Advanced Institute for Research on Religion and Culture (ARRC)

M.Th Ist Year (Hinduism) Sub: Philosophical Inquiry into Religion

Presentation on: Materialism, Feminism, Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi philosophy,
Postmodern Post-colonial philosophical thoughts.

Facilitator: Rev. Dr.Packiam T. Samuel

Presenter: Soloman. S

Introduction:
This paper is an attempt to portray a vivid image of the topics given. The paper would help us
get enlightened on the origin and philosophical ideologies of the given topic. The paper
would deal on topics like Materialism, Feminism, Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi, Postmodern Post-
colonial philosophical thoughts.

1. Materialism:
Materialism asserts that matter is all that exists. The existence is physical, bereft of any
spiritual realities. The ‘supernatural’ or paranormal phenomena are either delusions or
reducible to physical forces on the result of material interaction. Non-material realities like
spiritual powers, angels, devils, or gods are denied.1

1.1. Origin of Materialism:

The doctrine of Materialism is said to be older than the word, of which the earliest use can be
traced to the 1660’s. Materialism was proposed by the ancient atomists(Democritus2,
Epicurus3) and in the modern era by Gassendi4, hobbes5, etc. its current version, formulated
with greater conceptual refinement, are often called ‘Physicalism’6. It has been said that
during the 1960s (and since) materialism became one of the orthodoxies of American
academic philosophy.7

1
Antony Kolencherry, “Materialism,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 2, Johnson J.
Puthenpurac -skal (Ed.) (Bangalore: ATC, 2010), 863.
2
Democritus was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his
formulation of an atomic theory of the universe, ____, “Democritus,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De-mocritus (accessed on 09.08.2018).
3
Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded a school of philosophy now called
Epicureanism, ____, “Epicurus,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus (accessed on 09.08.2018).
4
Pierre Gassendi was a French philosopher, priest, astronomer, and mathematician. His best known
intellectual project attempted to reconcile Epicurean atomism with Christianity, ____, “Pierre Gassendi,”
Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi (accessed on 09.08.2018).
5
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political
philosophy. His understanding of humans as being matter and motion, obeying the same physical laws as other
matter and motion, remains influential, ____, “Thomas Hobbes,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoma -s_Hobbes (accessed on 09.08.2018).
6
physicalism is the ontological thesis that “everything is physical”, that there is “nothing over and
above” the physical, ____, “Physicalism, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism (accessed on
09.08.2018).
7
Thomas Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Penguin Books, 2005), 378.

1
1.2. Philosophy of Materialism:
The philosophy of materialism declares that matter is all there is; matter is the only substance.
Materialists do not claim to be atheists as they could identify God with material universe,
denying the existence of supernatural personal God. Materialism differs from the doctrines
of religion; it upholds matter as sovereign and the total explanation of nature, space, human,
society. It believes that natural science can answer any question about reality as matter is the
beginning and end of all.8Materialism explains that everything is explainable in terms of
matter in motion or matter. It claims that the only objects science can investigate are physical
or material.9

1.2.1 Materialism in the west:

Materialism is one of the oldest philosophies of the west that originated during the ore-
Socratic period (c. 6-7 centuries BCE). Democritus (c. 460-370 BCE) was the first materialist
who systematized his theory which stated that all that exists is a combination of atoms.

Epicurus (341-270 BCE) held the view that ultimate reality consisted of invisible and
indivisible bits of atoms colliding in the void. He gave the materialist philosophy a strong
philosophical foundation and substituted the materialistic statement ‘nothing comes from
nothing’ with ‘everything comes from everything. According to him, only material realities
exist. He considered materialism as the foundation of a happy life. There exist only atoms
and empty space every occurrence has a reason and necessity; it is mechanical and
teleological.10

The Roman Lucretius 11(99-55 BCE) adapted Epicurus and established the main principles of
atomism.12 Both of them wanted to liberate people from the fear of religion. Lucretius
propounds that all existence is matter and void, and phenomena are the result of different
motions and conglomerations of atoms. He further developed the cosmology of Epicurus, but
denied the existence of the soul and its immortality in order to free people from the fear of
death.13
The western materialism and its phase and they are given below:

1. The first phase of materialism centered around Greek and Indian atomism. It was
thoroughly mechanistic. Ionian philosophers in the tradition of Thales (sixth-century
BC) attempted to account for the origin and the state of the world in materialistic

