Feasibility Study

WELCOME ABOARD!
WELCOME ABOARD!
SKMA 4513
AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
Consists of 4 parts: Lecturers:

1. Feasibility Study 1. Dr. Iskandar Shah Bin Hj. Ishak
2. Aircraft Aerodynamics 2. En. Md. Nizam Bin Dahalan
3. Aircraft Performance & Stability
4. Component
p Design
g
Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
1
Remarks:
Students are reminded that the slides are served solely for the
learning purpose and must be aware of the copyright issue.
issue
Some of the content are taken or modified from ASE261

ASE261
( C 2004 LM Corporation) course slides.

2
4513
SKMA 4513
AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
Lecturer: Dr. Iskandar Shah Bin Hj. Ishak
Room: C23 325
email: shah@mail.fkm.utm.my
h/p: 012 7225349
ASSESSMENTS FOR MY PART
Tasks Marks
1. Feasibility Study Report 18

2. Aircraft Performance & Stability Report 18
3. Test 10
4. Final Presentation 4

3
o

4
Expectations:

5
Light Aircraft
A light aircraft is an aircraft that has a maximum gross takeoff weight of

12,500 lb (5,670 kg) or less.[1,2]
The Cessna 172 is not onlyy the most p

popular
p light
g aircraft,, but also the most
produced aircraft of any kind.
[1]Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 308. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
[2] FAR 23
6
Photo of light aircrafts…
Photo of light aircrafts…
Notice the main difference of their landing gears?
7
More photo of light aircrafts…
8
Regardless their shapes & tail configurations are, they are still flyable and stable in the air!!
9
Brief History of UAV
Brief History of UAV
Th earliest
The li recorded
d d uses off Unmannedd Aerial
i l Vehicle
hi l
(UAV
UAV)) was in the mid 1800
1800’s
’s when the Austrian trying to
send bombs to the enemies, Venice by using bomb‐
bomb‐filled
balloons.. The balloons were launched from the Austrian
balloons
warship, Vulcano
Vulcano.. Some of the balloons successfully hit
the targets but some unfortunately were carried away by
the wind!
10
Amazing UAV facts
• The first “claimed” heavier-than-air, powered flight was of

a UAV, over the Potomac River, by Dr. Sam Langley (1896)
• The first radio-controlled UAV flights were converted
Navy trainers, flown over Long Island (1917)
• The first mass production UAV was the Kettering Bug
Bug,
costing $400 and capable of carrying a 300 lb bomb
(1918)
• 4 UAVs
UAV with
ith 2000 lb bombs
b b attacked
tt k d the
th Japanese
J
merchantman, Yamazuki Maru, scoring two direct hits
(1944)
• Marilyn Monroe was “discovered” while working in the

Radioplane OQ-3 UAV factory (1945)
Source: McDaid and Oliver, “Smart Weapons”, Barnes & Noble 1997
c 2004 LM Corporation Introduction to UAVs

11
Historical Comparison (US): Manned Aircraft Vs Unmanned Aircraft
P W ld War
Pre-World W II World War II 19 0
1950s
• Manned aircraft • Manned aircraft • Manned aircraft
- Reciprocating engines - Recips mature - Turbojets mature
- Biplanes to monoplanes - Structures mature - Advanced metalics
- Fabric to semi-monocoque - First jets - Supersonics mature
• Unmanned • Unmanned • Unmanned
- First unmanned vehicle - First combat use - First real systems
- First UAV - First drones - UAVs stagnate
1960s 1970s 1980s
• Manned aircraft • Manned aircraft • Manned aircraft
- Turbofans mature - Full fly by wire - Commercial FBW
- First composites - Early digital systems - Composites mature
- First fly by wire • Unmanned - Full digital systems
- Complex analog systems - First combat UAV • Unmanned
• Unmanned - First research UAV - Cruise missiles
- UAVs go to war - First tactical UAV - Tactical UAV (again)
• Other - Unmanned space 1990s - Unmanned 2000 and on
1990s - Manned aircraft - DARO Family of Vehicles - UAVs mature
- Co-cured composites - Tactical UAVs (again) - Manned/unmanned
- Pilots as managers - USAF / DARPA UCAV synergy co existence
synergy,co-existence
- Netted systems • Other - Reusable launchers
12
And there are many kinds
ttp://www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/compass_arrow.htm
Fixed wing
http://www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/predator.htm
Free wing Small
Rotary
wing
Micro Tail Sitters
Tilt wing/rotor
g
http://www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/vtuav.htm
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company
c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

