POWER TRANSFORMERS IN AND OUT MANSOOR

POWER TRANSFORMERS
IN AND OUT
MANSOOR
Transformers in and out MANSOOR
Page 1
CHAPTERS AND CONTENTS
POWER TRANSFORMERS..............................................................
.............................................. 1 IN AND OUT ....................
................................................................................
................................ 1 1 INTRODUCTION...............................
................................................................................
..... 6 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 Brief Overview of Transformers .......................
................................................................. 6 Flux couplin
g laws..........................................................................
.................................. 8 Transformer ratings........................
................................................................................
10 Understand the terminology .................................................
........................................... 13
MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC FIELDS...................................................
....................... 17 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Magnetism: quantities, units and rela
tionships ................................................................ 17 Ma
gnetic phenomena in ferromagnetic materials.....................................
........................ 31 Magnetics Properties of Transformers................
............................................................ 32 Typical construc
tion of a transformer core .....................................................
................. 35
3
TRANSFORMERS EQUATIONS .........................................................
............................... 40 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Magnetic circuit excited by a
lternating current..............................................................
.. 40 Single-phase transformer .................................................
............................................... 46 Three-phase transformers ....
................................................................................
........... 59 Auto-transformer ................................................
............................................................ 64
4
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS.........................................................
............................. 67 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 Introd
uction..........................................................................
.......................................... 67 Current transformers .............
................................................................................
......... 67 Measuring and protective current transformers .....................
.......................................... 68 Selecting core material ..........
................................................................................
......... 68 Connection of a CT ................................................
......................................................... 71 Construction of a C
urrent Transformer .............................................................
.............. 73 Standard Burdens for Current Transformers with ...............
............................................. 74 Voltage Transformers ..........
................................................................................
........... 75 Standard Burdens for Voltage Transformers........................
............................................ 78 Construction of a Voltage Transf
ormer ..........................................................................
. 79
5
TRANSFORMER BUSHINGS & SURGE ARRESTOR...........................................
........... 81
Transformers in and out MANSOOR Page 2
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 6
Bushing design theory...........................................................
.......................................... 81 Construction of a Transformer bush
ing ...........................................................................
82 Voltage and BIL..............................................................
................................................ 84 Bushing Storage.............
................................................................................
................. 84 Surge Arrestors............................................
................................................................... 85 Transform
er Neutral Grounding............................................................
.......................... 87
TRANSFORMER TANK AND COOLING SYSTEM ............................................
............. 90 6.1 6.2 6.3 Transformer Tank Requirements .....................
................................................................ 90 Tank Constru
ction...........................................................................
................................ 91 Transformer Cooling.........................
.............................................................................. 9
4
7
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS ...........................................................
.................................. 97 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 Winding Co
nstruction .....................................................................
................................ 97 Insulation and drying system................
........................................................................... 99 T
ransformer Impedance ...........................................................
..................................... 101 Insulation system ....................
................................................................................
...... 102 Megger details and Usage.............................................
................................................ 103 Transformer Oil............
................................................................................
................ 105 Transformer Oil Quality Tests..............................
......................................................... 106 Gas analysis of tr
ansformer ......................................................................
.................... 109
8
TRANSFORMER CONSERVATOR TANK....................................................
.................. 111 8.1 8.2 8.3 Function of the Conservator Tank ............
..................................................................... 111 Buchho
lz Relay connection.............................................................
............................... 112 Transformer Breathers.......................
........................................................................... 113
9
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS .......................................................
........................... 115 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Three Phase Connection..........
................................................................................
...... 115 Parallel operation of Power transformer..............................
......................................... 119 Vector Groups and Diagrams........
................................................................................
121 Vector groups and parallel operation.......................................
..................................... 124
10
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION..........................................................
............................ 125 10.1 10.2 Types of protection..................
................................................................................
...... 125 Thermal Overload protection .........................................
............................................... 126
Page 3
10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 11
Over-flux protection............................................................
.......................................... 129 Transformer differential protecti
on .............................................................................
.. 130 Protection of parallel transformer.......................................
.......................................... 139 Internal Fault Protection........
................................................................................
....... 141
TRANSFORMER TAP CHANGER ........................................................
........................... 146 11.1 11.2 11.3 Selection of On Load Tap Changers
............................................................................. 1
47 Mechanical tap changers .....................................................
......................................... 148 Tap changer troubleshooting.......
................................................................................
.. 151
12
TRANSFORMER TESTING ............................................................
.................................. 154 12.1 12.2 12.3 Types of Tests ...........
................................................................................
.................... 154 Type Tests.............................................
........................................................................ 157 Rou
tine Tests .....................................................................
........................................... 167
13
GENERAL AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE .............................................
............ 174 13.1 13.2 13.3 Importance of Maintenance.......................
................................................................... 175 Causes o
f electrical failure............................................................
................................ 175 Checks to be carried out...................
............................................................................. 17
7 1. Condition of paint work....................................................
............................... 178 2. Operation of door handles................
................................................................ 178 3. Operatio
n of doors and hinges ..........................................................
............... 178 4. Condition of door seal ..................................
................................................... 178 5. Door switches working
................................................................................
.... 178 6. Lights working......................................................
.......................................... 178 7. Heater working................
................................................................................
178 8. Thermostats working.....................................................
.................................. 178 9. Operation of heating and lighting swit
ches....................................................... 178 10. Mounting of
equipment secure ...............................................................
..... 178 11. Manual operation of switches satisfactory ........................
........................... 178 12. Checking of tightness of cable terminations.
................................................ 178 13. Checking of operation o
f contractors (isolating the trip signal, if any) .......... 178 14. HRC fuses a
nd their rating.................................................................
......... 178 15. Operation of local alarm annunciator by pushing push buttons p
rovided for lamp test, acknowledge, reset, system test, mute etc. to cover all s
ystem function ...... 178 16. Source change over test check by putting off power
sources alternatively .... 178 17. Check for plugs for dummy holes and replacem
ent, if found missing. .......... 178 Maintenance and testing procedures .......
...................................................................... 182 Maint
enance tests recommended .......................................................
............................ 184
13.4 13.5
OIL SAMPLING PROCEDURES.........................................................
....................................... 192
TRANSFORMER DATA SHEET SMALL TRANSFORMERS.......................................
.......... 195 TYPICAL TECHNICAL PARTICULARS FOR A 315 MVA, 400/220/33KV TRANSFO
RMER ...........................................................................
............................................................................ 196
Page 5
Chapter-1
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Brief Overview of Transformers
Power generation transmission and distribution throughout the world is through A
.C system and the voltages are different at each level of the network. A transfo
rmer is a device that transfers energy from one AC system to another. A transfor
mer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another voltage. This per
mits electrical energy to be generated at relatively low voltages and transmitte
d at high voltages and low currents, thus reducing line losses, and again it is
stepped down from higher to lower levels to be used at safe voltages. Power tran
sformers are necessary for increasing the voltage from generation to transmissio
n system and then decreasing from transmission to sub-transmission and distribut
ion system. The total transformer capacity is usually 8 to 10 times the total ge
nerating capacity, therefore transformers are a very important apparatus in the
electrical network, it is a capital equipment with a life expectancy of several
decades and care should be taken about selection and ratings for which a good un
derstanding of the basics and principles of operation is essential. The KVA (Pow
er) rating of a power transformer covers a wide range between 5 KVA to 750 MVA.
Very big transformers are installed in generating stations and HVDC converter st
ations very small transformers are used in low voltage and electronic circuits.
The KVA rating of the transformer depends on the load connected which is normall
y on the secondary winding An analogy The transformer may be considered as a sim
ple two-wheel 'gearbox' for electrical voltage and current. The primary winding
is analogous to the input shaft and the secondary winding to the output shaft. I
n this comparison, current is equivalent to shaft speed, voltage to shaft torque
. In a gearbox, mechanical power (speed multiplied by torque) is constant (negle
cting losses) and is equivalent to electrical power (voltage multiplied by curre
nt) which is also constant. The gear ratio is equivalent to the transformer step
-up or step-down ratio. A step-up transformer acts analogously to a reduction ge
ar (in which mechanical power is transferred from a small, rapidly rotating gear
to a large, slowly rotating gear): it trades current (speed) for voltage (torqu
e), by transferring power from a primary coil to a secondary coil having more tu
rns. A step-down transformer acts analogously to a multiplier gear (in which mec
hanical power is transferred from a large gear to a small gear): it trades volta
ge (torque) for current (speed), by transferring power from a primary coil to a
secondary coil having fewer turns.
Page 6
Fig 1.1 Diagram showing the location of different power transformers from genera
tion to the L.T (domestic) power network (circuit breakers and other equipment a
re not shown) A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from o
ne circuit to another purely by magnetic coupling. Relative motion of the parts
of the transformer is not required.
Page 7
1.2
Flux coupling laws
Fig 1.2 An idealized step-down transformer showing resultant flux in the core A
simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary wind
ing and the secondary winding. If a time-varying voltage (Sinusoidal) is applied
to the primary winding of turns, a current will flow in it producing a magneto
motive force (MMF). Just as an electromotive force (EMF) drives current around a
n electric circuit, so MMF drives magnetic flux through a magnetic in the core (
shaded grey), and circuit. The primary MMF produces a varying magnetic flux indu
ces a back electromotive force (EMF) in opposition to. In accordance with Farada
y's Law, the voltage induced across the primary winding is proportional to the r
ate of change of flux:
Similarly, the voltage induced across the secondary winding is:
With perfect flux coupling, the flux in the secondary winding will be equal to t
hat in the primary winding, and so we can equate and . It thus follows that
Hence in an ideal transformer, the ratio of the primary and secondary voltages i
s equal to the ratio of the number of turns in their windings, or alternatively,
the voltage per turn is the same for both windings. This leads to the most comm
on use of the transformer: to convert electrical energy at one voltage to energy
at a different voltage by means of windings with different numbers of turns. Th
e EMF in the secondary winding, if connected to an electrical circuit, will caus
e current to flow in the secondary circuit. The MMF produced by current in the s
econdary opposes the MMF of the primary and so tends to cancel the flux in the c
ore. Since the reduced flux reduces the EMF induced in the
primary winding, increased current flows in the primary circuit. The resulting i
ncrease in MMF due to the primary current offsets the effect of the opposing sec
ondary MMF. In this way, the electrical energy fed into the primary winding is d
elivered to the secondary winding. Neglecting losses, for a given level of power
transferred through a transformer, current in the secondary circuit is inversel
y proportional to the ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage. For example
, suppose a power of 50 watts is supplied to a resistive load from a transformer
with a turns ratio of 25:2. P = E×I (power = electromotive force× current) 50 W = 2
V × 25 A in the primary circuit Now with transformer change: 50 W = 2 A × 25 V in t
he secondary circuit. The high-current low-voltage windings have fewer turns of
wire. The high-voltage, low-current windings have more turns of wire. Since a DC
voltage source would not give a time-varying flux in the core, no back EMF woul
d be generated and so current flow into the transformer would be unlimited. In p
ractice, the series resistance of the winding limits the amount of current that
can flow, until the transformer either reaches thermal equilibrium or is destroy
ed. The Universal EMF equation If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relati
onship for either winding between its number of turns, voltage, magnetic flux de
nsity and core cross-sectional area is given by the universal emf equation: E=4.
44 ƒ n a b Where E is the sinusoidal root mean square (RMS) voltage of the winding
, ƒ is the frequency in hertz, n is the number of turns of wire, a is the area of
the core (square units) and b is magnetic flux density in webers per square unit
. The value 4.44 collects a number of constants required by the system of units.
Invention Those credited with the invention of the transformer include: • Michael
Faraday, who invented an 'induction ring' on August 29, 1831. This was the firs
t transformer, although Faraday used it only to demonstrate the principle of ele
ctromagnetic induction and did not foresee the use to which it would eventually
be put. • Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs, who first exhibited a device called
a 'secondary generator' in London in 1881 and then sold the idea to American co
mpany Westinghouse. This may have been the first practical power transformer, bu
t was not the first transformer of any kind. They also exhibited the invention i
n Turin in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system. Their ear
ly devices used an open iron core, which was later abandoned in favour of a more
efficient circular core with a closed magnetic path. • William Stanley, an engine
er for Westinghouse, who built the first practical device in 1885 after George W
estinghouse bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents. The core was made from interlocki
ng E-shaped iron plates. This design was first used commercially in 1886. • Hungar
ian engineers Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri and Károly Zipernowsky at the Ganz company in Buda
pest in 1885, who created the efficient "ZBD" model based on the design by Gaula
rd and Gibbs. • Nikola Tesla in 1891 invented the Tesla coil, which is a high-volt
age, air-core, dual-tuned resonant transformer for generating very high voltages
at high frequency. Types of transformers 1. Power transformers (Step-up and Ste
p-down )
2. Instrument Transformers (Current and voltage) 3. HVDC Converter Transformers
4. Reactors (Series and Shunt ) 5. Isolation Transformers 6. Variable auto-trans
formers 7. Signal transformers Power Transformers are used for stepping up and d
own of generation and in distribution of power in a network, these are generally
fully loaded transformers. Instrument Transformers are used for measurement, an
d protection of HV electrical networks from faults HVDC converter Transformers a
re used as an impedance load and isolation from the DC system, these are general
ly at a similar voltage level 400 / 500 KV AC for where the 500 KV AC system is
fed to the AC to DC converter system Reactors are used for compensation of react
ive power in the network, two types of reactors used are 1) Series and 2) Shunt
these are similar in principle, operation and construction as transformers. Isol
ation Transformers are used to isolate two circuits physically for safety and se
curity. Variable auto-transformers are used when a variable voltage (hence curre
nt) is required especially for testing and calibration. Signal transformers are
used in electronic circuits for electrically connecting different regions are ci
rcuits and physical isolation.
1.3
Transformer ratings
When a transformer is to be used in a circuit, more than just the turns ratio mu
st be considered. The voltage, current, and power-handling capabilities of the p
rimary and secondary windings must also be considered. The maximum voltage that
can safely be applied to any winding is determined by the type and thickness of
the insulation used. When a better (and thicker) insulation is used between the
windings, a higher maximum voltage can be applied to the windings. The maximum c
urrent that can be carried by a transformer winding is determined by the diamete
r of the wire used for the winding. If current is excessive in a winding, a high
er than ordinary amount of power will be dissipated by the winding in the form o
f heat. This heat may be sufficiently high to cause the insulation around the wi
re to break down. If this happens, the transformer may be permanently damaged. T
he power-handling capacity of a transformer is dependent upon its ability to dis
sipate heat. If the heat can safely be removed, the power-handling capacity of t
he transformer can be increased. This is sometimes accomplished by immersing the
transformer in oil, or by the use of cooling fins. The powerhandling capacity o
f a transformer is measured in either the volt-ampere unit or the watt unit. If
the frequency applied to a transformer is increased, the inductive reactance of
the windings is increased, causing a greater ac voltage drop across the windings
and a lesser voltage drop across the load. However, an increase in the frequenc
y applied to a transformer should not damage it. But, if the frequency applied t
o the transformer is decreased, the reactance of the windings is decreased and t
he current through the transformer winding is increased. If the decrease in freq
uency is enough, the resulting increase in current will damage the transformer.
For this reason a transformer may be used at frequencies above its normal operat
ing frequency, but not below that frequency. Apparent Power Equation or KVA rati
ng of a Single phase transformer KVA = Vp * Ip where Vp is phase rms voltage in
KV and Ip is rms current in Amps.
Apparent Power Equation or KVA rating of a three phase transformer KVA = √3 * Vp *
Ip where Vp is line to line rms voltage in KV and Ip is rms line current in Amp
s. Construction A transformer usually has: • Two or more insulated windings, to ca
rry current • A core, in which the mutual magnetic field couples the windings. In
transformers designed to operate at low frequencies, the windings are usually fo
rmed around an iron or steel core. This helps to confine the magnetic field with
in the transformer and increase its efficiency, although the presence of the cor
e causes energy losses. Transformers made to operate at high frequencies may use
other lower loss materials, or may use an air core.
Core Construction
Power transformers are further classified by the exact arrangement of the core a
nd windings as "shell type", "core type" and also by the number of "limbs" that
carry the flux (3, 4 or 5 for a 3-phase transformer). Core type shape is mostly
used in three-phase distribution transformers. The window height Ha depends on t
he coil height and the core area Ar depends on the rated power S n.
Fig 1.3 There are five main groups of magnetically soft alloys classified primar
ily by the chief constituents of the metal. low-carbon steel silicon steel nicke
l-iron cobalt-nickel-iron cobalt-iron Steel cores Transformers often have silico
n steel cores to channel the magnetic field. This keeps the field more concentra
ted around the wires, so that the transformer is more compact. The core of a pow
er
transformer must be designed so that it does not reach magnetic saturation. Care
fully designed gaps are sometimes placed in the magnetic path to help prevent sa
turation. Practical transformer cores are always made of many stamped pieces of
thin steel. The high resistance between layers reduces eddy currents in the core
s that waste power by heating the core. These are common in power and audio circ
uits. A typical laminated core is made from E-shaped and I-shaped pieces, leadin
g to the name "EI transformer". One problem with a steel core is that it may ret
ain a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied,
the residual field may cause the core to temporarily saturate. This can be a si
gnificant problem in transformers of more than a few hundred watts output, since
the higher inrush current can cause mains fuses to blow unless current-limiting
circuitry is added. More seriously, inrush currents can physically deform and d
amage the primary windings of large power transformers.
Solid cores In higher frequency circuits such as switch-mode power supplies, pow
dered iron cores are sometimes used. These materials combine a high magnetic per
meability with a high material resistivity. At even higher frequencies (radio fr
equencies typically) other types of core made of nonconductive magnetic material
s, such as various ceramic materials called ferrites are common. Some transforme
rs in radiofrequency circuits have adjustable cores which allow tuning of the co
upling circuit. Air cores High-frequency transformers also use air cores. These
eliminate the loss due to hysteresis in the core material. Such transformers mai
ntain high coupling efficiency (low stray field loss) by overlapping the primary
and secondary windings. Toroidal cores Toroidal transformers are built around a
ring-shaped core, which is made from a long strip of silicon steel wound into a
coil. This construction ensures that all the grain boundaries are pointing in t
he optimum direction, making the transformer more efficient by reducing the core
's reluctance, and eliminates the air gaps inherent in the construction of an EI
core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more
expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and
secondary coils are wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the cor
e. This minimises the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to prev
ent the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference. Toro
idal cores for use at frequencies up to a few tens of kilohertz is made of ferri
te material to reduce losses. Such transformers are used in switch-mode power su
pplies. Windings Power transformers are wound with wire, copper or aluminum rect
angular conductors, or strip conductors for very heavy currents. Very large powe
r transformers will also have multiple strands in the winding, to reduce skin ef
fect (The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current to dist
ribute itself within a conductor so that the current density near the surface of
the conductor is greater than that at its core). Windings on both primary and s
econdary of a power transformer may have taps to allow adjustment of the voltage
ratio; taps may be connected to automatic on-load tapchanger switchgear for vol
tage regulation of distribution circuits.
Page 12
1.4
Understand the terminology
E-I lamination A flat transformer steel lamination composed of pairs of E-shaped
and I shaped pieces. The middle projection or tongue of the E is placed through
the center of a coil of wire, and the I placed at the end like this" EI" so the
iron forms a complete magnetic path through the center and around the outside o
f the coil. Scrapless lamination An E-I lamination with proportions such that tw
o E's and two I's are stamped from a rectangle of iron with no waste left over.
This is the least expensive shape for transformer iron, and is the standard for
the industry for non-special purpose transformers. The proportions are special,
obviously. The I's are stamped from the open areas of two end-facing E's. The mi
ddle part, or tongue, of each E is twice as wide as the two outer legs, and the
empty area stamped out of the E (which forms the I) is half as long as the E is
high from top to bottom. As you can see, since the proportions are pre-determine
d, you can specify any one dimension and all the rest are determined. E-I lamina
tions are usually named by the tongue width: EI100 has a tongue that is 1.00 inc
hes wide. EI150 is 1.5" wide, etc. Primary inductance If you connect only the pr
imary wires of a transformer, and measure the inductance, no energy leaves throu
gh any secondary windings, so the thing looks like (and is!) just an inductor. T
he amount of inductance you measure is the primary inductance. The primary induc
tance is a consequence of the iron and air in the magnetic field path, and is no
n-linear - you would measure somewhat different values under different condition
s. Secondary inductance Likewise, what you measure if you connect a measurement
instrument only to the secondaries. Leakage inductance Leakage inductance is ind
uctance that results from the parts of the primary's magnetic field that does no
t link the secondary. This is an inductance from which the secondary can never d
raw energy, and represents a loss of effectiveness in the transformer. If you sh
ort the secondary winding and then measure the "primary" inductance, you will me
asure the leakage inductance, which appears to be in series with the primary win
ding. Core loss The iron in the core is itself conductive, and the magnetic fiel
d in it induces currents. These currents cause the loss of energy, and this come
s out as heat. The core loss represents a price you have to pay to use a transfo
rmer. Core loss is strongly related to frequency, increasing linearly as the fre
quency goes up.
Eddy current Eddy currents are the currents induced in conductors in a magnetic
field - such as the iron core. The inside of a conductor looks like a shorted tr
ansformer turn to the magnetic field, so the currents can be large, and can caus
e substantial heating, as in the core losses.
Copper loss Copper is not a perfect conductor. Current moving through copper cau
ses the copper to heat up as it moves through the resistance of the wire. Windin
g window This is the area of a core available for winding wires into. Margins Sp
ace left at the end of a coil former where no copper windings are placed. This k
eeps the copper wire from going out to the very edges of the coil former, and im
proves the voltage isolation between layers and windings. Window fill The amount
of the winding window that is filled up with copper wires, insulation, etc. Usu
ally expressed as a percent of the winding window area. Interlayer insulation Af
ter winding a neat layer of wire on a coil, you put a thin layer of insulating p
aper, plastic film, etc. over it. This is interlayer insulation. It helps keep t
he insulation of the wires from breaking down from the stress of the voltage dif
ference between layers, and mechanically helps form a neat, solid coil. B Magnet
ic field intensity, or "flux density"; sometimes measured in flux lines, Gauss o
r kiloGauss, or Teslas depending on the measurement system you use. Most transfo
rmer iron saturates around 14 to 20 kGauss. Ceramic materials saturate at around
3-4kGauss. H Coercive force. This is what "forces" the magnetic field into bein
g. It's usually measured in AmpereTurns per unit of magnetic circuit length, oft
en ampere-turns per meter. B-H curve Pretty simply, the graph of B versus the ca
usative H. When there is a large slope of B versus H, the permeability of the ma
terial is high. Saturation At saturation, the permeability falls off, as more H
cannot cause higher B. Insulation class Transformer insulation is rated for cert
ain amounts of temperature rise. Materials which withstand temperatures under 10
5C are Class A. Class B materials withstand higher termperatures, and other lett
ers even higher temperatures. Class A insulation is the most common for output t
ransformers, as no great temperature rise (by power transformer standards at lea
st) are encountered. This "class" is not related to the bias class of the amplif
ier at all, they just happened to use the same words. Stack How much iron is put
inside the coils of wire making up the windings of the transformer. The laminat
ion size determines the width of the tongue, the stack height determines the hei
ght, and the width times the height is the core area, which is a key determiner
of the power handling capability of the transformer. All other things being equa
l, more stack height means either a greater inductance for a
given number of turns, or a fewer number of turns for the same inductance. This
is one means of juggling wire sizes and window fill.
Fig 1.4 Equipment associated with a power transformer in a sub-station with one
incoming (HV) and four outgoing (LV) feeders (transmission lines) Where LA – Light
ing (Surge arrestor) CT- Current Transformer PT – Voltage Transformer CB – Circuit B
reaker TYPE TESTS • Temperature rise • Short circuit • Lightning Impulse • Sound level • E
nergy Performance • Switching Surge Impulse • Zero Sequence Impedance
ROUTINE TESTS PERFORMED ON ALL TRANSFORMERS: • Ratio and Polarity • Power Factor • Win
ding Resistance • No-Load Loss and Excitation Current • Load Loss and Impedance
• C.T. Current, Ratio and Polarity • Standard Impulse Test (Class I I Transformers) •
Quality Control Impulse Test (Class I Transformers) • Applied Potential • Quality Co
ntrol Induced Voltage Test with Corona Detection (Class I Transformers) • Control
Functions and Wiring • Dissolved Gas Analysis • Dew Point
Page 16
Chapter-2
2
2.1
MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Magnetism: quantities, units and relationships
Magnetic quantities in the SI Table 2.1 Quantity name coercivity effective area
effective permeability induced voltage inductance factor intensity of magnetizat
ion magnetic flux magnetic mass susceptibility magnetic polarization magnetizati
on permeability relative permeability remnance
Quantity symbol Hc Ae µe e Al I Φ χρ J M µ B µ
Quantity name o e fa to effe tive length flux linkage indu tan e initial pe me
ability magneti field st ength magneti flux density magneti moment magneti s
us eptibility magnetomotive fo e pe meability of va uum elu tan e
Quantity symbol Σl/A le λ L µi H B m χ Fm µ0
Rm