8
Antony Kolencherry, “Materialism”…, 863-864.
9
Morris T. Keeton, “Materialism,” Dictionary of Philosophy, Dagobert D. Runes (Ed.) (New Jersey:
Littlefield Adams & Co, 1961), 189.
10
Antony Kolencherry, “Materialism”…, 864.
11
Titus Lucretius Carus, was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the philosophical
poem De rerumnatura, a didactic work about the tenets and philosophy of Epicureanism, and which is usually
translated into English as On the Nature of Things, ____, “Titus Lucretius Carus,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ Lucretius (accessed on 09.08.2018).
12
Atomism is a natural philosophy that developed in several ancient traditions, which claims nature
consists of two fundamental principles: atom and void, ____, “Atomism,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wik i/Atomis -m (accessed on 09.08.2018).
13
Antony Kolencherry, “Materialism”…, 864-865.

2
 terms. 0(fifth-century BC) defended not only a monism of substances but also a
monism of entities. He maintained that the world is one, uniform, homogeneous,
indivisible and indestructible. Leucippus and his pupil Democritus gave the first clear
conception of matter. Their basic idea was that the fundamental stuff was of just one
kind and that was matter. The fundamental entities were material atoms.

2. The second phase, i.e. seventeenth-century materialism, was the revival of the first
materialism during the 17th century. It was, in large part, the result of the work of two
seventeenth-century philosophers, namely Pierre Gassendi and Thomas
Hobbes.Gassendi claimed that the atoms are not eternal but are created. They are
finite, not infinite in number. The influence of Gassendi and Hobbes was reduced by
Rene Descartes. According to Descartes, there are in the world two very different
sorts of things. These are extended (material) substances and thinking (spiritual)
substances. These are united in the case of mankind. He thus started the tradition of
dualism.

3. The third phase of materialism is known as eighteenth century materialism. It caused

the growth of physiological knowledge and gave rise to the hope that a complete
doctrine of man in purely physiological terms was possible. It presented a view of
man as a self-moving machine.

4. The fourth phase of materialism is called nineteenth-century materialism. It is known

as scientific materialism. It tried to reconcile materialism with science. The pioneers
of this period were Huxley and Darwin.

5. The fifth phase of materialism began with the philosophy of dialectical materialism or
historical materialism. It was mainly formulated by Engels and Marx. According to
Marx, world by its nature is material. It is constituted by different forms of matter and
motion. Marx argued that two basic factors to be found in every society are the
material forces of production and the knowledge necessary for their use Therefore, the
world develops in accordance with the laws of movement of matter. This is what
Marx called ‘Dialectical Materialism.’14

1.2.2. Materialism in East:

Generally, materialism is not a characteristic feature of Indian philosophy, though there have
been schools of Cārvāka in India. The Indian materialism began to develop around 600 BCE
with the works of AjitaKesakambli15 (6th century BCE), who is known as the first proponent

14
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/52178/7/07_chapter%202.pdf, (accessed on
09.08.2018).
15
AjitaKesakambli was an ancient Indian philosopher in the 6th century BC. He is considered to be the
first known proponent of Indian materialism, and forerunner to the Charvakaschool. He was probably a
contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira. It has frequently been noted that the doctrines of the
Lokayataschool were considerably drawn from Ajita's teachings, ____, “AjitaKesakambli,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/w iki/Ajita_Kesakambali, (accessed on 09.08.2018).

3
of Indian materialism. Charvaka, originally known as Lokāyata and Bṛhaspatya16, is the
ancient school of Indian materialism. The axiom of the proponent of Cārvākaschool of
philosophy is ‘Live merrily as long as you can. Drink ghee and even a debtor be! When this
body is reduced to ash, where is the rebirth?’ Much of the Indian materialistic doctrines were
destroyed or got lost due to the confrontation with Vedic thinkers who were averse to
materialism. 17

According to the teachings of materialism, Lokayata is the only shastra; perception is the
only authority; earth, water, fire and air are the only elements; enjoyment is the only end of
human existence; mind is only a product of matter. There is no other world: death means
liberation. Some of the important sutras of Brahaspati which are quoted in the various
philosophical writings may be gleaned as follows:

 Earth, water, fire and air are the elements

 Bodies, senses and objects are the results of the different combinations of elements
 Consciousness arises from the matter like the intoxicating quality of wine arising from
the fermented yeast.
 The soul is nothing but the conscious body.
 Enjoyment is the only end of human life.
 Death alone is liberation.18