13
UAV System Elements
UAV system includes five elements:

1.
1 The environment in which the UAVs operate or the System Element
(e.g. the airspace, the data links, relay aircraft, etc.)
2. The air vehicle(s) or the Air Vehicle Element
3. The control station(s) or the Mission Control Element
4 Th
4. The payload(s)
l d( ) or th
the Payload
P l d Element
El t
5. The maintenance and support system or the Support Element
Others define the system differently but at the bottom line there is
no difference - without all the elements, the system won’t work

14
1. System Element
Concept of Operations (ConOps)
SATCOM Discover II
& Other Overheads
Airborne
AWACS Rivet Joint Comm
Node
Recce
R
Joint Stars
Target
MCE Set
Mission Control
Element (MCE)
Launch and Recovery
Element (LRE)
Global
Comms
External
Systems
Space
National Q Q/P Q/P
Relay
Imagery P
Data MCS
Fusion
Theater Data UCAV
Imagery P C
P Fusion
Air •Sensing
P
Relay
e ay •Control
National Q Q Q
P
SIGINT P C P
Mission
Sensor Planning
Management R R
The environment(s) in
Theater
SIGINT P Direct
P P P Q/P C P
Comms
UCAV
Q/P
which the UAV operates

•Sensing
•Control
Theater
C2
Communications Network
15
2. Air Vehicle Element
The Airplane(s)

16
Size Comparison
h //
http://www.tdyryan.com/04_Programs/Global_Hawk/GH_System_Desc.PDF
d / / l b l k/
Global Hawk & Predator

17
3. Mission Control Element
http://www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/darkstar.htm
The Control Station(s)

18
4. Payload Element
http://www.tdyryan.com/04_Programs/Global_Hawk/GH_System_Desc.PDF
The Payload(s)
19
5. Support Element
Maintenance, support and

logistics

20
Design And Technology Challenges:
System Level
- Concepts of Operation
- Communications Payloads
availability/reliability - Auto
A t target
t t recognition
iti
- Multi-UAV operations - On board data processing
- UAVs in manned airspace - Data compression
Air Vehicle - Cost
C t
- Reliability and Safety
- Very long endurance Support system
- “Enduring” survivability - Reliability
R li bilit and dS
Safety
f t
- Cost - Logistics footprint
Mission control - Off base support
- Reliability and Safety - Aerial
A i l refueling
f li
- Operators per vehicle - Cost
- Multi-vehicle control
- Cost
21
AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
Sem 1 Session 2015/2016
Project
P j t Description
D i ti
Design a single/two-seater light aircraft with retractable landing gears and

po ered by
powered b a piston-prop
piston prop engine.
engine
The project is a team-based with each team consists of 4 to 5 members.

Write down at a paper:
Write down at a paper:
1) Your Group/aircraft name
2) List of your team member
3) Leader name
4) Your aircraft basic specifications (i.e. mission etc. )
And submit it to me during the next Studio Class!

And submit it to me during the next Studio Class!

23
Part I: Feasibility Study
The aircraft design process are the steps by which aircraft are
designed.
designed These depend on many factors such as customer and
manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic
constraints etc. For some types of aircraft the design process is
g
regulated byy national airworthiness authorities.
Aircraft
c a t des
design
g iss a co p o se bet
compromise between
ee many
a y co
competing
pet g factors
acto s a
and
d
constraints and accounts for existing designs and market requirements
to produce the best aircraft

24
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial
airliners are designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range
and greater fuel efficiency whereas fighter jets are designed to perform high
speed maneuvers and provide close support to ground troops.
Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious airplanes

ha e a unique
have niq e design that allows
allo s them to operate from both land and water,ater
some fighters, like the Harrier Jump Jett, have VTOLL(Vertical Take-off and
Landing) ability, helicopters have the ability to hover over an area for a period
of time.

