0.

4 Biplane Aircraft

Figure 0.31: Terminology used for the biplanes.

0.4 Biplane Aircraft

Note about the aerodynamic study of a biplane aircraft. Calculation
of the equivalent monoplane12
The purpose of this section is to facilitate the aerodynamic study of a biplane,
for its eventual application
13 in Flight Mechanics. The equivalences that al-

low their study as a monoplane are here provided. The nomenclature will be
adapted to Figure 0.31.

12 Ref. "Theory of Flight ", R. von Mises; "Theoretical Aerodynamics ", Milne-Thomson; " Funda-
mentos del Ala y de la Hélice ", Hermann Glauert.
13 It will not be frequent, but it is convenient for you to be able to do it, if you want to. Biplane
aircraft are still being designed and manufactured.

67
Chapter 0. Procedures

The calculation of the Monoplane that is equivalent to a given Biplane starts

with the 2D analysis of the behavior of two innitely long wings, basically
placed one above each other. The two wings generate mutual interferences.
For this reason, the lift and the induced drag of both of them will be inu-
enced, taking dierent values than the ones they would have if both wings were
completely isolated.

0.4.1 Lift of a Biplane

We will assume that the wing lift does not dier much from the elliptical one,
in order to simplify the calculations.

The characteristic parameters of each of the wings taken independently are:

wingspan (b1 , b2 ), surface (S1 ,S2 ), mean aerodynamic chord (c1 ,c2 ), etc. and
are distinguished by the corresponding subscript (1 or 2), according to Fig-
ure 0.31.

The lift of each of the wings (accounting for their closeness) ( in 2D) is given
by Equation 0.73.

L1,2D = 2π ρ V K1
L2,2D = 2π ρ V K2 (0.73)

And the values of the constants K1 and K2 (which, as you may see, are the
"circulation" in each of them) are given by Equation 0.74.

α (1 − µ2 ) + δ
 
K1 = c1 V
2 (1 − µ1 µ2 )
α (1 − µ1 ) − δ µ1
 
K2 = c2 V (0.74)
2 (1 − µ1 µ2 )

68
 0.4 Biplane Aircraft

where the values of µ1 and µ2 are given by Equation 0.75.

c1 + c2

c1 +s
4
µ1 = " 2 #
c1 + c2 c1 h δ

2
2 h + +s +
4 2
c1 + c2
 
c2 −s−δ
4
µ2 = " 2 # (0.75)
c + c c h δ

1 2 1
2 h2 + −s −
4 2

where the values of h gap "), s

(" (" stagger ") and δ decalage ")
(" are the ones
shown by the biplane wing geometry and α is the angle of attack measured
with respect to the chord of the lower wing, which we have called wing (2).

If they were separated, the lift of each wing could be expressed (in 2D) by
Equation 0.76.

1
L1,2D,f ree = ρ c1 V 2 (2π α)
2
1
L2,2D,f ree = ρ c2 V 2 (2π α) (0.76)
2

Hence, we may dene in Equation 0.77 a certain coecient or " performance "
of the lift that measures the relation among the real lift generated by each of
the wings of the biplane and the one the same wing would generate if it were
free.

Later it will be observed that these coecients are lower than the unity (there-
fore, the interference handicaps the lift of both wings).

2π ρ V K1 2 K1
η1,2D = 1 2
=
2
ρ c1 V (2π α) c1 V α
2π ρ V K2 2 K2
η2,2D = 1 2
= (0.77)
2
ρ c2 V (2π α) c2 V α

69
Chapter 0. Procedures

Equation 0.77 is equivalent to Equation 0.78.

δ
2π ρ V K1 2 K1 (1 − µ2 ) +
η1,2D = 1 = = α
2
ρ c1 V 2 (2π α) c1 V α 1 − µ 1 µ 2

δ
2π ρ V K2 2 K2 (1 − µ1 ) + µ1
η2,2D = 1 = = α (0.78)
2
ρ c2 V 2 (2π α) c2 V α 1 − µ 1 µ 2

If, as it happens frequently (or may be assumed...), δ ≈ 0, the expressions are

simplied as shown in Equation 0.79.

1 − µ2
η1,2D,δ=0 =
1 − µ1 µ2
1 − µ1
η2,2D,δ=0 = (0.79)
1 − µ1 µ2

with:

c1 + c2 c1 + c2
   
c1 +s c2 −s
4 4
µ1 = " 2 # µ2 = " 2 #
c + c c + c
 
1 2 1 2
2 h2 + +s 2 h2 + −s
4 4

Hypothesis: in order to get to the 3D treatment, we now make the assump-

tion that the performances obtained in 2D keep being of application
in 3D , modifying the lift coecients properly by taking into account the nite
aspect ratio of each wing.

1
L1,3D,f ree = ρ S1 V 2 (CLα,1 α)
2
1
L2,3D,f ree = ρ S2 V 2 (CLα,2 α) (0.80)
2

For the wings in a biplane we then get Equation 0.81.

