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as Speed is Increased
Abstract
The aerodynamic effects occurring in a tunnel as a train moves into or through
it are totally different from those observed in the open air and their amplitude
and severity grow as the train speed is increased. The flow in the whole tunnel
needs to be considered in the same time as the flow in the vicinity of the vehi-
cle. Aerodynamic forces, pressure waves and acoustics have a strong impact on
safety and comfort issues.
When a train enters into a tunnel, a compression wave is generated, propa-
gates through the tunnel and is reflected at the tunnel extremity. During the
reflection process a part of the wave is transmitted outside the tunnel in the
form of a micro-pressure wave, which may generate a “sonic boom” problem,
depending on the shape of the incident wave, in particular the gradient of the
wavefront. The shape of the wave changes as it propagates through the tunnel
under the influence of the unsteady viscous effects (in particular skin friction
at the tunnel wall), the non-linear effects and the presence of material and
components in the tunnel (for example, ballast or niches). Measurements of
the skin friction behind a pressure wave are presented.
Introduction
The development of improved transportation systems is highly desirable and is
corroborated by the necessity to satisfy long-term sustainable objectives, in
particular more environmental responsibility [2]. In this context, solutions
need to be found to lower the energy consumption, the emission of pollutants
and the environmental impacts. This effort is characterized by both the im-
provement of existing ground transportation systems (with new generations of
railway systems, for example), as well as the emergence of new transportation
technologies and systems (Swissmetro, ET3, MLX, Transrapid, etc.)[3]. For
railway systems, these developments, aiming at increasing the competitiveness
of the railway systems, have lead to a significant increase of the commercial
432 V. Bourquin, C. Béguin, and P.A. Monkewitz
speed and the building of more and more tunnels of increasing length. The es-
sential advantage of a tunnel is that the environmental impacts observed in the
open air are reduced. A new one, the “sonic boom”, may appear and impair
the comfort of people living in residential area close to the tunnel portals.
The presence of the tunnel confines the air flow to a finite domain and con-
strains the air perturbations generated by the vehicle to propagate along the
axis of the tunnel only. The general flow can be divided in two different flow
domains, which are the near-field flow (in the vicinity of the vehicle) and the
far-field flow (far from the vehicle, corresponds to the flow in the tunnel).
Both domains are strongly dependant to each other.
The near-field flow is strongly influenced by the blockage ratio ß defined as:
ß = Av / At (1)
1
The annular space (also referred to as annulus) is defined as the volume between the vehi-
cle and tunnel walls: following the flow, it starts at the end of the nose and ends at the start
of the tail.
Aerodynamic Effects in Railway Tunnels as Speed is Increased 433
dium length, the unsteadiness of the flow is due to the train-tunnel entry pres-
sure waves. The transmission of these pressure waves inside coaches generates a
comfort problem since the internal ear of the human being is very sensitive to
pressure level changes (amplitude and rate). This problem can be a limiting
factor while defining speed and blockage ratio. The sealing efficiency and the
stiffness of coaches can be increased to limit the pressure variations at the ear
of passengers during tunnel travel. In long tunnels, these pressure waves are
strongly attenuated and, after a given travel time, the unsteady effects are es-
sentially associated with the motion of the train. In this situation, the drag-
related effects become dominant.
The oncoming of a high-speed train in an underground station can induce
high air velocities, which must be controlled by an appropriate design in order
to satisfy the comfort and safety criteria for the passengers on the platforms
and in the station. Ventilation is another key aspect to preserve the air quality
and to maintain the temperature within acceptable values.
tunnel. The initial gradient of the wavefront is directly related to the nose
shape, the portal shape, blockage ratio and the speed of the train.