25
o
I'll not say I failed 1000 times,

I will say that I discovered 1000 ways
that can cause failure“
..Thomas Edison
Design Wheel
26
DESIGN STAGES:
1. Pre-concept design
• The very early work that establishes the general concept, what it should do
and how it will be used
• Previously done by customer organizations (e.g.(e g the government) now done
by customers and companies
• The product is usually a set of initial requirements and expectations for cost
and schedule
2. Conceptual design
• The next phase that starts with overall requirements and objectives and
develops a preferred system concept and a plan to develop it
• The
Th product
d t isi usually
ll a proposall ffor preliminary
li i d
design
i with
ith enough
h
technical, cost and risk information to convince your customer to buy your
concept

27
3 P
3. li i
Preliminary d i
design
• The subsequent phase that turns the preferred system concept into a well
substantiated design and proposes a detailed plan to build and test it
• The product is usually documentation and a design review with enough
detailed technical and cost substantiation, planning and risk reduction to
convince your customer to let you build it
4 Detailed design
4.
• The final phase that completely defines the design for production and test
• The product is usually a set of detailed specifications, drawings,
manufacturing instructions and test plans

28
Source: Aircraft Design in the 21st Century: Implications for Design Method, Pradeep Raj

29
Design And Manufacturing Schedule

30
Project Design Process

31
o

32
o

33
Aircraft Statistically Data

34
PARAMETRIC STUDY
*Parametric study is important to guide you not to overly or underlay design your intended
aircraft –– more data is better!
aircraft
,p p p gg p
For the next studio class, please prepare the following graphs
(but not limited to):
1. Weight vs
Weight vs Wing Loading
2. Weight vs
Weight vs Endurance (or Range)
3. Range
Range vs
vs Endurance
4. Cruising Speed
Cruising Speed vs
vs Weight
5. Service Ceiling
Service Ceiling vs
vs Weight
6. Wing Area (or Wing Span) vs
Wing Area (or Wing Span) vs Wing Loading
& any necessary graphs you can think of!
AND A SKETCH OF YOUR PROPOSED AIRCRAFT!
35
Source: Modern Aircraft Design Techniques, William H. Mason

36
Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaWind Tunnel
– Low Speed Facility
Tunnel (UTM – LST)
Fan & Motor
Settling Chamber
• Heat Exchanger Test Section
• Honeycomb
• 3 Screens
Dimension: 2m (W) x 1.5m (H) x 5.8 m (L)

Maximum Wind Speed: 80 m/s
SomeTunnel
Some of Aircraft Wind of Wind Tunnel Activities
Tests
Some of Model Support
the Model & Balance
Support & Balance System
System
6- Component
Balance Load Range 6-Component
6 Component Ext. Semi-Span
Semi Span Balance
Internal Balance
Balance
• Normal Force, Fz +/- 445 N

+/- 4500 N +/- 4500 N
• Axial Force, Fx +/- 182 N
+/- 1200 N +/- 900 N
• Side Force
Force, Fy +/-
/ 356 N
+/ 1200 N
+/- +/- 900 N
• Pitching Moment, My +/- 62 Nm
+/- 450 Nm +/- 250 Nm
• Yawing Moment, Mz +/- 50 Nm
+/- 450 Nm +/- 450 Nm
• Rolling Moment, Mx +/- 7 Nm
+/- 450 Nm +/- 1360 Nm
• Primaryy Accuracy
y < 0.1 % FS
< 0.04% FS <00.04
04 % FS
Half Model Support Systems
Load Measurement
Half-Model Testing
2‐D Aerofoil Testing
f g
Pressure Measurement Distribution
UTM Test Model
y Surface pressure
p
di ib i
distribution test
y NACA 0012 with Trailing
Edge Flap
y Chord 0.5 m
y Span 1.5 m
y 96 pressure taps
(centerline and off‐
centerline)
42
Current Typical
yp Design
g Process