An Examp e Toroid Core

Figure 2.1 torroid ore As a on rete examp e for the a u ations throughout th
is page we onsider the 're ommended' toroid, or ring ore, Manufa turers use to
roids
to derive materia hara teristi
s be ause there is no gap, even a residua
one. Su h tests are done using fu y wound ores rather than justthe two
turn
s here; but, providing the permeabi ity is high, then the error wi be sma .
Page 17

Tab e 2.2 Parameter Effe tive magneti path ength Effe tive ore
area Re ative
permeabi ity Indu tan e fa tor saturation f ux density Symbo e Ae µr A Bsat Va
ue 27.6×10-3 m 19.4×10-6 m2 2490 2200 nH 360 mT

Let's take a worked examp e to find the indu tan e for the winding shown with ju
st two turns (N=2).
Σl/A = le / Ae = 27.6×10-3 / 19.4×10-6 = 1420 m-1
µ = µ0 × µ = 1.257×10-6 × 2490 = 3.13×10-3 Hm-1
Rm = (Σl/A) / µ = 1420 / 3.13×10-3 = 4.55×105 A-t Wb-1 Al = 109 / Rm = 109 / 4.55×105 = 22
00 nHpe tu n2 L Al × N2 = 2200 × 10-9 × 22 = 8.8 µH
=
Co e a to :Co e a to in the I Table 2.3 Quantity name Quantity symbol Unit
name Unit symbols
o e fa to o geomet i o e onstant Σl/A pe met e m-1
The idea of o e fa to is, apa t f om adding to the ja gon :-( , to en apsulate
in one figu e the ont ibution to o e elu tan e made by the size and shape of
the o e. It is usually quoted in the data sheet but it is al ulated as Σl/A = l
e / Ae m-1
o fo ou example to oid we find -
Σl/A = 27.6×10-3 / 19.4×10-6 = 1420 m-1 Co e fa to s a e often spe ified in millimet e
s-1. You should then multiply by 1000 befo e using them in the fo mula fo elu
tan e.
Effe tive A ea
T ansfo me s in and out MAN OOR
Page 18

igu e 2.2 Effe tive a ea The 'effe tive a ea' of a o e ep esents the oss se
tional a ea of one of its limbs. Usually this o esponds losely to the physi
al dimensions of the o e but be ause flux may not be dist ibuted ompletely eve
nly the manufa tu e will spe ify a value fo Ae whi h efle ts this. The need f
o the o e a ea a ises when you want to elate the flux density in the o e (li
mited by the mate ial type) to the total flux it a ies Ae = Φ / B In the example
to oid the a ea ould be dete mined app oximately as the p odu t of the o e he
ight and the diffe en e between the majo and mino adii Ae = 6.3 × ((12.7 - 6.3)
/ 2) = 20.2 mm2 Howeve , be ause the flux on ent ates whe e the path length is
sho te it is bette to use the value stated by the manufa tu e - 19.4 mm2. o
the simple to oidal shape Ae is al ulated as Ae = h×ln2(R2/R1) / (1/R1-1/R2) m2
This assumes squa e edges to the to oid; eal ones a e often ounded. The e is
a slight twist to the question of a ea: the manufa tu e 's value fo Ae will giv
e give the o e t esults when used to ompute the o e elu tan e but it may n
ot be pe fe t fo omputing the satu ation flux (whi h depends upon the na owes
t pa t of the o e o Amin). In a well designed o e Amin won't be ve y diffe en
t f om Ae, but keep it in mind. Note :Effe tive a ea is usually quoted in millim
et es squa ed. Many fo mulae in data books impli itly assume that a nume i al va
lue in mm2 be used. Othe books, and these notes, assume met es squa ed. Effe ti
ve Length Effe tive Length in the I Table 2.4 Quantity name Quantity symbol Uni
t name Unit symbols effe tive length le met e m
Page 19
The 'effe tive length' of a o e is a measu e of the distan e whi h flux lines t
avel in making a omplete i uit of it. Usually this o esponds losely to th
e physi al dimensions of the o e but be ause flux has a tenden y to on ent ate
on the inside o ne s of the path the manufa tu e will spe ify a value fo le
whi h efle ts this. In the to oid example the path length ould be dete mined a
pp oximately as le = π × (12.7 + 6.3) / 2 = 29.8 mm However, because the flux concen
trates where the ath length is shorter it is better to use the value stated by
the manufacturer - 27.6 mm. For a simle toroidal shae le is calculated as le =
2π × ln(R2 / R1)/ (1 / R1 - 1 / R2) Another common core tye, the EE, is shown in F
ig: is shown in Fig: 2.3
Figure 2.3 Flux aths The (c) line reresents the shortest ath which a flux lin
e could take to go round the core. The (a) line is the longest. Shown in (b) is
a ath whose length is that of the short ath lus four sectors whose radius is
sufficient to take the ath mid-way down the limbs.
le = 2(3.8 + 1.2) + π((2.63 - 1.2) / 2) = 12.25 mm This is all a bit aroximate;
but bear in mind that since manufacturing tolerances on ermeability are often 2
5% there isn't much oint in being more exact. Table 2.5 Quantity name magnetomo
tive force
Quantity symbol Fm, η or ℑ Unit name ampere Unit symbol A Note: Effective
lengt is usually quoted in millimeters. Many formulae
in data books implicitly
assume t at a numerical value in mm be used. Ot er books, and t ese notes, assu
me metres. Table 2.6 Quantity Magnetomotive force Electromotive force

Comparison wit wit t e Electric
units Unit Formula amperes volts Fm = H × le V =
E (Electric field strengt ) × l (distance)
Page 20

MMF can be t oug t of as t e magnetic equivalent
of electromotive force. You can
calculate it as Fm = I × Nampere turns
T e units of MMF are often stated as ampe
re turns (A-t) because of t is. In t e exampletoroid coreFm = 0.25 × 2 = 0.5 ampe
re turns Differentiate magnetomotive
force wit magnetic field strengt (magneti
zing force). As an analogy t ink of t e plates of a capacitor, wit a certain
el
ectromotive force
(EMF) between t em.
How ig t e electric field strengt is wi
ll depend on t e distance between t e plates. Similarly,
t e magnetic field stre
ngt
in
a transformer core depends not just on t e MMF but also on t e distance
t at t e flux must travel round it. A magnetic field represents stored energy an
d Fm = 2 W / Φ
whe e W is the ene gy in joules. You an also elate mmf to thetotal flux going
th ough pa t of a magneti i uit whose elu tan e you know. m = Φ × Rm Rowland's
Law The e is a lea analogy he e with an ele t i i uit and Ohm's Law, V = I
× R. Magneti ield t engthMagneti ield t ength in the I Table 2.7 Quantity
name Quantity symbol Unit name Unit symbols
magneti field st ength H ampe e pe met e A m-1
Wheneve u ent flows it is always a ompanied by a magneti field. ientists
talk of the field as being due to 'moving ele t i ha ges' - a easonable des
iption of ele t ons flowing along a wi e.

igu e 2.3 Magneti field The st ength, o intensity, of this field su ounding
a st aight wi e is given by H = I / (2 π r) -------Transformers in and out MANSOOR
Page 21
where r, the distance from the wire, is small in comarison with the length of t
he wire. The situation for short wires is described by the Biot-Savart equation.
By the way, don't confuse the seed of the charges (such as electrons) with the
seed of a signal travelling down the wire they are in. Think of the signal as
being the boundary between those electrons that have started to move and those t
hat have yet to get going. The boundary might move close to the seed of light (
3x108 m s-1) whilst the electrons themselves drift (on average) something near t
o 0.1 mm s-1. You may object that magnetic fields are also roduced by ermanent
magnets (like comass needles, door catches and fridge note holders) where no c
urrent flow is evident. It turns out that even here it is electrons moving in or
bit around nuclei or sinning on their own axis which are resonsible for the ma
gnetic field. Comarison with with the Electric units Quantity Unit Formula H= M
agnetic field strength ameres er metre
Fm/le
Electric field strength
volts er metre
ε = /d
Magntic fild strngth is analogous to lctric fild strngth. Whr an lctr
ic fild is st up btwn two plats sparatd by a distanc, d, and having an
lctromotiv forc, , btwn thm th lctric fild is givn by ε = / d V m-
1 H = Fm / l In th xampl th fild strngth is thn - H = 0.5 / 27.6×10-3 = 18
.1 A m-1 Th analogy with lctric fild strngth is mathmatical and not physic
al. An lctric fild has a clarly dfind physical maning: simply th forc
xrtd on a 'tst charg' dividd by th amount of charg. Magntic fild strng
th cannot b masurd in th sam way bcaus thr is no 'magntic monopol' q
uivalnt to a tst charg. Do not confus magntic fild strngth with flux dns
ity, B. This is closly rlatd to fild strngth but dpnds also on th matri
al within th fild. Th strict dfinition of H is H = B / µ0 - M This formula app
lis gnrally, vn if th matrials within th fild hav non-uniform prmabi
lity or a prmannt magntic momnt. It is rarly usd in coil dsign bcaus it
is usually possibl to simplify th calculation by assuming that within th fi
ld th prmability can b rgardd as uniform. With that assumption w say inst
ad that H=B/µ Flux also mrgs from a prmannt magnt vn whn thr ar no wi
rs about to impos a fild. Similarly, magntic fild strngth is –
Transformrs in and out MANSOOR
Pag 22
A fild strngth of about 2000 A m-1 is about th limit for cors mad from iron
powdr. Magntic Flux Magntic Flux in th SI Tabl 2.8 Quantity nam magntic
flux Quantity symbol Φ Unit name webe Unit symbol Wb Base units kg m2 s-2 A-1
We talk of magnetism in te ms of lines of fo e o flow o flux. Although
the La
tin fluxus, means 'flow' the English wo d is olde and un elated. lux, then, is
a measu e of the numbe of these lines - the total amount of magnetism. You an
al ulate flux f om the time integ al of the voltage V on a winding Φ = (1/N)∫V.dt
webe s
Φ = V × T / N Wb How mu h simple an the maths get? Be ause of this elationship fl
ified as volt se onds. Compa ison with with the Ele t i uni
ux is sometimes spe
ts Quantity Unit o mula Magneti flux volt se ond Φ=V×T Ele t i ha ge amp se ond
(= oulomb) Q = I × T

This is one fo m of a aday's law. If a onstant voltage is applied fo a time T
then this boils down to -
Although as shown above flux o esponds in physi al te ms most losely to ele t
i ha ge, you may find it easiest to envisage flux flowing ound a o e in the
way that u ent flows ound a i uit. When a given voltage is applied a oss
a omponent with a known esistan e then a spe ifi u ent will flow. imila ly
, appli ation of a given magnetomotive fo e a oss a fe omagneti omponent
wi
th a known elu tan e esults in a spe ifi amount of magneti flux – Φ = m / Rm Th
e e's a lea analogy he e with Ohm's Law. You an also al ulate flux as Φ = I × L
/ N

lux an also be de ived by knowing both the magneti flux density and the a ea
ove whi h it applies: Φ = Ae × B A magneti field ep esents ene gy sto ed within t
he spa e o upied by the field. o Φ = 2W/ m
Page 23
whe e W is the field ene gy in joules. O , equivalently, Φ = √(2W/ Rm)

Magneti lux Density Table 2.9 Quantity name Magneti flux density, Quantity sy
mbol B Unit name tesla Unit symbol T

Compa ison with with the Ele t i units Quantity Unit o mula 2 Magneti flux de
nsity webe s pe met e B = Φ /A ea Ele t i flux density oulombs pe met e2 D = C
/A ea lux density is simply the total flux divided by the oss se tional a ea
of the pa t th ough whi h it flows B = Φ / Ae teslas Thus 1 webe pe squa e met e
= 1 tesla. lux density is elated to field st ength via the B=µ×H o fo the examp
le o e B = 3.13×10-3 × 18.1 = 0.0567 teslas suggests that the 'B field' is simply a
n effe t of whi h the 'H field' is the ause. Can we visualize any qualitative d
istin tion between them? Ce tainly f om the point of view of p a ti al oil desi
gn the e is a ely a need to go beyond equation TMD. Howeve , the p esen e of ma
gnetized mate ials modifies fo mula B = µ0 (M + H) If the B field patte n a ound a
ba magnet is ompa ed with the H field then the lines of B fo m ontinuous loo
ps without beginning o end whe eas the lines of H may eithe o iginate o te mi
nate at the poles of the magnet. A mathemati al statement of this gene al ule i
s – div B = 0 You ould a gue that B indi ates bette the st ength of a magneti f
ield than does the 'magneti field st ength' H! This is one eason why mode n au
tho s tend not to use these names and sti k instead with 'B field' and 'H field'
. The definition
of B is in te ms of its ability to p odu e a fo e on a wi e,
length LB = / ( I × L × sinθ) Ampere's For e Lawwhere θ is the ang e between the wire
and the fie d dire tion. So it seems that H des ribes the way magnetism
is gene
rated by moving
e e tri harge (whi h is what a urrent is), whi e B is to do w
ith the abi ity to be dete ted by moving harges.

permeabi ity

In the end, both B and H are just abstra tions whi h the maths an use to mode
magneti
effe ts. Looking for more so id exp anations isn't easy. A fee for typ
i a magnitudes of B he ps. One metre away in air from a ong straight wire
arr
ying one ampere B is exa t y 200 nanotes as. The earth's fie d has a va ue of ro
ugh y60 mi rotes as (but varies from p a e to p a e). A argish permanant magne
t wi give 1 T, iron saturates at about 1.6 T and a super onduting e e tromag
net might
a hieve 15 T. Tab e 2.10 Quantity name Quantity symbo Unit name Unit
symbo Base units f ux inkage λ weber-turn Wb-t kg m2 s-2 A-1

In an idea indu tor the f ux generated
by one of its turns wou d en ir e a t
he other other turns. Rea oi s ome ose to this idea when the ross se tion
a dimensions
of the winding are sma ompared with its diameter, or if a high
permeabi ity ore guides the f ux right the way round.