2. Feminism:
2.1. Definition of Feminism:
Feminism is political, cultural and economic movement which aims at establishing equal
rights and legal protection for women.19

2.2. Origins of Feminism:

The term Feminism appeared in France in the late of 1880s by HunburtineAuclert in her
Journal “La Citoyenne” as ‘La Feminitè’ where she tried to criticize male domination and to
claim for women’s rights in addition to the emancipation promised by the French revolution.
By the first decade of the twentieth century, the term appeared in English first in Britain and
then in 1910s in America and by 1920s in the Arab World as Niswia.
Feminism originates from the Latin word ‘femina’ that describes women’s issues. Feminism
is concerned with females not just as a biological category, but the female gender as a social
category, and therefore feminists shared the view that women’s oppression tied to their
sexuality. This was so because women and men’s biological differences reflected in the

16
The Bārhaspatya-sūtras, also Lokāyata (“materialistic”) sutras is the foundational text of the Cārvāka
school of “materialist” philosophy, ____, “Bārhaspatya-sūtras,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barhas
patya_sutras (accessed on 09.08.2018).
17
Antony Kolencherry, “Materialism”…, 866.
18
____, “Materialism As Viewed in Indian Philosophy,”____, http://cshe.smsvaranasi.com/docs/sms
.pdf (accessed on 09.08.2018).
19
Pushpa Joseph, “Feminism,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 2, Johnson J. Puthenpurac -skal
(Ed.) (Bangalore: ATC, 2010), 536.

4
organization of society, and based on these differences, women have treated as inferior to
men.20

Feminism specifically focuses on women’s experiences and highlights various forms of

oppression that the female gender has subjected in the society. Whether Feminism is
considered as a social movement or a political movement, it specifically and mainly focuses
on women’s experiences in her daily life, which she subjected to in the society. Since
Feminists are able to feel and experience the pain and suffering of women they are totally
convinced of what it means to be a “women” in Patriarchal societies. Feminists, therefore
seek to remove all the barriers to equal social, political and economic opportunities for
women and object to the notion that a women’ s worth is determined principally by her
gender and that women are inherently inferior, subservient or less intelligent than men.21

2.3. Waves of Feminism:

The history of the feminist movements is divided into three “waves”.

• The first wave refers to the movement of the 19th through early 20th centuries, which dealt
mainly with suffrage, working conditions and educational rights for women and girls.

• The second wave (1960s-1980s) dealt with the inequality of laws, as well as cultural
inequalities and the role of women in society.

• The third wave of feminism (1990s-2000s) is seen as both a continuation of the second
wave and a response to the perceived failures.22

2.3.1. First-Wave Feminism:

First-wave feminism involved a period of feminist activity during the 19th and early 20th
centuries, especially in Europe and in the United States.

Key concerns: (1) women’s suffrage (the right to vote) (2) the right to education (3) better
working conditions (4) marriage and property laws (5) reproductive rights.23

The first Feminist Wave goes back to World War I, when Alice Paul (1885–1977) member of
the National Women’s Party (NWP) inspired the fellow women made a strike in USA outside
the White House. They were carrying banners and writings about the undemocratic practices
done by the government over women in America. They wanted to show to the world that they
were living in very bad situations in addition to prove to leaders of the world that there was
no dreams and happiness in the land of dreams. On the other hand, Germany and few other

20
Amina Ghorfati&RabhaMedini, “Feminism and its Impact On woman in the Modern Society”
(Masters Dissertation, University of Tlemcen, 2015): 7, http://dspace.univ-tlemcen.dz/bitstream/112/7902/1/ami
na-ghorfati.pdf (accessed on 10.08.2018).
21
Amina Ghorfati&RabhaMedini, “Feminism…, 7.
22
Anastasia Flouli, “3 Waves of Feminism,” Gender Studies, http://gestproject.eu/wp-
content/uploads/2 016/11/Anastasia-Flouli-AUTH-3-Waves-of-Feminism.pdf (accessed on 10.08.2018).
23
Anastasia Flouli, “3 Waves of Feminism,”….

5
countries already made a step in the freedom of woman. They granted women suffrage,
freedom and social rights.24

2.3.2. Second-Wave Feminism:

Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity and thought that first began in the
early 1960s in USA and spread all over the western world and beyond.

