N. (Geology) : Abnormal Pressure

abnormal pressure
1. n. [Geology] ID: 1
A subsurface condition in which the pore pressure of a geologic formationexceeds or is less than the
expected, or normal, formation pressure. When impermeable rocks such as shales are compacted
rapidly, their pore fluids cannot always escape and must then support the total overlying rock column,
leading to abnormally high formation pressures. Excess pressure, calledoverpressure or geopressure,
can cause a well to blow out or become uncontrollable during drilling. Severe underpressure can cause
the drillpipe to stick to the underpressured formation.
absolute age
The measurement of age in years. The determination of the absolute age of rocks, minerals and fossils, in
years before the present, is the basis for the field of geochronology. The measurement of the decay of
radioactive isotopes, especially uranium, strontium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has allowed geologists to
more precisely determine the age of rock formations. Tree rings and seasonalsedimentary deposits called
varves can be counted to determine absolute age. Although the term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages
typically have some amount of potential error and are inexact. Relative age, in contrast, is the
determination of whether a given material is younger or older than other surrounding material on the basis
of stratigraphic and structural relationships, such as superposition, or by interpretation of fossil content.
absolute permeability
The measurement of the permeability, or ability to flow or transmit fluids through a rock, conducted when
a single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. The symbol most commonly used for permeabilityis k,
which is measured in units of darcies or millidarcies.
absolute pressure
The measurement of pressure relative to the pressure in a vacuum, equal to the sum of
the pressureshown on a pressure gauge and atmospheric pressure.
abyssal
1. adj. [Geology] ID: 6
Pertaining to the depositional environment of the deepest area of the ocean basins, the abyss. The
depositional energy is low, the abyssal plain is flat and nearly horizontal, and fine-grained sediments are
deposited slowly by waning turbidity currents or from suspension in the water. The water is thousands of
meters deep (> 2000 m) [6520 ft], so the water is cold and sunlight is minimal.
accommodation
Sequence stratigraphic(层序地层学) term for the amount of space available for sediment accumulation.
Dominant influences on the amount of accommodation, or accommodation space,
include subsidence andeustasy.
accumulation
The phase in the development of a petroleum system during which hydrocarbons migrate into and
remain trapped in a reservoir.
active margin
A boundary of colliding lithospheric plates. The present subduction zones of the Pacific Rim, the older
mountains of the Alps, and the Himalayas represent active margins.
aerated layer（风化层）
The surface or near-surface, unconsolidated sedimentary layer that has been subject to weathering and
whose pores are air-filled instead of liquid-filled. An aerated layer typically has a low seismic velocity.
Aggradation（沉积）
The accumulation of stratigraphic sequences by deposition that stacks beds atop each other,
building upwards during periods of balance between sediment supply and accommodation.
Alternate Form: aggradational
Alidade（照准仪）
A telescopic surveying device used to construct surface topographic and geologic maps in the field.
The alidade is mounted on a plane table, which has a sheet of paper on which to draw the map, and
an object or location is sighted through the alidade. The edge of the alidade is aligned in
the azimuthaldirection of the object or location. The vertical angle from which elevation of the
location can be calculated is measured using the calibrated arc of the alidade.
Allochthonous（外来的）
Pertaining to materials, particularly rock masses, that formed somewhere other than their present location,
and were transported by fault movements, large-scale gravity sliding, or similar
processes.Autochthonous material, in contrast, formed in its present location. Landslides can result in
large masses of allochthonous rock, which typically can be distinguished from autochthonous rocks on
the basis of their difference in composition. Faults and folds can also separate allochthons from
autochthons.
allogenic
Pertaining to minerals or rock fragments that formed in one location but were transported to another
location and deposited. Clastic sediments in a rock such as sandstone are allogenic, or formed
elsewhere.
Alluvial（冲积的）
Pertaining to the subaerial (as opposed to submarine) environment, action and products of a stream or
river on its floodplain, usually consisting of detrital clastic（碎屑的） sediments, and distinct from
subaqueous deposition such as in lakes or oceans and lower energy fluvial deposition. Sediments
deposited in an alluvial environment can be subject to high depositional energy, such as fast-moving flood
waters, and may be poorly sorted or chaotic.
alluvium
Material deposited in an alluvial environment, typically detrital sediments that are poorly sorted.
Anaerobic（厌氧的）
The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is lacking or absent.
angular unconformity(角度不整合)
A surface that separates younger strata from eroded, dipping, older strataand represents a gap in
the geologic record.
anhydrite
[CaSO4]A member of the evaporite group of minerals and the soft rock comprising anhydrite formed
by precipitation of calcium sulfate from evaporation of seawater. Anhydrite can also form through
the dehydration of gypsum, another sulfate mineral found in evaporites. Anhydrite may occur as
a cap rock abovesalt domes.
anisotropy
Predictable variation of a property of a material with the direction in which it is measured, which can
occur at all scales. For a crystal of a mineral, variation in physical properties observed in different
directions is anisotropy. In rocks, variation in seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular to
bedding surfaces is a form of anisotropy. (Compare with homogeneity.)
anomaly
An entity or property that differs from what is typical or expected, or the measurement of the difference
between observed and expected values of a physical property. Anomalies can be of great interest
inhydrocarbon and mineral exploration because they often indicate hydrocarbon and mineral prospects
and accumulations, such as geologic structures like folds and faults. Geochemical anomalies at the
surface of the Earth can also indicate an accumulation of hydrocarbons at depth. Geophysical anomalies,
such as amplitude anomalies in seismic data and magnetic anomalies in the Earth's crust, can also be
associated with hydrocarbon accumulations.
anoxic
Anaerobic. The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is lacking or absent.
anticlinal trap
A type of structural hydrocarbon trap whose closure is controlled by the presence of an anticline.
anticline
An arch-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers are upwardly convex（图面的）. The
oldest rock layers form the core of the fold, and outward from the coreprogressively younger rocks
occur. Anticlines form many excellent hydrocarbontraps, particularly in folds with reservoir-quality rocks
in their core andimpermeable seals in the outer layers of the fold. A syncline is the opposite type
of fold, having downwardly convex layers with young rocks in the core.
antithetic fault（反向断层）
A minor, secondary fault, usually one of a set, whose sense of displacement is opposite to its
associated major and synthetic faults. Antithetic-synthetic faultsets are typical in areas
of normal faulting.
apparent dip
The angle that a plane makes with the horizontal measured in any randomly oriented section rather than
perpendicular to strike.
appraisal
The phase of petroleum operations that immediately follows successful exploratory drilling. During
appraisal, delineation wells might be drilled to determine the size of the oil or gas field and how to develop
it most efficiently.
aquifer
A body of rock whose fluid saturation, porosity and permeability permit production of groundwater.
arenaceous
Describing sandy-textured rock or sediment. Arenaceous does not necessarily imply silica-rich, but rather
particles of sand size, 0.625 to 2 mm, according to the Udden-Wentworth scale.
argillaceous
Describing rocks or sediments containing particles that are silt- or clay-sized, less than 0.625 mm in size.
Most have a high clay-mineral content, and many contain a sufficient percentage of organic material to be
considered a source rock for hydrocarbon.
asphalt
A solid or nearly solid form of bitumen that can melt upon heating and contains impurities such as
nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. Asphalt forms naturally when the light components or volatiles
of petroleumhave been removed or evaporated.
asthenosphere
The relatively plastic layer of the upper mantle of the Earth on which the tectonic plates of
the lithosphere move. The asthenosphere is approximately 200 km [124 miles] thick and, owing to its
depth below the Earth's surface, warm (~ 1400 oC) [2640 oF] but not molten. Here the mantle deforms
byplastic flow in response to applied pressures above 100 MPa [14,500 psi]. This zone is considered
coincidental, at least below oceanic crust, with the low-velocity zone of the upper mantle.
attitude
The orientation of a planar or linear feature in three-dimensional space. Planar features that are not
horizontal, such as tilted strata, are described by their strike, or the azimuth of the intersection of the
plane with a horizontal surface, and the dip, or the magnitude of its inclination from a horizontal
reference. The trend and plunge of linear features, such as the axis of a fold, describe the azimuth of the
line and its deviation from horizontal.
aulacogen
In plate tectonics, a failed rift arm. At the junctions of tectonic plates, three intersecting lithospheric
plates typically are separated by "arms." Arms might be areas of rifting, convergence or transform faults
(similar to strike-slip faults). The arm along which the motion that spreads the plates apart ceases is
termed the failed arm, or aulacogen. Spreading or rifting along the other arms of the triple junction can
form new oceanic basins, whereas the aulacogen can become a sediment-filled graben.
authigenic
Pertaining to minerals or materials that grow in place with a rock, rather than having been transported
and deposited. These include quartz, chlorite and other pore-filling minerals or cements that grow
during diagenesis. Evaporiteminerals are authigenic, or formed in situ.
autochthonous
Materials, especially rock masses, that formed in their present location and have not been
transported.Fault surfaces can separate indigenous rocks from allochthonous rocks, although
some allochthonousrocks are clearly delineated by their differing composition.
axial surface
In folded rocks, the imaginary surface bisecting the limbs of the fold. The axial surface is called the axial
plane when the fold is symmetrical and the lines defined by the points of maximum curvature of each
folded layer, or hinge lines, are coplanar.
azimuth
The angle between the vertical projection of a line of interest onto a horizontal surface and true north or
magnetic north measured in a horizontal plane, typically measured clockwise from north.
barite
[BaSO4]A dense sulfate mineral that can occur in a variety of rocks, including limestone and sandstone,
and is commonly used to add weight to drilling mud. Barite is of significance to petrophysicists because
excess barite can require a correction factor in some well log measurements.
base map
A map on which primary data and interpretations can be plotted. A base map typically includes locations
of lease or concession boundaries, wells, seismic survey points and other cultural data such as buildings
and roads, with a geographic reference such as latitude and longitude or Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) grid information. Geologists use topographic maps as base maps for construction of
surface geologic maps. Geophysicists typically use shot point maps, which show the orientations
of seismic lines and the specific points at which seismic data were acquired, to display interpretations
of seismic data. In the field, geologists can use a plane table and alidade to construct a base map.
basement
The rock layer below which economic hydrocarbon reservoirs are not expected to be found, sometimes
called economic basement. Basement is usually older, deformed igneous or metamorphic rocks, which
seldom develops the porosity and permeability necessary to serve as a hydrocarbon reservoir, and
below which sedimentary rocks are not common. Basement rocks typically have
different density,acoustic velocity, and magnetic properties from overlying rocks.
basin
A depression in the crust of the Earth, caused by plate tectonic activity andsubsidence, in which
sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins vary from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. Basins can be
bounded by faults. Riftbasins are commonly symmetrical; basins along continental margins tend to be
asymmetrical. If rich hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with appropriate depth and
duration of burial, then a petroleum system can develop within the basin.
bathyal
Pertaining to the environment of deposition and the organisms of the ocean between depths of 200 m
[656 ft], the edge of the continental shelf, and 2000 m [6560 ft]. The bathyal environment
is intermediate between the neriticenvironment and the abyss.
bed
A layer of sediment or sedimentary rock, or stratum. A bed is the smallest stratigraphic unit, generally a
centimeter or more in thickness. To be labeled a bed, the stratum must be distinguishable from adjacent
beds.
bed thickness
The thickness of a layer or stratum of sedimentary rock measured perpendicular to its lateral extent,
presuming deposition on a horizontal surface. Because sediment deposition can occur on inclined
surfaces, apparent or measured bed thickness might differ from true bed thickness. The thickness of a
given bed often varies along its extent.
bedrock
Solid rock either exposed at the surface or situated below surface soil, unconsolidated sediments and
weathered rock.
Wadati-Benioff zone
A zone of the upper mantle in which earthquakes occur when a lithospheric plate is subducted, named in
honor of seismologists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff. The dip of the Wadati-Benioff zone coincides with
the dip of the subducting plate. The Wadati-Benioff zone extends to a depth of about 700 km [435 miles]
from the Earth's surface.
benthic
Pertaining to the environment and conditions of organisms living at the water bottom, or benthos. Also
called benthonic.
bentonite
A material composed of clay minerals, predominantly montmorillonite with minor amounts of

othersmectite group minerals, commonly used in drilling mud. Bentonite swells considerably when
exposed to water, making it ideal for protecting formations from invasion by drilling
fluids. Montmorillonite forms when basic rocks such as volcanic ash in marine basins are altered.
biostratigraphy
The application of plant and animal fossils to date and correlate strata in order to elucidate Earth history,
combining the principles of paleontology andstratigraphy. In the petroleum industry, biostratigraphy
often denotes the use ofterrestrial (pollen and spores) and marine (diatoms, foraminifera, nannofossils)
microfossils to determine the absolute or relative age and depositional environment of a
particular formation, source rock or reservoir of interest.
bitumen
Naturally-occurring, inflammable organic matter formed from kerogen in the process

of petroleumgeneration that is soluble in carbon bisulfide. Bitumen includes hydrocarbons such
as asphalt andmineral wax. Typically solid or nearly so, brown or black, bitumen has a distinctive
petroliferous odor. Laboratory dissolution with organic solvents allows determination of the amount of
bitumen in samples, an assessment of source rock richness.
Bouma sequence
A characteristic sequence of sedimentary structures occurring in sedimentaryrocks deposited in areas

of deep water sedimentation by turbidity currents, which form deposits called turbidites. In theory, a
complete Bouma sequencecomprises sediments that fine upwards, consisting of a
lowermost layer ofcoarse, chaotic clastic sediments deposited under conditions of high depositional
energy overlain by successively finer grained and better stratified sediments like sands and muds
deposited under calmer conditions that are labeled as Units A though E. In practice, however, the
chaotic, high-energy nature of turbidite deposition can alter or remove underlying sediments so that
incomplete sequences of sediments typically remain preserved.
brine
Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than typical seawater.
calcite
[CaCO3]The crystalline form of calcium carbonate and chief constituent of limestoneand chalk. Calcite
reacts readily with dilute hydrochloric acid [HCl], so the presence of calcite can be tested by simply
placing a drop of acid on a rockspecimen.
caliche
A crust of coarse sediments bound by carbonate cement that formed by precipitation.
cap rock
A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or seal above
and around reservoir rock so that fluids cannot migratebeyond the reservoir. The permeability of
a cap rock capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6-10-8 darcies.
carbonate
A group of minerals found mostly in limestone and dolostone that includes

aragonite, calcite anddolomite. Calcite is the most abundant and important of the carbonate minerals.
cataclastic