Figure 2.4 F ux Linkages In onger air- ore oi s the situation is ike y to be
nearer to that shown in Fig.TFK:
we see that the f ux density de reases tow
Here
ards the ends of the oi as some f ux takes a 'short ut' bypassing the outer t
urns.
Let's assume that the urrent into the oi amperes and that ea h f u
is 5
x ine represents 7 mWb. The entra three turns a ' ink' four ines of f ux:
28 mWb. The two outer turns ink just two ines of f ux: 14 mWb. We an a u at
e the tota 'f ux inkage' for the oi as: λ = 3×28 + 2×14 = 112 mWb-t L = λ/ I = 112/5
= 22.4
mH The usefu ness of this
resu t is that it enab es us to a u ate the
tota se f indu tan e of the oi , L:

Ingenera , where an idea oi is assumed, you see expressions invo ving N×Φ o N×dΦ/dt
. o g eate a u a y you substitute λ or dλ/dt. Tab e 2.11
Page 25

Quantity name Quantity symbo Unit name Unit symbo Base units
Indu tan e L henry H kg m2 s-2 A-2

Comparison with with the E e tri units Quantity Unit Formu a Indu tan e webers
per amp L = Φ/I Capa itan e oulombs pe volt C = Q/V Any length of wi e has indu
tan e. Indu tan e is a measu e of a oil's ability to sto e ene gy in the fo m o
f a magneti field. It is defined as the ate of hange of flux with u ent L=N×dΦ/
dI If the o e mate ial's pe meability is onside ed onstant then the elation
between flux and u ent is linea and so: L=N×Φ/I By ubstitution of Equation TMM a
nd Rowland's Law L = N2 / Rm You an elate indu tan e di e tly to the ene gy e
p esented by the su ounding magneti field L = 2 W / I2 Whe e W is the field en
e gy in joules. In p a ti e, whe e a high pe meability o e is used, indu tan e
is usually dete mined f om the Al value spe ified by the manufa tu e fo the o
e L = 10-9 Al × N2 Indu tan e fo the to oid example is then: L = 2200 × 10-9 × 22 =
8.8 µH If the e is no fe omagneti o e so µ is 1.0 (the oil is 'ai o ed') then
a va iety of fo mulae a e available to estimate the indu tan e. The o e t one
to use depends upon • • • • • • • Whethe the oil has mo e than one laye of tu ns. The
o of oil length to oil diamete . The shape of the oss se tion of a multi-lay
e winding. Whethe the oil is wound on a i ula , polygonal o e tangula fo
me . Whethe the oil is open ended, o bent ound into a to oid. Whethe the
oss se tion of the wi e is ound o e tangula , tubula o solid. The pe meabi
lity of the wi e.
Page 26
• •
The f equen y of ope ation. The phase of the moon, di e tion of the wind et .. i
ndu tan e fa to Al Nanohen y nH kg m2 s-2 A-2
Table 2.12 Quantity name Quantity symbol Unit name Unit symbol Base units Al = L
× 109 / N2
Al is usually alled the indu tan e fa to , defined
L = 2200 × 10-9 × 22 = 8800 nH = 8.8 µH The o e manufa tu e may di e tly spe ify an
Al value, but f equently you must de ive it via the elu tan e, Rm. The advantag
e of this is that only one set of data need be p ovided to ove a ange of o e
s having identi al dimensions but fab i ated using mate ials having diffe ent pe
meabilities. Al = 109 / Rm o, fo ou example to oid o e – Al = 109 / 4.55×105 =
2200 The indu tan e fa to may sometimes be exp essed as "millihen ies pe 1000
tu ns". This is synonymous with nanohen ies pe tu n and takes the same nume i a
l value. If you have no data on the o e at all then wind ten tu ns of wi e onto
it and measu e the indu tan e (in hen ys) using an indu tan e mete . The Al val
ue will be 107 times this eading. Al values a e, like pe meability, a non-linea
fun tion of flux. The quoted values a e usually measu ed at low (<0.1 mT) flux
. Table 2.13 Relu tan e Quantity name Quantity symbol Unit name Unit symbols Bas
e units Rm = m / Φ
If you know the indu tan e fa to then you an multiply by the squa e of the num
be of tu ns to find the indu tan e in nano hen ies. In ou example o e Al = 22
00, so the indu tan e is -
elu tan e Rm o pe hen y o ampe e-tu ns pe webe H-1 A2 s2 kg-1 m-2
Relu tan e is the atio of mmf to flux -
In a magneti i uit this o esponds to Ohm's Law and esistan e in an ele t i
i uit. Compa e Re = V / I Relu tan e is also p opo tional to the o e fa to
, Σl/A, but inve sely p opo tional to pe meability T ansfo me s in and out MAN OOR
Page 27
Rm = ( Σl/A) / µ Again, ompa e Re = ( Σl/A) / σ
where σ i the electrical conductivity of a conductor of given length and cro - e
ctional area. Take care to u e the ab olute rather than the relative permeabilit
y here. So for the toroid example reluctance i then: Rm = 1420 / 3.13×10-3 = 4.55×1
05 A-t Wb-1 A magnetic field repre ent tored energy and Rm = 2 W / Φ2 Equation T
MR where W i the energy in joule . Although it can be a u eful concept when ana
lyzing erie or parallel combination of magnetic component reluctance i , lik
e permeability, non-linear and mu t be u ed carefully. You could be forgiven for
thinking that there would be no need to pell out what current i . That' obvio
u urely? Your mi take i to forget how hard all writer on electromagneti m t
rive to obfu cate an already difficult ubject. Here' the problem. When con ide
ring the magneto-motive force it make no difference whether you have twelve tur
n of wire carrying one amp, or three turn carrying four amp , or two turn wit
h ix amp . A far a the mmf goe it' all ju t 'twelve ampere-turn '. You will
get ju t the ame magnetic field in each ca e. Rea oning that detail about the
number of turn and the number of amp doe n't matter, only the product of the t
wo, ome writer decide to ay that the current i twelve amp . They write I = 1
2 A and leave it to you to decide which cenario brought about that 'current'. T
hi in idiou practice carrie over to formulae a well. Which i fine a long a
it' con itent and clear to the reader what' happening. If the current chang
e then, by araday' Law we have an induced voltage. You then have to remember
that the induced voltage i per turn and not the the total coil voltage. Ambigui
ty tart to creep in. It depend , perhap , on whether you're more intere ted in
phy ic or engineering. The e page take the latter view and di tingui h curren
t from mmf. Current here, then, i what an ammeter read , and the number of coil
turn , N, i written explicitly. The phy ici t get their way in the end becau
e, although you might ju t peak of reluctance a 'ampere-turn per weber', indu
ctance a 'weber-turn per ampere' i getting a little contrived - even if it do
e reflect the concept of flux linkage rather nicely. But permeability a 'weber
-turn per ampere-metre'? Trivia point: why i the ymbol I u ed for current? Al
legedly, it tand for 'electric inten ity', a oppo ed to 'total amount of elec
tricity' (charge). Maxwell, though, u ed the ymbol C for current and u ed elect
ric inten ity to refer to the E-field: what mo t people today know a electric f
ield trength. So it goe . Current den ity in the SI Table 2.14
Tran former in and out MANSOOR Page 28
Quantity name Quantity ymbol Unit name Unit ymbol
current den ity J ampere per quare metre A m-2
Current den ity i imply the total electric current divided by the area over wh
ich it i flowing. Example: if a wire 0.7 millimetre diameter carrie a current
of 0.5 ampere then the current den ity i J = 0.5 / (π 0.00072 / 4) = 1.30×106 A m
-2 Or 1.3 ams er millimetre2. A reasonable limit for most small transformers i
s 3.5×106 A m-2.
The number of turns
By tradition, coil calculations use the caital letter N to reresent the total
number of turns in the coil. Solenoid coils are sometimes described using the lo
wer case letter n to reresent the number of turns er unit length. So N = n × la
Where la is the axial length of the coil. Naturally, for most designs, the numbe
r of turns required is the $64,000 question. The answer comes in a bewildering v
ariety of forms. For the most common case, such as the examle toroid core, wher
e the manufacturer has secified Al -
N = √(109 L / Al) So, if you needed 330 microhenries then N = √(109 × 330 × 10-6 / 2200)
= 12 turns Relationshis between magnetic quantitiesFlux, field strength, erme
ability, reluctance ..... it's easy to go into jargon overload. Snelling lists o
ver 360 different symbol uses connected with ferromagnetics. There isn't even ag
reement about what to call some roerties (I say remnance, you say remanence, h
e says retentivity). You will coe better if you can form a mental icture of th
e arty that these names throw when they get together inside your transformer.
Analogy with electric quantities
You may find it easier to obtain an intuitive gras of the relationshis between
magnetic quantities by thinking in terms of 'magnetic circuits' with flux flowi
ng round a core in a fashion analogous to current flowing round an electric circ
uit. Electric analogues Table 2.15 Magnetic Electric quantity quantity magnetomo
tive force electromotive force (voltage) magnetic field strength electric field
strength ermeability conductivity magnetic flux current magnetic flux density c
urrent density reluctance resistance
For examle, if you have a transformer with a gaed core then imagine that the
core and the ga form a series magnetic circuit with the same flux flowing throu
gh both reluctance comonents in an analogous fashion to a series electric circu
it in which the same current flows through two resistors -
Fm = Φ × (Rm_gap + Rm_core) ampere-turn
compare V = I × (R1 + R2) volt There' an entire family of formulae which take i
milar form in both the electric and magnetic world . Krau li t mo t of them.
All analogie break down when pu hed too far. Thi one fall rather quickly if y
ou reali e that curent flowing through a re i tor di ipate energy while flux f
lowing through a reluctance doe not. In fact you can a k whether flux i a real
phy ical effect at all (in the way that electron flow i ).
Sequence of operation
In tran former de ign you would normally like to deal in term of the voltage o
n the winding . However, the key to under tanding what happen in a tran former
(or other wound component) i to realize that what the tran former really care
about i the current in the winding ; and that everything follow on from that. • • • • •
The current in a winding produce magneto-motive force -

m = I × N ampere-turn
The magneto-motive force produce magnetic field -

H = m / le ampere-turn per metre
The field produce magnetic flux den ity -
B = µ × H te la
Summed over the cro - ectional area of the core thi
equate to a total flux Φ =
B × Ae weber The flux produce induced voltage (EM ) e = N × dΦ/dt volt
If you can follow thi five tep equence then building a mental image of a magn
etic component become impler. Remember, you put in a current and get back an i
nduced voltage. In fact, if you can treat the permeability a being linear, then
the con tant N, le, µ and Ae can be lumped together into one con tant for the wi
nding which i called ( urpri e!) Inductance, L L = µ × Ae × N2 / le henry
I give the ba e unit for all the quantitie in thi equation; enabling thrill-
eeker to make a dimen ional analy i verifying that iti con i tent. Right, o
then our five tep relation hip between current and EM boil down to: e = L × dI
/dt volt
Tran former in and out MANSOOR
Page 30

You may be about to complain that you know the EM on your winding but don't kno
w the current in it. The an wer i that the proce then work in rever e - the
current will build up until the induced voltage i ufficient to oppo e the appl
ied voltage. You can find out more by looking at araday' law. How do you take
into account the pre ence of the econdary winding in a tran former? One way i
to take the fir t four tep of the equence above and apply them eparately to
each winding (whether primary
or econdary). The arithmetic um over all windin
g give total core flux. rom the time rate of change of flux you then have the
induced voltage in each winding ( ince you al o know the number of turn for ea
ch). There are le tediou method of analyzing tran former operation which you
would probably do better u ing. But they are another tory.
2.2
Magnetic phenomena in ferromagnetic material

erromagneti m i one of magnetic tate of the ub tance characterized by paral
lel orientation of the magnetic moment of nuclear carrier of magneti m. It i
cau ed by po itive value of energy of interelectronic exchange interaction. The
magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic material i po itive and reache value
of about 105 G/Oe. Their magnetization J grow with increa e of magnetic field Н n
ot linearly and achieve a limit value J (magnetic aturation). Value J depend
al o on "magnetic hi tory" of a ample. Itmake dependence J on Н ambiguou , o
the magnetic hy tere i curve i ob erved. erromagnetic hy tere i curve (loop)
characterized by everal parameter : coercivity, remanence (or remanent magneti
zation), magnetization of aturation, maximum energy product (or trength of the
magnet). Coercitivity Hc i the field which ha to be applied to ferromagnetic
material to make magnetization equal to zero. High coercitivity i very importan
t for permanent magnet to tay magnetized in the pre ence of an oppo ing magnet
ic field. On the contrary for magnetic tran former the big coercitivity i harm
ful becau e it increa e the lo t of energy. Remanence i re idual magnetization
of a ferromagnetic material in the ab ence of external magnetic field (after t
he external magnetizing field ha been turned off). Thi parameter i convenient
to u e for compari on of the relative “ trength” of different magnet . It depend g
reatly on magnet compo ition and method of manufacture. Magnetization of aturat
ion i magnetization of ferromagnetic material in very trong (infinity trong)
magnetic field . All the atom in thi ca e are magnetized in one direction. Str
ength of the magnet i the area of hy tere i loop. Thi give a mea ure of the
energy tored in the magnet. The u ual unit i the Mega Gau -Oer ted (MGOe). Th
e SI unit i kJ/m3. [1 MGOe = 8 kJ/m3]. Iron, nickel, cobalt, ome of the rare e
arth (gadolinium, dy pro ium) exhibit ferromagnetic propertie . Mo t of the e m
aterial have poly-cry talline form. Samarium and neodynium in alloy with cobal
t have been u ed to fabricate very trong rare-earth magnet . Such magnet have
very high coercivity, remanence, maximum energy product. On the contrary ome of
amorphou (non-cry talline) ferromagnetic metallic alloy exhibit low coercivit
y, low hy tere i lo and high permeability. Such amorphou alloy can be fabri
cated by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy (u ually e, Co, or Ni
with B, C, Si,
P, or Al). One example of uch an amorphou alloy i e80B20 (Me
tgla 2605). erromagneti m i a o-called cooperative phenomenon, a ingle ato
m cannot exhibit ferromagneti m, but once a certain number of atom are bound t
ogether in olid form, ferromagnetic propertie ari e. If a ferromagnetic materi
al i cooled from above the Curie temperature, micro copic domain with nonzero
magnetization form. Domain are pontaneou ly magnetized up to aturation. They
u ually have linear ize of about 10-3-10-2 cm. The Curie temperature give an
idea of the amount of energy take to break
up the long-range ordering in the material. The Curie temperature of iron i abo
ut 1043 K, which corre pond to the thermal energy of about 0.135 eV. In ab ence
of an external magnetic field the magnetization vector of the different domain
are oriented in oppo ite direction , o the net magnetization of the material
i zero. Such domain configuration dimini he the energy of magnetic field gener
ated by ferromagnetic material in external pace. The direction of vector of do
main magnetization coincide u ually with a direction of ea y magnetization axe
, that provide the minimum of free energy of ferromagnetic material. If the i
ze of ferromagnetic material i le then a critical ize, then plitting into d
omain can become energetically unprofitable and one-domain tructure i formed.
Such ca e i hown in animation (each arrow repre ent one magnetic domain). In
practice uch ca e can be realized in ferromagnetic film and amorphou alloy .
If the axi of ea y magnetization coincide with a direction of applied field H
, then magnetization occur by mean of domain wall motion. Thu , if an externa
l magnetic field i increa ed in the direction oppo ite to material magnetizatio
n, then the flip of magnetization occur harply when H=Ha , where Ha i a value
of ani otropy field. The rectangular hy tere i loop i ob erved and coercivity
Hc equal to Ha. In a ca e when the axi of ea y magnetization i perpendicular
to applied field H, the magnetization occur by domain rotation and linear hy
tere i loop ob erved. Such ferromagnetic material can be u ed in mea uring y
tem and tran former ince their magnetization i directly proportional to appl
ied magnetic field (or, for example, to a current in primary winding of a tran
former). In uch ferromagnetic material the effect of Young' modulu change un
der action of magnetic field ( Eeffect) i ob erved. In amorphou alloy , for ex
ample, thi effect can be great enough (Young modulu can be varied an order of
magnitude by magnetic field). Two neare t domain magnetized in oppo ite directi
on are alway eparated by a tran itive layer of final thickne (Bloch Wall) i
n which there i a gradual turn of pin a it i hown in animation. Generally
the magnetization of ferromagnetic material occur both by mean of domain rot
ation and motion of domain wall . Pre ence of impuritie in a magnetic material,
defect of a cry tal lattice, variou ort of non-uniformity complicate the m
ovement of Block wall and by that rai e the coercitivity Hc of a material. Mag
neto triction i a change of the form and the ize of a ferromagnetic material
during magnetization.
Thi phenomenon wa di covered in 1842. In uch ferromagne
tic material a e, Ni, Co, in a number of alloy and ferrite the magneto tric
tion can achieve ignificant value (of about 10-610-2). Animation how a trip
domain tructure with an axi of ea y magnetization perpendicular to applied fie
ld H. Magnetization i accompanied by rotation of domain that re ult in change
of the ize of a magnetic material (magneto triction). Magneto triction ha a w
ide range of application in technique . Thi phenomenon underlie magneto trict
ion converter and relay line , generator and receiver of ultra ound, filter
and tabilizer of frequency, etc.
2.3
Magnetic Propertie of Tran former
The magnetic propertie are characterized by it hy teri i loop, which i a gra
ph of flux den ity ver u magnetization force a hown below:

ig 2.5 When a electric current flow through a conductor ( copper wire), it gen
erate a magnetic field. The magnetic field i tronge t at the conductor urface
and weaken a it di tance from the conductor urface i increa ed. The magnet
ic field i perpendicular to the direction of current flow and it direction i
given by the right hand rule hown below

ig 2.6 When the conductor or wire i wound around a magnetic material ( ferrit
e, iron, teel, MPP, endu t, high flux, etc), and current flow through the con
ductor, a flux i induced on the magnetic material . Thi flux i induced by the
magnetic field generated by the current carrying conductor. The magnetic materi
al' atomic part got influenced by the magnetic field and cau e them to align
in a certain direction. The application of thi magnetic field on the magnetic m
aterial i called magnetization force. Magnetization force i called Oer ted or
A/m (ampere per meter). The unit for Magnetization force i "H" The re ult o
f applying the e magnetic field from the current carrying conductor cau e the m
agnetic material to have magnetic flux being formed in ide the magnetic materia
l . The inten ity of the e flux i called
flux den ity. Therefore flux den ity i
defined a the flux per quare area. lux den ity i called gau or Te la. I
Te la i 10,000 gau , or 1mT i 10 gau .
Page 33