Key concerns: (1) raising consciousness about sexism and patriarchy (2) raising
consciousness about gender based violence, domestic abuse and marital rape (3) inequalities
in the workplace (4) legalizing abortion and birth control (5) sexual liberation of women.25

The second wave feminism originated from the writings of the British feminist, Juliet
Mitchell with an ideology of radicalism based on economic and social conditions. Many of
the feminists in 1960s to 1990s were particularly connected to social movements i.e. the anti-
Vietnam protests and the civil rights movement. They struggled for reproductive rights,
legalizing abortion and birth control, analyzing gender differences, attaining equal rights in
political and economic realms and gaining sexual liberation. They focused on socio-economic
issues like equality in employment, sexual harassment and the discriminations based on class,
race, sexuality, age, ability, ethnicity, religion and political consequences. These feminists
achieved success in sexual freedom, equal funding to women and integration between
workplace and political areas. It is notable that, the US feminists fought against beauty
contest in 1968 to stop discrimination among women for race, colour, expressions, etc. with
the sense of male domination and usage. On the other hand, British activists struggled for
equal pay for equal work.Feminism committed to producing critical constructive analysis of
systemic power structure, theoretical presupposition, social practices and institutions that
oppress and marginalize the women and effecting social transformation.26

2.3.3. Third-Wave Feminism:

The third wave of feminism (1990s-2000s) arose partially as a response to the perceived
failures of second-wave feminism

Key concerns: (1) Intersectionality (2)The diversity of "women" is recognized and emphasis
is placed on identity, gender, race, nation, social order and sexual preference (3) Changes on
stereotypes, media portrayals and language used to define women. (4) Sexual identities.27

American feminist writer, Rebecca Walker has coined the term ‘Third Wave Feminism’
which aimed at social and economic equality. The major concerns are sexual freedom,
including women from different groups like colour, culture, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered
and low income. However, these feminists are mainly struggled for: 1) reproductive rights, 2)
protection from violence at home, workplace and public place i.e. rape and domestic abuse,
3) economic rights as equal pay, parity of regard, pensions, poverty, recognition of caring
work, 4) sex discrimination act, 5) more female Member of Parliament, 6) religious right as

24
Amina Ghorfati&RabhaMedini, “Feminism…, 12.
25
Anastasia Flouli, “3 Waves of Feminism,”….
26
Kalpana P. Nehere, “The Feminist Views: A Review,” Feminist Research, 1/1 (2016): 7.
27
Anastasia Flouli, “3 Waves of Feminism,”….

6
women clergy, rabbi, and 7) equality at workplace - more women at work and more men at
home.28

2.4. Feminism in India:

The founding story of feminism in Asia, and particularly in India, is based on women’s
experience of discrimination against them either in the structure of personal laws, or
increased violence on their bodies through rape, dowry deaths, religious fundamentalism and
the like. SavitribaiPhule29, TarabaiShinde30, PanditaRamabai31 are one of the pioneers of
Indian feminism, fought for the emancipation of women from the biased and patriarchal setup
of the country. The 1900s, with the emergence of the era of globalization, has seen
transformed contexts as a result of the debates and policy initiatives around development in
the country. Indian women were shaken by the absence of women’s perspectives in the
overall development process and by the insensitivity of the policy makers and planners. This
became the entry point into the movement for the majority of women within the transforming
economy. Feminism movement in India then went on to do diverse studies and researches,
these studies were enriched by an in-depth analysis of caste hierarchies and the interlocking
grid of caste, gender, class and cultural, communal and religious patriarchies.32

3. Dalit/Tribal/ Adivasi Philosophy:

3.1. Dalit:
The term Dalit is taken from the Sanskrit root word ‘Dal’, which refers to the situation of a
people who are downtrodden, broken, of fractured identity and exploited.33

3.1.1. Dalit Philosophy:

Dalit philosophy cannot be expressed without referring to Buddhist ideology, because much
of the Dalit philosophy that we see today, has been drawn from the Buddhist ideology. Later
on Dalit philosophy was seen in the writings of Babasaheb Ambedkar.