43
The Modern Computational Design Approach
At ‘FROZEN’ point, it is extremely difficult to make significant changes!
44
Current issues of interest in MDO also include the
consideration of the effects of uncertainty of computed
results and efficient geometric representation of aircraft.
MDO is an active research area and will be a key to
improving future aircraft design.

45
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT ESTIMATION
Weights are typically defined in categories such as

W0 = We + Wpay + Wf + Wcr + Wmisc (19.1)
where
W0 = Gross weight ≈ Takeoff weight
We = Empty weight
Wpay = Payload weight
Wf = Fuel weight
Wcr = Crew weight (for UAV = 0)
Wmisc = Other weights (trapped fuel, oil, pylons, special mission, equipment, etc.)
* For additional information see RayAD 3.2-3.5 & 6.2 and RosAD.1 2.0-2.4
c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights 46

Empty weight
E t weight
Empty i ht is
i also
l defined
d fi d in
i categories
t i such
h as:
We = Waf + Wlg + Weng + Wfe + Wos (19.2)
where Later we will combine both of
g y–
these into one We category
Waf = Airframe
Ai f (structure)
( t t ) weight i ht systems+avionics or Wspa
Wlg = Landing gear weight
Weng = Propulsion system weight
Wfe = Fixed equipment weight (avionics, etc)
Wos = Other
Oth systems
t
These categories are useful for concept design
• Their weights are typically driven by different design issues.
For example:
- Airframe weight often scales with wetted area
- Landing gear weight scales with takeoff weight
Later we will use equations 19

19.1
1 and 19
19.2
2 to do what we will call a
“bottoms-up” weight estimate
c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights

47
Weight fractions - review
Another commonly used form of weight parametric (for an UAV with zero
crew):
From Equation 19.1, divided by W0 for each term

We/W0 + Wpay/W0 + Wf/W0 + Wmisc/W0 = 1 (19.3)
where by definition
We/W0 = Empty
E t weighti ht fraction
f ti (EWF)
Wpay/W0 = Payload fraction (PF)
Wf/W0 = Fuel Fraction (FF)
Wmisc/W0 = Misc. weight
g fraction ((MWF))
There is a similar form of Equation 19.2
EWF = Waf/W0 + Wlg/W 0+ Weng/W0 + Wspa/W0 (19.4)
*RosAD.5 Appendix A tabulates these weight fractions for a wide range of

manned aircraft
c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights 48

Weight fractions - review
• Empty weight fraction and fuel fraction are key design parametrics
- They vary widely with design mission and vehicle class
- There are physical constraints on what they can be
• Range and/or endurance, speed, maneuver, payload and technology

level are primary drivers.
Typical Empty Weight Fractions Typical Fuel Fractions

(weight data from Roskam, Janes UAVs) (weight data from Roskam, Janes UAVs)
0.50
SE P
Prop SE Prop
0.70
ME Prop 0.40 ME Prop
Biz Jet Biz Jet
Reg TBP 0.30 Reg TBP
0.60
Jet Transp Jet Transp
Typical
yp value Mil Trainer 0 20
0.20 Mil Trainer
0.50 Fighters Fighters
Mil. PBC 0.10 Mil. PBC
FW UAV FW UAV
0.40 0.00
0 100000 200000 0 100000 200000
Nominal Gross Weight Nominal Gross Weight

49
EWF variation
• Design is about choices. EW and Fuel Fractions reflect these choices
Single Engine - Propeller

Data From Roskam - Table 2.4
0.800
Minimum = .437
A
Average = .59
59
Median = .59
0.700 Maximum = .791
0.600
0 500
0.500
0.400
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
GTOW (lbs)
Data source - Roskam, (RosAD.1)