The unit for lux i "B" Thu , the hy teri i loop i often called the BH curve.
Under tanding of the BH curve i extremely
important in the de ign of tran for
mer , choke , coil and inductor . lux den ity or B i given a B = E× 108 4 A Nƒ E
= Input or Output Voltage, in volt (rm ) A= Cro Sectional Area, in cm² ƒ = Switchi
ng frequency, in Hz N= Number of Turn Note that B i a function of voltage ( in
put voltage if calculated from primary winding , and output voltage if calculate
d from econdary ide). lux will reduce if you increa e the number of turn The
magnetization force or H i given a H = 0.4πNI l
Where N = No. of turns
I = Current in Ams l = Magnetic Path Length in cm Note that H is a function of
inut current. As the current swings from ositive to negative the flux changes
as well, tracing the curve. The ermeability of a magnetic material is the abili
ty of the material to increase the flux intensity or flux density within the mat
erial when an electric current flows through a conductor wraed around the magn
etic materials roviding the magnetization force. The higher the ermeability, t
he higher the flux density from a given magnetization force. If you look at the
BH loo again, you will note that the ermeability is actually the sloe of the
BH curve. The steeer the curve, the higher the ermeability as shown below. As
the magnetization force increases ( or the current over the conductor is increas
ed), a oint is reached where the magnetic material or core will saturate. See
oint "S" above on the curves. When that haens, any further increase in H, will
not increase the flux. More imortantly, the ermeability goes to zero as the s
loe now is flat.
In this situation the magnetic material or core will fail to work as a transform
er, chokes, or inductors. In a transformer design, you must make sure that the m
aximum AC current swings from ositive to negative is well below the saturation
oint. Fig 2.7 Another way to get saturation is by increasing the flux density w
hich is normally achieved by increasing the voltage ( see equation above). B = V
oltage ×108 4 A Nƒ From the BH curve, you can see that when the ermeability is high
( sloe is stee), the cores will go into saturation faster. Conversely, when t
he ermeability is low, the cores saturate at a much higher flux density.
2.4
Tyical construction of a transformer core
A hoto of a tyical core of a transformer (rating 400 kVA) is shown in Figure 2
. The yokes and the legs of the core have steed cross-sectional areas formed b
y a stacked arrangement of thin laminations. Each layer of lamination has an ave
rage thickness of 0.28mm. Considering its hysical details, a lamination on its
own is a flimsy layer. These laminations, although clamed at certain oints, st
ill can have a freedom for relative in-lane motions over their remaining interf
ace areas. As laminations may not have good matching flat surfaces and as they a
re not clamed together over an entire surface area, residual gas between the l
aminations are unavoidable. Magneto-motive forces acting across these air gas c
ould set relative transverse motions between the laminations. Also, with clamed
constraint oints in lace, deformation due to magnetostriction could set addit
ional bending of the lamination lates. Therefore, it seems interesting to study
in detail the effect of laminations on the flexibility of the core structure. A
reliminary study of these effects is resented in the following sections.
Fig 2.8 Transformer core and Laminations

Page 35
Fig 2.9 Core arrangement in a transformer PROPERTIES OF GRAINS, DOMAINS AND UNDE
RSTANDING OF HYSTERISIS LOSSES Every tye of steel has "grains" which consist of
"domains". These "domains" are nothing but electrical charges oriented in any r
andom direction. Therefore if a transformer were to be made of Mild Steel used a
s core material, the core loss would be arox. 16 to 17 w/kg at 1.5T/50Hz and t
he size of the transformer would be arox. 18 to 20 times the size of a transfo
rmer manufactured with GO steels. The main difference between regular "carbon" s
teels and GO steels are: 1. The size of the "grains" in GO steels are urosely
"grown" and made bigger and are about 10 times the size of the grains in regular
steel, thereby reducing the hystereses losses. The size of grains in CGOS is 2
mm to 5mm and HGOS is 5mm to 20mm. In regular steels the size of a grain is less
than 0.5mm. The grains in GO steels are all aligned almost arallel to the dire
ction of rolling of the steel (i.e. the length of the steel). The angle of mis-o
rientation (i.e. deviation from the rolling direction) is maximum 7% for convent
ional GO and less than 3% for Hi-B GO steels. This reduces the hystereses losses
as "switching" (exlained later) becomes easier within the domains. The chemica
l comosition of the GO steels has about 3.2% of Silicon as an alloy, thereby in
creasing the secified volume resistivity of the steel, thereby reducing the edd
y currents. GO Steels are also decarbonised and have no more than 0.06% of carbo
n in their chemical comosition, which revents aeging of the steel. There is a
secial carlite insulation coating on the steel, which reduces the inter-laminar
eddy current losses within the core.
2.
3.
4.
Let us understand how exactly hystereses losses are develoed with resect to GO
electrical steels: The microstructure of the steel, as mentioned before, consis
ts of numerous "grains" each of which have domains. The magnified diagram would
look like this: Tyical core loss for M4 grade at 1.5 Tesla/50 Hz in this direct
ion
…..Fig 2.10 O = Angle of misorientation from Rolling direction Grains which is les
s than 7% for CGOS and less Than 3% for HGOS The tyical icture inside any "gra
in" would consist of domains like this:
A domain when exanded would look like this:
Thus, every domain is nothing but a closed magnetic circuit as shown in the figu
re above. Now consider what haens when an alternating current of 50 cycles is
alied. The domains "switch" to and fro 50 times in a second. Therefore the dom
ain looks like this as the current alternates 50 times and the diagrams below re
resent the direction of the domain as the current alternates
And so on ….. 50 times every second

It is relatively very easy for the vertical switches (V1 and V2) to occur but ve
ry hard for the horizontal (H1 and H2) switches to occur. The horizontal switche
s require more energy to be comleted and also "lag" behind the vertical switche
s, and this results in heat, which results in the hystereses loss within the ste
el. The sum total of the energy required for the horizontal switches to occur ar
e the total hystereses losses of the steel. Thus the larger the grains, the lowe
r the losses as there are less total number of grains in the steel and therefore
less number of "switches" and low hysterisis losses. PROCESSING OF CRGO STEEL I
NTO LAMINATIONS CRGO steel is a "delicate" steel to be handled with care. As the
magnetic roerty of the steel and not the tensile strength (as is the case wit
h most other steels) is the imortant quality required, it is imerative that we
understand the nuances in handling, storing and rocessing of this steel. If th
ese are not done roerly, it ultimately leads to higher losses and the results
are not as er design. Stresses are of two tyes, elastic stress and lastic str
ess. An elastic stress is a temorary stress which any GO steel may be subjected
to like some load on to of the coil or a slight force to decoil. The moment th
e stress is removed, the original magnetic roerties of the material are restor
ed and these are no longer damaged. However, a lastic deformation due to windin
g into cores or ulling or stretching or bending GOS as shown below, can only be
rectified by a stress relief annealing at around 820ºC. 1. Storage of CRGO coils
has to be done roerly as imroer storage may result in excessive stresses uni
ntentionally. This tye of stress can be elastic or lastic deending on the sev
erity of the wrong storage and the resulting deformation in coil shae (if any).
Fig 2.11 Introduction of stress in steel due to imroer storage of coils CRGO i
s an imortant raw material which forms the core of the transformer. 1. Proer c
are is to be used in handling of stri, sheets or long laminations, failing whic
h can introduce stresses that can distort magnetic roerties 2 .The method of h
olding the laminations in a core assembly and the mechanical ressure alied to
the core assembly also affects the total core loss. Uninsulated bolts or assemb
ly by welding, would rovide a low resistance ath and increase eddy current los
ses and should therefore be avoided. High assembly
ressures decrease the surface resistance and increase the inter-laminar losses
and increase the total core losses. Therefore excessive claming on the core mus
t be avoided as the resistance of surface insulation is inversely roortional t
o the ressure alied. A high claming ressure leads to breakdown of surface i
nsulation resistivity and higher inter-laminar losses. 3. Inaccurately cut angle
s in mitred cores also result in a distortion of flux and increase in overall co
re losses. Air gas at joints can drastically alter the values of t he total cor
e loss. 4. Variation in thickness in the same width ste of material not only re
sults in roblems in core building, but also increases the overall core loss of
the material as it increases the air gas during the assembly.5. Residual materi
al on lamination surfaces like oil, dust etc. also adversely affects the stackin
g factor and increases the total core loss. Table 2.16 Sound Levels: Maximum sou
nd levels are as follows: AUDIBLE SOUND LEVELS for LIQUID FILLED TRANSFORMERS KV
A Sound Level 0-9 10-50 51-150 151-300 301-500 (dBA) 40 45 50 55 60
KVA 700 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 4000 5000 6000 7500 10000 12500
Sound Level 57 58 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
Page 39
15000
70
Data are based on OA rating for oil-immersed ower
Chater-3
3
3.1
TRANSFORMERS EQUATIONS
Magnetic circuit excited by alternating current

According
to the Faraday’s experiment t e voltage e induced in one turn linking
a
c anging magnetic field (see Fig.3.1) is proportional to t e time rate of c ange
of flux Φ:

………….1 The polarity of the induced voltage can be determined by the Lenz’s
law t at says: “
e induced voltageis always in suc a direction as to tend to oppose t e c ange
in flux linkage t at produces it”
Page 40

Fig.3.1 Explanation to equation (1) T is is s own in 3.1. For multitern coil t e
induced voltage is:

…………2 w ere: N – is t e number of coil turns
and λ – is the f ux inkage in weber turns. Su
se we have a oi wound on one eg of a ose iron ore as shown in Fig.3.2. To
draw an e uiva ent ir uit of su h a devi e a ed indu tor, and then to ana yze
its behavior under
variab e supp y ondition et we onsider first
an idea ind
u tor. An idea indu tor An idea indu tor is defined by the fo owing assumptio

• The oi of indu tan e L has the resistan e R e ua to zero, • There is an ide
ns:
a magneti
ir uit of the iron ore
with no power
osses in it, • There is no ea
kage f ux, what means that the who e magneti f ux is within the iron ore.

Fig.3.2
S heme of the indu tor
supp ied from the a . sour e Assuming a inear re
ation between urrent and f ux, the sinusoida urrent i =Im sin(ωt ) ………. (3) produces
the sinusoidal flux ………….(4) The voltage induced in N-turn coil is
……(5)
The effective value of this voltage is:
……...(6) The voltage expressed in terms of current flo
ing trough the coil is: …….(7) Fo
r sinusoidal current: …….(8) The effective value of the voltage expressed in the com
plex form is: ……(9)
here X L µ ω = is the magnetizing reactance. For an ideal inductor,
the induced voltage (emf – E) is equal to the voltage supply E= V . The equivalen
t circuit of such an inductor is sho
n in Fig.3.3. The phasor diagram of voltage
s and current is sho
n in Fig.3.4.
Fig.3.3 Inductor equivalent circuit
Fig.3.4 Phasor diagram corresponding
ith Fig.3.3
1.2 A real inductor A real inductor has a real coil and the real magnetic circui
t. This magnetic circuit is described by the hysteresis loop of B-H characterist
ic sho
n in Fig.3.5. During the process of magnetization by the alternating flux
the energy is lost due to the hysteresis loop. This energy loss, called the hys
teresis loss is proportional to the area closed by the hysteresis loop. That mea
ns it depends on the material the inductor core is made of. The empirical formul
a for this loss is: ……….. (10)
here the constant Kh and n vary
ith the core material
. n is often assumed to be 1.6 – 2. Since, according to equation (6) B is proporti
onal to E
e can
rite for n=2
Page 42
Fig.3.5 Hysterisis loop of B-H characteristic There is another source of po
er l
oss in the magnetic core too. These are eddy currents induced in the core. To il
lustrate this phenomenon let us consider the solid core sho
n in Fig.3.6.a. If t
he magnetic flux existing in the core is directed to
ards the paper and is incre
asing, it induces the voltages in the core,
hich, in the case of close electric
loops, cause the eddy currents that generate the po
er losses i R 2 as a heat.
The po
er losses can be reduced by decreasing i (increasing R). If, instead of a
solid iron core, thin laminations are used (Fig.3.6.b), the effective induced c
urrents are decreased by the increase of the resistance of the effective paths.
The eddy current losses are significantly reduced in that case.
Fig.3.6. Eddy currents in: (a) solid iron core, (b) laminated iron core For the
given core, the eddy currents po
er losses are given by Since the voltage induce
d in the coil is proportional to f Bm , the po
er losses are equal to: ………….(13) The con
stant Ke ' depends on the conductivity of the core material and the square of th
e thickness of the laminations. Combining the eddy currents and hysteresis po
er
losses the total core po
er losses are:
…………(12)
………… (14) For the purpose of the equivalent circuit
e intend to build, an equivalent re
sistance RFe is introduced. Then the core po
er losses at constant supply freque
ncy can be expressed as follo
s:
……….. (15) The po
er losses PFe are proportional to the square of voltage E,
hich app
ears across the resistance RFe. This allo
s to sho
the inductor equivalent circ
uit in form as in Fig.3.7a. (a) (b)
Fig.3.7 An equivalent circuit (a) and the corresponding phasor diagram (b) of th
e inductor
ith core losses The excitation current Ie is split into t
o componen
ts: the magnetizing current I µ and IFe, proportional to the core po
er losses. Fi
g.3.7.b,
ith the phasor diagram sho
s the relationship bet
een the voltage E an
d currents I µ and IFe. These currents are displaced from each other by an angle π/2
. This dislacement can be exlained by means of excitation current waveform sho
wn in Fig.3.8. If the coil is sulied with sinusoidal voltage the flux Φ mu t be
inu oidal too according to equation 1. Since the magnetizing characteri tic B-H
i nonlinear, and ha a hy tere i loop, the current waveform obtained from mag
netizing curve i far from inu oidal. If we extract two current component from
the current ie by finding the ymmetrical current with regard to the l line we
obtain ih current being in pha e with the voltage E and magnetizing current I µ l
agging the voltage E by the angle π/2 (see Fig 3.7).
Page 44
Fig.3.8 Extraction of hysteresis current comonent ih from the excitation curren
t ie So far we did not take into account the resistance of the coil R and the le
akage flux Φ . Thi i the flux, which goe via air a hown in ig.3.9. It induce
the voltage E in the coil, which i equal If we expre the flux Φ in term of
the current: ………… (16)
…………. (17) then the voltage: …………. (18) or written in complex notation: ………….(19) where X
e reactance.

ig.3.9 Diagram of the real inductor with the coil re i tance R and the leakage
flux Φ The equivalent circuit of the real inductor i hown in ig.3.10.a. The ci
rcuit how magnetic fluxe a ociated with their inductance L and Lµ. The volta
ge equation of the circuit i

………………(20) An adequate pha or diagram i hown in ig.3.10.b.

ig.3.10 Equivalent circuit (a) and pha or diagram (b) of the real inductor
3.2
Single-pha e tran former
3.2.1. Tran former operation and con truction

ig.3.11 Two-winding ingle-pha e tran former
Page 46

ig.3.12.(a) Shell-type tran former, (b) core-type tran former Two cooling y te
m : - air-cooled: mall tran former - oil-cooled: large tran former Very large
tran former are immer ed in the tank with radiator and forced circulation.

ig.3.13. Con truction of tran former core from tamping : (a) hell-type and (
b) coretype tran former 3.2.2. Ideal tran former A umption for an ideal tran f
ormer: - R1 and R2 are equal to 0 - Φ 1 and Φ 2 are equal to 0 ( µ= ∞ and L = ∞) A uming
a inu oidal time variation of flux: …………… (21) the induced emf : ……………. (22) ……………….(23)
T
mplex notation: ……………. (25) ……………(26) The ratio of induced voltage : …………….. (27) or an id

…………… (28) ……………..(29) There are no power lo e and S1 = S2 rom the above equation: ……………

ig.3.14 The equivalent circuit of ideal tran former with the magnetic link To e
liminate the magnetic connection let u expre the econdary voltage and curren
t a : …………… (33) ……………(34) V2 ' and I2 ' are econdary voltage and current referred to a pr
e.

ig.3.15 The equivalent circuit of an ideal tran former with electric connection
of two Side
Page 48

ig.3.16 Pha or diagram for an ideal tran former Tran former can be u ed for the
impedance matching.

ig.3.17 Ideal tran former with econdary load impedance
…………. (35) Z2 ' i the output
impedance een at the primary ide or the tran former inpu
t impedance a hown in ig.3.18.

ig.3.18. Input impedance for ideal tran former with econdary load impedance Z2
3.2.3 A real tran former

ig.3.19 Circuit diagram of a real two winding tran former

ig.3.20 Equivalent circuit of the real tran former with magneticcoupling Equat
ion of magnetomotive force in complex notation: ………….(36) where me i the mmf re pon i
ble for generation of flux Φ. The above equation written in other form: …………. (37) Thu : ……
where: Ie -excitation current, and I2 ' - econdary current referred to the pr
imary ide. rom the equivalent circuit in ig.3.20 ……………..(41)
…………….(42) Multiplying the above equation by a: ……………….(43) or written in other form: ……………
Are the econdary voltage and current referred to the primary ide Are the eco
ndary circuit parameter referred to the primary ide …………………. ( ig.3.21)

ig.3.21 Modified equivalent circuit of a ingle-pha e tran former

ig.3.22 Pha or diagram of the real tran former at the inductive load (load curr
ent i lagging the voltage) The primary impedance togetherwith the hunt parame
ter can be tran ferred to the econdary ide a hown in ig.3.23.
The tran ferred to the econdary ide parameter are a follow :

ig.3.23 Equivalent circuit with parameter referred to the econdary ide. 3.2.
4 Te t for determination of circuit parameter 3.2.4.1 Open-circuit te t

ig.3.24 Circuit diagram for the open-circuit te t of the
tran former Mea ured q
uantitie : V1 , Io, Po and V2. Since I I on << and R R e 1 << , X X 1 << µ the m
odified equivalent circuit i a hown in ig.3.25. rom the mea ured quantitie
the following parameter can be calculated: ……..(45)
…….(46) ……..(47)
Page 52

ig.3.25 Equivalent circuitof the tran former at the open circuit te t Accordin
g tothe pha or diagram of ig.3.26, which corre pond to the equivalent circuit
of ig.3.25, the magnetizing current: ………… (48) Where

or diagram at open-circuit te t corre ponding with the equivalent c
ig.3.26 Pha
ircuit in ig.3.25.

rom the open-circuit te t: 3.2.4.2 Short-circuit te t

W ig.3.27 Circuit diagram of the tran former at hort-circuit te t Since Ie <<
I c , the equivalent circuit i a in ig.3.28.
Page 53

ig.3.28 Equivalent circuit of the tran former at hort circuit te t Mea ured qu
antitie : V1 , I c , P c. Since: …………..(51)
the following parameter can be determined from the meaured quantitie : ……….. (52) Si
nce the hort-circuit reactance i equal to …………..(54) or mot of power tran former : …………
hepha or diagram corre ponding to the equivalent circuit in ig.3.28 i drawn i
n ig.3.29. ….…….. (53)

ig.3.29 Pha or diagram at hort-circuited econdary
3.2.6 Tran former operation at on-load condition
Page 54

ig.3.30 Simplified equivalent circuit of the tran former at on-load operation (
a)
(a)
(b)

ig.3.31 Pha or diagram at on-load condition : (a) capacitive load
(b) inductive load,

ig.3.32 V-I characteri tic (external characteri tic ) at V1 = con t, f=con t,
P =con t. Voltage regulation A the current i drawn trough tran former, the ec
ondary voltage change becau e of voltage drop in the internal impedance of the
tran former. Voltage regulation ( v%) i u ed to identify thi characteri tic of
voltage change. It i defined a :

…………..(56) Referring to the equivalent circuit hown in ig.3.30 Equ.56 can al o be writ
ten a :
The load voltage i normally taken a the rated voltage. Therefore:

rom equivalent circuit

If the load i thrown off inally:
hence
…………(57) The voltage regulation depend on power factor of the load. Thi can be appreci
ated from the pha or diagram ( ig.3.30). The locu of V1 i a circle of radiu '
The magnitude of V1 will be maximum if the pha or ' i in pha e with V2. That i

ϕeq i the angle of the tran former equivalent impedance Zeq. Therefore the maximu
m voltage regulation occur if the power factor angle of the load i the ame a
the tran former equivalent impedance angle and the load power factor i lagging
. To keep the output voltage unchanged i.e. to adju t it to the required
value,
turn ratio i changed by mean of tap-changing witch a hown in ig.3.33.
where: ϕ2 i the angle of the load impedance, and
Page 56

ig.3.33 Tap changing witch to vary the econdary winding in the range of ±5% of
the rating value 3.2.7 Efficiency Definition:
………(58) where: P1 and P2 are the input and output power re pectively. If expre ed in
term of power lo e :

………….(59) The power lo e con i t of mainly the lo e in the core P e and in the windi
ng Pw …………..(60) The latter one i equal to: …………….(61) Since the output power i at 2 2n V
…………(62) The tran former efficiency:

…………..(63) The efficiency v . econdary current characteri tic i hown in ig.3.34. The
maximum efficiency i when the iron lo e are equal to cooper lo e . It come
from
at con tant: Sn, co