1
L1,3D,f ree = ρ S1 V 2 (η1,2D CLα,1 α)
2
1
L2,3D,f ree = ρ S2 V 2 (η2,2D CLα,2 α) (0.81)
2

70
 0.4 Biplane Aircraft

Quite often, the wings of a biplane are straight. In that case, we may apply
the classical Equation 0.82 for the wing lift curve slope.

2π AR1
CLα,1 = q
2 + 4 + AR21
2π AR2
CLα,2 = q (0.82)
2 + 4 + AR22

The total lift of the biplane may be computed in Equation 0.83 as the addition
of both wings.

1
LT OT AL = L1,3D + L2,3D = ρ V 2 α (η1,2D S1 CLα,1 + η2,2D S2 CLα,2 ) (0.83)
2

0.4.2 Airstream Deviation

The airstream deviation generated by the set shaped by the two wings of the
biplane ("downwash ") in the horizontal surface of the tail will be, approxi-
mately, the addition of the deviation generated by each of them, including the
biplane eect.

With the usual simplication, we get Equation 0.84.

∂ε 16 CLα,1 CLα,2
   
≈ − 3 η1,2D + η2,2D (0.84)
∂α 1+2 π AR1 AR2

0.4.3 Drag Induced by a Biplane

Similarly to what happened with the lift, in which the mutual interferences
among the wings generated a lift loss, we will now see that these interferences
generate an increase in the induced drag.

The induced drag of each of the two isolated wings, for which we have assumed
an elliptical lift distribution (thus, e1 = e2 = 1) are given by Equation 0.85.

2 2
2 L21 (η1,2D CLα,1 α) 1 (η1,2D CL1 )
D1 = 2 2
= = ρ S1 V 2
π ρ V b1 π AR1 2 π AR1
2 2
2 L22 (η2,2D CLα,2 α) 1 (η2,2D CL2 )
D2 = 2 2
= = ρ S2 V 2 (0.85)
π ρ V b2 π AR2 2 π AR2

71
Chapter 0. Procedures

The red color highlights the induced drag coecient of each of the two wings.

Now we need to add the induced drag generated by the interferences. We will
not develop the demonstration here: it may be found in the references shown
at the beginning of this section.

The mathematical expression of this increase is given by Equation 0.86.

2 L1 L2 2 L1 L2
D12 = σ D21 = σ
π ρ V 2 b1 b2 π ρ V 2 b1 b2

4 L1 L2
D1+2 = D12 + D21 = = ...
π ρ V 2 b1 b2
s
S2 S1
· · · = ρ V 2 (η1,2D CL1 ) (η2,2D CL2 ) σ
π AR2 π AR1

ρ V 2 S1 S2 (η1,2D CL1 ) (η2,2D CL2 ) σ

D1+2 = = ...
π b1 b2
2 S1 S2
 
1
··· = ρV 2 (η1,2D CL1 ) (η2,2D CL2 ) σ (0.86)
2 π b1 b2

Summarizing all what has been stated in Equation 0.87:

2 2
1 (η1,2D CL1 ) 1 (η2,2D CL2 )
DT otal = ρ S1 V 2 + ρ S2 V 2 + ...
2 π AR1 2 π AR2
2 S1 S2
 
1
··· + ρV 2 (η1,2D CL1 ) (η2,2D CL2 ) σ
2 π b1 b2
" ! #
2
1 2 S1 S22 S1 S2
DT otal = ρV 2
(η1,2D CL1 )2 + 2 (η2,2D CL2 )2 + 2 (η1,2D CL1 ) (η2, 2D CL2 ) σ
2π b1 b2 b1 b2
(0.87)

We still need to determine the Interference Coecient σ. This value requires

to carry out a wired numerical integration.

We will express it in a simpler manner, as a function of some parameters of

the biplane geometry, through Figure 0.32.

72
 0.4 Biplane Aircraft

Figure 0.32: Values for the biplane interference factor as a function of the geometry.

73
Chapter 0. Procedures

Summarizing and simplifying the nomenclature where there is no ambiguity,

we reach Equations 0.88 to 0.90.

1
LT otal ≈ ρ V 2 (η1 S1 CLα,1 + η2 S2 CLα,2 ) α (0.88)
2 " ! ! #
1 S1 S2 S1 S2
DT otal = η1 CLα,1 + η2 CLα,2 + 2 η1 CLα,1 η2 CLα,2 σ α2 (0.89)
2π b1 b2 b1 b2
! " ! !#
∂ε 16 CLα,1 CLα,2
≈ − 3 η1 + η2 (0.90)
∂α π AR1 AR2
T otal

0.4.4 Example of the calculation of an equivalent monoplane

In order to particularize what has been explained, we will study a model of
biplane. We choose the Fokker D-VII aircraft, shown in Figure 0.33. It is a
German biplane aircraft from the First World War. We will determine its total
lift, induced drag and the airstream deviation.

Geometrical data14
b1 = 8.93 m b2 = 7.38 m
c1 = 1.69 m c2 = 1.26 m
S1 = 15.09 m2 S2 = 9.30 m2
AR1 = 5.28 AR2 = 5.85
e1 = 1 e2 = 1
CD0 = 0.0404 (Sw = S1 + S2 )
Gap = h = 1.61 m

Stagger = s = 0.562 m

Decalage = δ = 0

2πAR1 2πAR2
CLα,1 = q = 4.34 CLα,2 = q = 4.49
2 + 4 + AR21 2 + 4 + AR22
14 Cfr. NASA SP 468.