50
Fuel Fraction variation
Single Engine - Propeller

0.500
Minimum = .113
A
Average = .13
13
0.400 Median = .12
Maximum = .283
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 Data source -
GTOW (lbs) RosAD.1,
Table 2.4

51
UAV weight fractions
• Current UAVs are designed primarily for endurance. Empty weight and
fuel fractions correlate accordingly.
UAV Empty Weight Fractions UAV Fuel Fractions
0.80 0.80
Piston Piston
Jet Turboprop
0.70 0.70
Piston J t
Jet
Global Hawk
Jet Jet
0.60 0.60 Piston
0.50 0.50
0.40 0.40
0.30 Global Hawk 0.30
0.20 0.20
0.10 0.10
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 0 8 16 24 32 40 48
Max Endurance (hrs) Max Endurance (hrs)
Data sources - Janes UAVs, Shepard UAVs, AUVSI

52
Payload fraction
• Payload Fraction (PF) is another fundamental design driver

- Most aircraft designs are driven primarily by payload requirements
• Payload
Pa load definitions
- Internal/external stores and removable mission equipment are
considered payload
- For manned aircraft, ppassengers
g are defined as p
payload,
y crew
members and their equipment are not

53
PF comparisons
Single Engine - Propeller Multi Engine - Propeller

0.40
0.25
0 30
0.30
0.20 0.15
0.10 0 05
0.05
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
GTOW (lbs) GTOW (lbs)
Jet Transports UAVs

Piston
0.30
0.30 Jet
0.20 0.20
0.10 0.10
0.00
0.00
50000 250000 450000 650000
0 10000 20000 30000
GTOW (lbs) Gross weight (Lbs)

54
Performance weight fractions
Raymer and Roskam also use gross weight fractions to

make preliminary fuel consumption estimates for some
mission segments (Examples from RayAD Table 3.2)

55
Bottoms-up weights
A bottoms-up estimate is a process for estimating weights in categories,

each of which is influenced by similar design drivers as discussed earlier,
e.g.
- Payload weights are defined by mission requirements
- Fuel fraction is determined by mission requirements and aero-propulsion
performance
- Airframe weight is influenced by wing-body-tail Swet, etc.
- Landing gear is driven by maximum vehicle weight (W0)
- Engine weight is driven required air vehicle thrust-to-weight (TO/W0), etc.
Our initial bottoms-up UAV estimate categories will be defined by

combining equations 19.1-19.4
19 1 19 4 or
W0 = [Wpay+Wfe]+[(Waf/Sref)∗Sref]+ [FF+(Wlg/W0)
+(Weng/T0)∗(T0/W0)+Wos/W0]∗W0
+[Wmisc/(W0-We)]∗(W0-We) (19.5)

56
Bottoms-up weight inputs
A variety off sources will provide parametric data ffor bottoms-up weight
estimates
- Payload weight and fuel fraction will be input as variables
- Airframe weight (initially) will be estimated from parametric data

- We will use an airframe weight parametric (Waf/Sref)
- A similar parameter (We/Sref) will also be used for parametric empty
weight
g comparisons
p
- Later we will use airframe unit weights (e.g. RayAD Table 15.2) and
geometry to refine the estimates
- RayAD
y Table 15.2 weight
g fractions are used for landing
gggear and systems
y
plus avionics

57
Geometry related weights
RayAD Table 15.2 lists airframe component unit weights (weight per unit
area) for three vehicle types:
g factors can be used to do an airframe component