Pertaining to a type of metamorphic rock with shearing and granulation of minerals caused by high
mechanical stress during faulting or dynamic metamorphism, typically during episodes of plate
tectonic activity.
cement
The binding material in sedimentary rocks that precipitates between grains

from pore fluids. Calcite and quartz are common cement-forming minerals.
cementation
The process of precipitation of cement between mineral or rock grains and forming solid
clastic sedimentary rock, one phase of lithification.
chalk
A porous marine limestone composed of fine-grained remains of microorganisms with calcite shells,
coccolithophores, such as the White Cliffs of Dover (UK). The Austin Chalk of the US Gulf coast is a
prolific, fractured oil reservoir that spurred widespread horizontal drilling activity.
channel
A linear, commonly concave-based depression through which water andsediment flow and into
which sediment can be deposited in distinctive, often elongated bodies. Channels can occur in a variety
of morphologies, e.g., straight, meandering or braided. In some areas, coarse sediments can fill
channels of streams or rivers that cut through finer grained sediments or rocks. The close proximity of
coarse-grained and fine-grained sediments can ultimately lead to the formation of
stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps.
chert
A sedimentary rock and a variety of quartz made of extremely fine-grained, or cryptocr=ystalline, silica,
also called chalcedony. The silica might be of organic origin, such as from the internal structures of
sponges called spicules, or inorganic origin, such as precipitation from solution. The latter results in
theformation of flint. Chert can form beds, but is more common as nodules incarbonate rocks.
chlorite
[(Mg,Al,Fe) 12(Si,Al) 8O20(OH) 16]A platy, pale green mineral of the mica group of sheet silicates, also
considered to be a type of clay mineral, found in sedimentary and low-grademetamorphic rocks.
Chlorite is a common authigenic mineral lining the pores of sandstones. In some cases, the presence
of authigenic chlorite on sandgrains can inhibit the growth of pore-filling cements during diagenesis and
preserve pore space for occupation by hydrocarbons.
chronostratigraphic chart
A graphic display, with geologic time along the vertical axis and distance along the horizontal axis, to
demonstrate the relative ages and geographic extent of strata or stratigraphic units in a given area, also
known as a Wheeler diagram. In addition, information from seismic data, well logs and rock samples,
and biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic information can be shown within each chronostratigraphic
unit. A chronostratigraphic chart can concisely illustrate sequence stratigraphic interpretations.
chronostratigraphy
The study of the ages of strata. The comparison, or correlation, of separated strata can include study of
their relative or absolute ages.
clastic sediment
Sediment consisting of broken fragments derived from preexisting rocks and transported elsewhere and
redeposited before forming another rock. Examples of common clastic sedimentary rocks include
siliciclastic rocks such as conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and shale. Carbonate rocks can also be
broken and reworked to form clastic sedimentary rocks.
clathrate
Synonyms: hydrate
clay
Fine-grained sediments less than 0.0039 mm in size.
clean
Pertaining to a sedimentary rock, such as sandstone or limestone, that contains only minimal amounts
of clay minerals. Clean reservoir rocks typically have better porosity and permeability than dirty rocks
whose pores are clogged with fine clay particles. Clean and dirty are qualitative, descriptive terms.
closure
The vertical distance from the apex of a structure to the lowest structuralcontour that contains
the structure. Measurements of both the areal closure and the distance from the apex to the lowest
closing contour are typically incorporated in calculations of the estimated hydrocarbon content of
a trap.
coal
A carbon-rich sedimentary rock that forms from the remains of plants deposited as peat in swampy
environments. Burial and increase in temperature bring about physical and chemical changes called
coalification. Because of the organic origin of coal, it cannot be classified as a mineral. The main types of
coal, anthracite, bituminous coal and lignite, can be distinguished by their hardness and energy content,
which are affected by their organic content as well as their conditions of formation. Natural gas associated
with coal, called coal gas or coalbed methane, can be produced economically from coal beds in some
areas. In some basins coals form source rocks.
collision
An interaction of lithospheric plates that can result in the formation of mountain belts
and subductionzones. The collision of two plates of continental lithosphere, known as an A-type collision,
can produce high mountains as rocks are folded, faulted and uplifted to accommodate the converging
plates, as observed in the Alps and the Himalayas. B-type collisions, in which oceanic lithospheric plates
collide with continental lithospheric plates, typically produce a subduction zone where the relatively denser
oceanic plate descends below the relatively lighter continental plate, as seen on the Pacific coast of South
America.
compaction
The physical process by which sediments are consolidated, resulting in the reduction of pore space as
grains are packed closer together. As layers ofsediment accumulate, the ever
increasing overburden pressure during burial causes compaction of the sediments, loss of pore fluids
and formation of rockas grains are welded or cemented together.
competent
Describing relatively brittle, solid strata that deform by faulting, fracturing or folding, rather than flowing
under stress. Incompetent beds are more ductile and tend to flow under stress, so their bed thickness
changes more readily during deformation.
concentric fold(同心褶皱)
The deformation of rock layers in which the thickness of each layer, measured perpendicular to initial
undeformed layering, is maintained after the rock layers have been folded.
condensate
A low-density, high-API gravity liquid hydrocarbon phase that generally occurs in association with
natural gas. Its presence as a liquid phase depends on temperature and pressure conditions in
the reservoir allowing condensation of liquid from vapor. The production of condensate reservoirs can
be complicated because of the pressure sensitivity of some condensates: During production, there is a
risk of the condensate changing from gas to liquid if the reservoirpressure drops below the dew point
during production. Reservoir pressurecan be maintained by fluid injection if gas production is
preferable to liquidproduction. Gas produced in association with condensate is called wet gas.
The API gravity of condensate is typically 50 degrees to 120 degrees.
condensed section
In sequence stratigraphy, a section of fine-grained sedimentary rocks that accumulated slowly, thereby
representing a considerable span of time by only a thin layer. In condensed sections, fossils and organic,
phosphatic and glauconitic material tend to be concentrated compared with rapidly deposited sections that
contain few fossils. Condensed sections are most commonly deposited during transgressions. In such
cases they are associated with "maximum flooding surfaces" and form important sequence stratigraphic
markers.
conformable
Parallel strata that have undergone a similar geologic history, deposited in succession without
interruption.
connate water
Water trapped in the pores of a rock during formation of the rock. The chemistry of connate water can
change in composition throughout the history of the rock. Connate water can be dense and saline
compared with seawater. Formation water, or interstitial water, in contrast, is simply water found in
thepore spaces of a rock, and might not have been present when the rock was formed. Connate water is
also described as fossil water.
consolidated
Pertaining to sediments that have been compacted and cemented to the degree that they
becomecoherent, relatively solid rock. Typical consequences of consolidation include an increase
in densityand acoustic velocity, and a decrease in porosity.
contact
See: fluid contact
continental shelf
See: shelf
contour
A line that includes points of equal value and separates points of higher value from points of lower value.
Contours are commonly drawn on maps to portray the structural configuration of the Earth's surface or
formations in the subsurface. Contours are also used to interpret subsurface configurations of structures
or rock bodies in areas of limited control, such as drawing contours of the thickness of a
common rock unit in several widely separated wells to extrapolate its thickness in a nearby undrilled
location.
contour interval
The value of the separation between two adjacent contours. A net pay isopachmap might have
a contour interval of 10 feet [3 m], whereas a structure contourmap might have a contour interval of
1000 feet [300 m]. Contour intervals are chosen according to the map scale and the amount
and distribution of control points.
Convection（对流）
The density- and heat-driven cycling, transfer or circulation of energy through which material initially
warms up and becomes relatively less dense, then rises, cools and becomes relatively more dense, and
finally sinks. As a consequence of convection, material can turn over repeatedly in a convection cell.
Within the Earth, radiogenic heating results in convection appearing in themantle and might drive plate
tectonic motions. Convection also occurs in the ocean waters and in the Earth's atmosphere.
convergence
The movement of tectonic plates toward each other, generating compressional forces and ultimately
resulting in collision, and in some cases subduction, of tectonic plates. The boundary where tectonic
plates converge is called a convergent margin.
core
1. vt. [Geology] ID: 120
2. vb. [Drilling] ID: 1314
To deepen the wellbore by way of collecting a cylindrical sample. A core bit is used to accomplish this, in
conjunction with a core barrel and core catcher. The bit is usually a drag bit fitted with either PDC or natural
diamond cutting structures, but the core bit is unusual in that it has a hole in its center. This allows the bit to
drill around a central cylinder of rock, which is taken in through the bit and into the core barrel. The core
barrel itself may be thought of as a special storage chamber for holding the rock core. The core catcher
serves to grip the bottom of the core and, as tension is applied to the drillstring, therock under the core
breaks away from the undrilled formation below it. The core catcher also retains the core so that it does not
fall out the bottom of the drillstring, which is open in the middle at that point.
See: drillstring, PDC bit
Innermost layer of the Earth. Studies of compressional and shear waves indicate that the core makes up
nearly 3500 km [2170 miles] of the Earth's radius of 6370 km [3950 miles]. Such studies also
demonstrate that becauseshear waves do not pass through the outer part of the core (2250 km [1400
miles] thick), it is liquid (only solids can shear). The inner core is solid and 1220 km [750 miles] thick. The
core's iron and nickel composition was inferred through studies of the Earth's
gravitational field and average density. The relatively low density of the outer layers of the Earth
suggests a dense innerlayer.
correlate
To seek a comparison or equivalence. Scientists attempt to compare or match up well log signatures,
chemical signatures, seismic signatures, fossils and rock samples across wide areas to determine the
equivalence, extent, thickness, quality, relative age or other properties of stratigraphic units
and rockbodies.
craton
A stable area of continental crust that has not undergone much plate tectonic or orogenic activity for a
long period. A craton includes a crystalline basement of commonly Precambrian rock called a shield, and
a platform in which flat-lying or nearly flat-lying sediments or sedimentary rock surround the shield. A
commonly cited example of a craton is the Canadian Shield.
Crest（波峰）
The highest point of a wave, mountain or geologic structure.
critical moment
The time of maximum depth of burial of a hydrocarbon source rock. The critical moment is the time of
highest probability of entrapment and preservation of hydrocarbons in a petroleum system-after traps
form and hydrocarbons migrate into a reservoir and accumulate-and marks the beginning
ofpreservation in a viable petroleum system.
cross section
A diagram of a vertical section through a volume, as opposed to the surface, "bird's eye," or plan view of
a map. Cross sections are useful for displaying the types and orientations of subsurface structures and
formations.
crude oil
A general term for unrefined petroleum or liquid petroleum.

crust
The thin, outermost shell of the Earth that is typically 5 km to 75 km thick [3 to 46 miles]. The continental
crust comprises rocks similar in composition togranite and basalt (i.e., quartz, feldspar, biotite,
amphibole and pyroxene) whereas the composition of oceanic crust is basaltic (pyroxene and feldspar).
The crust overlies the more dense rock of the mantle, which consists of rocks composed of minerals like
pyroxene and olivine, and the iron and nickel coreof the Earth. The Mohorovicic discontinuity abruptly
separates the crust from the mantle; the velocity of compressional waves is significantly higher below
the discontinuity. The crust, mantle and core of the Earth are distinguished from
the lithosphere and asthenosphere on the basis of their composition and not their mechanical behavior.
cubic packing
The arrangement in space of uniform spheres (atoms and molecules inmineral crystals, or grains in
clastic sedimentary rocks) that results in a cubic material structure. Cubic packing is mechanically
unstable, but it is the mostporous packing arrangement, with about 47% porosity in the ideal situation.
Most sediments are not uniform spheres of the same size, nor can they be arranged in a
cubic structure naturally, so most sediments have much less than 47% porosity.
dead oil
Oil at sufficiently low pressure that it contains no dissolved gas or a relatively thick oil or residue that has
lost its volatile components.
Decollement（滑脱构造）
A fault surface parallel to a mechanically weak horizon or layer, or parallel to bedding, that detaches or
separates deformed rocks above from undeformed or differently deformed rocks below. Decollements, or
decollement surfaces, are typical of regions of thrust faulting such as the Alps.
deep-water play
Exploration activity located in offshore areas where water depths exceed approximately 600 feet [200 m],
the approximate water depth at the edge of the continental shelf. While deep-water reservoir targets are
geologically similar to reservoirs drilled both in shallower present-day water depths as well as onshore, the
logistics of producing hydrocarbons from reservoirs located below such water depths presents a
considerable technical challenge.
delta
An area of deposition or the deposit formed by a flowing sediment-laden current as it enters an open or
standing body of water, such as a river spilling into a gulf. As a river enters a body of water,
its velocity drops and its ability to carry sediment diminishes, leading to deposition. The term has origins
in Greek because the shape of deltas in map view can be similar to the Greek letter delta. The shapes of
deltas are subsequently modified by rivers, tides and waves. There is a characteristic coarsening upward
of sediments in a delta. The three main classes of deltas are river-dominated (Mississippi River), wave-
dominated (Nile River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient deltas contain some of the largest
and most productive petroleumsystems.
density
Mass per unit of volume. Density is typically reported in g/cm (for example, rocks) or pounds per barrel
3
(drilling mud) in the oil field.
density current
See: turbidity current
depocenter
The area of thickest deposition in a basin.
deposit
Sediments that have accumulated, usually after being moved by wind, water or ice.
depositional energy
The relative kinetic energy of the environment. A high-energy environment might consist of a rapidly
flowing stream that is capable of carrying coarse-grained sediments, such as gravel
and sand. Sedimentation in a low-energy environment, such as an abyssal plain, usually involves very
fine-grained clayor mud. Depositional energy is not simply velocity. For example, although glaciers do
not move quickly, they are capable of carrying large boulders.
depositional environment
The area in which and physical conditions under which sediments are deposited,
including sediment source; depositional processes such as deposition by wind, water or ice; and location
and climate, such as desert,swamp or river.
depositional system
The three-dimensional array of sediments or lithofacies that fills a basin. Depositional systems vary
according to the types of sediments available for deposition as well as the depositional processes and
environments in which they are deposited. The dominant depositional systems
are alluvial, fluvial,deltaic, marine, lacustrine and eolian systems.
Detrital（碎屑）
Pertaining to particles of rock derived from the mechanical breakdown of preexisting rocks
byweathering and erosion. Detrital fragments can be transported to recombine and, through the process
of lithification, become sedimentary rocks. Detrital is usually used synonymously with clastic, although a
few authors differentiate between weathering of particles, which forms detrital sediments, and mechanical
breakage, which produces clastic sediments.
development
The phase of petroleum operations that occurs after exploration has proven successful, and before full-
scale production. The newly discovered oil or gas field is assessed during an appraisal phase, a plan to
fully and efficiently exploit it is created, and additional wells are usually drilled.
Dextral（右旋的）
Pertaining to a strike-slip fault(华东断层) or right-lateral fault in which the block across thefault moves
to the right. If it moves left, the relative motion is described assinistral. Clockwise rotation or spiraling is
also described as dextral.
diagenesis
The physical, chemical or biological alteration of sediments into sedimentaryrock at relatively low
temperatures and pressures that can result in changes to the rock's original mineralogy and texture. After
deposition, sediments are compacted as they are buried beneath successive layers of sediment and
cemented by minerals that precipitate from solution. Grains of sediment, rockfragments and fossils can
be replaced by other minerals during diagenesis.Porosity usually decreases during diagenesis, except in
rare cases such as dissolution of minerals and dolomitization. Diagenesis does not
includeweathering processes. Hydrocarbon generation begins during diagenesis. There is not a clear,
accepted distinction between diagenesis andmetamorphism, although metamorphism occurs at
pressures and temperatures higher than those of the outer crust, where diagenesis occurs.
diagenetic porosity
A type of secondary porosity created during diagenesis, commonly through dissolution