A typical shape of the pressure signal recorded in a tunnel, as a train enters
into it, is shown in the following figure (from the TRANSAERO project, see
e.g. [11]):
Pressure
Secondary pressure
rise due to the friction
effects in the annular
space
Pressure drop due to
Primary pressure the passage of the nose
rise due to nose entry in front of the
transducer
Preliminary pressure
rise due to the flow
ahead of the train nose
0
Actual train entry Time
Fig. 1. Pressure history measured close to the tunnel entry (typical amplitude
1’500 Pa)
The maximal amplitude generated as the train enters into the tunnel de-
pends essentially on the speed and the blockage ratio. State-of-the-art numeri-
cal methods and the use of a facility such as the MMR allow an accurate pre-
diction of the pressure wave profile during the generation process [24].
Fig. 2.
Picture of the STARLET facility located in a service tunnel at EPFL,
Lausanne
Experimental results
Figure 4 shows the superposition of the pressure histories of 3 weak shock
waves of different amplitudes (6’100 Pa, 7’800 Pa and 16’600 Pa) recorded at
two different locations along the facility. The first location (IB-1) is located at
Aerodynamic Effects in Railway Tunnels as Speed is Increased 437
a distance of 10.19 m from the diaphragm. The second one (IB-2) is located at
a distance of 50.95 m from IB-1. IB is an acronym for Instrumentation Block.
Fig. 4. Pressure histories for three different pressure levels at 50.95 meter dis-
tance, see [11]
The pressure histories recorded close to the diaphragm (IB-1) shows a typi-
cal step shape for a shock tube experiment. The pressure histories recorded at
the IB-2 location are characterized by slight differences close to the wavefront,
as well as lower amplitude due to dissipative effects. A “rounding” of the “cor-
ner” can be noticed on the two low-amplitude pressure steps (6’100 & 7’800
Pa). This is due to the unsteady friction. The flow just behind the pressure
step is laminar and the value of the unsteady friction is very high close to the
pressure step and decreases until the start of the transition to turbulence. As
the flow is getting turbulent, higher values of the skin friction are reached.
This unsteady skin friction profile behind the pressure wave has a significant
impact on the shape of the pressure wave close to the wavefront as the wave
travels over long distances (kilometers in the case of railway tunnels).
The definition of the transitional Reynolds number Retr can be done as fol-
lows:
Fig. 5. Measurement of skin friction 10.19 m away from the diaphragm. The
pressure step amplitude is 5’800 Pa (shape is similar as what was recorded on
IB-1 location, see Fig. 4).
It is difficult to define at what time the flow is fully turbulent on this graph.
The expansion wave limits the recording time. A longer pressure step would be
required to analyze the transition and turbulence zone in deeper details. This
can be obtained by an increase in length of the facility.
It is interesting to note that the shape of the first two peaks in the first part
of the transition zone (up to 0,02 s) is different from the following ones. This
can be compared to the observations of “turbulent bursts” by Dillon and Na-
gamatsu, 1984, [28]. The precision of the measurement technique is approx.
5%. But it must be stated that the flow is very sensitive to small geometrical
perturbations close to the transducer, as well as difference in level between the
transducer and the tube wall. Attention has been paid to minimize these per-
turbations, but a systematic error may appear and it is difficult to evaluate it
precisely. Based on wind tunnel experience and the shock tube peculiarities,
Aerodynamic Effects in Railway Tunnels as Speed is Increased 439
the uncertainty was estimated at 40%. Further development of the measure-
ment technique is necessary to evaluate more precisely and reduce this uncer-
tainty.
Considering the railway systems, the pressure waves generated by a train is
of slightly lower amplitude and the wavefront is not a pressure step, but a pres-
sure wave. Additional experiments are necessary to evaluate the effects of a
gradual pressure increase on the shape of the unsteady skin friction profile. It
appears nevertheless that the wavefront is probably influenced at least by the
laminar and transitional part of the unsteady skin friction profile. The model-
ing of the unsteady laminar and turbulent skin friction in numerical codes
have been studied by many authors [12],[23],[29]. Improving these models
also requires experimental data, in particular to account for the transition and
to model the turbulent part more accurately.