- Unit weight p g build-up
weight p
when areas are known:
- Fuselage weight (Wfuse) = SwetFus*Uwf (19.6)
- Wing weight(Wwing) = SrefExp*Uww (19.7)
- Horizontal tail weight(Wht) = Sht*Uwht (19.8)
- Vertical
V ti l ttailil weight
i ht (Wvt) = Svt*Uwvt (19 9)
(19.9)
where
- Uwf = Fuselage weight /SwetFus
- Uww = Wing weight / SrefExp (SrefExp = Exposed wing area)
- Uwht = Horizontal tail weight /Horizontal tail area
- Uwvt = Vertical tail weight
g /Vertical tail area
Where for simplicity, we may assume fuselage weights include engine nacelles
- Uwfpn = Fuselage+nacelle/Swetfpn

58
Wing Configuration
The shape of a wing greatly influences the performances of an airplane!

59
(cont’d)
Wing Configuration (cont d)
3 basic wing types:
1. g g
Straight Wing
The straight wing is found mostly on small, low-speed airplanes.
These wings provide the most efficient lift at low speeds, but are
not suited for high speed flight approaching the speed of sound
sound.

60
(cont’d)
2. Swept Wing
The sweptp wing g ((forward swept
p or sweptback)
p ) is the wing
g design
g
of choice for most modern high speed airplanes. The swept wing
design creates less compressible drag, but is somewhat more
unstable for flight at low speeds.

61
(cont’d)
3. Delta Wing
A delta wingg looks like a large
g triangle.
g It has a high
g sweep p with a
straight trailing edge. Because of this high sweep, airplanes with
this wing are designed to reach supersonic speeds. The landing
speed of these delta-winged aircraft is also fairly fast because
their wings do not generate much lift at low speeds. This wing
shape is found on the supersonic transport Concorde and the
Space Shuttles.

62
Tail Configurations
The empennage or tail assembly provides stability and control for the aircraft. The
empennage is composed of two main parts: the vertical stabilizer (fin) to which
the rudder is attached; and the horizontal stabilizer to which the elevators are
attached. There is also a combination of elevator plus aileron called elevons, notably
for V-Tail configuration.

63
Power Plant
Power plant generates power to drive aircraft toward its direction. There are
five basic types of power plant engine:
1. Piston-prop: Piston-prop engine is using a reciprocal combustion engine to produce

power i.e. using propeller to convert engine power to thrust
2. Turbo-Jet : Turbo-jet is a gas turbine engine with the thrust is produced from the
expansion of the hot gas combustion through nozzle
3. Turbo-Fan: Turbo-fan is a turbo-jet furnished with fan to increase the driving efficiency
of a low and medium speed aircraft
4. Turbo-Prop: Turbo-prop is a gas turbine engine using propeller to convert engine

power to thrust
5. Turbo-shaft: Turbo-shaft is a gas turbine engine using rotor blade to convert engine
power to thrust – notably used by helicopter

64
1. Piston-prop Engine

65
2. Turbo-jet Engine

66
3. Turbo-fan Engine

67
4. Turbo-prop Engine

68
5. Turbo-shaft Engine

69
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Four Important cg Locations for Stability Analysis

1 Maxcg (i.e.
1. (i e take
take-off
off gross weight cg)
2. Empty Weight cg
3. Aft cg
4. Forward cg

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering 70
Calculation for Centre of Gravity (cg) Location
g location in horizontal axes,

Cg
Cg location in vertical axes,
Example: Take the propeller hub as the reference point
Items Weight, W Horizontal Vertical

Arm x (m)
Arm ,x (m) Moment Wx (Nm)
Moment Wx Arm y (m)
Arm, y (m) Moment Wy (Nm)
Moment, Wy
(N)
Propeller 180 0 0 0 0
Engine 820 46 37720 0 0
Wing 800 182 145600 4 3200
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Total ΣW ΣWx ΣWy