or dolomitizationor both. Diagenesis usually destroys porosity, so diagenetic porosity is rare.
diapir
A relatively mobile mass that intrudes into preexisting rocks. Diapirs commonly intrude vertically through
more dense rocks because of buoyancyforces associated with relatively low-density rock types, such
as salt, shaleand hot magma, which form diapirs. The process is known as diapirism. By pushing
upward and piercing overlying rock layers, diapirs can form anticlines,salt domes and other structures
capable of trapping hydrocarbons. Igneousintrusions are typically too hot to allow the preservation of
preexisting hydrocarbons.
diatom
A microscopic, single-celled, freshwater or saltwater algae that has a silica-rich cell wall called a frustule.
Diatoms are so abundant that they can form thick layers of sediment composed of the frustules of the
organisms that died and sank to the bottom. Frustules have been an important component of deep-sea
deposits since Cretaceous time. Diatomite is the sedimentary rock that forms from diatom frustules.
diatomite
A soft, silica-rich sedimentary rock comprising diatom remains that forms most commonly in lakes and
deep marine areas. Diatomite can form an excellent reservoir rock. The Belridge diatomite in the San
Joaquin basin, California, USA, is a prolific oil-producing formation.
differential compaction
A phenomenon that occurs after the deposition of some sediments such that different parts of
thesedimentary accumulation develop different degrees of porosity or settle unevenly during burial
beneath successive layers of sediment. This can result from location on an uneven surface, such as near
and over a reef structure, or near a growth fault, or from different susceptibility to compaction.
The porosity in a formation that has experienced differential compaction can vary considerably from one
area to another.
Dike(岩脉)
An intrusive rock that invades preexisting rocks, commonly in a tabular shape that cuts vertically or
nearly vertically across preexisting layers. Dikes form fromigneous and sedimentary rocks.
Dip（倾角）
The magnitude of the inclination of a plane from horizontal. True, or maximum, dip is measured
perpendicular to strike. Apparent dip is measured in a direction other than perpendicular to strike.
dipping bed
A layer of rock or sediment that is not horizontal.
dirty
Describing sedimentary rock that contains clay minerals. Even small amounts of clay minerals in pores
can drastically reduce porosity and permeability. Dirty and clean are qualitative, descriptive terms to
describe the relative amount ofclay minerals in a rock.
disconformity
A geologic surface that separates younger strata from older strata and represents a time of
nondeposition, possibly combined with erosion. Some disconformities are highly irregular whereas others
have no relief and can be difficult to distinguish within a series of parallel strata.
disharmonic
Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent layers differ or do not conform to one another.
Folds of rock layers that have different mechanical properties or competence tend to be disharmonic, with
a change in fold shape, symmetry or wavelength from one layer to the next.
displacement
The offset of segments or points that were once continuous or adjacent. Layers of rock that have been
moved by the action of faults show displacement on either side of the fault surface.
dolomite
[CaMg(CO3)2]A widely-distributed carbonate mineral and chief constituent of dolostone.
dolomitization
The geochemical process in supratidal sabkha areas where magnesium [Mg] ions from the evaporation
of seawater replace calcium [Ca] ions in calcite, forming the mineral dolomite. The volume
of dolomite is less than that ofcalcite, so the replacement of calcite by dolomite in a rock increases
the porespace in the rock by 13% and forms an important reservoir rock. Dolomitization can occur
during deep burial diagenesis.
dolostone
A rock composed chiefly (> 90%) of dolomite. The rock is sometimes called dolomite, but dolostone is
preferable to avoid ambiguity between the mineral and rock names. Replacement dolomite that forms
soon after deposition is typically fine-grained and preserves original sedimentary structures.
Recrystallization late in diagenesis produces coarser grained dolomite, destroys sedimentarystructures
and results in higher porosity.
dome
A type of anticline that is circular or elliptical rather than elongate. The upwardmigration of salt diapirs
can form domes, called salt domes.
downdip
1. prep. [Geology] ID: 170
Located down the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a dipping (not flat-
lying) hydrocarbon reservoir that contains gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil contact is
downdip from the gas, and the oil-water contact is still farther downdip.
downlap
The termination of more steeply dipping overlying strata against a surface or underlying strata that have
lower apparent dips; a term used to describe a particular geometry of reflections in seismic data
in sequence stratigraphy.
downlap
The termination of more steeply dipping overlying strata against a surface or underlying strata that have
lower apparent dips; a term used to describe a particular geometry of reflections in seismic data
in sequence stratigraphy.
dry gas
Natural gas that occurs in the absence of condensate or liquid hydrocarbons, or gas that has had
condensable hydrocarbons removed. Dry gas typically has a gas-to-oil ratio exceeding 100,000 scf/STB.
dry rock
A subsurface rock that lacks contact with aquifers or meteoric water within the Earth.
earthquake
The sudden release of accumulated stress in the Earth by movement or shaking. Earthquakes are caused
by tectonic activity, volcanoes and human activity (such as explosions). Earthquakes occur in the outer 720
km [445 miles] of the Earth, where rocks tend to break rather than flow under stress. The magnitude of
earthquakes is determined according to the logarithmic Richter scale. An earthquake of magnitude 4.5 can
cause damage, although humans can feel earthquakes as weak as magnitude 2.0. The San Francisco
earthquake of 1906 measured 8.25 on the Richter scale, and the largest ever recorded were 8.9
magnitude earthquakes in Colombia and Ecuador (1906) and Japan (1933), and 9.5 in Chile (1960).
effective permeability
The ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid when other immiscible fluids are present in
the reservoir (e.g., effective permeability of gas in a gas-water reservoir). The relative saturations of the
fluids as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the effective permeability. In contrast,
absolutepermeability is the measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid or phase is
present in the rock.
effective porosity
The interconnected pore volume or void space in a rock that contributes to fluid flow or permeability in
areservoir. Effective porosity excludes isolated pores and pore volume occupied by water adsorbed
onclay minerals or other grains. Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it
contributes to fluid flow. Effective porosity is typically less than total porosity.
elastic
Pertaining to a material that can undergo stress, deform, and then recover and return to its original shape
after the stress ceases. Once stress exceeds the yield stress or elastic limit of a material, permanent
deformation occurs and the material will not return to its original shape once the stress is removed. In
some materials, including rocks, elastic behavior depends on the temperature and the duration of
the stress as well as its intensity.
elastic deformation
The deformation that can be recovered when an applied stress has been removed. When the elasticlimit of
a material has been exceeded, nonrecoverable, permanent deformation occurs.
elastic limit
The yield point, or the point at which a material can no longer deform elastically. When the elastic limit is
exceeded by an applied stress, permanent deformation occurs.
en echelon

Describing parallel or subparallel, closely-spaced, overlapping or step-like minor structural features
inrock, such as faults and tension fractures, that are oblique to the overall structural trend.
eolian
Pertaining to the environment of deposition of sediments by wind, such as thesand dunes in a desert.
Because fine-grained sediments such as clays are removed easily from wind-blown deposits, eolian
sandstones are typicallyclean and well-sorted.
erosion
The process of denudation of rocks, including physical, chemical and biological breakdown and
transportation.
Estuary(江口河口)
A semi-enclosed coastal environment of deposition in which a river mouth

permits freshwater to contactand mix with seawater.
eustasy
Global sea level and its variations. Changes in sea level can result from movement of tectonic plates
altering the volume of ocean basins, or when changes in climate affect the volume of water stored in
glaciers and in polar icecaps. Eustasy affects positions of shorelines and processes of sedimentation,
so interpretation of eustasy is an important aspect of sequence stratigraphy.
evaporite
A class of sedimentary minerals and sedimentary rocks that form byprecipitation from evaporating
aqueous fluid. Common evaporite minerals arehalite, gypsum and anhydrite, which can form as
seawater evaporates, and the rocks limestone and dolostone. Certain evaporite minerals,
particularly halite, can form excellent cap rocks or seals for hydrocarbon traps because they have
minimal porosity and they tend to deform plastically (as opposed to brittle fracturing that would facilitate
leakage).
exploration
The initial phase in petroleum operations that includes generation of a prospect or play or both, and
drilling of an exploration well. Appraisal, development and production phases follow successful
exploration.
exploration play
Synonyms: play, play
facies
The overall characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its origin and differentiate the unit from others around
it. Mineralogy and sedimentary source, fossil content, sedimentary structures and texture distinguish one
facies from another.
fairway
The trend along which a particular geological feature is likely, such as a sandfairway or
a hydrocarbon fairway. Prediction of conceptual fairways helps explorationists develop prospects. Along
a sand fairway, for example, sandwas transported and, presumably, was deposited, allowing
an interpretation of the presence of reservoir rock in the fairway.
fault
A break or planar surface in brittle rock across which there is observabledisplacement. Depending on
the relative direction of displacement between the rocks, or fault blocks, on either side of the
fault, its movement is described as normal, reverse or strike-slip. According to terminology derived from
the mining industry, the fault block above the fault surface is called the hanging wall, while the
fault block below the fault is the footwall.
Given the geological complexity of some faulted rocks and rocks that have undergone more than one
episode of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish between the various types of faults. Also, areas
deformed more than once or that have undergone
continual deformation might have fault surfaces that are rotated from their original orientations,
so interpretation is not straightforward. In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall along the dip of the fault surface,
which is steep, from 45o to 90o. A growth fault is a type of normal fault that forms
during sedimentation and typically has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall.
A reverse fault forms when the hanging
wall moves up relative to the footwall parallel to the dip of the fault surface. A thrust fault, sometimes
called an overthrust, is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip, typically much less
than 45o
Movement of normal
and reverse faults can also be oblique as opposed to purely parallel to the dipdirection of the fault plane.
The motion along a strike-slip fault, also known as a transcurrent or wrench fault, is parallel to
the strike of the fault surface, and the
fault blocks move sideways past each other. The fault surfaces of strike-slip faults are usually nearly
vertical. A strike-slip fault in which the block across the fault moves to the right is described as
a dextral strike-slip fault. If it moves left,
the relative motion is described as sinistral. A transform fault is a particular type of strike-slip fault that is
a boundary of an oceanic tectonic plate. The actual movement of a transform fault is opposite to its
apparent displacement.
The presence
of a fault can be detected by observing characteristics of rocks such as changes in lithology from one
fault block to the next, breaks and offsets between strata orseismic events, and changes
in formation pressure in wells that penetrate both sides of
a fault. Some fault surfaces contain relatively coarse rubble that can act as a conduit for migrating oil or
gas, whereas the surfaces of other faults are smeared with impermeable clays or broken grains that
can act as a fault seal.
fault trap
A type of structural hydrocarbon trap in which closure is controlled by the presence of at least
one faultsurface.
feldspar
[alkali feldspar (K,Na)AlSi3O8]

[plagioclase feldspar NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8] A group of rock-forming silicate minerals that are essential
constituents of igneous rocks and are common in sandstones. Feldspar can weather to
form clay minerals. Feldspar can occur in all three major rock types and forms approximately 60% of
the crust of the Earth.
Felsic
Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of minerals such as quartz and feldspar that are
relatively light in color and density. The word comes from the terms feldspar and silica. Granite is a
felsic igneous rock. (Compare with mafic.)
fence diagram
A graphical display of three-dimensional data and interpretations in two-dimensional perspective

view. Geologic cross sections can be displayed in a network to form a fence diagram. Stratigraphic
changes can be displayed clearly in fence diagrams.
field
An accumulation, pool, or group of pools of hydrocarbons or other mineral resources in the subsurface.
A hydrocarbon field consists of a reservoir in a shape that will trap hydrocarbons and that is covered by
an impermeable, sealing rock. Typically, the term implies an economic size.
flower structure
Folded structures associated with strike-slip faults In areas where strike-slip faults occur in
converging crust, or transpression, rocks are faulted upward in a positive flower structure. In areas of
strike-slip faulting in diverging crust, ortranstension, rocks drop down to form a negative
flower structure. Flower structures can form hydrocarbon traps. The term "flower structure" reflects the
resemblance of the structure to the petals of a flower in cross section.
fluid contact
The interface that separates fluids of different densities in a reservoir. Horizontal contacts are usually
assumed, although tilted contacts occur in some reservoirs. The contact between fluids is usually
gradual rather than sharp, forming a transition zone of mixed fluid. A mixed-fluid reservoir will stratify
according to fluid density, with gas at the top, oil in the middle, and water below. Production of fluids
often perturbs the fluid contacts in a reservoir.
fluvial
Pertaining to an environment of deposition by a river or running water. Fluvial deposits tend to be well
sorted, especially in comparison with alluvialdeposits, because of the relatively steady transport
provided by rivers.
fold
A wave-like geologic structure that forms when rocks deform by bending instead of breaking under
compressional stress. Anticlines are arch-shaped folds in which rock layers are upwardly convex. The
oldest rock layers form thecore of the fold, and outward from the core progressively younger rocks
occur. A syncline is the opposite type of fold, having downwardly convex layers with young rocks in
the core. Folds typically occur in anticline-syncline pairs. The hinge is the point of maximum curvature in
a fold. The limbs occur on either side of the fold hinge. The imaginary surface bisecting the limbs of the
fold is called the axial surface. The axial surface is called the axial plane in cases where the fold is
symmetrical and the lines containing the points of maximum curvature of the folded layers, or hinge lines,
are coplanar. Concentric folding preserves the thickness of each bed as measured perpendicular to
original bedding. Similar folds have the same wave shape, but bed thickness changes throughout
each layer, with thicker hinges and thinner limbs.
formation
The fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A body of rock that is sufficiently distinctive and continuous that
it can be mapped. In stratigraphy, a formation is a body of strata of predominantly one type or
combination of types; multiple formations form groups, and subdivisions of formations are members.
formation pressure
The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, normally hydrostaticpressure, or

the pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation's depth to sea level.
formation water
Water that occurs naturally within the pores of rock. Water from fluids introduced to a formation through
drilling or other interference, such as mud and seawater, does not
constitute formation water.Formation water, or interstitial water, might not have been the water present
when the rock originally formed. In contrast, connate water is the water trapped in the pores of
a rock during its formation, and may be called fossil water.
fossil
Preserved remnants（残留物） of plants or animals, such as skeletons, shells, casts or molds, tracks or
borings, and feces
fracture
A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to foliation or cleavage inmetamorphic rock along
which there has been no movement. A fracture along which there has been displacement is a fault.
When walls of a fracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint. Fractures
can enhance permeability of rocks greatly by connecting pores together, and for that reason, fractures
are induced mechanically in some reservoirs in order to boost hydrocarbon flow.
fracture gradient
The pressure required to induce fractures in rock at a given depth.
fracture porosity
A type of secondary porosity produced by the tectonic fracturing of rock. Fractures themselves typically
do not have much volume, but by joining preexisting pores, they enhance permeability significantly. In
exceedingly rare cases, nonreservoir rocks such as granite can become reservoir rocks if sufficient
fracturing occurs.
free water
Water that is mobile, available to flow, and not bound to surfaces of grains or minerals in rock.
freshwater
Water that is low in dissolved salt (< 2000 ppm).
gas hydrate
Synonyms: hydrate
gas in solution
Gas that is dissolved in a liquid, such as water or oil.
gas sand
A porous sand layer or sand body charged with natural gas.
gas-oil contact
A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas occurs and below which
predominantly oil occurs. Gas and oil are miscible, so the contactbetween gas and oil is transitional,
forming a zone containing a mix of gas and oil.
gas-prone
The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to generate gas than oil. The nature of the organic
matter or kerogen in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like material commonly found
in terrestrialsource rocks to algal or other marine material that makes
up marine source rocks. Terrestrial sourcerocks are commonly gas-prone.
gas-water contact
A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas occurs and below which
predominantly water occurs. Gas and water are somewhatmiscible, so the contact between gas and
water is not necessarily sharp and there is typically a transition zone between 100% gas and 100%
water in reservoirs.
generation
The formation of hydrocarbons from a source rock as bitumen forms from kerogen and accumulates as
oil or gas. Generation depends on three main factors: the presence of organic matter rich enough
toyield hydrocarbons, adequate temperature, and sufficient time to bring
the source rock to maturity.Pressure and the presence of bacteria and catalysts also affect generation.
Generation is a criticalphase in the development of a petroleum system.
geochemistry
The study of the chemistry of the Earth and within solid bodies of the solar system, including the
distribution, circulation and abundance of elements (and their ions and isotopes), molecules, minerals,
rocks and fluids. For geochemists in the petroleum industry, source rock geochemistry is a major focus.
Geochemical techniques can determine whether a given source rock is rich enough in organic matter to
generate hydrocarbons, whether the source rock has generated hydrocarbons, and whether a particular
oil sample was generated by a given source rock.
Geochronology（地球年代学）
The study of the relative or absolute age of rocks, minerals and fossils. Absolute age is the measurement
of age in years, but "absolute" ages typically have some amount of error and are inexact. Relative age, in
contrast, is the approximate age of rocks, fossils or minerals made by determining the age of the material
relative to other surrounding material.
geologic map
A map showing the type and spatial distribution of rocks at the surface of the Earth. Rock formations
are color-coded and symbols for geological structures are annotated, so age relationships are evident.
Topographic contours and cultural features can also appear on geologic maps.
geologic time scale
A chronological chart of the stages and ages of events in the history of the Earth, from its
initialformation to present, that has been constructed on the basis of the rock record. As is the typical
natural position of rocks, the oldest event is at the bottom of the chart and the youngest is at the top. Both
absolute and relative ages of rocks and fossils supplement interpretations from rocks. The vastness
ofgeologic time and the slowness of geological processes are difficult to capture in a simple chart.
geologist
A scientist trained in the study of the Earth. In the petroleum industry, geologists perform a wide variety
of functions, but typically generate prospects and interpret data such as maps, well logs,
outcrops, cuttings, core samples and seismic data.
geology
The study of the Earth-its history, structure, composition, life forms and the processes that continue to
change it.
geomagnetic polarity reversal
The periodic switching of the magnetic north and south poles of the Earth throughout time, probably as a
result of movement of fluid within the Earth'score. The onset and duration of the many episodes of
reversed polarity have been documented by examining the polarity of magnetic minerals within rocks of
different ages from around the world, particularly in basalts or igneous rocks of the oceanic crust.
Oceanic basalts record the Earth's magnetic field as they solidify from molten lava symmetrically on
each side of the midoceanic ridges. These data have been compiled to create a time scale known as the
geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS). In the oil field, borehole recordings allow
direct correlation to GPTS and well-to-well correlations.
geomagnetic polarity time scale
A record of the onset and duration of the multitude of episodes of reversal of the Earth's
magnetic polarity, or geomagnetic polarity reversals. The GPTSwas developed by thorough study of
rocks from around the world, during which it was observed that rocks from specific time periods
contained magnetic minerals whose orientation was opposite to that of the current magnetic field. By
comparing the patterns of magnetic reversals with those of rocks of known age, the approximate ages of
rocks can be established. This is particularly useful for basalts of the oceanic crust, which record the
Earth's magnetic fieldas they solidify from molten lava symmetrically about the midocean ridges. The
time scale has been accurately extended back to the Upper Jurassic, the age of oldest existing
oceanic crust.
geopressure
The pressure within the Earth, or formation pressure. The common oilfieldusage, however, is to
indicate anomalous subsurface pore pressure that is higher or lower than the normal, predicted
hydrostatic pressure for a given depth, or the pressure exerted per unit area by a column
of freshwater from sea level to a given depth. Abnormally low pore pressure might occur in areas where
fluids have been drained, such as a depleted hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally
high pore pressure might occur in areas where burial of water-filled sediments by
an impermeable sediment such as clay was so rapid that fluids could not escape and
the pore pressure increased with deeper burial.
geothermal gradient
The rate of increase in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the geothermal gradient varies
from place to place, it averages 25 to 30 oC/km [15 oF/1000 ft].
glacial
Pertaining to the environment of deposition by glaciers.
glauconite
[(K,Na,Ca) 1.2-2.0(Fe ,Al,Fe ,Mg)4(Si7-7.6Al1-0.4O20)(OH)47nH20] A green silicate mineral found

+3 +2
in sedimentary rocks and formed on continental shelves characterized by slow sedimentation and
organic matter, such as fecal pellets, present in an oxidizing environment. In sufficient quantity, it can form
a sandy, green deposit such as the Cretaceous greensands of the US and UK.
Global Positioning System
A system of numerous Earth-orbiting satellites that can be used to determine the location (latitude,
longitude and elevation) of a receiver or station on the Earth within about 2 m [6 ft]. Fixed receivers on
Earth can be used to determine the relative motions of fault blocks and lithospheric plates. Hand-held
receivers can be used for producing accurate geologic maps, acquiring navigation data for
3D seismicsurveys, and positioning wells in the field.
GPS
See: Global Positioning System
GPTS
See: geomagnetic polarity time scale
Graben（地堑）
A relatively low-standing fault block bounded by opposing normal faults. Graben (used as both singular
and plural) can form in areas of rifting or extension, where normal faults are the most common type
of fault. Between graben are relatively high-standing blocks called horsts. A half-graben is a
downdropped block bounded by a normal fault on only one side.
grain density
The density of a rock or mineral with no porosity, also known as matrix density, commonly in units of
g/cm3.
granite
A coarse-grained, plutonic or intrusive igneous rock of felsic composition having large crystals
of quartz,feldspar and mica. In the oil field, "granite" is sometimes used incorrectly to indicate any type of
hardrock.
groundwater
Water in the subsurface below the water table. Groundwater is held in the pores of rocks, and can be
connate, from meteoric sources, or associated with igneous intrusions.
growth fault
A type of normal fault that develops and continues to move duringsedimentation and typically has
thicker strata on the downthrown, hanging wall side of the fault than in the footwall. Growth faults are
common in the Gulf of Mexico and in other areas where the crust is subsiding rapidly or being pulled
apart.
gypsum
[CaSO472H2O] A highly insoluble sulfate mineral that is the first to precipitate from evaporating
seawater. Dehydration of gypsum can produce anhydrite. Fine-grained gypsum is called alabaster.
Halite
[NaCl] A soft, soluble evaporite mineral commonly known as salt or rock salt. Because salt is less dense
than many sedimentary rocks, it is relatively buoyant and can form salt domes, pillars or curtains by
flowing and breaking through or piercing overlying sediments, as seen in the Gulf of Mexico and the
Zagros foldbelt. Halite can be critical in forming hydrocarbon traps and seals because it tends to flow
rather thanfracture during deformation, thus preventing hydrocarbons from leaking out of a trap even
during and after some types of deformation.
hardground
A horizon cemented by precipitation of calcite just below the sea floor. Local concretions form first in a
hardground and can be surrounded by burrows of organisms until the cement is well developed.
harmonic
Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent layers resemble or conform to one another. Folds
of rock layers that have similar mechanical properties or competence tend to be harmonic, with little
change in fold shape, symmetry or wavelength from one layer to the next.
hiatus
A cessation in deposition of sediments during which no strata form or an erosional surface forms on the
underlying strata; a gap in the rock record. This period might be marked by development of a
lithifiedsediment (hardground) or burrowed surface characteristic of periods when sea level was relatively
low. A disconformity can result from a hiatus.
homogeneity
The quality of uniformity of a material. If irregularities are distributed evenly in a mixture of material, the
material is homogeneous. (Compare with isotropy.)
horizon
An informal term used to denote a surface in or of rock, or a distinctive layer of rock that might be
represented by a reflection in seismic data. The term is often used incorrectly to describe a zone from
which hydrocarbons are produced.
horst
A relatively high-standing area formed by the movement of normal faults thatdip away from each other.
Horsts occur between low-standing fault blocks called graben. Horsts can form in areas of rifting or
extension, where normalfaults are the most abundant variety of fault.
hydrate
A chemical combination of water and another substance. Gypsum is a hydrate mineral. Its anhydrous
equivalent is anhydrite.
hydraulic head

The force per unit area exerted by a column of liquid at a height above a depth (and pressure) of
interest. Fluids flow down a hydraulic gradient, from points of higher to lower hydraulic head. The term is
sometimes used synonymously with hydrostatic head.
hydrocarbon
A naturally occurring organic compound comprising hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons can be as simple
as methane [CH4], but many are highly complex molecules, and can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The
molecules can have the shape of chains, branching chains, rings or other structures.Petroleum is a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The most common hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.
hydrocarbon kitchen
An area of the subsurface where source rock has reached appropriate conditions of pressure and
temperature to generate hydrocarbons; also known as source kitchen, oil kitchen or gas kitchen.
hydrogen sulfide
[H2S] A toxic, colorless gas that is odorless at high concentrations but smells like rotten eggs in low
concentrations. Hydrogen sulfide is produced during the decomposition of organic matter and occurs with
hydrocarbons in some areas. Hydrogen sulfide is a serious and potentially lethal hazard in several regions
of hydrocarbon exploration and production, such as the Permian Basin of west Texas, so awareness,
detection and monitoring of hydrogen sulfide is essential in those areas. It is also corrosive, requiring
costly special production equipment such as stainless steel tubing.
hydrostatic head
The height of a column of freshwater that exerts pressure at a given depth. Some authors use the term
synonymously with hydrostatic pressure.
hydrostatic pressure
The normal, predicted pressure for a given depth, or the pressure exerted per unit area by a column
of freshwater from sea level to a given depth. Abnormally low pressure might occur in areas where fluids
have been drained, such as a depleted hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally high pressure might occur in
areas where burial of water-filled sediments by an impermeable sedimentsuch as clay was so rapid that
fluids could not escape and the pore pressureincreased with deeper burial.
hydrothermal
Pertaining to hot fluids, particularly hot water, or the activity of hot water, or precipitates thereof.
Hydrothermal alteration can change the mineralogy of rock, producing different minerals,
includingquartz, calcite and chlorite. Hydrothermal activity is commonly associated with hot water that
accompanies, or is heated by, magma.
hydrothermal alteration
A change of preexisting rocks or minerals caused by the activity of hot solutions, such as fluids
accompanying or heated by magma. Quartz, serpentine and chlorite are minerals commonly associated
with hydrothermal alteration. Ore deposits, such as lead (as the mineral galena), zinc (sphalerite), and
copper (malachite), can occur in areas of hydrothermal alteration.
igneous
Pertaining to one of three main classes of rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary). Igneous
rocks crystallize from molten rock, or magma, with interlocking mineral crystals. Igneous rocks that
crystallize slowly, typically below the surface of the Earth, are plutonic igneous rocks and have large
crystals (large enough to see with the naked eye). Volcanic igneous rocks crystallize quickly at the
Earth's surface and have small crystals (usually too small to see without magnification). Common
examples include granite(plutonic) and rhyolite (volcanic), diorite (plutonic) and andesite (volcanic), and
gabbro (plutonic) and basalt (volcanic). Igneous rocks typically comprise the
minerals quartz, mica, feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine.
illite
[K1-1.5Al4(Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20)(OH)4]
A group of clay minerals formed during the alteration of silicate minerals such
as mica and feldspar and commonly found in marine shales.
immature
Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has not fully entered optimal conditions for generation.
immiscible
Pertaining to phases that cannot mix to form a homogeneous mixture. Oil and water are immiscible fluids.
impermeable
Pertaining to a rock that is incapable of transmitting fluids because of low permeability. Shale has a
high porosity, but its pores are small and disconnected, so it is relatively impermeable. Impermeable rocks
are desirable sealing rocks or cap rocks for reservoirs because hydrocarbons cannot passthrough them
readily.
in situ
1. adv. [Geology] ID: 285
In the original location or position, such as a large outcrop that has not been disturbed by faults or
landslides. Tests can be performed in situ in a reservoir to determine its pressure and temperature.
incompetent
Pertaining to strata that are relatively ductile and tend to flow under stress rather than deform by brittle
faulting or fracturing. The bed thickness of incompetent beds tends to change during deformation.
interstitial water
drilling or other interference, such as mud and seawater, does not constitute interstitial water. Interstitial
water, or formation water, might not have been the water present when the rock originally formed. In
contrast, connate water is the water trapped in the pores of a rock during its formation, also
called fossilwater.
inversion
The reversal of features, particularly structural features such as faults, by reactivation. For example,
anormal fault might move in a direction opposite to its initial movement.
isochore
A contour connecting points of equal true vertical thickness of strata, formations, reservoirs or
other rockunits. A map that displays isochores is an isochore map. The
terms isopach and isopach map are incorrectly used interchangeably to describe isochores and isochore
maps. Isopachs and isochores are equivalent only if the rock layer is horizontal.
isopach
A contour that connects points of equal thickness. Commonly, the isopachs, or contours that make up an
isopach map, display the stratigraphic thickness of a rock unit as opposed to the true vertical thickness.
Isopachs are true stratigraphic thicknesses; i.e., perpendicular to bedding surfaces.
isostasy
The state of gravitational equilibrium between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere of the Earth such
that lithospheric plates "float" at a given elevation depending on their thickness. The balance between the
elevation of the lithospheric plates and the asthenosphere is achieved by the flowage of the
denserasthenosphere. Various hypotheses about isostasy take into account density (Pratt hypothesis),
thickness (Airy hypothesis), and pressure variations to explain topographic variations among lithospheric
plates. The current model consists of several layers of different density.
isostatic
Alternate Form: isostasy
isotropic
Alternate Form: isotropy
isotropy
A quality of directional uniformity in material such that physical properties do not vary in different
directions. In rocks, changes in physical properties in different directions, such as the alignment
of mineral grains or the seismicvelocity measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding surfaces, are
forms ofanisotropy. (Compare with homogeneity.)
joint
A surface of breakage, cracking or separation within a rock along which there has been no movement
parallel to the defining plane. The usage by some authors can be more specific: When walls of
afracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint.
kaolinite
[Al4Si4O10(OH)8] A type of clay mineral from the kaolin group that forms through
the weatheringof feldspar and mica group minerals. Unlike some clay minerals likemontmorillonite,
kaolinite is not prone to shrinking or swelling with changes in water content.
Karst
A type of topography formed in areas of widespread carbonate rocks through dissolution. Sink holes,
caves and pock-marked surfaces are typical features of a karst topography.
kerogen
The naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic matter that occurs in source rocks and can yield oil upon
heating. Typical organic constituents of kerogen are algae and woody plant material. Kerogens have a
high molecular weight relative to bitumen, or soluble organic matter. Bitumen forms from kerogen
during petroleum generation. Kerogens are described as Type I, consisting of mainly algal and
amorphous (but presumably algal) kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II,
mixed terrestrialand marine source material that can generate waxy oil; and Type III,
woody terrestrial source material that typically generates gas.
lacustrine
Pertaining to an environment of deposition in lakes, or an area having lakes. Because deposition

of sediment in lakes can occur slowly and in relatively calm conditions, organic-rich source rocks can
form in lacustrine environments.
lamination
A fine layer (~ 1 mm thick) in strata, also called a lamina, common in fine-grained sedimentary rocks
such as shale, siltstone and fine sandstone. Asedimentary bed comprises multiple laminations, or
laminae.
lease
An area of surface land on which exploration or productionactivity occurs.
limestone
A carbonate sedimentary rock predominantly composed of calcite of organic, chemical