…………..(64) 2, Pwn and P e the maximum efficiency i at:
Page 57
or expre ed in other way
………..(65)

ig.3.34 Efficiency and power lo e ver u econdary current characteri tic 3.
2.8 “Per unit” y tem In “per unit” (pu) y tem all quantitie and equivalent circuit pa
rameter are expre ed not in term of normal unit , but a a proportion of refe
rence or rated value. Thi i particularly u eful in the quantitative de criptio
n of tran former work. Let u elect a reference value of the voltage equal to t
he rated value Vn. Then the per unit value i
…………………..(66)
………….(67) If we take a the reference impedance defined a
…………..(68)
then the expre ion V= I. Z ……………(69)
in the real unit can be written in per unit value a follow
…………….(71) We ee that
……………. (72) The impedance of the winding of tran former and rotating machine i u ually
expre ed a pu value and i related to the value in Ohm by the equation above
.
Let u now con ider the pu. y tem for power P or S. If the reference value of p
ower ………………(73)
……………….(74) Having all quantitie of one ide expre ed in pu. y tem we do not have to tra
fer them to another ide u ing turn ratio adju tment. They are ju t equal to t
he value of another ide. or example:
………………(75) or ……………… (76)
3.3
Three-pha e tran former
3.3.1 Con truction (a)

ig.3.35.(a) Single-pha e tran former upplied from 3-pha e ymmetrical ource,
(b) 3pha e tran former core with magnetic ymmetry, (c) core of the real 3-pha
e coretype
tran former

ig.3.36 Three-pha e core-type tran former
Page 60

ig.3.37 Winding connection of 3-pha e tran former and flux di tribution in the
core leg
3.3.2 Connection group of three-pha e winding Table 3.1 Connection of three- ph
a e winding
Page 61
Page 62
3.3.3 Parallel operation of tran former Demand put upon the operation of tran
former connected in parallel, which mu t be fulfilled to avoid wrong operation
at no-load and on-load condition : 1.1 There mu t be no current in the econdar
y winding at no-load condition , 2.1 The tran former mu t load them elve acco
rdingly to their rated power at on-load Operation. 3.1 The pha e angle of the
econdary line current of all in parallel connected tran former mu t be the a
me.

ig.3.40 Three-pha e tran former connected in parallel To meet the e demand th
e tran former mu t ati fy the following requirement : 1) Tran former mu t hav
e the ame voltage ratio, 2) The connection group of tran former mu t be identi
cal, 3) The rated hort-circuit voltage of tran former mu t be the ame, 4) Th
e ratio of rated power hould not exceed 1/3.

ig.3.41.(a) and (b) Illu tration to the requirement 1) and 3) re pectively
3.4
Auto-tran former

ig.3.42 An explanation to the con truction of auto-tran former Similar, a for
two-winding tran former the turn ratio i defined a follow :
……………(77) and it i approximately equal to the voltage ratio:
……………(78) The power i tran ferred from the primary ide
to the econdary ide in two way
: by conduction and induction. Thi i illu trated in ig.3.43.
(c)
Page 64
(d)

ig.3.43 Explanation to the power tran fer in the auto-tran former Ignoring the
power lo e the total volt-ampere power i the um of “conduction” power Sc and “indu
ction” power Si. ……………(79) where: ……………(80)
……………..(81) Since ……………..(82) the two power component expre ed in term of the total powe
Page 65
……………..(83)
…………….(84) The um:
……………(85) give the total power S. The common type of auto-tran former, which can be found
in mo t of laboratorie i the variable-ratio
auto-tran former in which the ec
ondary connection i movable a hown in ig.3.44.

ig.3.44 Auto-tran former with variable econdary voltage
Page 66
Chapter-4
4
4.1

INSTRUMENT TRANS ORMERS
Introduction
In trument tran former (IT ) are de igned to tran form: voltage (Voltage (VT )
or Potential Tran former (PT )) or current (Current tran former (CT )) from th
e high value in the tran mi ion and di tribution y tem to the low value tha
t can be utilized by low voltage current metering device . There are three prima
ry application for which IT are u ed: - metering (for energy billing and tran
action purpo e ) - protection control (for y tem protection and protective rela
ying purpo e ) - load urvey (for economic management of indu trial load ) Depen
ding on the requirement for tho e application , the IT de ign and con truction
can be quite different. Generally, the metering It require high accuracy in the
range of normal operating voltage and current. Protection IT require linearity
in a wide range of voltage and current . During the di turbance, uch a a y
tem fault or over voltage tran ient , the output of the IT i u ed by a protecti
ve relay to initiate an appropriate action (open or clo e a breaker, reconfigure
the y tem, etc.) to mitigate the di turbance and protect the re t of the power
y tem. In trument tran former are the mo t common and economic way to detect
a di turbance. Typical output level of in trument tran former are 0-5 A and 11
5-120 V for CT and VT , re pectively. There are everal cla e of accuracy for
in trument tran former defined by the IEEE, CSA, IEC and ANSI tandard . igur
e 1 pre ent a conceptual de ign of CT and VT .

ig.4.1 Po ition of CT and VT . In a Sub tation
4.2
Current tran former
A current tran former i de igned to provide a current in it econdary which i
accurately proportional to the current flowing in it primary. Care mu t be tak
en that the econdary of a current tran former i not di connected from it load
while current i flowing in the primary a in thi circum tance a very high vol
tage would be produced acro the econdary. Current tran former are often con
tructed with a ingle primary turn either a an in ulated cable pa ing through
a toroidal core, or el e a a bar to which circuit conductor are connected.

De ign or a current tran former de ign, the core characteri tic mu t be carefu
lly elected becau e excitation current I e e entially ubtract from the meter
ed current and affect the ratio and pha e angle of the output current.

ig.4.2 The higher the exciting current or core lo the larger the error 4.3 Me
a uring and protective current tran former Mea uring current tran former Permea
bility of the core material high and core lo low reduce exciting current ,low
exciting current reduce (I fe<<) current error . The exciting current determin
e the maximum accuracy that can be achieved with a current tran former Protecti
ve current tran former Permeability of the core material i low ,When remanence
i reduced to a lower level (increa e the u eful flux den ity, gapping), the vol
tage pike produced by the leakage inductance due to the tran former aturation
will be eliminated. In linear current tran former there are generally air gap
in the iron core to reduce the time con tant and remanence. Such current tran f
ormer are u ed only to protect object of major importance that require a hort
tripping time. 4.4 Selecting core material
When choo ing a core material a rea onable value for B m (0,2 ... 0,3 T) typical
ly re ult in L c and R fe value large enough to reduce the current flowing in
the e element o a to ati fy the ratio and pha e requirement .
Page 68

ig.4.3. A tran former intended to upply mea uring in trument , meter , relay
and other imilar apparatu Effect of Gapping

ig.4.4 Effective length of the magnetic path Air gap increa e the effective le
ngth of the magnetic path
Page 69
Air-gapped current tran former The e are auxiliary current tran former in whic
h a mall air gap i included in the core to produce a econdary voltage output
proportional in magnitude to current in the primary winding. Sometime termed ´tra
n actor ´ or ´quadrature current tran former ´, thi form of current tran former ha b
een u ed a an auxiliary component of unit protection cheme in which the outpu
t into multiple econdary circuit mu t remain linear for and proportioned to t
he wide t practical range of input current .
Anti-remanence current tran former A variation in the overdimen ioned cla of
current tran former ha mall gap( ) in the core magnetic circuit, thu reducing
the po ible remanent flux from approximately 90% of aturation value to ome 1
0% only. The e gap( ) are quite mall, for example 0.12mm total, and o within t
he core aturation limit . Error in current tran formation are thereby ignific
antly reduced when compared with tho e with the gaple type of core. Linear cur
rent tran former The ´linear´ current tran former con titute an even more radial d
eparture from the normal olid core CT in that it incorporate an appreciable ai
r cap, for example 7.5-10mm. A it name implie the magnetic behaviour tend to
linearization by the inclu ion of thi gap in the magnetic circuit. However, th
e purpo e of introducing more reluctance into the magnetic circuit i to reduce
the value of magnetizing reactance, thi in turn reduce the econdary time-con
tant of the CT thereby reducing the overdimen ioning factor nece ary for faithf
ul tran formation. The time con tant of the circuit depend on the inductance of
the coil and on the re i tance in the circuit in accordance to the following i
mple formula:

ig.4.5 Current Tran former ymbol and winding layout
4.5
Connection of a CT
The object with current tran former i to tran form current ratio rather than
voltage ratio . Current ratio are the inver e of voltage ratio . The thing to r
emember about tran former i that Pout = (Pin — tran former power lo e ). With t
hi in mind, let' a ume we had an ideal lo -le tran former in which Pout =
Pin. Since power i voltage time current, thi product mu t be the ame on the
output a it i on the input. Thi implie that a 1:10 tep-up tran former with
the voltage tepped up by a factor of 10 re ult in an output current reduced by
a factor of 10. Thi i what happen on a current tran former. If a tran former
had a one-turn primary and a ten-turn econdary, each amp in the primary re ult
in 0.1A in the econdary, or a 10:1 current ratio. It' exactly the inver e of
the voltage ratio — pre erving volt time current product. If we want to produce
an output on the econdary proportional to the primary current, thi output i u
ually in volt output per amp of primary current. The device that monitor thi
output voltage can be calibrated to produce the de ired re ult when the voltag
e reache a pecified level.
A burden re i tor connected acro the econdary produce an output voltage prop
ortional to the re i tor value, ba ed on the amount of current flowing through i
t. With our 1:10 turn ratio tran former that produce a 10:1 current ratio, a b
urden re i tor can be elected to produce the voltage we want.
1. Ga cu hion 2. Oil filling unit (hidden) 3. Quartz filling 4. Paper-in ulated
primary conductor 5. Core / econdary winding 6. Secondary terminal box 7. Capa
citive voltage tap (on reque t) 8. Expan ion ve el 9. Oil ight gla 10. Prima
ry terminal 11. Ground terminal If 1A on the primary produce 0.1A on the econd
ary, then by Ohm' law, 0.1 time i the ratio With thi knowledge, the u er can
choo e the burden re i tor to produce their de ired output voltage.

ig.4.6. howing the internal view of a C.T
The output current of 0.1A for a 1A primary on the 1:10 turn ratio tran former
will produce 0.1 V/A acro a 1 burden re i tor, 1V per amp acro a 10 burden a
nd 10V per amp acro a 100 burden re i tor.
When choo ing the burden re i tor, the engineer can create any output voltage pe
r amp, a long a it doe n't aturate the core. Core aturation level i an impo
rtant con ideration when pecifying current tran former . The maximum volt-micro
econd product pecifie what the core can handle without aturating. The burden
re i tor i one of the factor controlling the output voltage. There' a limit
to the amount of voltage that can be achieved at a given frequency. Since freque
ncy = 1/cycle period, if the frequency i too low (cycle period too long) o tha
t voltage-time product exceed the core' flux capacity, aturation will occur.
The flux that exi t in a core i proportional to the voltage time cycle period
. Mo t pecification provide a maximum volt-micro econd product that the curren
t tran former can provide acro the burden re i tor. Exceeding thi voltage wit
h too large a burden re i tor will aturate the tran former and limit the voltag
e. What happen if the burden re i tor i left off or open during operation? Th
e output voltage will ri e trying to develop current until it reache the atura
tion voltage of the coil at that frequency. At that point, the voltage will cea
e to ri e and the tran former will add no additional impedance to the driving cu
rrent. Therefore, without a burden re i tor, the output voltage of a current tra
n former will be it aturation voltage at the operating frequency. There are fa
ctor in the current tran former that affect efficiency. or complete accuracy,
the output current mu t be the input current divided by the turn ratio. Unfortu
nately, not all the current i tran ferred. Some of the current i n't tran forme
d to the econdary, but i in tead hunted by the inductance of the tran former
and the core lo re i tance. Generally, it' the inductance of the tran former
that contribute the majority of the current hunting that detract from the out
put current. Thi i why it' important to u e a high-permeability core to achie
ve the maximum inductance and minimize the inductance current. Accurate turn ra
tio mu t be maintained to produce the expected econdary current and the expecte
d accuracy. the current tran formed i maller than the input current by: ITRANS
ORMED=IINPUT-ICORE-jIMAG (1) What about the effect the tran former will have on
the current it' monitoring? Thi i where the term burden enter the picture.
Any mea uring device alter the circuit in which it mea ure . or in tance, conn
ecting a voltmeter to a circuit cau e the voltage to change from what it wa be
fore the meter wa attached. However minu cule thi effect may or may not be, th
e voltage you read i n't the voltage that exi ted before attaching the meter. Th
i i al o true with a current tran former. The burden re i tor on the econdary
i reflected to the primary by (1/N2), which provide a re i tance in erie wi
th the current on the primary. Thi u ually ha minimal effect and i u ually on
ly important when you are concerned about the current that would exi t when the
tran former i n't in the circuit, uch a when it' u ed a a temporary mea urin
g device. lo component in the circuit. The re i tance of the primary loop, th
e core lo re i tance, the econdary i reduced by 1/N2, and the econdary burd
en re i tor RBURDEN i al o reduced by a factor of N2. The e are lo e that aff
ect current ource (I). The re i tance have an indirect effect on the current t
ran former accuracy. It' their effect on the circuit that they are monitoring t
hat alter it current. The primary dc re i tance (PRIdcr) and the econdary DCR
/N2 (RDCR/N2) don't detract from the Iinput that i read or i affecting the acc
uracy of the actual current reading. Rather, they alter the current from what it
would be if the current tran former weren't in the circuit.
Page 72
4.6
Con truction of a Current Tran former
Primary Winding :The primary winding con i t of one or more parallel conductor
of aluminum or
copper de igned a a U- haped bu hing with voltage grading capacitor layer . The
in ulation technique i automated to give a imple and controlled wrapping, whi
ch improve quality and minimize variation . The conductor i in ulated with a
pecial paper with high mechanical and dielectric trength, low dielectric lo e
and good re i tance to ageing. Thi de ign i al o very uitable for primary w
inding with many primary turn . Thi i u ed when the primary current i low, f
or in tance unbalance protection in capacitor bank . (Ex. ratio 5/5A) Core and
Secondary Winding current tran former are can normally accommodate any core co
nfiguration required. Core for metering purpo e are u ually made of nickel all
oy, which feature low lo e (= high accuracy) and low aturation level . The p
rotection core are made of high-grade oriented teel trip. Protection core wi
th air gap can be upplied for pecial application . The econdary winding con
i t of double enameled copper wire, evenly di tributed around the whole periphe
ry of the core. The leakage reactance in the winding and al o between extra tapp
ing i therefore negligible. Impregnation Heating in a vacuum drie the winding
. After a embly all free pace in the tran former (app. 60%) i filled with cle
an and dry quartz grain. The a embled tran former i vacuum-treated and impregn
ated with dega ed mineral oil. The tran former i alway delivered oil-filled a
nd hermetically ealed. Tank and In ulator The lower ection of the tran former
con i t of an aluminum tank in which the econdary winding and core are mount
ed. The in ulator, mounted above the tran former tank, con i t a tandard of h
ighgrade brown-glazed porcelain. De ign u ing light gray porcelain or ilicon r
ubber can be quoted on reque t. The ealing y tem con i t of O-ring ga ket . C
urrent The rated current are the value of primary and econdary current on w
hich performance i ba ed Rated Primary Current Should be elected about 10 - 40
% higher than the e timated operating current. Clo e t tandardized value hould
be cho en. Extended Current Rating : A factor that multiplied by the rated cur
rent give the maximum continuou load current and the limit for accuracy. Stand
ard value of extended primary current are 120, 150 and 200% of rated current. U
nle otherwi e pecified, the rated continuou thermal current hall be the rat
ed primary current. Rated Secondary Current :The tandard value are 1, 2 and 5
A. 1 A i cho en for low mea uring and protection burden . 1 A al o give an ove
rall lower burden requirement through lower cable burden. Rated Short-time Therm
al Current (Ith) Ith depend on the hort-circuit power and can be calculated fr
om the formula: Ith = Pk / Um x √3 kA. Standardized duration of Ith i 1 econd. O
ther duration (3 ec.) mu t be pecified. Reconnection The current tran former c
an be de igned with either primary or econdary reconnection or a combination of
both to obtain more current ratio . Primary Reconnection The ampere-turn alway
remain the ame and thereby the load capacity (burden) remain the ame. The
hort-circuit capacity however i reduced for the lower ratio .
Secondary Reconnection Extra econdary terminal (tap ) are taken out from the
econdary winding. The load capacity drop a the ampere-turn decrea e on the ta
p , but the hort-circuit capacity remain con tant. Each core can be individual
ly reconnected.
Burden and AccuracyCla (IEC)
Burden Accuracy Rct In trument S
ecurity actor ( S) Accuracy Limit actor (AL ) The external impedance in the e
condary circuit in ohm at the pecified power factor. It i u ually expre ed a
the apparent power – in VA -,
hich is taken up at rated secondary current. It i
s important to determine the po
er consumption of connected meters and relays in
cluding the cables. Unnecessary high burdens are often specified for modern equi
pment. Note that the accuracy for the measuring core, according to IEC, can be o
utside the class limit if the actual burden is belo
25% of the rated burden. Th
e accuracy class for measuring cores is according to the IEC standard given as 0
.2, 0.5 or 1.0 depending on the application. For protection cores the class is n
ormally 5P or 10P. Other classes are quoted on request, e.g. class PX, TPX or TP
Y. The secondary
inding resistance at 75 deg C To protect meters and instrument
s from being damaged by high currents, an FS factor of 5 or 10 often is specifie
d for measuring cores. This means that the secondary current
ill increase a max
imum of 5 or 10 times
hen the rated burden is connected. FS10 is normally suffi
cient for modern meters. The protection cores must be able to reproduce the faul
t current
ithout being saturated. The overcurrent factor for protection cores i
s called ALF. ALF = 10 or 20 is commonly used. Both FS and ALF are valid at rate
d burden only.
4.7
Standard Burdens for Current Transformers
ith
The errors in ratio and phase angle depend on the impedance connected to the sec
ondary of the transformer. This impedance is commonly referred to as “burden”. The c
alculations required for determining the performance of a transformer
hen diffe
rent burdens are applied are beyond the scope of this discussion. Therefore, the
standard burdens as outlined in IEEE C57.13 are used to represent typical servi
ce conditions. Each transformer is rated according to its performance at these s
tandard burdens. Many current transformers supply only a limited number of
att-
hour meter elements
ith a limited number of runs. For metering and relaying app
lications, IEEE C57.13 has established the standard burdens as given in Table Be
lo
Table 4.1
Standard Burdens for Current Transformers
ith 5 A Secondaries
Burden Designation B-0.1 B-0.2 B-0.5 B-0.9 B-1.8 B-1 Resistance (∅) Inductance (mH
) 0.116 0.232 0.58 1.04 2.08 2.3 Impedance (∅) Volt Amperes (at 5 A) 2.5 5.0 12.5
22.5 45.0 25.0 Po
er Factor 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.5
Metering Burdens
0.09 0.18 0.45 0.81 1.62 0.50 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.8 1.0
Relaying Burdens
B-2 B-4 B-8
1.00 2.00 4.00
4.6 9.2 18.4
2.0 4.0 8.0
50.0 100.0 200.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
Actual Burdens for Current Transformers Actual devices connected to instrument t
ransformers often include an inductor
ith an iron core,
hich usually means tha
t the inductance is not constant but varies during the cycle, and varies differe
ntly
ith different currents. Exact analysis of current transformer performance
ith such devices is difficult. Fortunately, the impedances of most instruments