28
Kalpana P. Nehere, “The Feminist Views: A Review…, 7.
29
SavitribaiJyotiraoPhule (3 January 1831 – 10 March 1897) was an Indian social reformer,
educationalist and poet. Along with her husband, JyotiraoPhule, she played an important role in improving
women’s rights in India during British rule. Phule, along with her husband founded the first girls’ school in
Pune run by native Indians at Bhide Wada in 1848. She worked to abolish discrimination and unfair treatment of
people based on caste and gender, ____, “Savitiribaiphule,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savitribai_Phule (accessed on 10.08.2018).
30
TarabaiShinde (1850–1910) was a feminist activist who protested patriarchy and caste in 19th century
India. She is known for her published work, StripurushTulana (“A Comparison between Women and Men”),
originally published in Marathi in 1882. The pamphlet is a critique of upper-caste patriarchy, and is often
considered the first modern Indian feminist text, ____, “TarabaiShinde,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wik
i/Tarabai_Shinde (accessed on 10.08.2018).
31
PanditaRamabai Sarasvati (23 April 1858 – 5 April 1922) was an Indian social reformer, a champion
for the emancipation of women, and a pioneer in education. PanditaRamabai was a social worker, scholar and a
champion of women's rights, freedom and education. PanditaRamabai participated in the freedom movement
and was one of the 10 women delegates of the Congress session of 1889, ____, “PanditaRamabai Sarasvati,”
Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandita_Ramabai (accessed on 10.08.2018).
32
Pushpa Joseph, “Feminism,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy…, 537.
33
Pushpa Joseph, “Feminism,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy…, 355.

7
Dalit’s adopted the ideology of Buddhism because Buddhism is an egalitarian religion, it
embraces people from every race, colour, caste, and region without any discrimination, where
everybody discriminated them, and they found Buddhism as their shelter.34
Ambedkar’s writing has also contributed much to Dalit philosophy, the term ‘Dalitology’,
meaning Dalit science, is their theology, which says Dalitology is a godless theology. It is a
philosophy that rationalizes a value system. It contains multiplicity of discourses for the
establishment of equality and community living. It is a project of Dalitization that is the
other name for equality.
Although they have borrowed Buddhist ideology to form their philosophy they say Dalits are
neither Buddhists, nor Christians, nor muslins, nor Hindus. Dalits are Dalits. The Dalit
religion has no god, no heaven, no soul and no hell. The life of Dalit communities revolve
around the earth and they derive their energy and life from the earth. A Dalit religion is a
viable alternative to Dalit liberation35.
3.2. Tribal:
A notional form of human social organization based on a set of smaller groups (known as
bands), having temporary or permanent political integration, and defined by traditions of
common descent, language, culture, and ideology.36
3.2.1. Tribal philosophy:
If philosophy is to be understood as a way of life, a way of looking at various realities, an
attempt to understand them, and as a rationale for living one’s life with some meaning and
goal, then one cannot fail to notice some philosophy behind various tribal myths, beliefs and
practices. It is from this perspective that one can validly speak of ‘Tribal philosophy.’37
Since the philosophy of the tribal people is not epitomized in the books and scrolls, it has to
be discovered in their life. Tribals exist side by side with nature, they have extraordinary
solidarity with nature and with the whole creation. Their concern for nature is not artificial or
imposed from outside, nature is their home and it is a free gift to everyone in the tribe.38
The tribals don’t seem to have the concept of heaven and hell. Accordingly those who die do
not go to heaven or hell, nut join the spirits of the ancestors. Attaining the ancestral
community is the ultimate goal of this earthly life. Those who cannot join the blissful
company turn into troublesome spirits for the living humans. However, tribals do have a
concept of creator God, Fatherly and benevolent. Their annual festivals are occasions for
acknowledging and expressing their gratitude to this caring God for all His goodness for
them. Tribals never made a temple for God, he does not need a temple, because he is
everywhere.

34
Eleanor zelliot, From untouchable to Dalit (New Delhi: Manohar, 1998), 137.
35
M.C. Raj &Jyothi Raj, Dalitology, The Book Of The Dalit People (Bangalore: NESA, 2001), 460.
36
____, “Tribe,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/tribe-anthropology
(accessed on 12.08.2018).
37
Vincent Aind, “Tribal Philosophy,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 2, Johnson J. Puthenpur
-acskal (Ed.) (Bangalore: ATC, 2010), 1429.
38
Vincent Aind, “Tribal Philosophy,” …,1430-31.