74
 0.4 Biplane Aircraft

Figure 0.33: Fokker D-VII 3-view drawings.

75
Chapter 0. Procedures

With these values, we calculate the complementary parameters:

µ1 = 0.2562
µ2 = 0.0421
K1 = 0.8182V α
K2 = 0.4735V α

The lift force of the wing 1 and the wing 2, joined in a biplane (in
2D) would be:
L1,2D = 5.141 ρ α V 2
L2,2D = 2.975 ρ α V 2
LT OT AL,2D = L1,2D + L2,2D = 8.116 ρ α V 2
LT OT AL,2D
CLT OT AL,2D = 1 = 5.502 α
2
ρ (c1 + c2 ) V 2

The lift force of the wing 1 and the wing 2 (in 2D), separated, without
shaping a biplane, would be:
L1,2D = 5.309 ρ α V 2
L2,2D = 3.958 ρ α V 2
LT OT AL,2D,Sep = L1,2D,Sep + L2,2D,Sep = 9.267 ρ α V 2
LT OT AL,2D,Sep
CLT OT AL,2D,Sep = 1 = 6.283α
2
ρ (c1 + c2 ) V 2

From the previous reasoning, the lift `performances' may be deduced

for each wing:
L1,2D
η1 = = 0.968
L1,2D,Sep
L2,2D
η2 = = 0.751
L2,2D,Sep

Let us move now to the `calculation' of the performance in 3D

76
 0.4 Biplane Aircraft

• Separated wings:

1
L1,3D,Sep = ρ S1 V 2 CLα,1 α = 32.749 ρ V 2 α
2
1
L2,3D,Sep = ρ S2 V 2 CLα,2 α = 20.894 ρ V 2 α
2
L1,3D,Sep + L2,3D,Sep = 53.643 ρ V 2 α
L1,3D,Sep + L2,3D,Sep
CLT otal,3D,Sep = 1 = 4.398α
2
ρ (S1 + S2 ) V 2

• For the biplane in 3D:

1
L1,3D = (η1 ) ρ S1 V 2 CLα,1 α = 31.711 ρ V 2 α
2
1
L2,3D = (η2 ) ρ S2 V 2 CLα,2 α = 15.704 ρ V 2 α
2
L1,3D + L2,3D = 47.415 ρ V 2 α
L1,3D + L2,3D
CLT otal,3D = 1 = 3.888 α
2
ρ (S1 + S2 ) V 2

Calculation of the airstream deviation:

∂ε 16 CLα,1 CLα,2
   
≈ − 3 η1 + η2 ≈ −0.707
∂α biplane π AR1 AR2

Calculation of the Induced Drag:

2 2
1 (η1 CLα,1 α) 1 (η2 CLα,2 α)
Dinduced = ρ S1 V 2 + ρ S2 V 2 + ...
2 π AR1 e1 2 π AR2 e2
2 S1 S2
 
1
··· + ρV 2 (η1 CLα,1 α) (η2 CLα,2 α) σ
2 π b1 b2
Dinduced = 10.911 ρ V 2 α2 + 9.621 ρ V 2 α2 σ = 10.911 ρ V 2 α2 (1 + 0.88 σ)

The value of the interference coecient σ is obtained from Figure 0.32, from
the following values:

b2
µ= = 0.826
b1
2h
= 0.197
b1 + b2

77
Chapter 0. Procedures

We obtain the value of σ by interpolation, as we will usually have to do:

σ ≈ 0.47

The value of the Total Induced Drag is:

Dinduced = 10.911 ρ V 2 α2 [1 + 0.88 (0.47)] = 15.433 ρ V 2 α2

Dinduced
CDi = 1 = 1.265 α2
2
ρ (S1 + S2 ) V 2

The complete Polar, referred to the total wing surface, will be:
CD = CD0 + CDi = 0.0404 + 1.265 α2

If we wish to express it as a function of CL, we may write:

CL
CLT otal,3D = CL = 3.888 α ⇒ α =
3.888
2
CL

CD = 0.0404 + 1.265 α2 ⇒ CD = 0.0404 + 1.265 = 0.0404 + 0.084 CL2
3.888

This last expression is the Polar of the Biplane that we were looking for.
The calculation of the parasitic drag coecient (CD i ) of a biplane is not
essentially dierent than that of a monoplane. (A relevant particularity of
these devices, especially if they are ancient, is usually the drag generated by
the dierent wires or struts that sti the wing structure, which is not negligible
and must be taken into account).

Complementary data of the Fokker D VII

∗
Engine : BMW III A ⇒ 185 hp ≈ 138 kW
∗
Engine : Mercedes ⇒ 160 hp ≈ 120 kW
Wmax = 9408 N
W... = 6566 N
Vmax,SL = 62.89 m/s
Vstall = 27.43 m/s
EAmax = 8.1

where
∗
stands for without turbocharger.

78