and meters are sufficiently constant that no appreciable error is introduced by
considering them to be constant. Many electro-mechanical relays, ho
ever, have v
ariable impedance. Analysis of the transformer performance is usually based on a
n equivalent value at normal current. This can be justified on the basis that th
e burden at higher current is usually less and thus the current transformer
ill
perform better than expected from the equivalent burden. Current Transformers:
Accuracy Classes for Relaying Relaying accuracy classes for CTs are defined
ith
a “C” or a “T” classification. “C” indicates that the transformer ratio can be calculated.
These are transformers
hich are constructed so that the effect of leakage fluxe
s on its performance are negligible. “T” indicates the transformer
here the leakage
flux has an appreciable effect on the ratio. Since the calculation of the excit
ation current by-passed is a tedious process, the performance of the transformer
can only be determined by test. The basis for classification of performance for
relaying is an error limit of 10% at any current from 1.0 to 20 times normal. T
he accuracy class is the description of ho
much voltage the transformer can sup
ply to the output circuit (burden),
ithout the CT core going into saturation. F
or example, a transformer that can supply a 2 ohm output circuit (burden) at 100
A [20 times normal current (5 A)] or 200 V,
ithout saturating the core and
it
hin a 10% error limit, is classified as 200 accuracy class. Refer to Figure 2. S
tandard accuracy classes,
hich may be assigned for a relaying current transform
er, are 50, 100, 200, and 800. If a C200 transformer can supply 100 A secondary
output at exactly 10% error into a 2 ohm burden, then the exciting branch is not
over 10 amperes. If the current is lo
er, then the burden can be higher
ithout
exceeding the output voltage limit if a transformer can carry 2 ohms at 50 ampe
res and deliver 200 volts. Ho
ever, if the burden is 1 ohm at 200 amperes, it
i
ll not
ork since the internal impedance
ill be significant in relation to the
1 ohm burden.
4.8
Voltage Transformers
Voltage or potential transformers are used to transform High Voltages AC to lo
(120 V AC) accurately for measurement and relaying in an Electrical net

ork. T
o
types of voltage transformer are used for protective-relaying purposes, as foll
o
s: (1) the "instrument potential transformer," hereafter to be called simply "
potential transformer," and (2) the "capacitance potential device." A potential
transformer is a conventional transformer having primary and secondary
indings.
The primary
inding is connected directly to the po
er circuit either bet
een t
o phases or bet
een one phase and ground, depending on the rating of the transf
ormer and on the requirements of the application. A capacitance potential device
is a voltage-transforming equipment using a capacitance voltage divider connect
ed bet
een phase and ground of a po
er circuit.
Symbol of a V T Fig.4.7. Symbol and
inding layout of a VT ACCURACY OF POTENTIAL
TRANSFORMERS The ratio and phase-angle inaccuracies of any standard ASA accuracy
class1 of potential transformer are so small that they may be neglected for pro
tective-relaying purposes if the burden is
ithin the "thermal" volt-ampere rati
ng of the transformer. This thermal volt-ampere rating corresponds to the full-l
oad rating of a po
er transformer. It is higher than the volt-ampere rating used
to classify potential transformers as to accuracy for metering purposes. Based
on the thermal volt-ampere rating, the equivalent-circuit impedances of potentia
l transformers are comparable to those of distribution transformers. Burden The
"burden" is the total external volt-ampere load on the secondary at rated second
ary voltage. Where several loads are connected in parallel, it is usually suffic
iently accurate to add their individual voltamperes arithmetically to determine
the total volt-ampere burden. If a potential transformer has acceptable accuracy
at its rated voltage, it is suitable over the range from zero to 110% of rated
less voltage. Operation in excess of 10% overvoltage may cause increased errors
and excessive heating. Where precise accuracy data are required, they can be obt
ained from ratio-correctionfactor curves and phase-angle-correction curves suppl
ied by the manufacturer. RATED BURDENS OF A VT The rated burden of a secondary
inding of a capacitance potential device is specified in

atts at rated secondar
y voltage
hen rated phase-to-ground voltage is impressed across the capacitance
voltage divider. The rated burden of the device is the sum of the
att burdens
that may be impressed on both secondary
indings simultaneously. Adjustment capa
citors are provided in the device for connecting in parallel
ith the burden on
one secondary
inding to correct the total-burden po
er factor to unity or sligh
tly leading. Table 4.2 Rated Circuit Voltage , kv Phase-to-Phase 115 138
Rated Burden,
atts 25 35
Page 76
Phase-to-Ground 66.4 79.7
161 230 287
93.0 133.0 166.0
45 80 100
The rated burden of coupling-capacitor potential devices is 150
atts for any of
the rated circuit voltages, including those of Table 4.2. CAPACITANCE POTENTIAL
DEVICES (Capacitive voltage Transformer) T
o types of capacitance potential dev
ice are used for protective relaying: (1) the "coupling-capacitor potential devi
ce," and (2) the "bushing potential device." The t
o devices are basically alike
, the principal difference being in the type of capacitance voltage
Fig.4.7. Coupling-capacitor voltage divider
Fig. 2 Capacitance-bushing voltage divider.
1. Primary terminal 2. Oil level indicator 3. Oil 4. Quartz filling 5. Insulator
6. Lifting lug 7. Secondary terminal box 8. Neutral end terminal 9. Expansion s
ystem 10. Paper insulation 11. Tank 12. Primary
inding 13. Secondary
indings 1
4. Core 15. Ground connection
T
o types of capacitance potential device are used for protective relaying: (1)
the "coupling-capacitor potential device," and (2) the "bushing potential device
." The t
o devices are basically alike, the principal difference being in the ty
pe of capacitance voltage divider used,
hich in turn affects their rated burden
. The coupling-capacitor device uses as a voltage divider a "coupling capacitor"
consisting of a stack of series-connected capacitor units, and an "auxiliary ca
pacitor," as sho
n schematically in Fig. 1. The bushing device uses the capacita
nce coupling of a specially constructed bushing of a circuit breaker or po
er tr
ansformer, as sho
n schematically in Fig. 2. . Both of these relaying potential
devices are called "Class A" devices.2 They are also sometimes called "In-phase"
or "Resonant" devices 3 for reasons that
ill be evident later. Other types of
potential devices, called "Class C" or "Out-of-phase" or "Non-resonant," are als
o described in References 2 and 3, but they are not generally suitable for prote
ctive relaying, and therefore they
ill not be considered further here.
4.9
Standard Burdens for Voltage Transformers
The standard burdens to be used for testing and comparing voltage transformers a
re rated at 120 volts and at 69.3 volts. IEEE C57.13 specifies that the 120 volt
-rated burden
ill be used for any transformer
ith the secondary voltage in the
range of 115 to 120 volts,
hile the 69.3 volt burden
ill be used for any tran
sformer
ith the secondary voltage in the range of 65 to 72 volts. This means th
at the actual volt amperes in the burden in a given test may be different than t
he nominal value of the burden in volt amperes. For instance, if the standard bu
rden is 25 volt amperes, the actual burden
hen it is used for testing a transfo
rmer
ith 115 volt secondary is (115/120)² or .918 times the nominal value of 25.
Table 4.3
Standard Burdens for Voltage Transformers
Burden Designation Volt Amperes Po
er Factor Burden Impedance 120 V Burden 69.3
V Burden
Burdens
W X M Y Z ZZ
12.5 25 35 75 200 400
0.10 0.70 0.20 0.85 0.85 0.85
1152 576 411 192 72 36
384 192 137 64 24 12
The burdens rated 69.3 volts have an impedance only one-third of that of burdens
rated 120 volts and they should not be used in testing or rating transformers r
ated at 115 to 120 volts. Transformers rated at 115 or 120 volts should be treat
ed as 115 or 120 volt transformers, and if they are actually used at reduced vol
tage, the performance
ill not be different if the 120 volt burden is used as a
basis for performance. This is because the performance of a transformer do
n to
voltages of about 5% of its rating is not significantly different from the perfo
rmance at 100% voltage. Table 4.3 gives the standard burdens for voltage transfo
rmers as outlined in IEEE C57.13.
The Broken-Delta Burden and The Winding Burden Condition in a PT The broken-delt
a burden is usually composed of the voltage-polarizing coils of ground direction
al relays. Each relay's voltage-coil circuit contains a series capacitor to make
the relay have a lagging angle of maximum torque. Consequently, the voltage-coi
l circuit has a leading po
er factor. The voltampere burden of each relay is exp
ressed by the manufacturer in terms of the rated voltage of the relay. The broke
n-delta burden must be expressed in terms of the rated voltage of the potential-
device
inding or the tapped portion of the
inding-
hichever is used for making
up the broken-delta connection. If the relay- and
inding-voltage ratings are t
he same, the broken-delta burden is the sum of the relay burdens. If the voltage
ratings are different,
e must re-express the relay burdens in terms of the vol
tage rating of the broken-delta
inding before adding them, remembering that the
volt-ampere burden
ill vary as the square of the voltage, assuming no saturati
on. The actual volt-ampere burdens imposed on the individual
indings comprising
the broken-delta connection are highly variable and are only indirectly related
to the broken-delta burden. Normally, the three
inding voltages add vectoriall
y to zero. Therefore, no current flo
s in the circuit, and the burden on any of
the
indings is zero. When ground faults occur, the voltage that appears across
the brokendelta burden corresponds to 3 times the zero-phase-sequence component
of any one of the three phaseto-ground voltages at the potential-device location
. We shall call this voltage "3V0 ". What the actual magnitude of this voltage i
s depends on ho
solidly the system neutrals are grounded, on the location of th
e fault
ith respect to the potential device in question, and on the configurati
on of the transmission circuits so far as it affects the magnitude of the zeroph
asesequence reactance. For faults at the potential-device location, for
hich
the voltage is highest, 3V0 can vary approximately from 1 to 3 times the rated v
oltage of each of the broken-delta
indings. (This voltage can go even higher in
an ungrounded-neutral system should a state of ferroresonance exist, but this p
ossibility is not considered here because it must not be permitted to exist.) If

e assume no magnetic saturation in the burden, its maximum current magnitude
ill vary
ith the voltage over a 1 to 3 range.
The burden current flo
s through the three broken-delta
indings in series. As s
ho
n in Fig. 5, the current is at a different phase angle
ith respect to each o
f the
inding voltages. Since a ground fault can occur on any phase, the positio
ns of any of the voltages of Fig. 5 relative to the burden current can be interc
hanged. Consequently, the burden on each
inding may have a
ide variety of char
acteristics under different circumstances. Another peculiarity of the broken-del
ta burden is that the load is really carried by the
indings of the unfaulted ph
ases, and that the voltages of these
indings do not vary in direct proportion t
o the voltage across the broken-delta burden. The voltages of the unfaulted-phas
e
indings are not nearly as variable as the broken-delta-burden voltage. The
i
nding voltages of the unfaulted phases vary from approximately rated voltage to √3
times rated,
hile the broken-delta-burden voltage, and hence the current, is v
arying from less than rated to approximately 3 times rated.
4.10
Construction of a Voltage Transformer
Primary Windings The primary
inding is designed as a multilayer coil of double
enameled
ire
ith layer insulation of special paper. Both ends of the
indings
are connected to metal shields.
Secondary and Tertiary Windings In its standard design the transformer has a sec
ondary measurement
inding and a tertiary
inding for ground fault protection, b
ut other configurations are available as required. (2 secondary
indings in a de
sign ) The
indings are designed
ith double enameled
ire and are insulated fro
m the core and the primary
inding
ith pressboard (presspahn) and paper. The
i
ndings can be equipped
ith additional terminals for other ratios (taps). Core T
he transformer has a core of carefully selected material, to give a flat magneti
zation curve. The core is over-dimensioned
ith a very lo
flux at operating vol
tage. Impregnation Heating in a vacuum dries the
indings. After assembly, all f
ree space in the transformer (approximately 60%) is filled
ith clean and dry qu
artz grains. The assembled transformer is vacuumtreated and impregnated
ith deg
assed mineral oil. The transformer is al
ays delivered oil-filled and hermetical
ly sealed. Tank and Insulator The lo
er section of the transformer consists of a
n aluminum tank in
hich the
inding and core are placed. The tank consists of s
elected aluminum alloys that give a high degree of resistance to corrosion,
ith
out the need of extra protection. Anodized details can be offered on request. Th
e sealing system consists of O-ring gaskets. The insulator, in its standard desi
gn, consists of high quality, bro
n glazed porcelain. The voltage transformers c
an also be constructed
ith silicone rubber insulators. Inductive Voltage Transf
ormer Inductive voltage transformers are used for connection bet
een phase and g
round in net
orks
ith insulated or direct-grounded neutral points. The transfor
mers are designed
ith a lo
flux density in the core
Chapter-5
5
TRANSFORMER BUSHINGS & SURGE ARRESTOR
A bushing is an electrical engineering component that allo
s a high voltage cond
uctor to pass safely through an earthed metal
all or casing. Bushings appear on
s
itchgear, transformers, circuit breakers and most other high voltage equipmen
t. The bushing is hollo
, allo
ing a conductor to pass along its centre and conn
ect at both ends to other equipment Some of the higher voltage types are called
capacitor bushings because they form a lo
value capacitor bet
een the conductor
and the
all. This is done in order to carefully grade the reduce the electrica
l field stress that
ould other
ise occur and cause breakdo
n. Bushings do somet
imes fail due to partial discharge degradation in the insulation. There is at pr
esent great interest in the electricity supply industry in monitoring the condit
ion of high voltage bushings.
most high voltage bushings produced
ere capacitance graded, paper insulated, oi
l impregnated condensers
ith the capacitance layers provided by aluminum foil.
This method of construction had provided the a very reliable bushing
ith excell
ent cost advantages over other types of construction. The only dra
back to this
type of construction
as the time it took to impregnate the condenser. With cyli
nders of aluminum inside the condenser it can impregnate the paper insulation fr
om the bottom of the condenser.
5.1
Bushing design theory
The basic theory of bushing design is to bring the potential through the tank of
the transformer. This is accomplished by using t
o basic bushing design concept
s; non-graded bushings and capacitance graded bushings. The former is the simple
st concept as
ell as the oldest, kno
n as bulk type bushings, as sho
n in figur
e 1. Capacitance graded bushings are available in four technologies. Resin bonde
d paper (RB) bushings, oil impregnated paper (OIP) bushings, resin impregnated p
aper (RIP) bushings and epoxy-resin impregnated paper (ERIP) bushings.
Condenser Type Design The bushing is built up around a central conductor tube or
rod on
hich the condenser body is
ound. The upper and lo
er insulators, mount
ing flange, flange extension, spring assembly, sight bo
l, lo
er support and cla
mping nut form an oil tight shell to contain the condenser and insulating oil. T
he sealing bet
een components is accomplished
ith oil-resistant “O-rings” in groove
s and/or oil-resistant flat fiber reinforced gaskets. The space bet
een the shel
l and the condenser is filled
ith high-grade transformer oil. This oil is part
of the insulating and cooling systems of the bushing. Above the oil, there is a
gas space to provide for thermal expansion of the oil. The gas space is filled
ith dehydrated nitrogen gas. The oil level in the bushing can be monitored by vi
sual inspection of the sight bo
l. The sight bo
l is prismatic to enhance observ
ation of the oil level. The mounting flange and flange extension are high streng
th corrosion-resistant aluminum. The lo
er support is designed to accept a varie
ty of optional terminating devices such as standard threaded studs, or dra
rod
system. The upper insulator is a one-piece high quality porcelain
ith sheds des
igned for maximum performance.
Designed to be used at angles of up to 60 deg from the vertical position A typic
al condenser type bushing for a 220 KV transformer
5.2
Construction of a Transformer bushing
The primary metal used in the housing is aluminum in the form of castings for fl
anges, heads and external ground sleeves.The other major housing components are
the outboard and inboard insulators. these insulators have been porcelain but, t
oday a number of viable alternatives are no
being offered. The major alternativ
e for the outboard porcelain insulator is an insulator that is a composite of a
resin-impregnated fiberglass and silicone rubber commonly called Silicone Rubber
Insulators (SRI). Epoxy-resin materials are also being successfully applied as
replacements for the Condenser Core Winding : The High Quality Insulating paper
is
ound on Aluminium Tube for Currents upto 1250 Amps) / on copper Rod for Curr
ent Ratings of 2000 Amps / 3150 Amps. The
inding machine has close looped contr
ols to ensure consistency of
inding parameters such as tension, pressure & temp
erature. At predecided locations by the
inding program, precisely cut Aluminium
Foils are inserted to achieve the uniform condenser grading. During the
inding
process partial drying of the paper Insulation is achieved. Drying & Impregnati
on : The Condenser Cores are then completely dried and impregnated in Vacuum Dry
ing Chambers in various stages such as Air Heating, Rough Vacuum, Fine Vacuum. T
he Level of Fine Vacuum is a critical parameter of Effectiveness of Drying. The
Drying cycles are concluded based on Quality of Fine Vacuum measured on Pirani G
auges.
Fig.5.1 Bushing details
After the drying cycle is concluded, the oil impregnation is carried out at a pr
edetermined rate of flo
of Oil Inlet
hich is in relation
ith the Capillary Ri
se of the Paper Insulation. Assembly : The Impregnated Condenser Cores are then
assembled
ith the assembly components such as Air End Porcelain Insulator, Oil
End Epoxy Insulator etc. The Entire Assembly is a Tie Rod Assembly
ith the "O"
Rings used at all sealing locations. The Assembly is held together by a Pre Load
ed Coil Spring Stack
hich ensures perfect sealing at highest operating temperat
ures & also supports the assembly against the Loads applied at HV Terminal. Grav
ity Die Cast Aluminium
Conservator & Mounting Flanges are used on the Bushing assembly. For Bushings up
to 1250 Amps Aluminium Cast Electrodes
ith external surface painted
ith Polyur
ethane (PU) Paint are used
hich forms an integral part of the assembly. An extr
a tapped hole is provided on the Mounting Flange for fixing the substation earth
flat. Self Earthing type Test Tap / Capacitance & Tan Delta Measurement Tap & O
il Filling, Sampling Valves are provided at Mounting flange Level. Oil Flooding
under Vacuum : The Fully Assembled & Leaktested Bushing is then filled
ith High
Dielectric Strength Oil under Vacuum at Room Temperature for predecided duratio
n & fine vacuum level. Primary Terminations : The Primary Terminations are of Dr
a
Lead Type for Current ratings upto 800 Amps & they are of Dra
Rod Type for C
urrent Ratings upto 1200 Amps
ith Cable Joint at Mounting Flange Level. The Pri
mary Terminals are manufactured from Copper Alloys. For 2000 Amps & 3150 Amps cu
rrent ratings. Capacitance Graded Bushings Figure 4 outlines the basic principle
s of capacitance graded bushings.Capacitance grading provides t
o basic design f
eatures
ith the ability to produce smaller diameter bushings. Without capacitan
ce grading a 230 kV Class bushing may have to be nearly 6 feet in diameter. This
smaller diameter, in turn, allo
s bushings to achieve higher voltage levels. Ca
pacitance grading is available in t
o common types; non-fine grading and fine gr
ading. Fine grading is used primarily for transformer bushings
hile non-fine gr
ading is commonly used in bushings insulated
ith SF6 such as breakers and GIS.
RB Bushings Resin Bonded (RB) paper bushings,
ere first developed by Emil Haefe
ly in 1918 and are still used today up to 69 kV class. RB bushings utilize paper
that is coated
ith resin and once the active part is
ound it is placed in an
oven to cure. RB bushings have high partial discharge levels and po
er factor. R
B bushings do not use oil. OIP Bushings Oil Impregnated Paper (OIP) bushings
er
e developed in the 1920’s. OIP busings utilize kraftpaper wit layers of foil wo
und over a tube or conductor and t en impregnated
wit transformer oil. Good OIP
bus ings are partial disc arge free and ave very low power factors. OIP bus in
gs ave a temperature operating range of -50°C to +105°C.
RIP Bus ings Resin Impregn

ated Paper (RIP) bus ings were developed in Europe in t e early 1950’s. RIP bus in
gs utilize kraft
paper wit layers of foil wound over a conductor and vacuum imp
regnated wit resin in a mold. RIP bus ings use a small amount of transformer oi
l as an insulator
and are generally
ig er in partial disc arge and power factor
t an OIP bus ings. RIPbus ings ave a limited temperature operatingrange of -
30°C to +95°C.
ERIP Bus ings Epoxy-Resin Impregnated
Paper (ERIP) busings were deve
loped in t e 1980’s as an improvement
on t e RIP tec nology. ERIP bus ings are mad
e similar to RIP bus ings and ave similar power factors and partial disc arge l
evels. ERIP
bus ings do
not use transformer oil and are considered DRY bus ings.
ERIP bus ings ave ig er temperature limits up to +120°C.
Page 83
5.3
Voltage and BIL