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering 71
Cost Analysis
Development cost
• The cost of developing a system
• Considered a “non-recurring” cost
¾ Occurs only once (hopefully)
Procurement cost
• The cost to buy a system once it is developed
• Includes a lot of “recurring” cost
¾ Costs incurred every time a system is produced
Operations and Support cost (O&S)
• The cost to maintain and operate a system after
purchase
• Includes the cost of maintaining crew proficiency
• Excludes the cost of combat operations
Development + procurement + O&S ≡ Life cycle cost
72
Review - cost issues
Development cost
• Customers want this to be as small as possible
• New systems are expensive
• Most of the cost is associated with risk
reduction, engineering and test
• Programs need “margin”
margin to cover uncertainty
Procurement cost
• This cost is sensitive to p
procurement q quantity y
• Repetitive tasks become more efficient
• Also sensitive to the size and complexity
• Aircraft empty
p y weight
g is considered a cost driver
Operations and Support cost
• Most of the life cycle cost of an aircraft is the “O&S”
• O&S cost can be reduced by good up-front design
73
Pre-concept design
• The product of this phase is a set of initial requirements
and cost,
cost risk and schedule estimates
Key technical issues addressed during this phase include:
• Overall needs and objectives
• Concepts of operation
• Potential design concepts
• Initial
I iti l costt and
d schedule
h d l
• Effectiveness estimates
• Analysis of alternatives
The technical work done during the pre-concept design
phase establishes the initial cost and schedule estimate
that the project will have to live with for the rest of its life
74
The cost driver - early decisions
100
Of Life Cyclle Cost
95
85
Detailed
Design
Preliminary
70 Design
Percent O
50 Concept
Design
Cumulative
Pre-concept
Design
C
10
Milestones I II III IOC Out of Service
Source – Defense Systems Management College, 3 Dec. 1991
75
Examples
Engine cost
- Raymer’s cost discussion includes an equation for
engine procurement cost in $1999
R(propul) = 2251*(0.043*Tmax + 243.25Mmax
+ 0.969*TiT -2228) (13.11)
where
Tmax = Maximum thrust (lb)
Mmax = Maximum Mach
TiT = Turbine inlet temperature ((degR)
g )
≈ 2000 - 2500 degR
Avionics cost
y
- Raymer recommends a weight
g based approximation
pp
of $3000-$6000 per pound ($1999)
76
Trade Studies
77
Table
T bl 19.1
19 1
Source : Raymer
78
Growth-sensitivity
G th iti it trade
t d studies
t di determine
d t i how
h much h the
th aircraft
i ft weight
i ht will
ill be
b
impacted if various parameters such as drag or specific fuel consumption should
increase.
79
REGULATIONS
t i have
All countries h l for
rules f how
h i ft mustt operate
aircraft t in
i
their airspace.
1. European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
The centrepiece of the European Union's strategy for aviation safety
What we do
Air transport is one of the safest modes of travel. It is also the fastest growing. That is why
the European Union decided on a common initiative to keep air transport safe and
sustainable, allowing for growth and improved safety. It is called the European Aviation
Safety Agency.
The Agency promotes the highest common standards of safety and environmental
protection in civil aviation in Europe and worldwide. It is the centrepiece of a new
regulatory system which provides for a single European market in the aviation industry.
A milestone achievement of the agency in December 2006 was the certification of the
Airbus A380, the world's largest airliner.
80
REGULATIONS (cont’d)
The agency's responsibilities include:
1. expert advice to the EU for drafting new legislation;

2. implementing and monitoring safety rules, including inspections in the Member States;
3.
3 type-certification
ifi i off aircraft
i f and d components, as wellll as the
h approvall off organisations
i i
involved in the design, manufacture and maintenance of aeronautical products;
4. authorization of third-country (non EU) operators;
5. safety analysis and research.
The agency's responsibilities are growing to meet the challenges of the fast-developing
aviation sector. In a few years, the Agency will also be responsible for safety regulations
regarding airports and air traffic management systems.
Based in Cologne, the agency already employs some 500 professionals from across
Europe. It will continue to recruit highly qualified specialists and administrators in the
coming years as it consolidates its position as Europe's centre of excellence in aviation
safety.
f t
*Source: http://easa.europa.eu/home.php
81
2. Federal Aviation Regulations
The Federal Aviation Regulations, or FARs, are rules prescribed by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) governing all aviation activities in the United States.
The FARs are part of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). A wide variety of
activities are regulated, such as airplane design, typical airline flights, pilot training
activities, hot-air ballooning, lighter-than-air aircraft, man-made structure heights,
obstruction lighting and marking, and even model rocket launches and model
aircraft operation.
The rules are designed to promote safe aviation, protecting pilots, flight attendants,
passengers and the general public from unnecessary risk.
82
Federal Aviation Regulations
Parts in FAR (not all listed)
· Part 1 – Definitions and Abbreviations