8
Tribals have ethical sense, and by and large their conscience is well formed. Peacefulness,
equality, kindness are moral ideals for all the tribals to follow. Tribals have also tried in their
myths to explain the origins, growth and destiny of the world, nature and human life. But
theirs is not a scientifically and rationally developed attempt.39
3.3. Adivasi:
In central India, tribal group call themselves ‘Adivasi’, the term derives from the Hindi word
adi, meaning ‘beginning’ and vasi ‘dweller’. The term Adivasi refers to a shared experience
of a loss, of forest and land and has been central to the political struggle of the indigenous
people of central India.40
3.3.1. Adivasi Philosophy:
Adivasi traditions and practices pervade all aspects of Indian culture and civilization, yet this
awareness is often lacking in popular consciousness, and the extent and import of Adivasi
contributions to Indian philosophy, language and custom have often gone unrecognized, or
been underrated by historians and social scientists.
Although popular myths about Buddhism have obscured the original source and inspiration
for its humanist doctrine, it is to India’s ancient tribal (or Adivasi) societies that Gautam
Buddha looked for a model for the kind of society he wished to advocate. Adivasi society
was built on a foundation of equality with respect for all life forms including plants and trees.
There was a deep recognition of mutual dependence in nature and human society. People
were given respect and status according to their contribution to social needs but only while
they were performing that particular function. A priest could be treated with great respect
during a religious ceremony or a doctor revered during a medical consultation, but once such
duties had been performed, the priest or doctor became equal to everyone else.41
In the Adivasi traditions, ancestor worship, worship of fertility gods and goddesses (as well
as male and female fertility symbols), totemic worship all played a role. And they all found
their way into the practice of what is now considered Hinduism. The widespread Indian
practice of keeping ‘vratas’, i.e. fasting for wish-fulfilment or moral cleansing also has
Adivasi origins.
The adivasi communities identified their existence in relation to land, forest and ecological
ambience, for their meaningful living. They saw their life cycle coinciding with the
agricultural cycle throughout the year. Thus they intuned their life, celebrations, meaning
system and philosophy of life based on the natural phenomena.42

39
Vincent Aind, “Tribal Philosophy,” …, 1433-34.
40
Marine Carrin& Lidia Guzy, “Introduction,” Voices from the Periphery, Marine Carrin& Lidia Guzy
(Eds.) (New York: Routledge, 2012), 1-2.
41
Roshan Baa, “Tribal Folklore and Cultural Expressions,” Tribal philosophy, https://fikpani.wordpres
s. Com/2013/03/09/mpye-012-tribal-philosophy/ (accessed on 12.08.2018).
42
Roshan Baa, “Tribal Folklore and Cultural Expressions,”….

9
4. Postmodernism:
Postmodernism is a term that emerged as an area of academic study since the mid 1980’s,
though its beginning could be traced back to the 1960s. 43It is a contemporary intellectual
movement which originated in the west, and now its influence is reflected in almost every
walk of life. This term was first used as early as 1917 by a German philosopher, Rudolf
Panwitz. Postmodernity expresses its radical views not only in philosophy but also in a
variety of disciplines, art, architecture, religion etc.44
4.1. Postmodern Philosophy:
4.1.2. Major features of postmodern Philosophy:
1. Postmodernism criticizes the notion of ‘presence’ or ‘presentation’ in knowledge, as the
phenomenologists explain it. Presence refers to the immediate phenomenal datum available to
man of an object in his knowledge of that object. Is this datum self-given by the object?
Postmodernist authors, especially Derrida, take up this question for discussion. He denies that
there is any pure presentation of objects in our consciousness. Nothing is immediately given,
he would say. All objects in presenting themselves are represented through our sign systems,
language and interpretation etc. There is nothing that is directly presented to the human mind
without the medium of our cultural and linguistic categories. Hence, all presentations are
representations. Derrida45 vehemently rejects any such thing as ‘pure presentation’, i.e., an
immediate, unmediated, transparent givenness of the object.46
2. Postmodernism also criticizes the attempt of rational enquiry to look into the origin or
source of all human knowledge. According to the postmodern authors, there are no ultimate
foundations for our knowledge. Beyond the phenomena there is nothing. Phenomena are all
that reality is. Going beyond phenomena is a futile exercise in imagination and achieves
nothing. The possibility to return to the origin of phenomena, to recapture the original text,
and the attempt to look into the foundations lead to nothing. ‘Every author is a dead author’.
Digging into the history of the text can never recapture an author’s intentions. There is no
authoritative foundation in interpretation, argue these authors holding a radical hermeneutic
position. And authorial intentions are not relevant to understanding a text. This would mean
that there is no single right interpretation. All readings are correct. As there are many
readings, so many meanings are possible.47
3. Thus, postmodernism criticizes the claim to unity in knowledge. Knowledge is plural as
interpretations are plural. All our knowledge is relational. And relational knowledge can
never be single, it will always be plural. All texts are read differently by different persons.
And the reader of a text too is never the same. Individuals too are plural and relational.