Busings are commonly classified wit t e transformer’s t ree-p ase voltage rating
. T isis known as t e Voltage Class. However, bus ings are single-p
ase devices
and t erefore, t e voltage
class rating of a bus ing is somew at immaterial
to
t e selection process. T e maximum line to ground voltage
rating
is t e key info
rmation needed w en selecting
bus ings. Example
of t is are t e 161 kV and 230 k
V Class bus ings. Bot oft ese bus ings ave a maximum line to ground rating of
146 kV and t erefore
bot can be applied to a 230 kV class transformer. However
, t is leads
to t e consideration
of t e
BIL (Basic Insulation Level) of t e bus
ing.
T e rule of t umb is t at t e bus ing’s BIL must be equal to or greater tan
t e BIL of t e transformer winding it is connected to. In t e above example, t
e 161 kV class bus ing as a BIL of 750 kV and t e 230 kV class bus ing’s BIL is 9
00 kV. If t e 230 kV class transformer’s winding was rated 800 kV BIL you would no
t select
t e 161 kV class bus ing for t e application but rat er t e 230 kV clas
s bus ing. Table 1 lists t e voltage class, maximum
line to ground voltage ratin
g and BIL for t e most common IEEE Standard bus ings used today. Table 5.1 Volta
ge class, maximum line to ground voltage rating and BIL Voltage Class KV 25 34.5
46 69 115 138 Line – Ground KV 16 22 29 44 88 102 BIL KV 150 200 250 350 550 650
Voltage Class KV 161 230 345 500 765 Line – Ground KV 146 146 220 318 485 BIL KV 7
50 900 1175 1675 2050

Current Ratings Selecting a bus ing wit a current rating t at will not limit t
e loadability or overloadability of t e power transformer is one of t e most imp
ortant aspects of bus ing
selection. It is important to know t at paper insulate
d bus ingsdo not use t ermally upgraded kraft paper like modern power transform
ers. T e t ermal basis ofrating requirementsis based on a 55 K rise transforme
r application.,
caution s ould be exercised w en selecting t e current rating of
t ebus ing. T e transformer’s overload requirements
must be known at t e time of
bus ing selection.
Bus ings selected wit a current rating of 120% of t e rated

current of t e transformer winding are considered to be able to wit stand t e o
verload requirements
of IEEE Standard C57.12.00. Certain bus ing designs are cap
able of wit standing greater overloads t an ot er designs. As an example, bus in
gs designed
for draw lead application wit t e draw lead conductor supplied by t
e bus ing manufacturer arecapable of operating 15% above t e nameplate rating
wit out being overloaded.
W enever unusual overload requirements are required, c
onsult wit your bus ing supplier.
5.4

Bus ing Storage

All stored
bus ings s ould be periodically
inspected. T is inspection
would look
for c ippedporcelains, damaged
rain s ields on non porcelain bus ings,
oil lea
ks, missing
ardware,
etc. T is inspection is for obvious problems t at would pr
event t e bus ing from being serviceable.

It is recommended
t at t e bus ing manufacturerbe consulted concerning bus ing

storage. T ey will provide instructions as to t e proper storage
of t eir bus in
g. Improper storage can result in not onlydamaging t e bus ing but also te equ
ipment
it is installed in. T e type of bus ing and expected storage time s ould
bot be considered w en determining storage options.
If t e bus ings are to be s
tored outdoors t e crates need to be of a
weat erproof material or protected wit
an external covering. Knowledge
of bus ing construction is elpful in developi

ng storage plans.
If t e bus ing as an oil filled condenser t e bus ing s ould
be stored suc tat t e condenserremains covered. Bus ing terminals s ould be c
ecked to be tig t and cap taps s ould be covered and filled wit fluids as requ
ired.T is is to prevent corrosion and water intrusion during storage. In all ca
ses t e goal s ould beto cause no damage to t e bus ing and keep it in good ope
rating condition.
If t e bus ings
are subject to periodic testing t e storage fa
cility s ould be arranged suc t at t is can be accomplis ed.
5.5
Surge Arrestors

Lig tning imposes voltage surges on aerial lines eit er by direct strokes or by
induction. Suc surges can be transmitted to underground lines. Opening and clos
ing circuitsin large generating plants or switc ing stations can raise voltages
to two or t ree times normal for a brief period of time. In addition, excessive
voltages and currents can result from s ort-circuit conditions w en line-to-lin
e or line-to-ground
faults
occur, because of inductive/capacitive c aracteristic
s of t e line between t e electric power source and t e fault location. Transfor
mer ferroresonance can create overvoltages Since voltage surges can result in pe
rsonnel injuries from electrical sock, insulation damage to equipment, and poss
ibly fire Surge arresters divert t e effects of extremely s ort-term overvoltage
s on an electrical system to ground Lig tning arresters are made
up of varistors
w ose resistance reduces as t eimplied voltage increases. T is reduction in re
sistance continuesuntilt e lig tning arrester acts just like a direct s ort to
ground. Upon reac ing t is condition, t e lig tning
energy diverts
to ground aw
ay from t e protected equipment, t us reducing t e effect of t e overvoltage
t e
y
must be designed
so as not to eart nondistructive voltage rises w ic are wit
in limits.
T e selection of a surge arrester rating is a balance between provid
ingt e lowest possible let t roug voltage (best protection), and t e ability o
f t e arrester to survive temporary overvoltages. Simplistically, t e arrester i
s selected as t e lowest available rating w ic will survive t e expected tempor
ary overvoltages
under normal
and abnormal system conditions. Surge arresters ar
e of t e valve-type or t e metal-oxide-varistor type s own in Fig 1.Gapless, me
taloxide arresters are preferred because of t eir better operating c aracteristi
cs. Surgearresters
are used to safeguard
apparatus against azards caused by ab
normally ig voltage surges. Suc overvoltage can cause serious damage
if arres
ters are not correctly coordinatedwit te insulation strengt of t e protected
equipment, and are unable to disc arge t e energy properly. To function correct
ly, arrester protective levels must be lower t an t e insulation wit stand stren
gt of equipment to be protected. Surge arrester protective margins Impulse spar
kover voltage. Impulse sparkover voltage is t e ig est value of voltage attaine
d by an impulse of a designated wave s ape and polarity applied across t e termi
nals of an arrester
prior to t e flow of disc
arge current. T is voltage plus t
e lead lengt voltage contribution is t e ig est t at can be impressed on prote
cted
equipment because, at t is level, t e arrester will sparkover and disc arge
t e surge to ground.
Arrester surge wave sparkover voltage will be
compared to
t e insulation lig tning impulse (c opped-wave) crest value t at t e protected e
quipment is required to wit stand for purposes of determining t e protective mar
gin.

Disc arge voltage. Disc arge voltage is t evoltage t at appears across t e term
inals of an arrester during passage of disc argecurrent. Arrester maximum disc
arge voltage will
be compared to t e BIL value t at t e protected equipment is r
equired to wit stand for purposes of determining t e protective margin. Impulse
protective
level. For a defined waves ape, t e impulse protective level is t e
ig er of t e maximum sparkover
value or t e corresponding disc arge voltage valu
e. Duty cycle rating.
T e silicon carbide and MOV arrester
ave a duty cycle rat
ing (in kV), w ic duty cycle testing establis ed. T is testing subjects an arre
ster to an AC rms voltage
equal to its rating for 24 min, during w ic t earres
ter must wit stand lig tning surges at 1-min intervals. T e magnitude of t e sur
ges is 10kA (10,000A) for station class arresters
and 5kA for intermediate
and d
istribution class
arresters. T e surge waves ape is an 8/20, w ic means t e cur

rent wave reac
es a crest in 8 ms (8 microseconds or 0.000008 sec) and diminis e
s to alft e crest value in 20 ms. Maximum continuous operating voltage rating
(MCOV).T e MCOV rating is usually 80% to 90% of te duty cycle rating. Table 2
lists t e MCOV ratings of various MOV arresters. T e MCOV rating of an MOV arres
ter is important because it s te recommended magnitude limit of continuously ap
plied voltage. If you operate t e arrester at a voltage level greater t an its M
COV, te metal oxide elements will operate at a ig er-t an-recommended temperat
ure. T is may lead to premature failure or s ortened life Silicon carbide LAs. T
is design uses nonlinear
resistors made of a bonded silicon carbide placed in s
eries wit gaps. T e function of t e gaps is to isolate t e resistors from t e n
ormal steady-state system voltage. One major drawback is t e gaps require elabor
ate designs to ensure a consistent spark-over
level and positive clearing (resea
ling)after a surge passes. T isdesign as lost popularity due to t e emergence
of t e MOV arrester.
MOV LAs. T e MOV design usually does not require series ga
ps to isolate t e elements fromt e steady-state voltages because t e material (
zinc oxide) ismorenonlinear
t an silicon
carbide. T is trait results
in neglig
iblecurrent t roug t e elements w en you apply normal voltage. T is leads to a
muc simpler arrester design.An insulated
ousing surrounds series disks of zin
c oxide in an MOV arrester. T e disks ave a conducting layer (generally aluminu
m) applied to t eirflat faces to ensure a proper contact and uniform current di
stribution
wit in t e disk. T is design results in no "gaps;" t us, t e referenc

e to t e MOV arrester as t e "gapless" arrester. T e MOV arrester design as bec
ome t e most preferred because of its simplicity and resulting reduced purc ase
cost.
Page 86
Fig.5.3 Operating Curve of a L.A Transformers.
Arresters will be located and con
nected
as close as practicable to t e
transformer
to be protected, in accordance
wit IEEE Std C62.2. In regions
of ig lig tning incidence, surge arresters wi
ll
be mounted
on eac of t e incoming aerial line structures and directly
on eac
of t e main supply transformers. For a 132
KV
and above system t e ground term
inal of te LA is to be solidly eart ed t roug a Mild
steel Iron Flat
of min 10
0 mm widt and 16 mmt ickness connected to an eart pit filled wit coke and ro
ck salt provided wit a water tap for watering t e pit daily. Metal-oxide type.
A metal-oxide surge-arrester (MOSA) utilizing zinc-oxide blocks provides t e bes
t performance, as surge voltage conduction starts and stops promptly at a precis
e voltage level, t ereby improving system protection. Failure is reduced, as t e
re is no air gap contamination possibility; but t ere is always a small Fig.5.2.
A Metal
Oxide L.A value of leakage current present at power frequencies. T eref
ore, t e arrester’s maximum power-frequency continuous operating voltage (MCOV) ca
n not be exceeded.
5.6
Transformer Neutral Grounding

T e need for neutral eart ing Limit t e potential
of current-carrying conductors

wit
respect to t e general mass of eart Provide a current return pat for ear
t faults in orderto allow protective devices to operate Neutral eart ing is us
ually applied ont e secondary winding of transformers it is different fromequi
pment eart ing w ic connects t e metallic parts and enclosures to t e eart to
minimize
electric
s ock. Types of neutral eart
ing Electrical
systems are usuall
y eart
ed via t
eir star point or neutral. T ere are t ree c oices: 1) solidly e
art ed 2) eart ed via impedance, usually a resistor 3) Isolated
Page 87

Solidly eart ed systems is used w ere ig levels of faultcurrent areobserved
and rotating mac ines are not connected in t e system. Hig
value eart faults c
an be cleared quickly. Solidly eart ed systems provide t e best control
of trans
ient and temporary overvoltages
t at can arise
between eart
and t e electrical
system.
Insulationt at is applied between p ase and eart can be rated based on
t e p ase to eart voltage. Lower rated insulation can reduce t e cost of elect
rical systems and equipment. T is is used in all 110 KV and above systems and fo
r distribution
transformer upto 11 KV and w ere t e impedance
on t e primarysid
e(t
e transmission lines)
limits t e fault current t roug t e transformer wen
t ere is a fault on t e secondary side. Isolated : aving no neutral eart t e v
oltage rises in t e transformer windings as it offers ig impedanceto fault cu
rrents and causes insulation
breakdown systems ave one advantage. T ey can cont
inue operatingin t e presence of a single eart fault. T is is because t ere is
no return pat available for t e flowof eart fault current.Hence protective
devices will not operate. Insulation t at is applied between p ase andeart mus
t be rated based on t e p ase to p ase voltage, and often for even iger voltag
es. T is system is not adopted due to it’s disadvantages. Neutral eart ing via an
impedance is employed w en it is desirable to limit t e magnitude of faultcurre
nt to manageable levels. Hig levels of fault currentare undesirable as t ey ca
n lead to irreversible damage equipment and systems.t e selection of te neutral
resistor is vital for tis system as it affects t e operation of eart fault pr
otection , to overcome t is current transformers are provided in series wit
t e
neutral resistor w ic detects t e flow of fault current and activates
t e prot
ection system. T e reliability of power supply is improved as t e system, Neutra
l resistors are used in MV transformers (11 to 33 KV) Neutral eart ing resistors
: A neutral Eart ing resistor restricts t e flow of current during an eart fau
lt on an AC distribution system.
It is connected between t e neural point of a t
ransformer and eart . Alt oug a neutral eart ing resistor will probably be acti
ve for just a few seconds during its operational life, it musc offer dependable
protection at all time in case of fault. Used inpower distribution, mining and
industrial installations, indoors and outdoors w ere equipment needs to be prote
cted against arc voltages and currents. Capacity : A neutral eart
ing resistor
as a resistance value specified to limit t e fault cyrrent wit in a system to a
pre-determined value w ic is sufficiently low to prevent damage yet ig enoug
to operate fault-clearing
relays. Eac system is designed according to current
and timeratings, w ic are specified to be compatible wit t e protection switc
gear. neutral
eart ing resistors
are made from toug steel grids of a ig qual
ity iron-c rome-aluminium T ey are non-corroding and offer good electicity stabi
lity

Neutral Voltage displacement
Unbalance in loads on t ree p ases cause s ifting o
f neutral from eart potential. Neutral displacement is applicable for transform
ers wit Star Point solidly grounded. Under"solidly" grounded conditions, t e
potential
of neutral sould be equal to eart i.e.zero. But in suc conditions
w en t e eart ing of t e star point is imperfect t e star to ground offers smal
l resistance.T isresults in flow of negative sequence currents (because IR + I
Y + IB M 0) t roug neutral
to
ground, t ereby causing s ift of neutral from its
eart potential, w ic is t e neutral voltage displacement.
Unbalance voltages and displacement of neutral will resultin decreased efficien
cy, negative torque, leakage currents, vibrations and over eating. Severe unbala
nce and neutral displacement could
lead to malfunctioning of some equipment. Som
e types of loads like Xray mac ines; electric traction; induction
and arc furnac
e may induce
unbalance in t e supply voltages and
s ift t e voltage
of neutral f
rom eart potential.
T e Distribution Licensee s all ensure t at t e neutral poi

nt voltage
of t e all 33/11 kV and
11/0.4 kV transformers wit respect
to eart

will
not ave potential
greater t an 2% and 5% respectively of t e no load p ase
-p ase voltage of t e transformer.
Page 89

C apter-6
6
TRANSFORMER TANK AND COOLING SYSTEM

6.1 Transformer Tank Requirements T e tank is manufactured
by forming and weldin
g steel
plate
to be used as a container for olding t e core and coilassembly t
oget er wit insulating oil.
transformer tanks are
designed
to seal t e transfor
mer from t e outside atmosp ere and able to wit stand t e electromec anical forc
es, oil expansion and vibrations produced
on load and fault conditions S all sat
isfy t e following criteria Strengt to prevent tank rupture under low energy fa
ult conditions:• T e transformer tank, cooling equipment
and compartments subject
to pressures s all be designed to wit stand, wit out permanent deformation, pre
ssures
of at least twenty-five
percent greater
t an maximum operating
pressures.
T e maximum design wit stand pressure s all be indicated on t e nameplate. • Incl
ude sufficient
expansion
volume to allow operation under specified load conditio

ns. T e main covers all be of welded onto t e tank. One or more and- oles s al
l be providedin t e tank cover for access to bus ing connections and current tr
ansformers, w en required.
T e opening all be of sufficient size to allow remo
s
val
of any CT. • T e transformer
base s all be suitable
for
rolling or skidding in
t e direction of eit er tank base centerline. T e base s all be designed so t e
center of gravity of t e transformer as assembled for transport does not fall o
utside
t e base for
a tilt of
fifteen degrees. • Lifting lugs s all be provided at
eac corner of t e tank. T e lifting lugs s all be designed to provide a minimu
m safety factor of 5. • Jacking area, pads or bossess all be provided. • Pulling pr
ovisions, for towing t e transformer
parallel to eit er
centerline, s all be pro
vided. • Gaskets T e gaskets s all be compatible for t e insulating fluid
in t e t
ransformer tank. Gaskets in continuous contact wit Silicone fluid s all be Vito
n material.
Metal surfaces to w ic gaskets are applied s all be smoot , and s a
ll ave sufficient rigidity to assure proper compression of t e gaskets. Types o
f Tanks
: 1.
Plain steel s eet tank wit
out external cooling for smaller ratings
2. T ick s eet boiler type plates wit cooling tubes 3. Tanks wit external rad
iators attac ed to t e tank 4. Tanks wit separated radiators connected by pipes
Page 90

Fig.6.1. s owing transformer core and radiator tubes
6.2
Tank Construction

Plain S eet Steel tanks Made of t in steel s eets of about 3 mm t ickness t e ta
nk’s surface is plain wit out any cooling tubes ,t ese tanks are used for ousing
small transformers
upto 50 KVA rating. T icker s eets are used for t e base depe

nding upon t e installation. t e four side walls are made of a single steel s ee
t and welded vertically, electric welding is preffered T ick boiler plate tanks:
T is type of construction is used for self cooled distribution transformers of
all sizes above 50 KVA cooling tubes are welded tot e tank walls to obtain addi
tional cooling surface and natural circulation of ot oil. Hig quality boiler p
late steel of t ickness from 5 mm to 12mm is cut s aped and welded to get rigid
construction stiffners
are welded to t e sides at an interval of above 1 mm to
prevent bulging. T e tankis proof tested for pressure (7 psig ) and vacuum (0.1
torr or below ) as per t e standards.
Cooling tubes are arranged
at a spacing o
f about 8 cm centre to centre t e bottom of t e plate
is t icker t an t e sides
and is about 8 to 15 mm. T e optimum dimensions of t e tank and stiffeners are d
etermined by using computer aided design tools.T e interior corners of t etran
sformer corners are welded to get added strengt and to preventleakage pat s. T
etransformer tanks are tested for leakage by filling t em wit oil and keeping
t em under pressure
of 0.5 kg/cm²
for several ours and all joints are applied wi
t lig t blue c alk powder w ic turns dark in presence of oil undertaking locat
ion of minute leaks. Surface treatment : t e tanks are s ot-blasted from inside
andoutside to prepare a good clean surface.
T e roug spots on welded joints ar
e c ipped and ground and cleaned t oroug ly by blasting compressed air. A red ox
ide premier coat is applied and final paint as per specification is coated. Ot e
r fitting
and provisions : T e top cover of t e transformer
as to beprovided w
it t e following items 1) HV and LV terminal bus ings 2) Neutral bus ing if exi
sting 3) Lifting bolts for top plate 4)Flangefor connecting transformer wit c
onservator 5) Flange for mounting tap c anger ead 6) Pocket for t ermometer

7) oil drain pipe T e transformer of larger size as t e following additional ac
cessories 1) oil testing outlet wit seal 2) oil and winding temperature indicat
ors Tanks wit radiator banks : For transformers of rating 5 MVA and above, t e
cooling tubes are insufficient to cool t e transformer oil efficiently, separate
detac able radiator
(elliptical
steel tubeswelded inside pressed steel plates)
connected on
bot sides of t e transformer aving an inlet and outlet
valve a n
umber of suc radiators areconnected to t e transformer tank eit er
on one side
for transformers of less t an 5MVA and on bot sides above 5 MVA
T e radiators

are connected to t e transformer tank bymeans of s ut-valves. Tis met od allow
sindividual
radiators to be removed wit out draining oil from t e transformer.

