A proximity sensor detects an object when the object approaches within the detection boundary of the sensor.

Proximity sensors are used in various facets of manufacturing for detecting the approach of metal objects.
Various types of proximity sensors are used for detecting the presence or absence of an object. The design of
a proximity sensor can be based on a number of principles of operation, some examples include: variable
reluctance, eddy current loss, saturated core, and Hall effect. Depending on the principle of operation, each
type of sensor will have different performance levels for sensing different types of objects. Common types of
non-contact proximity sensors include inductive proximity sensors, capacitive proximity sensors, ultrasonic
proximity sensors, and photoelectric sensors. Hall-effect sensors detect a change in a polarity of a magnetic
field. Variable reluctance sensors typically include a U-type core and coils wound around the core legs.
Inductive proximity sensors have a lossy resonant circuit (oscillator) at the input side whose loss resistance
can be changed by the proximity of an electrically conductive medium. An electrical capacitance proximity
sensor converts a variation in electrostatic capacitance between a detecting electrode and a ground electrode
caused by approaching the nearby object into a variation in an oscillation frequency, transforms or linearizes
the oscillation frequency into a direct current voltage, and compares the direct current voltage with a
predetermined threshold value to detect the nearby object. Ultrasonic sensing systems provide a much more
efficient and effective method of longer range detection. These sensors require the use of a transducer to
produce ultrasonic signals. Eddy-current proximity sensors are well known and operate on the principle that
the impedance of an ac-excited electrical coil is subject to change as the coil is brought in close proximity to a
metallic object. Proximity sensors often are employed in manufacturing industries in which the sensors are
exposed to harsh environmental conditions. Inductive proximity sensors are used in automation engineering
to define operating states in automating plants, production systems and process engineering plants. Magnetic
proximity detectors are commonly used on ski lifts and tramways for detecting a derope condition of the steel
cable used as a haul line or haul rope. Proximity sensors are widely used in the automotive industry to
automate the control of power accessories. For instance, proximity sensors are often used in power window
controllers to detect the presence of obstructions in the window frame when the window pane is being
directed to the closed position

Here is an interesting circuit for a magnetic proximity switch which can be used in various
applications.
The magnetic proximity switch circuit, in principle, consists of a reed switch at its heart. When a
magnet is brought in the vicinity of the sensor (reed switch), it operates and controls the rest of
the switching circuit. In place of the reed switch, one may, as well, use a general-purpose
electromagnetic reed relay (by making use of the reed switch contacts) as the sensor, if required.
These tiny reed relays are easily available as they are widely used in telecom products. The reed
switch or relay to be used with this circuit should be the �normally open� type.
When a magnet is brought/placed in the vicinity of the sensor element for a moment, the contacts
of the reed switch close to trigger timer IC1 wired in monostable mode. As a consequence its
output at pin 3 goes high for a short duration and supplies clock to the clock input (pin 3) of IC2
(CD4013�dual
D-type flip-flop). LED D2 is used as a response indicator.
This CMOS IC2 consists of two independent flip-flops though here only one is used. Note that the
flip-flop is wired in toggle mode with data input (pin 5) connected to the Q (pin 2) output. On
receipt of clock pulse, the Q output changes from low to high state and due to this the relay driver
transistor T1 gets forward-biased. As a result the relay RL1 is energised.
A Proximity sensor can detect objects without physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an
electromagnetic field or beam and look for changes in the field. The object being sensed is often referred
to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For
example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity
sensor requires a metal target.

In capacitive proximity sensors, the sensed object changes the dielectric constant between two plates. A
proximity sensor has a range , which is usually quoted relative to water. Because changes in capacitance
take a relatively long time to detect, the upper switching range of a proximity sensor is about 50 Hz. The
proximity sensor is often found in bulk-handling machines, level detectors, and package detection. One
advantage of capacitive proximity sensors is that they are unaffected by dust or opaque containers,
allowing them to replace optical devices.

A typical capacitive proximity sensor has a 10-mm sensing range and is 30 mm in diameter. The proximity
sensor incorporates a potentiometer to allow fine tuning of the sensing range and can repetitively detect
objects within 0.01 mm of the set point. Switching frequency is 10 Hz, and operating temperature range is
-14 to 158°F.

Conditioning the output of a proximity sensor has always been difficult. Proximity sensor designers must
confront linearity, hysteresis, excitation voltage instability, and voltage offset.

A proximity sensor that measures current flow between the sensing electrode and the target provides
readouts in appropriate engineering units. Usually, one side of the voltage source or oscillator connects to
the sensing electrode, and the other side connects through a current-measuring circuit to the target,
which generally is a metal part at earth or ground potential.

Probes used with a capacitive proximity sensor have either a flat disc or rectangular sensing element
surrounded by a guard electrode that provides electrical isolation between the proximity sensor and its
housing. The guard also ensures that the lines of electrostatic field emanating from the probe are parallel
and perpendicular to the surface of the proximity sensor.

Capacitance proximity sensor systems can make measurements in 100 µsec with resolutions to 10-7 in.
(0.001 micron). Probe diameters range from a few thousandths of an inch to several feet for
corresponding measurements ranging from thousandths of an inch to several feet.

Proximity sensor selection depends on the material to be sensed. Proximity sensor probes for sensing
nonconducting surfaces or insulators vary slightly from those for conducting surfaces. Nonconducting
probe signals are also more difficult to linearize.

As standoff distance decreases, required proximity sensor size decreases. But if the ratio of sensor area to
gap width is too small, signal current will be too weak to measure accurately. A probe-to-target
capacitance of about 0.25 pF corresponds to a safe maximum standoff distance. This is the capacitance
produced by a 1 sq-in. plate spaced 1 in. from a large conducting surface. If plate area is 0.1 in.2 (0.33 in.
on a side), then a 0.1-in. spacing produces the same capacitance, and so forth.

When measuring the distance to a conducting surface, proximity sensor tip size should be small when
compared to the conducting surface for maximum linearity and accuracy. If the proximity sensor tip is
approximately the same size as the measured surface, capacitance changes caused by gap-width
variations are not distinguishable from those caused by target surface-area changes between samples.
Therefore, the distance between the target surface edges and proximity sensor edges should be at least
three times the gap length.

If the target surface cannot extend beyond the probe-tip edges, then probe tip dimensions may exceed
those of the target surface. However, the measurement will be affected somewhat by variations in part
size. In general, if the target surface is large and stationary, the largest proximity sensor possible is used.
However, little is gained by increasing probe size once the proximity sensor capacitance exceeds 1 pF.
In addition to round and square probe shapes, a variety of configurations are available for specific tasks.
For example, if required resolution for a moving target surface is finer in one direction of motion than that
for a direction normal to the first, then a rectangular probe can be used. Here, the narrow dimension is
aligned in the direction requiring the best resolution. This technique is used to measure radial wave crests
on a rotating disc, or radial and axial edge runout of hollow cylindrical objects.

For measuring internal conical surfaces, a proximity sensor is often mounted inside cone-shaped probes.
This is useful for measuring valve-seat runout. A probe array can measure surface flatness. Here, each
probe is electronically zeroed against a known flat surface. A proximity sensor automatically scans the
outputs of probes, indicating average deviation from standard, the highest and lowest deviation from the
average, and the difference between them.