Chapter 0.

Procedures

0.1 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the

International System of Units (SI)

0.1.1 Atmosphere
The atmospheric characteristics such as the temperature, pressure, density,
airspeed and humidity, actually vary in a more or less apparently random
manner according to dierent scales of time and space.

For aerospace applications, it is systematic to describe the statistics of these

variations based on available meteorological data according to the altitude,
longitude (E-W) and latitude (N-S). These statistics have been gathered along
many years.

On the other hand, from an operating point of view, it is necessary to forecast

the short term evolution of the atmosphere in the region in which one is go-
ing to y. The meteorology is always a relevant factor for the Flight Safety.
Despite all the progress made, when it is adverse, it is NOT an issue of minor
importance.

In almost all the atmosphere models as the " International Standard Atmo-
sphere " (ISA), the "International Tropical Reference Atmosphere " (ITRA) or
the temperature distribution is specied in terms of segments of
others,
a dened and xed variation of the temperature with the altitude
among dierent values.

Reasonably rounded numbers are chosen, and it is not desirable to keep modi-
fying them according to more complete statistics gathered later. In turn, some
values that are maybe less adequate remain unaltered due to historical reasons.

In the specic literature one may nd many atmosphere models, although they
do not dier much from each other below the 30 km of altitude.

∂T (z)
Once the Gradient of the Temperature with the altitude = β
∂z
has been dened for each segment or layer of the atmosphere, this value will
be considered as constant and will allow to deduce the pressure and density.
These deductions are based on the assumption that the air behaves as an ideal
gas, also accepting that the aerostatic equation may be used:

p
= Rg,air T (0.1)
ρ
dp = −ρ g dz (0.2)

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 0.1 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the International System of Units (SI)

This is how closed mathematical models can be obtained. This is of great

comfort to study and compare the behavior of the aircraft.

Important: A mathematical model of the atmosphere does not pur-

sue the faithful representation of reality (impossible thing), but an
apt tool to establish comparisons among dierent aircraft, taking
fundamental physical principles into account.
Once the value of the temperature gradient with the altitude (β ) is assumed
(which, we repeat, is assumed to be constant for each layer of the atmosphere),
the equations to obtain the temperature, pressure and density (assuming g as
a constant) may be generically written as follows.

• For z < 11 000 m (TROPOSPHERE) (βT < 0)

βT
 
dT = βT dz ⇒ T = T0 1 + z (0.3)
T0
g
−
dp g dz βT
   
Rg,air βT
=− ⇒ p = p0 1 + z (0.4)
p Rg,air T T0
 
g
− +1

dρ g dz βT
   
Rg,air βT

=− + βT ⇒ ρ = ρ0 1 + z
ρ Rg,air T T0
(0.5)

• For 11 000 m < z < 20 000 m (1st LAYER OF THE STRATOSPHERE)

(βS = 0)

dT = βS dz ⇒ T = T11 km (0.6)
 
g
− (z−11000)
 
dp g
 
Rg,air T11 km
=− dz ⇒ p = p11 km e
p Rg,air T11 km
(0.7)
 
g
− (z−11000)
 
dρ g
 
Rg,air T11 km
=− dz ⇒ ρ = ρ11 km e
ρ Rg,air T11 km
(0.8)

21
Chapter 0. Procedures

The values of β that we will use are:

βT = −6.5 × 10−3 K/m (Troposphere)

βS = 0 K/m (Stratosphere)

0.1.2 International Standard Atmosphere (I.S.A.). Denitions

For the dierent thermodynamic variables:

µ  2 −1 
ν= = Kinematic Viscosity L T (0.9)
ρ
ρ(z)
σ(z) = = Relative Density (ρ0 = ρSL ) (0.10)
ρ0
p(z)
δ(z) = = Relative Pressure (p0 = pSL ) (0.11)
p0
T (z)
θ(z) = = Relative Temperature (T0 = TSL ) (0.12)
T0

Standard Conditions at sea level (S.L.): (I.S.A. Atmosphere)

g0 = 9.8067 m/s2 (at 45◦ North latitude)

2
p0 = 101 325.0 N/m
ρ0 = 1.225 kg/m3
T0 = 288.15 K ⇒ t0 = 15 ◦C
a0 = 340.294 m/s
ν0 = 1.4607 × 10−5 m2 /s
µ0 = 1.789 41 × 10−5 kg/ms

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 0.1 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the International System of Units (SI)

