Georeferencing

Getting maps and satellite images into GIS

 Georeferencing (ESRI PRESS 2003)
To establish a relationship between page coordinates on a planar map
and known real-world coordinates.

Geometric Transformation (Chang)

The process of converting a map or an image from one coordinate
system to another by using a set of control points and a transformation
equation.

Geometric transformation and georeferencing

often involves: scaling, rotating, and warping an
image to a giving set of geographic or projected
coordinates
Scanned Images
Historic Paper Maps
Aerial photographs

Digital Aerial Images

Satellite Images
Control points are know
locations for a physical feature
that can be identified.

These are the points you will

be using to georeference your
image.

Control points can be collected

using GPS, determined using
tics on a paper map, or from
known features from a base
layer
 different methods preserve
different geometric properties

Most common!
 X = Ax + By + C
Y = Dx + Ey + F
x and y are input coordinates
X and Y output coordinates - to be determined

A = Sxcos(t)
B = Sy[k cos(t) –sin(t)]
D = Sxsin(t)
E = Sy[k sin(t) + cos(t)]
C = Translation in x direction
F = Translation in y direction
k = sheer factor Skew angle = arctan(k)
Sx = Scale factor in x direction
Sy = Scale factor in y direction

•Scales, skews, rotates, and translates the layer coordinates.

•The affine transformation requires a minimum of three control points.
Complex distortions can be corrected
Requires more links and control points
Second- Order
Minimum of 6 control points
Third - Order
Minimum of 10 control points
First – Order is suitable for most purposes
Distortions

Tilt of the camera

Curvature of the earth
Uneven terrain

Distortion can be corrected in the

transformation and rectifying process.
 Resampling
A process of filling each pixel of a newly
transformed image with a value or a derived value
from the original value.

 Resampling Methods
Nearest neighborhood assignment
Bilinear interpolation (four neighbors)
Cubic convolution (16 neighbors)

Pyramiding
Technique that builds different levels of resolution
of data for display (works behind the scene in
ArcGIS)
 Deviation between the actual location and the estimated
location of the control points.

 Error for a control point is

 Average RMS is

1. Obtain a digital or scanned imagery/map .
2. Obtain base data (a data layer with a known
coordinate system) or control points that
represent locations/objects visible in image.
3. Create displacement links (links), clicking first
on RASTER, then on base layer.
4. Look at the link table for acceptable residual
on each point and total RMS error.
5. Select transformation method.
6. Rectify the map by selecting a resampling
method (optional in ArcMap). Rectifying will
create a new image file
From the Georeferencing toolbar:
 Select the scanned plat file as the Layer
 Toggle Auto Adjust off
 Zoom in on the map to the
approximate area where the plat
image should fit.
 From the Georeferencing toolbar,
select Fit to Display to shift the plat
image into the area to which you are
zoomed.
 If it is too hard to clearly identify
control points in the image and the
map, there are some tricks for
controlling the display.

 Right-click on the image in the Table of

Contents and choose Zoom to Layer to
see the image.

 Use the Previous Extent and Next

Extent buttons to swap the focus of the
map.
 Use the Control Points tool to add links.

Click a known
location in the
Click the plat image.
matching
location in
projected space.
 After adding at least 4 control points, click Update Display to allow ArcMap to do a
preliminary fit.
 The Link Table can be used to remove a misplaced control point.
 When the image registration is satisfactory, use Rectify to permanently save the
georeferenced image.