongly dolomitized
layers in the shallow-water platform grain beach facies and
platform marginal reef-beach facies.
5.2. Factors influencing the formation of dolostone
reservoirs
5.2.1. Facies (sedimentary facies and microfacies)
Development of dolostone reservoirs is commonly
controlled by the succession of sedimentary facies. As for the
O1 m1þ2
5 weathering crust dissolved pore-type reservoirs
formed in micriteefine-powder crystal dolostones in this area,
not all of the fine-powder crystal dolostones that have been
eroded and exposed in the proximity of the Pre-Carboniferous
weathering crust can form effect weathering crust and, in fact,
effective dissolved pore-type reservoirs are distributed in
gypsum-bearing dolomitic flat sedimentary facies belts. The
formation of this type of reservoirs is the result of selective
solution of gypsum salt minerals. In general, however, fine-
powder crystal dolostone matrix (surrounding rocks) is tight
and hence lacks an effective reservoir performance, which has
been proved by large-scale exploration and development ac-
tivities in the Ordovician weathering crust gas field in the
Jingbian region, central Ordos Basin [22]. As for the coarse-
powder crystal dolostones, not all of the dolomitized O1 m55
are effective dolostone intercrystalline pore-type reservoirs,
which are usually referred to those deposited in grain beach
micro-facies belts and characterized by relatively coarse
dolomite crystal, highly euhedral crystal grains, and
commonly present dolomite intercrystalline pores. Similarly,
as for the fine (medium) crystal dolostones, crystal grain
dolostones with relatively high permeability is likely to form
in reef beach facies sedimentary bodies with relatively high
original porosity and permeability.
5.2.2. Diagenetic environment while dolomitization
When dolomitization occurs, the presence of meteoric
freshwater would result in two effects. First, magnesium-rich
brine was diluted, which enables a decrease in concentration
of diagenetic fluids, hence in the number of crystal centers
(number of crystal nucleus formed) at a time when crystalli-
zation of dolomite begins to occur. As a result, dolomites tend
to grow slowly and crystals formed tend to be highly euhedral
and coarser. Second, dolomite crystal grains formed under the
condition that the preexisting dolomites were recrystalized and
their geochemical features were restructured [23] are
commonly coarse and more highly euhedral, and tend to act as
dolostone intercrystalline pore-type reservoirs.
The analysis with regard to the diagenetic environment
under which the dolomitization processes occurred reveals
that, the central paleo-uplift and its adjoining areas are
diagenetic medium environment that are most likely to be
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119 117

Fig. 11. Reservoir pore development features in different types of Ordovician dolostones in the Ordos Basin.

affected by meteoric freshwater, since these areas were often inevitably cause the diagenetic medium environment for un-
intermittently exposed during every regressive deposition derlying sediments, which were shallowly buried for diagen-
period and would be affected by meteoric freshwater. As esis to change. The mixture dolomitization and
meteoric freshwater accumulates and infiltrates, it will seepageereflux dolomitization occurred also during this
118 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
period and, as a result, the diagenetic medium condition would
be desalinized and the crystallization speed of dolomite would
be changed, allowing for coarse and high euhedral crystals to
form.
In the case where the concentrated brine resulted from
evaporation and seepage and the meteoric freshwater gener-
ated by intermittent exposure occur alternately, dolostones
tend to form intercrystalline pore-type reservoirs with coarse
and high euhedral crystals and rich intercrystalline pores. This
is probably the reason why thick-bedded dolostone intercrys-
talline pore-type reservoirs are widespread in O1m4 in the
central paleo-uplift and its adjoining areas [14].
5.2.3. Effective dolostone reservoirs are easy to form in the
proximity of the sequence cycle interface
Sequence cycle interfaces usually correspond to the late
regression period within a certain degree of cycle, and in this
area represent the termination of an evaporative cycle or short-
stage sedimentary exposure. It is favorable for the occurrence
of broad dolomitization in the proximity of the interface and
for the development of dolostone reservoirs.
O1m4 in this area, for example, contains continuously
deposited, thick-bedded dolostones in areas near the paleo-
uplift, and in the centraleeastern areas far from the paleo-
uplift, dolomitization degree is commonly low and the strata
deposited is generally limestone-dominated, with exceptional
widespread thin dolostone interlayers, which range from 2 to
8 m but are continuously distributed in the lateral direction
(Fig. 12). This basically represents the fourth-order sequence
cycle and the upper interface of the fifth-order sequence cycle.
This type of thin dolostone interlayers is dominated by coarse
Fig. 12. Lithology profile of the O1m4 and distribution of dolostone (reservoir) in the central part of the Ordos Basin (EW).
powder dolostone or fine crystal dolostones, with a certain
amount of intercrystalline pores developed, and can serve as
effective dolostone intercrystalline pore-type reservoirs. Its
origin is related primarily to the eastward shifting of seep-
ageereflux dolomitization occurred during the secondary
regression period. Short-stage exposure related to the sequence
interface and engagement of freshwater provided favorable
conditions for the development of intercrystalline pores and
the formation of effective reservoirs.
6. Conclusions
(1) The Ordovician dolostones in this area are divided into
three types, i.e. fine-powder crystal, coarse powder
crystal, and fine (medium) crystal. In terms of horizontal
and spatial distribution, they present the features of
“strata-controlled” and “region-specific”.
(2) Three types of dolostones were formed in three different
dolomitization diagenetic environments, namely, pene-
contemporaneous dolomization by evaporative pumping,
mixture dolomitization of freshwater and magnesium-
rich brine, and seepageereflux dolomitization, respec-
tively, and have different dolomite mineralogical and
petrogeochemical features. Three types of dolomitiza-
tion are correlated to a certain extent in terms of tem-
poralespatial evolution. In other words, they were all
originated along with the deposition of gypsum mineral
under an evaporation background.
(3) The main pore types, i.e., dissolved pores, intercrystal-
line pores, and organic framework, were respectively
formed in three types of dolomites. They generally
 Bao HP. et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 4 (2017) 106e119
distribute in a “specific” type of dolomite, which in-
dicates that the pore genesis is closely related to a
dolomitization diagenesis environment.
(4) The development and the distribution of the Ordovician
effective dolomite reservoirs in this area are mainly
subject to three types of elements, such as primary
sedimentary facies belts (and sedimentary microfacies),
diagenetic environment controlling regional dolomiti-
zation (e.g., paleo-uplift), and sequence boundary
caused by a variation of relative sea levels.
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