· Part 13 – Investigation and Enforcement Procedures
· Part 21 – Certification Procedures for Products and Parts
· Part 23 – Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic and Commuter Airplanes
· Part 25 – Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes
· Part 27 – Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft
· Part 29 – Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft
· Part 33 – Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
· Part 34 – Fuel Venting and Exhaust Emission Requirements for Turbine Engine Powered
Airplanes
· Part 35 – Airworthiness Standards: Propellers
· Part 39 – Airworthiness Directives
· Part 43 – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration
· Part 45 – Identification and Registration Marking
· Part 47 – Aircraft Registration
83
Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 23
Part 23 contains airworthiness standards for airplanes in the normal, utility, aerobatic, and
commuter categories. It dictates the standards required for issuance and change of type certificates
for airplanes in these categories.
g E.g.,
g the maximum takeoff weight g of an airplane in the normal,
utility or acrobatic category cannot exceed 12,500 lb, while in the commuter category it cannot
exceed 19,000 lb.
This part has a large number of regulations to ensure airworthiness in areas such as structural
loads, airframe, performance, stability, controllability, and safety mechanisms, how the seats must
be constructed, oxygen and air pressurization systems, fire prevention, escape hatches, flight
management procedures, flight control communications, emergency landing procedures, and other
limitations, as well as testing of all the systems of the aircraft. It also determines special aspects of
aircraft performance such as stall speed (e.g., for single engine airplanes – not more than 61
knots), rate of climb (not less than 300 ft/min), take-off speed (not less than 1.2 x VS1), and weight
of each pilot and passenger (170 lb for airplanes in the normal and commuter categories, and
190 lb for airplanes in the acrobatic and utility categories).
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Regulations
84
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before 3 pm …!!
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WELCOME ABOARD!

Consists of 4 parts: Lecturers:

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Some of the content are taken or modified from ASE261

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

ASSESSMENTS FOR MY PART

1. Feasibility Study Report 18

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

A light aircraft is an aircraft that has a maximum gross takeoff weight of

The Cessna 172 is not onlyy the most p

• The first “claimed” heavier-than-air, powered flight was of

• Marilyn Monroe was “discovered” while working in the

c 2004 LM Corporation Introduction to UAVs

Free wing Small

Micro Tail Sitters

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

UAV system includes five elements:

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company

which the UAV operates

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

Global Hawk & Predator

The Control Station(s)

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

Maintenance, support and

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

Sem 1 Session 2015/2016

Design a single/two-seater light aircraft with retractable landing gears and

The project is a team-based with each team consists of 4 to 5 members.

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

And submit it to me during the next Studio Class!

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious airplanes

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

I'll not say I failed 1000 times,

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

c 2004 LM Corporation Course Introduction

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Fan & Motor

Dimension: 2m (W) x 1.5m (H) x 5.8 m (L)

• Normal Force, Fz +/- 445 N

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

At ‘FROZEN’ point, it is extremely difficult to make significant changes!

Department of Aeronautical, Automotive & Ocean Engineering

Weights are typically defined in categories such as

c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights 46

Later we will use equations 19

c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights

From Equation 19.1, divided by W0 for each term

*RosAD.5 Appendix A tabulates these weight fractions for a wide range of

c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights 48

• Range and/or endurance, speed, maneuver, payload and technology

Typical Empty Weight Fractions Typical Fuel Fractions

c 2004 LM Corporation Parametric weights

• Design is about choices. EW and Fuel Fractions reflect these choices