or detrital origin. Minor amounts of dolomite, chert and clay are common in limestones. Chalk is a form
of fine-grained limestone.
lithification
The process by which unconsolidated sediments become sedimentary rock. Sediments typically are
derived from preexisting rocks by weathering, transported and redeposited, and then buried and
compacted by overlying sediments. Cementation causes the sediments to harden, or lithify, into rock.
lithofacies
A mappable subdivision of a stratigraphic unit that can be distinguished by its facies or lithology-the
texture, mineralogy, grain size, and the depositional environment that produced it.
lithologic
Alternate Form: lithology
lithologic contact
The surface that separates rock bodies of different lithologies, or rock types. Acontact can
be conformable or unconformable depending upon the types ofrock, their relative ages and their
attitudes. A fault surface can also serve as acontact.
lithology
The macroscopic nature of the mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
lithosphere
The brittle outer layer of the Earth that includes the crust and uppermostmantle. It is made up of six
major and several minor tectonic plates that move around on the softer asthenosphere. The lithosphere
of the oceans tends to be thinner (in some oceanic areas, less than 50 km [30 miles] thick) and more
dense than that of the continents (more than 120 km [70 miles] thick in places like the Himalayas)
because of isostasy. The movement of the plates of the lithosphere results in convergence, or collisions,
that can form mountain belts and subduction zones, and divergence of the plates and the creation of
newcrust as material wells up from below separating plates. The lithosphere andasthenosphere are
distinguished from the crust, mantle and core of the Earth on the basis of their mechanical behavior and
not their composition.
lithostatic pressure
The pressure of the weight of overburden, or overlying rock, on a formation; also called
geostatic pressure.
lithostratigraphy
The study and correlation of strata to elucidate Earth history on the basis of their lithology, or the nature
of the well log response, mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
littoral
Pertaining to an environment of deposition affected by tides, the area between high tide and low tide.
Given the variation of tides and land forms from place to place, geologists describe littoral zones locally
according to the fauna capable of surviving periodic exposure and submersion.
live oil
Oil that contains some gas in solution.
hard rock
A term applied to hard rocks, or igneous and metamorphic rocks that are distinguished
fromsedimentary rocks because they are typically more difficult to disaggregate. Well
cemented sedimentaryrocks are sometimes described as being hard, but are usually called soft rock. The
term can be used to differentiate between rocks of interest to the petroleum industry (soft rocks) and rocks
of interest to the mining industry (hard rocks).
hardground
A horizon cemented by precipitation of calcite just below the sea floor. Local concretions form first in a
hardground and can be surrounded by burrows of organisms until the cement is well developed.
harmonic
Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent layers resemble or conform to one another. Folds
of rock layers that have similar mechanical properties or competence tend to be harmonic, with little
change in fold shape, symmetry or wavelength from one layer to the next.
hiatus
A cessation in deposition of sediments during which no strata form or an erosional surface forms on the
underlying strata; a gap in the rock record. This period might be marked by development of a
lithifiedsediment (hardground) or burrowed surface characteristic of periods when sea level was relatively
low. A disconformity can result from a hiatus.
homogeneity
The quality of uniformity of a material. If irregularities are distributed evenly in a mixture of material, the
material is homogeneous. (Compare with isotropy.)
horizon
An informal term used to denote a surface in or of rock, or a distinctive layer of rock that might be
represented by a reflection in seismic data. The term is often used incorrectly to describe a zone from
which hydrocarbons are produced.
horst
A relatively high-standing area formed by the movement of normal faults thatdip away from each other.
Horsts occur between low-standing fault blocks called graben. Horsts can form in areas of rifting or
extension, where normalfaults are the most abundant variety of fault.
hydrate
A chemical combination of water and another substance. Gypsum is a hydrate mineral. Its anhydrous
equivalent is anhydrite.
hydrocarbon
A naturally occurring organic compound comprising hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons can be as simple
as methane [CH4], but many are highly complex molecules, and can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The
molecules can have the shape of chains, branching chains, rings or other structures. Petroleum is a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The most common hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.
hydrocarbon kitchen
An area of the subsurface where source rock has reached appropriate conditions of pressure and
temperature to generate hydrocarbons; also known as source kitchen, oil kitchen or gas kitchen.
hydrogen sulfide
[H2S] A toxic, colorless gas that is odorless at high concentrations but smells like rotten eggs in low
concentrations. Hydrogen sulfide is produced during the decomposition of organic matter and occurs with
hydrocarbons in some areas. Hydrogen sulfide is a serious and potentially lethal hazard in several regions
of hydrocarbon exploration and production, such as the Permian Basin of west Texas, so awareness,
detection and monitoring of hydrogen sulfide is essential in those areas. It is also corrosive, requiring
costly special production equipment such as stainless steel tubing.
hydrostatic head
The height of a column of freshwater that exerts pressure at a given depth. Some authors use the term
synonymously with hydrostatic pressure.
hydrostatic pressure
The normal, predicted pressure for a given depth, or the pressure exerted per unit area by a column
of freshwater from sea level to a given depth. Abnormally low pressure might occur in areas where fluids
have been drained, such as a depleted hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally high pressure might occur in
areas where burial of water-filled sediments by an impermeable sedimentsuch as clay was so rapid that
fluids could not escape and the pore pressureincreased with deeper burial.
hydrothermal
Pertaining to hot fluids, particularly hot water, or the activity of hot water, or precipitates thereof.
Hydrothermal alteration can change the mineralogy of rock, producing different minerals,
includingquartz, calcite and chlorite. Hydrothermal activity is commonly associated with hot water that
accompanies, or is heated by, magma.
hydrothermal alteration
A change of preexisting rocks or minerals caused by the activity of hot solutions, such as fluids
accompanying or heated by magma. Quartz, serpentine and chlorite are minerals commonly associated
with hydrothermal alteration. Ore deposits, such as lead (as the mineral galena), zinc (sphalerite), and
copper (malachite), can occur in areas of hydrothermal alteration.
igneous
Pertaining to one of three main classes of rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary). Igneous
rocks crystallize from molten rock, or magma, with interlocking mineral crystals. Igneous rocks that
crystallize slowly, typically below the surface of the Earth, are plutonic igneous rocks and have large
crystals (large enough to see with the naked eye). Volcanic igneous rocks crystallize quickly at the
Earth's surface and have small crystals (usually too small to see without magnification). Common
examples include granite(plutonic) and rhyolite (volcanic), diorite (plutonic) and andesite (volcanic), and
gabbro (plutonic) and basalt (volcanic). Igneous rocks typically comprise the
minerals quartz, mica, feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine.
illite
[K1-1.5Al4(Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20)(OH)4] A group of clay minerals formed during the alteration

of silicate minerals such as mica and feldspar and commonly found in marine shales.
Immature
Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has not fully entered optimal conditions for generation.
Immiscible
Pertaining to phases that cannot mix to form a homogeneous mixture. Oil and water are immiscible fluids.
impermeable
Pertaining to a rock that is incapable of transmitting fluids because of low permeability. Shale has a
high porosity, but its pores are small and disconnected, so it is relatively impermeable. Impermeable rocks
are desirable sealing rocks or cap rocks for reservoirs because hydrocarbons cannot passthrough them
readily.
in situ
1. adv. [Geology] ID: 285
In the original location or position, such as a large outcrop that has not been disturbed by faults or
landslides. Tests can be performed in situ in a reservoir to determine its pressure and temperature.
incompetent
Pertaining to strata that are relatively ductile and tend to flow under stress rather than deform by brittle
faulting or fracturing. The bed thickness of incompetent beds tends to change during deformation.
interstitial water
drilling or other interference, such as mud and seawater, does not constitute interstitial water. Interstitial
water, or formation water, might not have been the water present when the rock originally formed. In
contrast, connate water is the water trapped in the pores of a rock during its formation, also
called fossilwater.
inversion
The reversal of features, particularly structural features such as faults, by reactivation. For example,
anormal fault might move in a direction opposite to its initial movement.
isochore
A contour connecting points of equal true vertical thickness of strata, formations, reservoirs or
other rockunits. A map that displays isochores is an isochore map. The
terms isopach and isopach map are incorrectly used interchangeably to describe isochores and isochore
maps. Isopachs and isochores are equivalent only if the rock layer is horizontal.
isopach
A contour that connects points of equal thickness. Commonly, the isopachs, or contours that make up an
isopach map, display the stratigraphic thickness of a rock unit as opposed to the true vertical thickness.
Isopachs are true stratigraphic thicknesses; i.e., perpendicular to bedding surfaces.
isostasy
isostasy
isostatic
Alternate Form: isostasy
isotropic
Alternate Form: isotropy
isotropy
A quality of directional uniformity in material such that physical properties do not vary in different
directions. In rocks, changes in physical properties in different directions, such as the alignment
of mineral grains or the seismicvelocity measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding surfaces, are
forms ofanisotropy. (Compare with homogeneity.)
joint
A surface of breakage, cracking or separation within a rock along which there has been no movement
parallel to the defining plane. The usage by some authors can be more specific: When walls of
afracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint.
kaolinite
[Al4Si4O10(OH)8] A type of clay mineral from the kaolin group that forms through
the weatheringof feldspar and mica group minerals. Unlike some clay minerals likemontmorillonite,
kaolinite is not prone to shrinking or swelling with changes in water content.
karst

A type of topography formed in areas of widespread carbonate rocks through dissolution. Sink holes,
caves and pock-marked surfaces are typical features of a karst topography.
kerogen
The naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic matter that occurs in source rocks and can yield oil upon
heating. Typical organic constituents of kerogen are algae and woody plant material. Kerogens have a
high molecular weight relative to bitumen, or soluble organic matter. Bitumen forms from kerogen
during petroleum generation. Kerogens are described as Type I, consisting of mainly algal and
amorphous (but presumably algal) kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II,
mixed terrestrialand marine source material that can generate waxy oil; and Type III,
woody terrestrial source material that typically generates gas.
lacustrine
Pertaining to an environment of deposition in lakes, or an area having lakes. Because deposition

of sediment in lakes can occur slowly and in relatively calm conditions, organic-rich source rocks can
form in lacustrine environments.
lamination
A fine layer (~ 1 mm thick) in strata, also called a lamina, common in fine-grained sedimentary rocks
such as shale, siltstone and fine sandstone. Asedimentary bed comprises multiple laminations, or
laminae.
lease
An area of surface land on which exploration or productionactivity occurs.
limestone
A carbonate sedimentary rock predominantly composed of calcite of organic, chemical

or detrital origin. Minor amounts of dolomite, chert and clay are common in limestones. Chalk is a form
of fine-grained limestone.
lithification
The process by which unconsolidated sediments become sedimentary rock. Sediments typically are
derived from preexisting rocks by weathering, transported and redeposited, and then buried and
compacted by overlying sediments. Cementation causes the sediments to harden, or lithify, into rock.
lithofacies
A mappable subdivision of a stratigraphic unit that can be distinguished by its facies or lithology-the
texture, mineralogy, grain size, and the depositional environment that produced it.
lithologic contact
The surface that separates rock bodies of different lithologies, or rock types. Acontact can
be conformable or unconformable depending upon the types ofrock, their relative ages and their
attitudes. A fault surface can also serve as acontact.
lithology
The macroscopic nature of the mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
lithosphere
The brittle outer layer of the Earth that includes the crust and uppermostmantle. It is made up of six
major and several minor tectonic plates that move around on the softer asthenosphere. The lithosphere
of the oceans tends to be thinner (in some oceanic areas, less than 50 km [30 miles] thick) and more
dense than that of the continents (more than 120 km [70 miles] thick in places like the Himalayas)
because of isostasy. The movement of the plates of the lithosphere results in convergence, or collisions,
that can form mountain belts and subduction zones, and divergence of the plates and the creation of
newcrust as material wells up from below separating plates. The lithosphere andasthenosphere are
distinguished from the crust, mantle and core of the Earth on the basis of their mechanical behavior and
not their composition.
lithostatic pressure
The pressure of the weight of overburden, or overlying rock, on a formation; also called
geostatic pressure.
lithostratigraphy
The study and correlation of strata to elucidate Earth history on the basis of their lithology, or the nature
of the well log response, mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
littoral
Pertaining to an environment of deposition affected by tides, the area between high tide and low tide.
Given the variation of tides and land forms from place to place, geologists describe littoral zones locally
according to the fauna capable of surviving periodic exposure and submersion.
live oil
Oil that contains some gas in solution.
Ma
Mega annum. The abbreviation for million years that is most commonly used in the geologic literature.
mafic
Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of minerals that are rich in iron and magnesium, dense,
and typically dark in color. The term comes from the words magnesium and ferric. Common mafic minerals
are olivine and pyroxene. Basalt is a mafic igneous rock. (Compare with felsic.)
magma
The molten rock in the Earth that can either rise to the surface as lava and form extrusive igneous rockor
cool within the Earth to form plutonic igneous rock.
magnetic reversal sequence
See: geomagnetic polarity reversal
mantle
The intermediate layer of the Earth beneath the crust that is about 2900 km thick [1820 miles] and
overlies the core of the Earth. The mantle consists of dense igneous rocks like pyroxenite and dunite,
composed of the minerals pyroxene and olivine. The crust, mantle and core of the Earth are
distinguished from the lithosphere and asthenosphere on the basis of their composition and not their
mechanical behavior. The Mohorovicic discontinuity abruptly separates the crust from the mantle,
where the velocity of compressional waves is significantly higher.
marine
Pertaining to sediments or environments in seas or ocean waters, between the depth of low tide and the
ocean bottom.
marsh
An environment from which water rarely drains that supports primarily grassy vegetation and does not form
peat.
massif
A block of rock that forms a structural or topographic feature, such as

a block of igneous of metamorphicrock within an area of mountain building, or orogeny. A massif can be
as large as a mountain and is typically more rigid than the rocks that surround it.
matrix
The finer grained, interstitial particles that lie between larger particles or in which larger particles are
embedded in sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and conglomerates.
maturity
The state of a source rock with respect to its ability to generate oil or gas. As a source rock begins to
mature, it generates gas. As an oil-prone source rock matures, the generation of heavy oils is succeeded
by medium and light oils. Above a temperature of approximately 100 oC [212 oF], only dry gas is
generated, and incipient metamorphism is imminent. The maturity of a source rock reflects the
ambient pressure and temperature as well as the duration of conditions favorable
for hydrocarbongeneration.
metamorphic
One of three main classes of rock (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary). Metamorphic rocks form
from the alteration of preexisting rocks by changes in ambient temperature, pressure, volatile content, or
all of these. Such changes can occur through the activity of fluids in the Earth and movement
of igneousbodies or regional tectonic activity. The texture of metamorphic rocks can vary from
almost homogeneous, or nonfoliated, to foliated rocks with a strong planar fabric or foliation produced by
alignment of minerals during recrystallization or by reorientation. Common foliated metamorphic rocks
include gneiss, schist and slate. Marble, or metamorphosed limestone, can be foliated or non-foliated.
Hornfels is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock. Graphite, chlorite, talc, mica, garnet and staurolite are
distinctive metamorphic minerals.
methane
[CH4]The lightest and most abundant of the hydrocarbon gases and the principal component of natural
gas. Methane is a colorless, odorless gas that is stable under a wide range of pressure and temperature
conditions in the absence of other compounds.
methane hydrate
See: hydrate
mica
[Muscovite mica K2Al4(Si6Al2O20(OH,F)4]A group of sheet silicates characterized by a platy

