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The engineering fluid dynamic problems of the 18th , 19th , and early 20th
centuries almost always involved either the flow of liquids or the low
speed flow of gases; for both cases the assumption of constant density is
quite valid
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
What is Compressibility?
p
p+dp
V V+dV
1 dV
V dp
But as pressure increases, volume decreases. Therefore, the above
expression should have a negative sign
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
1 dV
(1)
V dp
V dV
m 1 dV m
d m 2 2 dV (3)
V V m V V
1 dV d V 2 m d V 2 1 d
V dp m dp m Vm dp m dp
1 d
(4)
dp
d dp (5)
So, if somehow, we can keep the temperature of the fluid constant (through
some heat transfer mechanism) , then the isothermal compressibility is
defined as,
1 dV 1 d
T (6)
V dp T dp T
If, no heat is added or taken away from the system (fluid element) and if no
other dissipative transport mechanism such as friction (viscosity) and
diffusion are not important then we arrive at a special kind of flow
1 dV 1 d
s (7)
V dp s dp s
Speed of the sound will be different for different fluids based on the
conditions
So far we have considered a stationary fluid element. Now assume that the
fluid is in motion
Such flows are usually initiated and maintained by the forces acting on the
fluid. These forces are body forces and surface forces. As we usually
neglect the body forces, the dominant forces are the surface forces
The surface forces acting on a fluid element are pressure forces and
viscous forces
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
Since we are neglecting viscous forces, the only force acting on the fluid
element is due to pressure
We will see later that high speed flows are usually accompanied by large
pressure gradients
d dp (5)
Rule of thumb :
If M < 0.3, the flow should be considered incompressible
If M > 0.3, the flow should be considered compressible
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
Freestream velocity = V
A streamline
is a curve in the flow field that is tangent to the local velocity
vector, V at very point along the curve
Consider an arbitrary point in the flow field where the properties are
Local Pressure = P
Local temperature = T
Local density = ρ All are point properties and vary
Local velocity = V from point to point in the flowfield
Local speed of sound = a
Speed of sound in the uniform freestream = a
V
Freestream Mach number, M
a
V
Local Mach number, M
a
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
Consider the figure (a) shown below. Initially straight and parallel
streamlines in the freestream begin to deflect far upstream of the body
As the flow passes over the airfoil, the local V and M on the top surface
increases above the free stream values
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
(ii) Transonic Flow : If M 1 but close to 1 , flow expansion over the top
surface may result in locally supersonic regions (see figure (b) below). Such
mixed flow is defined as Transonic Flow
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
Pockets of supersonic flows are created over the airfoil. The pocket
terminates with a shock wave across which discontinuous change in flow
properties take place (see figure (b) above )
If M 1.2 ( but slightly higher than 1 ), the shock pattern moves to the
trailing edge of the airfoil and a second shock wave appears upstream of
the leading edge ( see figure (c) below )
In front of the bow shock, the streamlines are uniform and parallel to each
other and the freestream Mach number is uniform and supersonic
After passing the normal portion of the bow shock, the flow becomes
subsonic
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
This flow again expands over the top surface and becomes supersonic ,
terminating in trailing edge shock
Both flow patterns sketched in Figures (b) and (c) are characterized by
mixed regions of locally subsonic and supersonic flow . Such mixed
regions are defined as transonic flows, and 0.8 M 1.2 is loosely
defined as the transonic regime
A straight, oblique shock wave is attached to the sharp nose of the wedge
Ahead of the shock, the streamlines are straight, parallel and horizontal:
behind the shock they remain straight and parallel but in the direction of
the wedge surface
Unlike the subsonic flow in figure (a) , the supersonic uniform freestream is
not forewarned of the presence of the body until the shock wave is
encountered
The flow is supersonic both upstream and (usually, but not always)
downstream of the oblique shock wave
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
Supersonic Flow : When M > 1.0 everywhere in the flow field, typically for M 1.2
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
For M 5 , the shock wave is very close to the surface (see figure (e)).
Flowfield between the shock and the body (called the shock layer)
becomes very hot
For this reason, the flow regime for M 5 is given a special label ----
Hypersonic flow
The latter states that the speed of the sound in a truly incompressible flow would have
to be infinitely large
1
2
dp
a [Recall d dp from Eq. (5)]
2
Also, (to be shown later)
d a
as a , 0 i.e. zero compressibility
Hence incompressible !!
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
There are other ways of classifying flowfields. For example, flows where the
effects of viscosity, thermal conduction and mass diffusion are important
are called viscous flows
Such phenomenon are dissipative effects that change the entropy of the
flow, and are important in regions of large gradients of velocity,
temperature, and chemical composition
Examples are boundary layer flows, flow in long pipes, thin shock layer on
high altitude hypersonic vehicles, friction drag, flowfield separation, and
heat transfer all involve viscous effects
Examples are the large regions of flow over wings and bodies outside the thin
boundary layer on the surface, flow through wind tunnels and rocket engine nozzles,
and the flow over compressor and turbine blades for jet engines
We always consider the gas to be a continuum. This assumption is valid since a gas
usually contains a large number of molecules (over 2 109 molecules/cm^3 for air at
normal room conditions), and hence on a macroscopic basis, the fluid behaves as if it
were a continuous material
This continuum assumption is violated only when the mean distance an atom or
molecule moves between collisions (the mean free path) is so large that it is the same
order of magnitude as the characteristic dimension of the flow. This implies low density
or rarefied flow
The extreme situation , where the mean free path is much larger than the characteristic
length and where virtually no molecular collisions take place in the flow, is called free
molecular flow. In this case the flow is essentially a stream of remotely spaced particles
Review of Thermodynamics
Study of gas dynamics (compressible flows) is a study of
fluid mechanics + thermodynamics
The kinetic energy per unit mass of a high speed flow is large. High–speed
flows and compressible flows are synonymous
In high speed flows, local velocity and hence local kinetic energy changes
as the flow moves over solid bodies or through ducts
Due to the electronic structure of these particles, a force field pervades the
space around them
The force field due to one particle reaches out and interacts with
neighbouring particles, and vice versa. Hence, these fields are called
intermolecular forces
The intermolecular forces varies with distance between particles; for most
atoms and molecules it takes the form of a weak attractive force at large
distance, changing quickly to a strong repelling force at close distance
By ignoring intermolecular forces, the equation of state for a perfect gas can
be derived. The empirical result of such an analysis was
pV mRT (8)
where ,
p Pressure (N/m 2 )
V Volume of the System (m 3 )
m Mass of the system (kg)
R Specific gas constant (J/kgK)
T Tempearture (K)
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
V 1
p RT where specific volume (m / kg )
3
(9)
m
1
Since the density, is , we have
p RT (10)
pV NRuT (11)
Consider Eq. (11), dividing by the number of moles of the system yields
p RuT (12)
p RuT (13)
p CRuT (14)
p nkT (16)
n Number density
k 1.38 10 - 23 J/K
In such cases, the perfect gas equation of state must be replaced by more
accurate relations such as the van der Waals equation
a
p 2 b RT
(17)