43
Stanislaus Swamikannu, “Postmodernism,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 2, Johnson J.
Puthenpur -acskal (Ed.) (Bangalore: ATC, 2010), 1061.
44
George Rajmohan, “Postmodernity: Introductory Remarks,” Postmodernity an Indian Appraisal,
KuruvillaPandikattu S.J. (Ed.) (New Delhi: Serial Publications, 2008), 3.
45
Jacques Derrida a French Algerian-born philosopher best known for developing a form of semiotic
analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts, and developed in the context of
phenomenology. He is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy,
____, “Jacques Derrida,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida (accessed on 13.08.2018).
46
George Rajmohan, “Postmodernity: Introductory Remarks,”…, 6.
47
George Rajmohan, “Postmodernity: Introductory Remarks,”…, 6.

10
Everything is constituted by relations, even the self. As a text is read in different ways, so too
an individual person is according to his relations, plural. There is no unity or universality of
the self. We are different at different times and situations. The human self is a multiplicity of
forces and relations.48
4. Postmodernism also denies the transcendence of such ideas as truth, goodness, beauty,
rationality etc. These are, according to postmodern writers, simply socio-cultural products,
and as there is nothing absolute or transcendent about them, so too all norms of conduct are
relative and relational. There is nothing so sacred about them. Norms vary from place to
place and from people to people. JurgenHabermas49, a major critique of postmodernism,
would complain that what postmodernists promote is anarchy, not liberation. But one thing is
obvious: postmodernism calls for a critical analysis of our superior complacency towards
accepted norms and traditions.50
5. These postmodernist features are complemented by most of these authors by their focus on
the marginalised, the outlawed and the abnormal of society. “The other” in society is often
excluded and side-lined. The postmodernist writers will show how abnormal we ourselves
have become with our obsession with normality. This is true not only of every society, but
even of our own acceptance of ourselves. We tend to hide or ignore certain constitutive
aspects of our lives such as sex, aggressiveness, jealousy as unacceptable. Normal society
rejects the insane, the mad, the poor and the wretched, the homosexual, the feminine and the
castoffs. Postmodemists will embrace these sections of society and focus their attention on
them.51
5. Postcolonialism:
The word ‘colony’ is derived from the Latin word ‘colonia ’which means ‘farm’ or
‘settlement’. It is used to refer to the Greek and Roman settlements in other lands.
Postcolonial critics use the word ‘imperialism’ to refer to the authority assumed by a state
over another territory. 52Postcolonial thought is primarily an anti-imperial discourse that
critiques empire and its persistent legacies. Postcolonial thought sketches a world beyond the
epistemic limits of the present. It is only post in the sense of seeking transcendence;
something beyond or after colonial epistemes. The signifier “post” in the term “postcolonial
thought” refers to an intellectual stance that recognizes colonialism’s legacies, critiques them,
and tries to reach beyond them.53

48
George Rajmohan, “Postmodernity: Introductory Remarks,”…,6-7.
49
Jürgen Habermas, is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and
pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his theories on communicative rationality and the public sphere,
____, “Jürgen Habermas,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jürgen_Habermas 9accessed on
13.08.2018).
50
George Rajmohan, “Postmodernity: Introductory Remarks,” …, 7.
51
George Rajmohan, “Postmodernity: Introductory Remarks,” …, 7.
52
Simon Samuel, And They Crucified Him (Dehradun: Thadatil, 2012), 1.
53
Julian Go, Postcolonial thought and Social Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 9.