appearance and basal cleavage most common in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Several clay minerals,
such as chlorite and glauconite, are closely related to the mica group.
micrite
Dense, fine-grained carbonate mud or rocks composed of mud that forms byerosion of
larger carbonate grains, organic precipitation (such as from algae), or inorganic precipitation. The
grains in micrite are generally less than 4 microns in size.
micropaleontology
The study of microfossils too small to be seen without the use of a microscope. Marine microfossils such
as foraminifera are important for stratigraphic correlation.
midoceanic ridge
The mountainous, linear axis of ocean basins along which rifting occurs and new oceanic crust forms
as magma wells up and solidifies. The most prominent midoceanic ridges are those of the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans. The new crust is made of mafic igneous rock called basalt, commonly referred to as
midocean ridge basalt, or MORB, whose composition reflects that of the deeper mantle of the Earth. The
presence of the spreading plate boundaries of the midoceanic ridges; their symmetrically spreading,
successively older crustoutward from the ridge; and the lack of oceanic crust older than approximately
200 Ma support the theory of plate tectonics and the recycling of oceanic crustthrough the process
of subduction.
migrate
Alternate Form: migration
migration
The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated
hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of
the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary
migration. Migration typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area because of the
relative buoyancy of hydrocarbons in comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can
occur along distances of hundreds of kilometers in large sedimentary basins, and is critical to
theformation of a viable petroleum system.
Milankovitch cycles
The variation of the Earth's exposure to the sun's rays, or insolation, that results from variations in the orbit
of the Earth and the tilt of its axis, and that might affect climate, sea level and sedimentation. Such
variations are thought to occur in distinct time periods on the order of thousands of years. Ice ages might
be a consequence of Milankovitch cycles. Milutin Milankovitch (1879 to 1958) was a Yugoslavian
mathematician and physicist who specialized in studies of solar radiation and the orbit of the Earth.
mineral
A crystalline substance that is naturally occurring, inorganic, and has a unique or limited range of chemical
compositions. Minerals are homogeneous, having a definite atomic structure. Rocks are composed of
minerals, except for rare exceptions like coal, which is a rock but not a mineral because of its organic
origin. Minerals are distinguished from one another by careful observation or measurement of physical
properties such as density, crystal form, cleavage (tendency to break along specific surfaces because of
atomic structure), fracture (appearance of broken surfaces), hardness, luster and color. Magnetism, taste
and smell are useful ways to identify only a few minerals.
Miscible
Phases that can mix and form a homogeneous mixture. Hydrocarbon gases and liquids are commonly
miscible.
Moho
See: Mohorovicic discontinuity
Mohorovicic discontinuity
The boundary between the crust and the mantle of the Earth, which varies from approximately 5 km [3
miles] under the midoceanic ridges to 75 km [46 miles] deep under the continents. This boundary,
commonly called "the Moho," was recognized in 1909 by Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic on
the basis of its abruptly higher compressional wave (P-wave) velocity.
moldic porosity
A type of secondary porosity created through the dissolution of a preexisting constituent of a rock, such
as a shell, rock fragment or grain. The pore space preserves the shape, or mold, of the dissolved
material.
montmorillonite
[(1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4(Si,Al)8O20(OH)47nH20] A type of smectite clay mineral that

tends to swell when exposed to water. Montmorillonite forms through the alteration of silicate minerals
in alkaline conditions in basic igneous rocks, such as volcanic ash that can accumulate in the oceans.
Montmorillonite is a component of bentonite commonly used in drilling fluids.
MRS
Magnetic reversal sequence.
My
Abbreviation for million years. The preferred abbreviation is Ma.
MYBP
Abbreviation for millions of years before present. The preferred abbreviation is Ma.
natural gas
A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases that is highly compressible and

expansible. Methane[CH4] is the chief constituent of most natural gas (constituting as much as 85% of
some natural gases), with lesser amounts of ethane [C2H6], propane [C3H8], butane [C4H10] and pentane
[C5H12]. Impurities can also be present in large proportions, including carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen and
hydrogen sulfide.
Neritic
Describing the environment and conditions of the marine zone between low tide and the edge of the
continental shelf, a depth of roughly 200 m [656 ft]. A neritic environment supports marine organisms,
also described as neritic, that are capable of surviving in shallow water with moderate exposure to
sunlight.
nonconformity
A geological surface that separates younger overlying sedimentary strata from

eroded igneous ormetamorphic rocks and represents a large gap in the geologic record.
normal fault
A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, and the fault surface dips
steeply, commonly from 50o to 90o. Groups ofnormal faults can produce horst and graben topography, or
a series of relatively high- and low-standing fault blocks, as seen in areas where the crustis rifting or
being pulled apart by plate tectonic activity. A growth fault is a type ofnormal fault that forms
during sedimentation and typically has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall.
normal pressure
The pore pressure of rocks that is considered normal in areas in which the change in pressure per unit
of depth is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure. Thenormal hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is
0.433 pounds per square inch per foot (psi/ft), or 9.792 kilopascals per meter (kPa/m), and 0.465 psi/ft
for water with 100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516 kPa/m.
offset
The horizontal displacement between points on either side of a fault, which can range from millimeters
to kilometers. Perhaps the most readily visible examples of offset are features such as fences or roads
that have been displaced by strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas fault of California, USA.
oil field
An accumulation, pool or group of pools of oil in the subsurface. An oil field consists of a reservoir in a
shape that will trap hydrocarbons and that is covered by an impermeable or sealing rock. Typically,
industry professionals use the term with an implied assumption of economic size.
oil kitchen
See: hydrocarbon kitchen
oil pool
A subsurface oil accumulation. An oil field can consist of one or more oil pools or distinct reservoirs within
a single large trap. The term "pool" can create the erroneous impression that oil fields are immense
caverns filled with oil, instead of rock filled with small oil-filled pores.
oil sand
A porous sand layer or sand body filled with oil.
oil-prone
The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to generate oil than gas. The nature of the organic
matter (kerogen) in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like material commonly found
in terrestrialsource rocks to algal or other marine material that makes
up marine source rocks. Marine source rocks are commonly oil-prone.
oil-water contact
A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly oil occurs and below which predominantly
water occurs. Although oil and water areimmiscible, the contact between oil and water is commonly a
transition zoneand there is usually irreducible water adsorbed by the grains in the rock and immovable
oil that cannot be produced. The oil-water contact is not always a flat horizontal surface, but instead
might be tilted or irregular.
onlap
The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata against more steeply dipping, older strata, or the
termination of low-angle reflections in seismic data against steeper reflections. Onlap is a particular
pattern of reflections inseismic data that, according to principles of sequence stratigraphy, occurs during
periods of transgression.
orogenic
Alternate Form: orogeny
orogeny
A major episode of plate tectonic activity in which lithospheric plates collide and produce mountain belts, in
some cases including the formation of subduction zones and igneous activity. Thrust faults and folds are
typical geological structures seen in areas of orogeny.
outcrop
A body of rock exposed at the surface of the Earth. Construction of highways and other man-made
facilities and resultant removal of soil and rock has created spectacular outcrops in some regions.
overburden
Rock overlying an area or point of interest in the subsurface.
overburden
Rock overlying an area or point of interest in the subsurface.
overmature
Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has generated as much hydrocarbon as possible and is
becoming thermally altered.
overpressure
Subsurface pressure that is abnormally high, exceeding hydrostatic pressureat a given depth. The
term geopressure is commonly, and incorrectly, used synonymously. Abnormally high pore pressure can
occur in areas where burial of fluid-filled sediments is so rapid that pore fluids cannot escape, so
thepressure of the pore fluids increases as overburden increases. Drilling into overpressured strata can
be hazardous because overpressured fluids escape rapidly, so careful preparation is made in areas of
known overpressure.
overthrust
A thrust fault having a relatively large lateral displacement.
paleontology
The study of fossilized, or preserved, remnants of plant and animal life. Changes in the Earth through time
can be documented by observing changes in the fossils in successive strata and the environments in
which they formed or were preserved. Fossils can also be compared with their extant relatives to assess
evolutionary changes. Correlations of strata can be aided by studying their fossilcontent, a discipline
called biostratigraphy.
paludal
Pertaining to a depositional environment or organisms from a marsh. It also refers to the type of
environment in which palustrine sediments can accumulate.
paludal
Pertaining to a depositional environment or organisms from a marsh. It also refers to the type of
environment in which palustrine sediments can accumulate.
palustrine
Describing material deposited in or growing in a marsh.
palynology
The study of fossilized remnants of microscopic entities having organic walls, such as pollen, spores and
cysts from algae. Changes in the Earth through time can be documented by studying the distribution of
spores and pollen. Well log and other correlations are enhanced by incorporating palynology. Palynology
also has utility in forensics.
parallel fold
The deformation of rock layers in which the thickness of each layer, measured perpendicular to initial
(undeformed) layering, is maintained after the rocklayers have been folded.
parasequence
Relatively conformable depositional units bounded by surfaces of marine flooding, surfaces that separate
older strata from younger and show an increase in water depth in successively younger strata.
Parasequences are usually too thin to discern on seismic data, but when added together, they form sets
called parasequence sets that are visible on seismic data.
passive margin
The margin of a continent and ocean that does not coincide with the boundary of a lithospheric plate and
along which collision is not occurring. Passive margins are characterized by rifted, rotated faultblocks of
thick sediment, such as the present-day Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic margins of North America.
pay
A reservoir or portion of a reservoir that contains economically producible hydrocarbons. The term derives
from the fact that it is capable of "paying" an income. Pay is also called pay sand or pay zone. The overall
interval in which pay sections occur is the gross pay; the smaller portions of the gross pay that meet local
criteria for pay (such as minimum porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay.
permeability
The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids, typically measured in darcies or
millidarcies. Formations that transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as permeableand
tend to have many large, well-connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as shales and siltstones,
tend to be finer grained or of a mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores. Absolute
permeability is the measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in
the rock. Effective permeability is the ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid through
a rock when other immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability of
gas in a gas-water reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of
the reservoir affect the effective permeability. Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a
particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single
fluid is present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows for
comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of
more than one fluid generally inhibits flow.
petrography
The examination of rocks in thin section. Rock samples can be glued to a glass slide and the rockground
to 0.03-mm thickness in order to observe mineralogy and texture using a microscope.
(Apetrographic microscope is a transmitted-light polarizing microscope.) Samples
of sedimentary rockcan be impregnated with blue epoxy to highlight porosity.
petroleum
A complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon compounds found in rock. Petroleum can range
from solid to gas, but the term is generally used to refer to liquid crude oil. Impurities such as sulfur,
oxygen and nitrogen are common in petroleum. There is considerable variation in color, gravity, odor,
sulfur content and viscosity in petroleum from different areas.
petroleum system
Geologic components and processes necessary to generate and store hydrocarbons, including a
mature source rock, migration pathway, reservoirrock, trap and seal. Appropriate relative timing
of formation of these elements and the processes of generation, migration and accumulation are
necessary for hydrocarbons to accumulate and be preserved. The components and critical timing
relationships of a petroleum system can be displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along the
horizontal axis and the petroleum system elements along the vertical axis. Exploration plays and
prospects are typically developed in basins or regions in which a complete petroleum system has some
likelihood of existing.
petrology
The study of macroscopic features of rocks, such as their occurrence, origin and history,
and structure(usually by examining outcrops in the field) and their texture and composition (by studying
smaller samples more closely).
pinch out
To taper to a zero edge.
pinch-out
A type of stratigraphic trap. The termination by thinning or tapering out ("pinching out") of
a reservoiragainst a nonporous sealing rock creates a favorable geometry to trap hydrocarbons,
particularly if the adjacent sealing rock is a source rock such as a shale.
plane table
A flat drawing board mounted on a tripod used in combination with an alidade to construct topographic
or geologic maps in the field. A sheet of paper or mylar covering the plane table is annotated
duringmap construction.
plankton
Minute organisms that float or drift passively near the surface of oceans and seas. Plant-like plankton, or
phytoplankton, include diatoms. Zooplankton are animals that have a limited ability to move themselves.
The changes in plankton over time are useful for estimation of relative ages of rocks that contain the
fossilized remains of plankton.
plastic
Pertaining to a material that can deform permanently without rupturing.
plastic deformation
Permanent mechanical or physical alteration that does not include rupture. Plastic deformation of rocks
typically occurs at high temperatures and pressures, conditions under which rocks become relatively
viscous.
plate tectonics
The unifying geologic theory developed to explain observations that interactions of the brittle plates of
the lithosphere with each other and with the softer underlying asthenosphere result in large-scale
changes in the Earth. The theory of plate tectonics initially stemmed from observations of the shapes of
the continents, particularly South America and Africa, which fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and
have similar rocks and fossils despite being separated by a modern ocean. As lithospheric plates heat up
or cool down depending on their position, or their tectonic environment, relative to each other and to
warmer areas deeper within the Earth, they become relatively more or less dense than
the asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma or sink in cold, brittle slabs or slide past each
other. Mountain belts can form during plate collisions or an orogeny; diverging plates or rifts can create
new midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past one another create transform fault zones (such as the San
Andreas fault); and zones ofsubduction occur where one lithospheric plate moves beneath another.
Plate tectonic theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic or otherigneous activity,
midoceanic ridges and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the formation of sedimentary basins
on the basis of their relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries. Convection of the mantle is
postulated to be the driving mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates. Measurements of the
continents using the Global Positioning System confirm the relative motions of plates. Age
determinations of the oceanic crust confirm that suchcrust is much younger than that of the continents
and has been recycled by the process of subduction and regenerated at midoceanic ridges.
plateau
A topographic feature consisting of a large flat area at a relatively high elevation with steep sides.
platform
A relatively flat, nearly level area of sedimentary rocks in a continent that overlies or abuts
the basementrocks of a craton.
play
An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur.
plunge
The angle between a linear feature and a horizontal line in a vertical plane containing both lines.
point bar
An arcuate deposit of sediment, usually sand, that occurs along the convex inner edges of the meanders
of channels and builds outward as the stream channel migrates.
pore
A discrete void within a rock, which can contain air, water, hydrocarbons or other fluids. In a body of rock,
the percentage of pore space is the porosity.
pore pressure
The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostaticpressure, or

When impermeable rocks such as shales form as sediments are compacted, their pore fluids cannot
always escape and must then support the total overlying rock column, leading to anomalously
highformation pressures.
porosity
The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can contain fluids. Porosity
can be a relic of deposition (primary porosity, such as space between grains that were not compacted
together completely) or can develop through alteration of the rock (secondary porosity, such as
whenfeldspar grains or fossils are preferentially dissolved from sandstones). Effective porosity is the
interconnected pore volume in a rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It excludes isolated
pores. Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus,
effective porosity is typically less than total porosity.
post-mature
Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has generated as much hydrocarbon as possible and is
becoming thermally altered.
preservation
The phase of a petroleum system after hydrocarbons accumulate in a trap and are subject to degradation,
remigration, tectonism or other unfavorable or destructive processes.
pressure gradient
The change in pressure per unit of depth, typically in units of psi/ft or kPa/m. Pressure increases
predictably with depth in areas of normal pressure. Thenormal hydrostatic pressure gradient
for freshwater is 0.433 psi/ft, or 9.792 kPa/m, and 0.465 psi/ft for water with 100,000 ppm total dissolved
solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516 kPa/m. Deviations from normal pressureare described as
high or low pressure.
primary migration
The expulsion of newly generated hydrocarbons from a source rock. The further movement of the
hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is
secondarymigration.
primary porosity
The porosity preserved from deposition throughlithification.