0.1.3 Mathematical Numerical Model of the Standard Atmosphere

• For z < 11 000 m (TROPOSPHERE):

T (z)
θ(z)z<11 000 m = = 1 − 22.57 · 10−6 z (0.13)
T0
p(z)
5.256
δ(z)z<11 000 m = = 1 − 22.57 · 10−6 z (0.14)
p0
ρ(z)
4.256
σ(z)z<11 000 m = = 1 − 22.57 · 10−6 z (0.15)
ρ0

• For 11 000 m < z < 20 000 m (1st LAYER OF THE STRATOSPHERE)

T (z)
θ(z)11 000 m<z<20 000 m = = 0.751 = Const. (0.16)
T0
p(z)
= 0.223e−0.15788( 1000 −11)
z
δ(z)11 000 m<z<20 000 m = (0.17)
p0
ρ(z)
= 0.296e−0.15788( 1000 −11)
z
σ(z)11 000 m<z<20 000 m = (0.18)
ρ0

This model is also depicted in Figures 0.1 and 0.2.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION:
• According to the I.S.A. atmosphere there is a biunivocal relationship
among δ(z), σ(z) and the altitude z . This means that it is completely
equivalent to work with the variable z or with the variables δ(z) and σ(z).
• NOTE: The variable corresponding to the relative temperature does not
accomplish this condition for the rst layer of the Stratosphere.

• This observation may be useful to solve a certain kind of problems.

0.1.4 Alternative Models

The model we just described makes it dicult to obtain some closed analytical
results in the calculations of the aircraft performance. For many preliminary
studies it is practical and sucient to approximate the relative density by
means of an exponential mathematical law.

23
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.1: Temperature, pressure and density evolution with the altitude according to the
ISA model.

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 0.1 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the International System of Units (SI)

25

Figure 0.2: Evolution of the relevant variables with the altitude according to the ISA
model.
Chapter 0. Procedures

Academically, there is a relatively abundant oer. We will mention some of

the most used ones:

1. Miele uses the following relation:

z
σ(z) = e− β with β = 7254.24 m for 0 < z < 76.2 km (0.19)
z
− 7254.24
σ(z) = e for 0 < z < 76.2 km

2. Hale uses the following one, in 2 segments:

z
σ(z) = e− β with β = 9296 m for 0 < z < 11 km (0.20)
z
− 9296
σ(z) = e for 0 < z < 11 km
z
−β
σ(z) = e with β = 7254 m for 11 km < z < 76 km (0.21)
z
− 7254
σ(z) = e for 11 km < z < 76 km

3. Ojha uses the following one, in 2 segments:

z−z ∗
σ(z) = εe−( β ) with β = 9296 m z ∗ = 0 ε = 1 for 0 < z < 11 000 m
(0.22)
z
− 9296
σ(z) = e for 0 < z < 11 000 m
z−z ∗
σ(z) = εe−( β ) with β = 6216 m z ∗ = 11000 ε = 0.3063 for z > 11 000 m
(0.23)

σ(z) = 0.3063e−( )
z−11000
6216 for z > 11 000 m

We will use the most interesting model for each specic case. It is important
to remember that we may obtain the complete model from θ(z), according to
the following expressions:

T (z) = T0 θ(z) (0.24)

5.256
p(z) = p0 θ(z) (0.25)
4.256
ρ(z) = ρ0 θ(z) (0.26)

The exponential models are usually mathematically handy. Only with an il-
lustrating purpose, please observe from Figure 0.3 that the ISA is just one out
of the possible models.

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 0.1 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the International System of Units (SI)

Figure 0.3: Evolution of the temperature with the altitude according to dierent atmo-
sphere models.

27
Chapter 0. Procedures

Annex: International System of Units (SI)

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION: The units commonly used in aviation
and in many texts and reference documentation do not correspond with the
International System ones.

They use to be:

• For the speed, the knot.

• For the horizontal distance, the nautical mile (NM).

• For the altitude, the foot (ft).

With the following conversion factors:

• 1 ft = 0.3048 m.
• 1 knot = 0.514 m/s (one NM per hour).

• 1 Nautical Mile = 1853.2 m (watch out: it is NOT an ESTATUTE MILE).

2
For the inertia: 1 slug ft ≈ 1.3558 kg m2

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0.1 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and the International System of Units (SI)

Figure 0.4: SI system.

29
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.5: Some SI conversion factors.

30