11
5.1. Postcolonial Philosophy:
Postcolonial studies in a general sense is the task of exploring and exposing the social
pathologies, postcolonial thinkers have engaged the peripheral societies and have attempted
to expose how they were and are subjected to oppression.54
Colonialism was a lucrative commercial operation, bringing wealth and riches to Western
nations through the economic exploitation of others. It was pursued for economic profit,
reward and riches. Hence, colonialism and capitalism share a mutually supportive
relationship with each other.
Thus, Robert Young one of the postcolonial theorists indicates how economic objection to
colonialism has developed. Karl Marx argues that the motive behind colonisation is
economic. Adam Smith (1723-1790) a church minister, was among the first to challenge
British imperialism on the ground of economic interest and became sympathetic to colonies.
Smith’s argument in his book, “The wealth of nations” (1776), is that colonies are not a
product of good planning “wisdom and policy” of European colonialists, “but rather as
effects of their (greed) ‘disorder and injustice’. Smith opposed slavery, not necessarily on
moral grounds, but particularly because slaves were becoming expensive to maintain and
therefore were less efficient. Karl Marx also contributed greatly to the economic objection,
when colonialism touched or interfered with economics. Marx’s anti-imperialist theory was
developed around capitalism. Marx discussed colonial expansion in relation to the economic
effects of capitalism, but with no “emancipatory programme” for colonial revolution.55Post
colonialism is not just an abstract theory but is indeed a lived experience and a political
condition.56
Postcolonialism has many common motifs and themes like ‘cultural dominance’ and
Racism’, ‘quest for identity’, ‘racial discrimination’, and ‘inequality’. Most of the
postcolonial writers reflected and demonstrated many thematic concepts which are quite
connected with both ‘colonizer’ and ‘colonized’. White Europeans continually accentuated
on racial discrimination for their superiority over colonized. It was most evident in South
Africa that the apartheid was incorporated in national laws. Among the most notable acts of
this kind were ‘The Groups Areas Act’57, ‘Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act’58, and
‘Immorality Act’59. Each of these acts were limiting, restricting and discriminating colonized
from the ruling White. Both the writers Nadine Gordimer60 and Coetzee61 in their fiction

54
Victor Ferrao, “Postcolonialism,” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 2, Johnson J. Puthenpur -
acskal (Ed.) (Bangalore: ATC, 2010), 1058.
55
R J C Young, Postcolonialism: An historical introduction (London: Blackwell, 2001), 82-83.
56
Victor Ferrao, “Postcolonialism”…, 1057.
57
Group Areas Act was the title of three acts of the Parliament of South Africa enacted under the
apartheid government of South Africa. The acts assigned racial groups to different residential and business
sections in urban areas in a system of urban apartheid. An effect of the law was to exclude non-Whites from
living in areas which were restricted to Whites.
58
The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, Act No 55 of 1949, was an apartheid law in South Africa
that prohibited marriages between “Europeans” and “non-Europeans.”
59
Immorality Act was the title of two acts of the Parliament of South Africa which prohibited, amongst
other things, sexual relations between white people and people of other races.
60
Nadine Gordimer, was a South African writer, political activist and recipient of the 1991 Nobel Prize
in Literature. She was recognized as a woman “who through her magnificent epic writing has – in the words of
Alfred Nobel – been of very great benefit to humanity”

12
showed how apartheid destroyed South Africa in many ways as emotionally, morally and
economically.
In postcolonial context, language played crucial role in control and subjugation of colonized
people. Colonizers often imposed their language upon their subjects in order to control them.
So most postcolonial writers address the issues in many ways by mixing the local language
with imposed language, the result is a hybrid one that underscores the broken nature of the
colonized mind.62
There are various reflections of Postcolonial literature in terms of theories and conceptions.
The Postcolonial theorists examine both the colonial texts and literature written after
colonialism. Some of the notable theorists who popularised colonialism such as Edward Said,
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Frantz Fanon, Homi Bhabha and others. These theorists
connected postcolonial literature with many fields like history, politics, philosophy and
literary traditions and its significance in present day society. Most of the times, these
postcolonial theorists are from postcolonial countries for instance Edward Said from
Palestine, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak from India and Fanon from a French colony,
Martinique. The colonial countries started writing and depicting the experiences of
colonization and many changes brought by independence upon individuals and their
respective nations.63
Conclusion:
The above discussed topics help us to understand their ideologies and philosophy. We could
see the argument of materialists, claiming matter to be the most important element for
existence, whereas on the other hand we see feminism being born and coming into existence.
In the same way we Dalit, Tribal, & Adivasi struggle and how they have formed an identity
for themselves in a society, which separates them. We further see postmodernism which deals
on knowledge and offers hand to the castoffs similarly to the postcolonialism, which critiques
the attitude of the authority, suppressing its subjects.
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