production
The phase that occurs after successful exploration and development and during which hydrocarbons are
drained from an oil or gas field.
progradation
The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited successively basinward
because sediment supply exceeds accommodation. Thus, the position of the shoreline migrates into
the basin during episodes of progradation, a process called regression.
prospect
An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been predicted to exist in economic quantity. A
prospect is commonly an anomaly, such as a geologicstructure or a seismic amplitude anomaly, that
is recommended by explorationists for drilling a well. Justification for drilling a prospect is made by
assembling evidence for an active petroleum system, or reasonableprobability of encountering
reservoir-quality rock, a trap of sufficient size, adequate sealing rock, and appropriate conditions
for generation andmigration of hydrocarbons to fill the trap. A single drilling location is also called a
prospect, but the term is more properly used in the context of exploration. Agroup of prospects of a
similar nature constitutes a play.
pyrolysis
A type of geochemical analysis in which a rock sample is subject to controlled heating in an inert gas to or
past the point of generating hydrocarbons in order to assess its quality as a source rock, the abundance of
organic material in it, its thermal maturity, and the quality of hydrocarbons it might generate or have
generated. Pyrolysis breaks large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules.
quartz
[SiO2]An abundant rock-forming mineral composed of silicon and oxygen, also called silica.
Quartz sand grains are a major constituent of sandstone and other clastic sedimentary rocks.
reef
A mound, ridge, or buildup of sediment or sedimentary rock, most commonly produced by organisms that
secrete shells such as corals. Reefs are typically taller than the sediment that surrounds them, resistant
to weathering and wave action, and preserved within sediment of a different composition.Carbonate reefs
form in a limited range of temperatures, water depths, salinities and wave activities, so their occurrence
can be used to interpret past environmental conditions. Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ in
composition and permeability, porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for
hydrocarbons. Porosity of reefal limestones depends on post-depositional diagenetic changes.
regression
The migration of shoreline into a basin during progradation due to a fall in relative sea level. Deposition
during a regression can juxtapose shallow-water sediments atop deep-water sediments.
relative age
The approximate age determination of rocks, fossils or minerals made by comparing whether the material
is younger or older than other surrounding material. Relative age is estimated according to stratigraphic
and structural relationships, such as superposition, and by fossil content, since the relative ages and
successions of fossils have been established by paleontologists. The measurement of the decay of
radioactive isotopes, especially uranium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has allowed geologists to more
precisely determine the age in years of rock formations, known as the absolute age. Tree rings and
seasonal sedimentary deposits called varves can be counted to determine absolute age. Although the
term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages typically have some amount of potential errorand are inexact.
relative permeability
A dimensionless term devised to adapt the Darcy equation to multiphase flow conditions.
Relativepermeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to
absolutepermeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its
relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows comparison of the different abilities
of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of more than one fluid generally inhibits
flow.
reservoir
A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and transmit
fluids.Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more porosity than
mostigneous and metamorphic rocks and form under temperature conditions at which hydrocarbons can
be preserved. A reservoir is a critical component of a complete petroleum system.
reservoir pressure

The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostaticpressure, or
Because reservoir pressure changes as fluids are produced from a reservoir, the pressure should be
described as measured at a specific time, such as initial reservoir pressure.
retrogradation
The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited successively landward
because sediment supply is limited and cannot fill the available accommodation. Thus, the position of the
shoreline migrates backward onto land, a process called transgression, during episodes of retrogradation.
reverse fault
A type of fault formed when the hanging wall fault block moves up along a faultsurface relative to the
footwall. Such movement can occur in areas where the Earth's crust is compressed. A thrust fault,
sometimes called an overthrust if the displacement is particularly great, is a reverse fault in which
the fault plane has a shallow dip, typically much less than 45o.
rheology
Generally, the study of how matter deforms and flows, including its elasticity, plasticity and viscosity.
Ingeology, rheology is particularly important in studies of moving ice, water, salt and magma, as well as in
studies of deforming rocks.
rhombohedral packing
The most compact arrangement in space of uniform spheres (atoms and molecules in mineral crystals,
or grains in sedimentary rocks) that results in astructure having no more than 26% porosity.
Rhombohedral packing is more stable mechanically than cubic packing. Cubic packing is the
most porouspacking arrangement, with about 47% porosity in the ideal situation. Most sediments,
however, are not uniform spheres of the same size, nor can they be arranged in a
cubic structure naturally, so most sediments have much less than 47% porosity of ideal cubic packing
and commonly less than the 26%porosity of ideal rhombohedral packing.
rift
Region in which the Earth's crust is pulling apart and creatingnormal faults and down-dropped areas
or subsidence.
rock
An aggregate of minerals or organic matter (in the case of coal, which is not composed of minerals
because of its organic origin), or volcanic glass (obsidian, which forms a rock but is not considered
a mineral because of its amorphous, noncrystalline nature). Rocks can contain a single mineral, such
as rock salt (halite) and certain limestones (calcite), or many minerals, such
as granite (quartz, feldspar, mica and other minerals). There are three main types of
rocks. Sedimentary rocks like sandstone and limestone form at the Earth's surface through deposition
of sediments derived from weathered rocks, biogenic activity or precipitation from
solution. Igneous rocks originate deeper within the Earth, where the temperature is high enough to melt
rocks, to form magma that can crystallize within the Earth or at the surface
by volcanicactivity. Metamorphic rocks form from other preexisting rocks during episodes of
deformation of the Earth at temperatures and pressures high enough to alter minerals but inadequate to
melt them. Such changes can occur by the activity of fluids in the Earth and movement
of igneous bodies or regional tectonic activity. Rocks are recycled from one type to another by the
constant changes in the Earth.
sabkha
An environment of coastal sedimentation characterized by arid or semiarid conditions above the level of
high tide and by the absence of vegetation. Evaporites, eolian deposits and tidal-flood deposits are
common in sabkhas.
salt
Synonyms: halite
salt dome
A mushroom-shaped or plug-shaped diapir made of salt, commonly having an

overlying cap rock. Salt domes form as a consequence of the relative buoyancyof salt when buried
beneath other types of sediment. The salt flows upward to form salt domes, sheets, pillars and other
structures. Hydrocarbons are commonly found around salt domes because of the abundance and variety
of traps created by salt movement and the association with evaporite minerals that can provide excellent
sealing capabilities.
sand
A detrital grain between 0.0625 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Sand is larger than silt but smaller than a
granule according to the Udden-Wentworth scale. Sand is also a term used for quartz grains or
forsandstone.
sandstone
A clastic sedimentary rock whose grains are predominantly sand-sized. The term is commonly used to
imply consolidated sand or a rock made of predominantly quartz sand, although sandstones often
contain feldspar, rockfragments, mica and numerous additional mineral grains held together
withsilica or another type of cement. The relatively high porosity and permeability of sandstones make
them good reservoir rocks.
saturation
The relative amount of water, oil and gas in the pores of a rock, usually as a percentage of volume.
scout
A petroleum industry worker who tracks competitive exploration and production activity, either for a
company or on a free-lance basis. Scouts can facilitate trading of technical data such as well logs among
companies before such data enter the public domain unless the operations or data are held "tight."
scout ticket
A brief report about a well from the time it is permitted through drilling and completion. A scout ticket
typically includes the location, total depth, logs run,production status and formation tops.
seal
A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or cap above and
around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. A seal is a critical component
of a complete petroleum system. The permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids
through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies.
secondary migration
The movement of generated hydrocarbons into a reservoir after their expulsion, or primary migration,
from a source rock.
secondary porosity
The porosity created through alteration of rock, commonly by processes such as dolomitization,
dissolution and fracturing.
sediment
The unconsolidated grains of minerals, organic matter or preexisting rocks, that can be transported
by water, ice or wind, and deposited. The processes by which sediment forms and is transported occur at
or near the surface of the Earth and at relatively low pressures and temperatures. Sedimentary rocks
form from the accumulation and lithification of sediment. Sediments are classified according to size by
the Udden-Wentworth scale
sedimentary
One of the three main classes of rock (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary). Sedimentary rocks are
formed at the Earth's surface through deposition of sediments derived from weathered rocks, biogenic
activity orprecipitation from solution. Clastic sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones,
siltstones and shales form as older rocks weather and erode, and their particles accumulate and lithify,
or harden, as they are compacted and cemented. Biogenic sedimentary rocks form as a result of activity
by organisms, including coral reefs that become limestone. Precipitates, such as
the evaporite minerals halite (salt) and gypsum can form vast thicknesses ofrock as seawater
evaporates. Sedimentary rocks can include a wide variety of minerals,
but quartz, feldspar, calcite, dolomite and evaporite group and claygroup minerals are most common
because of their greater stability at the Earth's surface than many minerals that
comprise igneous and metamorphicrocks. Sedimentary rocks, unlike
most igneous and metamorphic rocks, can contain fossils because they form at temperatures and
pressures that do not obliterate fossil remnants.
sedimentary basin
A depression in the crust of the Earth formed by plate tectonic activity in which sediments accumulate.
Continued deposition can cause further depression or subsidence. Sedimentary basins, or simply basins,
vary from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. If rich hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with
appropriate depth and duration of burial, hydrocarbon generation can occur within thebasin.
sedimentation
The process of creation, transportation and deposition of sediments.
sequence
A group of relatively conformable strata that represents a cycle of deposition and is bounded by
unconformities or correlative conformities. Sequences are the fundamental unit of interpretation in
sequence stratigraphy. Sequences comprise systems tracts.
sequence boundary
A surface that separates older sequences from younger ones, commonly an unconformity (indicating
subaerial exposure), but in limited cases a correlative conformable surface. A sequence boundary is an
erosional surface that separates cycles of deposition.
sequence stratigraphy
A field of study in which basin-filling sedimentary deposits, called sequences, are interpreted in a
framework of eustasy, sedimentation and subsidencethrough time in order to correlate strata and
predict the stratigraphy of relatively unknown areas. Sequences tend to show cyclicity of changes in
relative sea level and widespread unconformities, processes of sedimentation and sources of
sediments, climate and tectonic activity over time. Sequencestratigraphic study promotes thorough
understanding of the evolution of basins, but also allows for interpretations of potential source rocks
andreservoir rocks in both frontier areas (having seismic data but little well data) and in more
mature hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir continuity is currently a key question in
mature hydrocarbon provinces where sequencestratigraphy is being applied.
The field originated during the 1960s with the study of the stratigraphy of the continental USA,
where numerous unconformities could be correlated widely, and led to the proposal that major
unconformities might mark synchronous global-scale events. Through sequence stratigraphy, widely-
separated sediments that occur between correlatable unconformities could be compared with each other.
Studies of outcrops and seismic lines bore out these concepts, which initially were called "Seismic
Stratigraphy" and first published widely in 1977. Further study of seismic lines led to
the interpretation of the geometry or architecture of seismic events as representing particular styles
ofsedimentation and depositional environments, and the integration of such interpretations with
well log and core data. Because of the simultaneous, competitive nature of the research, numerous oil
companies and academic groups use the terminology of sequence stratigraphy differently, and new
terms are added continually.
shale
A fine-grained, fissile, detrital sedimentary rock formed by consolidation of clay- and silt-sized particles
into thin, relatively impermeable layers. It is the most abundant sedimentary rock. Shale can include
relatively large amounts of organic material compared with other rock types and thus has potential to
become a rich hydrocarbon source rock, even though a typical shale contains just 1% organic matter.
Its typical fine grain size and lack of permeability, a consequence of the alignment of its platy or flaky
grains, allow shale to form a good cap rock for hydrocarbon traps.
shear strain
The amount of deformation by shearing, in which parallel lines slide past each other in differing amounts.
The measurement is expressed as the tangent of the change in angle between lines that were initially
perpendicular.
shelf
Continental shelf, or the area at the edges of a continent from the shoreline to a depth of 200 m [660 ft],
where the continental slope begins. The shelf is commonly a wide, flat area with a slight seaward slope.
The term is sometimes used as a for platform.
silica
[SiO2]A chemically resistant dioxide of silicon that occurs in crystalline (quartz), amorphous (opal) and
cryptocrystalline (chert) forms.
silicate mineral
A group of rock-forming minerals in which SiO4 tetrahedra combine with cations. Silicate minerals are the
most abundant type of mineral. Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, quartz and feldspar are types
ofsilicate minerals.
siliciclastic sediment
Silica-based, noncarbonaceous sediments that are broken from preexisting rocks, transported elsewhere,
and redeposited before forming another rock. Examples of common siliciclasticsedimentary rocks include
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and shale. Carbonate rocks can also be broken and reworked to form
other types of clastic sedimentary rocks.
similar fold
A type of fold in which the thickness of the layers remains constant when measured parallel to the axial
surface and the layers have the same waveshape, but the thickness along each layer varies. The folded
layers tend to be thicker in the hinge of the fold and thinner along the limbs of the fold.
sinistral
Pertaining to a strike-slip or left-lateral fault in which the block across the faultmoves to the left; also
called a sinistral strike-slip fault. If it moves to the right, the relative motion is described as dextral.
Counterclockwise rotation or spiraling is also described as sinistral.
smectite
[(1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4(Si,Al)8O20(OH)47nH2O)] A group of clay minerals that

includes montmorillonite. This type of mineraltends to swell when exposed to
water. Bentonite includes minerals of the smectite group.
soft rock
A general term for sedimentary rocks, although it can imply a distinction between rocks of interest to
thepetroleum industry and rocks of interest to the mining industry.
sorting
The range of sedimentary grain sizes that occurs in sediment or sedimentaryrock. The term also refers
to the process by which sediments of similar size are naturally segregated during transport and
deposition according to thevelocity and transporting medium. Well-sorted sediments are of similar size
(such as desert sand), while poorly-sorted sediments have a wide range of grain sizes (as in
a glacial till). A well-sorted sandstone tends to have greaterporosity than a poorly
sorted sandstone because of the lack of grains small enough to fill its pores. Conglomerates tend to be
poorly sorted rocks, with particles ranging from boulder size to clay size.
sour
Contaminated with sulfur or sulfur compounds, especially hydrogen sulfide. Crude oil and gas that are
sour typically have an odor of rotten eggs if the concentration of sulfur is low. At high concentrations, sulfur
is odorless and deadly.
source rock
A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Typical source rocks,
usually shales or limestones, contain about 1% organic matter and at least 0.5% total organic carbon
(TOC), although a rich source rock might have as much as 10% organic matter. Rocks of marine origin
tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as coal) tend to be gas-
prone. Preservationof organic matter without degradation is critical to creating a good source rock, and
necessary for a complete petroleum system.
specific gravity
The dimensionless ratio of the weight of a material to that of the same volume of water. Most common
minerals have specific gravities between 2 and 7.
spill point
The structurally lowest point in a hydrocarbon trap that can retain hydrocarbons. Once a trap has been
filled to its spill point, further storage or retention of hydrocarbons will not occur for lack
of reservoir space within thattrap. The hydrocarbons spill or leak out, and they continue to migrate until
they are trapped elsewhere.
strain
The permanent deformation evident in rocks and other solid bodies that have experienced a sufficiently
high applied stress. A change in shape, such as folding, faulting, fracturing, or change, generally a
reduction, in volume are common examples of strain seen in rocks. Strain can be described in terms
ofnormal and shear components, and is the ratio of the change in length or volume to the initial length or
volume.
stratigraphic trap
A variety of sealed geologic container capable of retaining hydrocarbons, formed by changes

in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or sedimentaryfeatures such as reefs. Structural traps, in
contrast, consist of geologicstructures in deformed strata such as faults and folds whose geometries
permit retention of hydrocarbons.
stratigraphy
The study of the history, composition, relative ages and distribution of strata, and
the interpretation ofstrata to elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or correlation, of
separated strata can include study of their lithology, fossil content, and relative or absolute age,
or lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, andchronostratigraphy.
stratum

Layers of sedimentary rock that form beds.
stress
The force applied to a body that can result in deformation, or strain, usually described in terms of
magnitude per unit of area, or intensity.
strike
The azimuth of the intersection of a plane, such as a dipping bed, with a horizontal surface.
strike-slip fault
A type of fault whose surface is typically vertical or nearly so. The motion along a strike-slip fault is
parallel to the strike of the fault surface, and the fault blocks move sideways past each other. A strike-
slip fault in which the block across the fault moves to the right is described as a dextral strike-slip fault.
If it moves left, the relative motion is described as sinistral. Local deformation near bends in strike-slip
faults can produce pull-apart basins and grabens. Flower structures are another by-product of strike-slip
faults. A wrench fault is a type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is nearly vertical.
structural trap
A variety of sealed geologic structure capable of retaining hydrocarbons, such as a fault or a fold.
Stratigraphic traps form where changes in rock type can retain hydrocarbons.
structure
A geological feature produced by deformation of the Earth's crust, such as a fold or a fault; a feature
within a rock, such as a fracture or bedding surface; or, more generally, the spatial arrangement of rocks.
structure map
A type of subsurface map whose contours represent the elevation of a

particular formation, reservoir or geologic marker in space, such that folds, faults and
other geologic structures are clearly displayed. Its appearance is similar to that of a topographic map,
but a topographic map displays elevations of the Earth's surface and a structure map displays the
elevation of a particular rock layer, generally beneath the surface.
stylolite
Wave-like or tooth-like, serrated, interlocking surfaces most commonly seen incarbonate and quartz-rich
rocks that contain concentrated insoluble residue such as clay minerals and iron oxides. Stylolites are
thought to form bypressure solution, a dissolution process that reduces pore space
underpressure during diagenesis.
subduction
A plate tectonic process in which one lithospheric plate descends beneath another into
the asthenosphere during a collision at a convergent plate margin. Because of the relatively
higher density of oceanic lithosphere, it will typically descend beneath the lighter
continental lithosphere during a collision. In a collision of plates of continental lithosphere,
the density of the two plates is so similar that neither tends to be subducted and mountains form. As a
subducted plate descends into the asthenosphere, Earthquakes can occur, especially in the Wadati-
Benioff zone, but, if the plate descends deeply into themantle, it will eventually be heated to the point of
melting. Volcanoes can form above a descending plate.
subsalt
An exploration and production play type in which prospects exist below salt layers. Until relatively
recently, many explorationists did not seek prospects below salt because seismic data had been of poor
quality below salt (i.e., it was not possible to map traps accurately) or because they believed that
reservoir-quality rock or hydrocarbons did not exist below salt layers. Advances in seismic processingand
compelling drilling results from exploration wells encouraged companies to generate and drill prospects
below salt layers, salt sheets and other previously disregarded potential traps. The offshore Gulf of Mexico
contains numerous subsalt-producing fields, and similar areas are being explored internationally.
subsidence
The relative sinking of the Earth's surface. Plate tectonic activity (particularly extension of the crust,
which promotes thinning and sinking), sedimentloading and removal of fluid from reservoirs are
processes by which the crustcan be depressed. Subsidence can produce areas in which sediments
accumulate and, ultimately, form sedimentary basins.
superposition
The stratigraphic principle that, in the case of undeformed, flat-lying strata, younger layers are deposited
atop older ones, such that the top layer is youngest and underlying layers increase in age with depth.
Nicolaus Steno articulated the law of superposition of strata in the 17th century.
swamp
A wetland depositional environment in which water is present either permanently or intermittently and in
which trees and large woody plants can grow but peat does not form. Swamps can contain considerable
quantities of organic matter.
sweet
Pertaining to crude oil or natural gas lacking appreciable amounts of sulfur or sulfur compounds.
syncline
Basin- or trough-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers are downwardly convex. The
youngest rock layers form the core of the fold and outward from the core progressively older rocks
occur. Synclines typically do not traphydrocarbons because fluids tend to leak up the limbs of the fold.
An anticlineis the opposite type of fold, having upwardly-convex layers with old rocks in thecore.
synthetic fault
A type of minor fault whose sense of displacement is similar to its associated major fault. Antithetic-
synthetic fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.
systems tract
Subdivisions of sequences that consist of discrete depositional units that differ in geometry from other
systems tracts and have distinct boundaries on seismic data. Different systems tracts are considered to
represent different phases of eustatic changes. A lowstand systems tract develops during times of
relatively low sea level; a highstand systems tract at times of high sea level; and a transgressivesystems
tract at times of changing sea level.
tectonic environment
Location relative to the boundary of a tectonic plate, particularly a boundary along which plate tectonic
activity is occurring or has occurred.
tectonics

Synonyms: plate tectonics
tectonism
Plate tectonic activity.
temperature gradient
See: geothermal gradient, thermal gradient
terrestrial
Pertaining to sediments or depositional environments on land or above the level of high tide.
thermal gradient
The rate of increase in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the thermal gradient varies from
place to place, it averages 25 to 30 oC/km [15 oF/1000 ft].
thrust fault
A type of reverse fault in which the fault plane has a very shallow dip, typically much less than 45o. The
hanging wall fault block moves up the fault surface relative to the footwall. In cases of
considerablelateral movement, the fault is described as an overthrust fault. Thrust faults can occur in
areas of compression of the Earth's crust.
tight
Describing a relatively impermeable reservoir rock from which hydrocarbon production is

difficult.Stimulation of tight formations can result in increased production from formations that previously
would have been abandoned or produced uneconomically.
topographic map
A contour map that displays the elevation of the Earth's surface. A topographic map is commonly used as
the base map for surface geological mapping.
transform fault
A particular type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of an oceanic tectonic plate. The actual movement of
a transform fault is opposite to its apparent displacement because of the interplay of spreading and
faulting between tectonic plates.
transgression
The migration of shoreline out of a basin and onto land during retrogradation. A transgression can result
in sediments characteristic of shallow water being overlain by deeper water sediments.
transpression
The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and compression, or convergence, of the Earth'scrust.
In areas of transpression, rocks can be faulted upward to form a positive flower structure. Areas of strike-
slip faulting in rifting or diverging crust are experiencing transtension, in which rocks can drop down to
form a negative flower structure.
transtension
The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and extension, rifting, or divergence of the
Earth'scrust. In areas of transtension, rocks can be faulted downward to form a negative flower structure.
Areas of strike-slip faulting in converging crust are experiencing transpression, in which rocks can be
faulted upwards to form a positive flower structure.
trap
A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by a

relatively impermeable formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate. Traps are described
as structural traps (in deformed strata such as folds and faults) or stratigraphic traps (in areas
where rock types change, such as unconformities, pinch-outs and reefs). A trap is an essential
component of apetroleum system.
trend
The azimuth or orientation of a linear feature, such as the axis of a fold, normally expressed as a
compass bearing.
true stratigraphic thickness

The thickness of a bed or rock body after correcting for the dip of the bed or body and the deviation of
the well that penetrates it. The values of true stratigraphic thickness in an area can be plotted and
contours drawn to create an isopach map.
true vertical thickness
The thickness of a bed or rock body measured vertically at a point. The values of true vertical thickness
in an area can be plotted and contours drawn to create an isochore map.
tuff
Lithified volcanic ash.
turbidite
Sedimentary deposits formed by turbidity currents in deep water at the base of the continental slope and
on the abyssal plain. Turbidites commonly showpredictable changes in bedding from coarse layers at
the bottom to finer laminations at the top, known as Bouma sequences, that result from different settling
velocities of the particle sizes present. The high energy associated with turbidite deposition can result in
destruction of earlier deposited layers by subsequent turbidity currents.
turbidity current
An influx of rapidly moving, sediment-laden water down a slope into a larger body of water; also called
adensity current because the suspended sediment results in the current having a higher density than the
clearer water into which it flows. Such currents can occur in lakes and oceans, in some cases as by-
products of earthquakes or mass movements such as slumps. The sedimentary deposits that form as the
current loses energy are called turbidites and can be preserved as Bouma sequences. Turbidity currents
are characteristic of trench slopes of convergent plate margins and continental slopes of passive margins.
Udden-Wentworth scale
A grade scale for classifying the diameters of sediments. Particles larger than 64 mm in diameter are
classified as cobbles. Smaller particles are pebbles, granules, sand and silt. Those smaller than 0.0039
mm are clay. Several other grain size scales are in use, but the Udden-Wentworth scale (commonly
called the Wentworth scale) is the one that is most frequently used in geology.
unconformity
A geological surface separating older from younger rocks and representing a gap in
the geologic record. Such a surface might result from a hiatus in deposition of sediments, possibly in
combination with erosion, or deformation such as faulting. An angular unconformity separates
younger strata from eroded, dipping older strata. A disconformity represents a time of nondeposition,
possibly combined with erosion, and can be difficult to distinguish within a series of parallel strata.
A nonconformity separates overlying strata from eroded, older igneous or metamorphic rocks. The
study and interpretation of unconformities locally, regionally and globally is the basis
of sequence stratigraphy.
unconformity trap
A type of hydrocarbon trap whose closure is controlled by the presence of an unconformity. There is
disagreement about whether unconformity traps are structural or stratigraphic traps.
underpressure
Pore pressure less than normal or hydrostatic pressure. Underpressure, or azone of underpressure, is
common in areas or formations that have hadhydrocarbon production.
uniformitarianism
The geological principle formulated by James Hutton in 1795 and publicized by Charles Lyell in 1830
that geological processes occurring today have occurred similarly in the past, often articulated as, "The
present is the key to the past."
Universal Transverse Mercator grid (UTM)
A worldwide grid system of rectangular map coordinates that uses metric (SI) units. A location is specified
on the basis of its location within one of 60 zones worldwide of 6o of longitude and 8o of latitude each that
are subdivided into subzones that are 100,000 m [330,000 ft] on each side. Locations consist of a series of
numbers and letters that can be accurate to within an area of one square meter. The headquarters of
the Geological Society of America are at 13TDQ8743172 (Merrill, 1986). Information about the UTM grid,
including grid ticks on quadrangle maps, can be found on most maps produced by the
US Geological Survey. Latitude and longitude coordinates, or geographic coordinates, are another
means of locating a point at the Earth's surface, but the accuracy, computer compatibilityand uniqueness
of UTM have resulted in its finding acceptance within the scientific community.
updip
1. prep. [Geology] ID: 524
Located up the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a dipping (not flat-

lying)hydrocarbon reservoir that contains gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-
oil contact is downdip from the gas, and the oil-water contact is still fartherdowndip.
varve
A rhythmic sequence of sediments deposited in annual cycles in glacial lakes. Light-

colored, coarse summer grains are deposited by rapid melting of theglacier. The summer layers grade
upward to layers of finer, dark winter grains of clay minerals or organic material that are deposited slowly
from suspension in quiet water while streams and lakes are icebound. Varves are useful to the study
of geochronology because they can be counted to determine the absolute age of some Pleistocene
rocks of glacial origin.
vesicle
Bubble-shaped cavities in volcanic rock formed by expansion of gas dissolved in the precursor magma.
vesicular porosity
A type of porosity resulting from the presence of vesicles, or gas bubbles, in igneous rock.
virgin pressure
The original, undisturbed pressure of a reservoir prior to fluid production.
vitrinite
A type of woody kerogen that is relatively uniform in composition. Since vitrinite changes predictably and
consistently upon heating, its reflectance is a useful measurement of source rock maturity. Strictly
speaking, the plant material that forms vitrinite did not occur prior to Ordovician time. Also, because
vitrinite originated in wood, its occurrence in marine rocks might be limited by the depositional processes
that act in a given depositional environment.
vitrinite reflectance
A measurement of the maturity of organic matter with respect to whether it has generated hydrocarbons
or could be an effective source rock. The reflectivity of at least 30 individual grains of vitrinite from
a rocksample is measured under a microscope. The measurement is given in units of reflectance, % R o,
with typical values ranging from 0% R o to 3% Ro. Strictly speaking, the plant material that
forms vitrinite did not occur prior to Ordovician time, although geochemists have established a scale of
equivalent vitrinitereflectance for rocks older than Ordovician.
volcano
A surface feature of the Earth that allows magma, ash and gas to erupt. The vent can be a fissure or a
conical structure.
vug
A cavity, void or large pore in a rock that is commonly lined with mineralprecipitates.
Vuggy
Alternate Form: vug
vugular porosity
Pore space consisting of cavities or vugs. Vugular porosity can occur in rocks prone to dissolution,
such as limestone, in which case it is secondaryporosity.
Wadati-Benioff zone
A zone of the upper mantle in which earthquakes occur when a lithospheric plate is subducted, named in
honor of seismologists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff. The dip of the Wadati-Benioff zone coincides with
the dip of the subducting plate. The Wadati-Benioff zone extends to a depth of about 700 km [435 miles]
from the Earth's surface.
weathered layer
A near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of the
weathered layercommonly coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The
weathered layertypically has air-filled pores.
weathering
The physical, chemical and biological processes that decompose rock at and below the surface of the
Earth through low pressures and temperatures and the presence of air and water. Weathering includes
processes such as dissolution, chemical weathering, disintegration and hydration.
Wentworth scale
See: Udden-Wentworth scale
wet gas
Natural gas that contains less methane (typically less than 85% methane) and more ethane and other
more complex hydrocarbons.
wrench fault
A type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is vertical, and the fault blocks move sideways past
each other. Given the geological complexity of some deformed rocks, including rocks that have
experienced more than one episode of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish a wrench fault from a
strike-slip fault. Also, areas can be deformed more than once or experience ongoing structuring such
that fault surfaces can be rotated from their original orientations.
yield point
Synonyms: elastic limit
zonal
Alternate Form: zone
zone
An interval or unit of rock differentiated from surrounding rocks on the basis of its fossil content or other
features, such as faults or fractures. For example, a fracture zone contains numerous fractures.
Abiostratigraphic zone contains a particular fossil or fossils.

N. (Geology) : Abnormal Pressure

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abnormal pressure

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 6

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 17

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 18

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 19

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 21

The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is lacking or absent.

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 29

Anaerobic. The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is lacking or absent.

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 38

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 39

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 44

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 46

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 54

1. n. [Geology] ID: 538

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 59

A material composed of clay minerals, predominantly montmorillonite with minor amounts of

Naturally-occurring, inflammable organic matter formed from kerogen in the process

A characteristic sequence of sedimentary structures occurring in sedimentaryrocks deposited in areas

Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than typical seawater.

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 73

A group of minerals found mostly in limestone and dolostone that includes

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 76

The binding material in sedimentary rocks that precipitates between grains

Fine-grained sediments less than 0.0039 mm in size.

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 91

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 97

1. n. [Geology] ID: 100

1. n. [Geology] ID: 101

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 102

1. n. [Geology] ID: 105

1. adj. [Geology] ID: 106

1. n. [Geology] ID: 108

See: fluid contact

1. n. [Geology] ID: 110

1. n. [Geology] ID: 111

1. n. [Geology] ID: 113

1. n. [Geology] ID: 115

1. n. [Geology] ID: 116

1. vt. [Geology] ID: 120

2. vb. [Drilling] ID: 1314

2. n. [Geology] ID: 119

1. vt. [Geology] ID: 121

1. n. [Geology] ID: 123

The highest point of a wave, mountain or geologic structure.

1. n. [Geology] ID: 125

1. n. [Geology] ID: 127

1. n. [Geology] ID: 129

A general term for unrefined petroleum or liquid petroleum.

1. n. [Geology] ID: 130

1. n. [Geology] ID: 131

1. n. [Geology] ID: 132

1. n. [Geology] ID: 133

1. n. [Geology] ID: 134

1. n. [Geology] ID: 137

(drilling mud) in the oil field.

1. n. [Geology] ID: 138

See: turbidity current

1. n. [Geology] ID: 139

The area of thickest deposition in a basin.

1. n. [Geology] ID: 140

1. n. [Geology] ID: 142

1. n. [Geology] ID: 143