T e s ut-off valve is provided wit a position indicating andle and wit alock
ing spring. T e lower part of t e radiators as a plug for oil outlet and t e up
per
part a plug for air release.
Circulation of transformer
oil takes place
in t
e following manner.
w en t e transformer is loaded t e Hot oil inside t e trans
former rises to t e top of t e tank and gets into t eradiator tubes (Inlet )an
d after circulating
in t e tubes
and getting cooled t e oil flows back into t e
tank t roug t e bottom of t e radiators (Outlet).For large transformers 30-100
MVA fans are
provided on t e sides or bottom of t e radiator banks for better c
ooling
of t e oil. Tanks wit radiators are placed separately : For very large a
nd ig voltage transformers
t e natural circulation of oil in radiators isnot
sufficient
to cool t e oil radiator banks are placed separately away from t e ta
nk and t e oil is forced in circulation using pumps fans are provided for air ci
rculation
over t e radiators, for better cooling water is also circulated over t
e radiator tubes, but care is to be taken for leakages.

Fig.6.2 Picture of a transformer along wit radiators and cooling fan
Page 92

Accessories wit t e Transformer Tank : T e following components are fitted to t
e transformer tank according
to t e requirements 1) oil conservator 2) Breat er
3) Oil sampler 4) Buc olz relay 5) Pressure relief valve 6) Oil level Indicato
r 7) Oil Temperatute Indicator 8) Winding
temperature indicator 9) HV and LV bus
ings 10)Neutral Bus ing 11) Tap c anger 12) Cooling system (radiator or pipes)
13) Mars alling kiosk, etc., Cooling System : Cooling of dry type transformers.
AN – Air Natural AF – Air forced (by Fans) Cooling for oil Immersed transformers ON
AN - Oil Natural Air Natural ONAF - Oil Natural Air Forced OFAF - Oil Forced Air
Forced ONWF - Oil Natural Water Forced OFWF - Oil Forced Water Forced Air Natur
al : Applicable for dry type transformers only (i.e Cast Resin and Resin Impregn
ated) AirForced
:Also for dry type transformersair is forced on tank surface b
y afan w ic
is controlled by a termostat in t e tank Oil Natural Air Natural
: T is is t e most widely used met od of cooling for oil filled transformers upt
o 30 MVA.
In oil Natural cooling, t e transformer is under load and t
e surround
ing oil eated up due to circulating currents in core and winding, t e oil is ci
rculated in t e tank by natural convection.
Plain tanks wit out cooling tubes ar
e used upto 50 KVA ratings above t is rating cooling tubes are fitted to t e tan
k for better circulation and cooling upto 5 MVA. Oil Natural Air Forced :Anumbe
r of Large Fans are mounted near t e transformer radiators and eit er at t e bot
tom (Large
transformers 100 MVA) or on sides
(30-75
MVA)
depending on t edesign
and , t ese fans are automatically switc ed on w en t e temperature of e tran
t
sformer oil raises above a set value and off w en it cools down below t e set va
lue. Oil Forced Air Forced: For transformers above 100 MVA t e ONAF system of c
ooling is not sufficient, ence oil is also forced into circulation for better c
ooling in addition
to forced air circulation. A pump is usedtoforce oil from t
e top of t e transformer
(outlet) into t e radiator banks w ic are placed some
distance from t e tank and connected by inlet and outlet pipes.
Page 93

Oil Natural Water Forced : T is type of cooling is used in places w ere t ere is
space restrictionfor and water is available freely, by using a pump water
is c
irculated around t e radiator tubes for cooling of
t e transformer oil w ic is
circulating by natural convection.
But nowadays t is type of system is discontin
ued as present day transformer ave better designed radiators and cooling system
s.
6.3
Transformer Cooling

No-load losses
and load losses are t e two significant sources of eating consid
ered in t ermal modeling ofpower transformers. No-load losses are made up of y
steresis and eddy loss in t e transformer core, and t ese losses are present w e
never t etransformer is energized. Hysteresis loss is due to t e elementary mag
nets in t e material aligning wit t e alternating magnetic field.
Eddy currents

are induced in t e core by t e alternating magnetic field. T
e amount of yster
esis and eddyloss is dependent on t e exciting voltageof t e transformer. Load
losses are t e more significant source of transformer eating, consisting of co
pper loss
due to t e winding resistance
and stray load loss due to eddy currents
in ot er structural parts of t e transformer. T e copper loss consists of bot
DC resistance loss, and winding eddy current loss. T e amount of loss is depende
nt on transformer
load current, as wellas oiltemperature. DC resistance loss i
ncreases wit increasing temperature, w ile ot er load losses decrease wit incr
easing
oil temperature. All of t ese factors are considered in calculations of t
ermal transformer
performance.
T e basic met od for cooling transformers is tra
nsferring eat from t e core and
windings to t e insulatingoil. Natural circula
tion
of t e oil transfers t e eat to external radiators. T e radiators increase
te cooling surface area of te transformer tank. Pumps may be used to increase
t e flow of oil, increasing t e efficiency oft e radiators. In non-directed fl
ow transformers, t e pumped oil flows freely t roug
t
e tank. In directed flow
transformers, t e pumped oil is forced to flow t roug t e windings. Forced air
cooling is commonly applied on largepower transformers, using fans to blow air
over t e surface of t e radiators, w ic can double t e efficiency of t e radiat
ors. For some large power transformers, water cooling may replace large radiator
s. Large power transformers may also ave additional ratings for multiple stages
of forced cooling. Normally, only two stages are applied, providing transformer

ratings
equivalent to 133% and 167% of t e self-cooled
rating. Bot t e IEEE an
d t e IEC establis
ed
standard designations
for t e various cooling modes of tra
nsformers. Te IEEE as adopted t e IEC designations. T e designation completely
describes
t e cooling
met od for t e transformer, and t e cooling met od impact
s t e response
of t e transformer insulating oil to overload conditions. Table 6
.1 lists t e common transformer cooling designations. Table 6.1: Transformer coo
ling designations Old IEEE Cooling Designations Self-cooled Forced air cooled Di
rected-flow forced liquid cooled Water cooled Forced liquid and water cooled OA
FA FOA OW FOW IEC Equivalent ONAN ONAF ODAF OFWF OFWF
Impact of Oil Temperature on Power Transformers INCREASING transformer
load incr
eases t e temperature of t e insulating oil, so loading above t e nameplate rati
ng involves some risk.

Transformers are rated at a maximum oil temperature rise over ambient, wit mode
rn transformers rated at 65 C rise above ambient.
T ese risks
include reduced die
lectric integrity due to gassing, reduced
mec anical strengt and permanent defo
rmation of structural components
suc as
t e core and
windings, or possible dama
ge to auxiliary equipment
suc as tap c angers,
bus ings, or current
transformer
s. Oil temperature, t erefore, makes a good c oice to use as t e basis of a prot
ection function, providing sensitivity to a number of possible transformer issue
s. Standard temperature limits are defined in t eIEEE Guide for Loading Mineral
-Oil Immersed Power Transformers, (described in t e rest of t is paper as t e Gu
ide for Loading) are listed in Table 6.2. Table 6.2: Standard temperature limits
, 65 C rise transformer, 30 ambient temperature Standard temperature limits Averag
e winding temperature rise Hot-spot temperature rise Top liquid temperature rise
Maximum temperature limit
65 C 80 C 65 C 110 C
Above ambient Above ambient Above ambient Absolute

One factor in transformer
over-temperature conditions is t e loss of insulation
life. Aging of t e refined paper insulation is based on temperature, moisture co
ntent, and oxygen content over time. Modern oil preservation systems minimize t
e impact of moisture and oxygen on insulation life. T erefore, aging studies of
transformers
use t e ottest-spot oil temperature to determine transformer life.
[3] T e term“transformer life” is assumed to mean t e insulation life of t e trans
former, not t e total operational
life. “Loss-of-life” is assumed to mean loss of t
etotal insulation life oft e transformer. For 65 C rise transformer operate at
t e maximum temperature, t e Guide for Loading uses 65,000 ours(7.4 years) as
normallife expectancy, based on 50% retained
mec anical
strengt of t e insulat
ion. T e Guide for Loading also states t at 180,000 ours (20.6 years) is also a
reasonable value for a normal life expectancy. T is means, practically,
t at t
e transformer can be operated at full load
for
65,000 ours over
t e total opera
tional life oft e transformer before
t e mec anical strengt of t
e insulation
is
reduced by alf, increasing t e likeli ood of failure during s ort circuits.
T e relations
ip between oil temperature and transformer life expectancy is give
n by t e accelerating aging factor, FAA. FAA for 65 C rise transformers is define
d as:

W ere ΘH is the hottest-spot temperature (ºC) The FAA is a multiplier for the rate o
f transformer aging, and is greater than 1 when the hottest-spot temperature exc
eeds the 30º C ambient design temperature limit of 110º C. This factor adjusts the n
ormal life expectancy of the transformer for over-temperatures. For a transforme
r operated continuously at a specific temperature, the actual life expectancy is
the normal life expectancy divided by the accelerating aging factor FAA.
Page 95
Page 96
Chapter 7
7
7.1
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
Winding Construction
Coils are wound on a laminated silicon steel core which provides a path for the
magnetic flux. The coils comprise a number of turns of conductor, either copper
or aluminum, wound as two electrically separate windings, called the primary win
ding and the secondary winding. The primary winding is connected to the source o
f voltage while the secondary winding is connected to the load. The ratio of pri
mary to secondary turns is the same as the required ratio of primary to secondar
y voltages. Windings must be designed to ensure short circuit withstand capabili
ty, uniform surge voltage distribution and effective heat dissipation which are
critical to transformer reliability.
Fig.7.1 Active Part of a 145 kV, 110 MVA generator transformer with off-circuit
tap changers for alternative rated HV voltages and on-load tap changer for volta
ge regulation,Courtesy Ganz Transelektro Bulgaria The high voltage and low volta
ge windings are constructed using (copper, aluminum) conductors. The conductors
shall be insulated with a 220°C insulation. Transformer windings, insulation class
1.2 kV (600v) and below, shall be wound using foil or sheet conductors. A sheet
wound coil allows free current distribution within the axial width of the condu
ctor/coil to essentially eliminate axail forces under short circuit. windings, i
nsulation class 2.5 kV (2400v) and above, shall be wound using wire conductors.
The high voltage winding shall be wound over the low voltage winding with suffic
ient mechanical bracing to prevent movement during fault conditions and sufficie
nt solid Class 220°C insulation to isolate the high voltage winding dielectric pot
ential from the low voltage windings. Layer winding For low voltage, i.e. less t
han 10 KV class windings, the winding technique used almost exclusively is the l
ayer winding technique, also sometimes called helical winding or barrel winding.
In this technique, the turns required for the winding are wound in one or more
concentric layers connected in series, with the turns of each layer being wound
side by side along the axial length of the coil until the layer is full.
The conductors of the winding are insulated and so between turns there will be a
minimum of two thicknesses of insulation. Between each pair of layers there wil
l be layers of insulation material and/or an air duct.
Fig.7.2 Layer or helical winding Low voltage windings will generally be wound to
p to bottom, bottom to top etc. using a continuous conductor, until all layers a
re complete. High voltage windings, i.e. above 600 Volt class, may be wound in t
he same way, provided the voltage between layers is not too great. To reduce the
voltage stress between layers, high voltage windings are often wound in only on
e direction, for example, top to bottom. When the first layer of winding is comp
lete, the winding conductor is laid across the completed layer from bottom to to
p and then the next layer is wound, again from top to bottom. In this way, the v
oltage stress between layers is halved. The conductor must, of course, have addi
tional insulation where it crosses the winding from bottom to top. Disc winding
In the disc winding, the required number of turns are wound in a number of horiz
ontal discs paced along the axial length of the coil. The conductor is usually r
ectangular in cross-section and the turns are wound in a radial direction, one o
n top of the other i.e. one turn per layer, until the required number of turns p
er disc has been wound. The conductor is then moved to the next disc and the pro
cess repeated until all turns have been wound. There is an air space, or duct, b
etween each pair of discs. The disc winding requires insulation only on the cond
uctor itself, no additional insulation is required between layers, as in the lay
er winding.
Fig.7.3 Disc winding The disc wound high voltage winding is usually wound in two
halves, in order that the required voltage adjustment taps may be positioned at
the electrical center of the winding. In this way the magnetic, or effective le
ngth of the winding is maintained, irrespective of which tap is used, and theref
ore the magnetic balance between primary and secondary windings is always close
to its optimum. This is essential to maintain the short circuit strength of the
winding, and reduces the axial electromagnetic forces which arise when the windi
ngs are not perfectly balanced.
Characteristics of Layer wound coils A layer wound coil requires insulation betw
een layers, in addition to the conductor insulation. The thickness of insulation
required will depend upon the voltage stress between layers, and comprises one
or more thicknesses of the appropriate insulation material. In practice, due to
the nature of the construction of a layer wound coil, the finished coil will hav
e several unavoidable small air pockets between turns and between layers. Many o
f these air pockets will become filled with resin during vacuum pressure impregn
ation of the coil. However, it sometimes happens that some air pockets remain an
d it is in these air pockets that partial discharges can occur, greatly increasi
ng the possibility of premature aging of the insulation and eventual failure. Ca
tastrophic failure can occur within a few months of energization. Under short ci
rcuit conditions, the electromagnetic forces developed cause transformer winding
s to attempt to telescope. At the same time the coil end blocking is trying to p
revent movement. The result is often that the turns of the winding have a tenden
cy to slip over one another, causing turn-to turn failure, due to abrasion of th
e insulation as the turns rub together. Characteristics of Disc wound coils The
major advantage of the disc wound coil lies in its open construction and relativ
e lack of insulation. For a 15kV class transformer employing a disc wound primar
y winding, the number of discs will typically be in the range 36 to 48, resultin
g in a relatively low voltage per disc. Since each disc is separated from the ne
xt by an air space, the voltage stress between discs can easily be handled by th
e combination of conductor insulation and air, no additional insulation being ne
cessary. Each disc comprises a number of turns with each turn occupying one laye
r, i.e. one turn per layer: the voltage stress between layers is therefore the s
ame as the voltage stress between turns and again, can easily be handled by the
conductor insulation. The turns of each disc, being wound tightly together provi
de almost no possibility of air pockets being present within the disc. Unlike th
e layer wound coil, the disc wound coil provides good impulse voltage distributi
on, due to its inherently low value of ground capacitance and high series capaci
tance. The disc wound coil also displays excellent short circuit strength. Each
disc by itself is mechanically very strong and the complete assembly of discs ar
e held very securely in place. While the electromagnetic forces resulting from a
short circuit result in a tendency, for the windings to telescope, the high vol
tage turns usually remain intact relative to each other. Instead, the complete d
isc has a tendency to distort as an assembly, with all the turns distorting by t
he same amount. The transformer can often continue to function, despite the dist
ortion, until a convenient time arises for repair.
7.2
Insulation and drying system
The turns of conductor forming the primary and secondary windings must be insula
ted from one another, while the primary winding must be insulated from the secon
dary winding and both the primary and secondary windings must be insulated from
ground. The insulation of turns and windings is collectively called the insulati
on system of the transformer. The insulation system must be designed to withstan
d the effects of lightning strikes and switching surges to which the transformer
is subjected, in addition to the normal operating voltages. A further requireme
nt of the insulation system is that it must withstand the environmental conditio
ns to which it is exposed, such as moisture, dust etc. A variety of techniques a
nd materials are employed to achieve the necessary performance characteristics o
f the insulation system.
For dry transformers epoxy resin reinforced with glass fibre is used as an insul
ation for the windings. The internal insulation system is based on pure mineral
oil, and cellulose in the form of paper, pressboard, and sometimes selected natu
ral wood. An oil barrier system is used as the main insulation medium and moulde
d angle rings for end insulation. Major oil gaps between the windings and earthe
d parts are divided into thin oil layers by means of press board barrier cylinde
rs enabling uniform drying and PD (Partial Discharge) free insulation even at hi
gh electric stresses. Pre-compressed press board spacers and moulded end-barrier
s used in the active part provide a rigid insulation structure with low PD level
s. Moisture content in insulating materials of winding assembly is removed by ap
plication of heat and vacuum in a separate drying oven (Winding Autoclave) befor
e windings are individually pressed in a hydraulic press. As the active part can
absorb moisture during the assembly process a final drying process is carried o
ut in a completely automated vapour phase drying (VPD) plant. This ensures thoro
ugh and uniform drying resulting in a clean and dry core coil assembly (active p
art) which ensures long transformer life. Cellulose insulation is used in most p
ower transformers. Paper-oil insulation is also used combination of oil and fibr
ous cellulose materials has dominated the technology of power transformer insula
tion since electrification began Cellulose material The cellulose material parts
in modern transformers are thin paper tape for paper lap covering of the conduc
tor, solid pressboard in the form of strips, spacers, large cylinders and moulde
d collars, and some structural massive pressboard supports for windings and conn
ecting cables inside the tank. The raw material for both paper and pressboard is
pine from subarctic forests. The paper and board materials are made by the sulp
hate process and are unbleached. Textile wrapping and impregnation varnishes for
mechanical stabilization of coils are for the same reason not used today. Selec
ted natural wood is used for less critical mechanical support structures, e g pa
per-covered connecting cables. Pressboard Precompressed boards are made as large
sheets. They are compressed and dried under heat in a hydraulic press from a so
aking wet condition to full dryness. The maximum dry thickness is about 8 mm. It
is a mechanically tough material that can be machined with sharp wood-working t
ools. Heavy blocks for structural parts are machined from blocks that are glued
together from several sheets of precompressed material. A softer pressboard vari
ant is used to mould parts with complex geometries. The material is soaked, and
will then be dried under compression on moulding madrels or between metal tools
to form angle collars or snouts of various specified shapes. Vacuum Pressure Enc
apsulation Process The completed core and coil assembly is to be dried at atmosp
heric pressure in an oven through which hot air is continuously circulated. The
assembly is then to be vacuum pressure encapsulated via a multi-cycle process. T
his process requires that coils receive a minimum of four (4) cycles and the cor
e and clamping structure receive a minimum of two (2) cycles in silicone varnish
. The varnish shall be applied in consistent coatings to give a uniform shield o
f silicone varnish. The VPE process shall effectively encapsulate the entire cor
e and coil assembly that results in a unit which is virtually impermeable to moi
sture, dust, dirt, salt air and other industrial contaminants.
Transformer oil Transformer oil is usually a highly-refined mineral oil that is
stable at high temperatures and has excellent electrical insulating properties.
It is used in oil-filled transformers, some types of high voltage
capacitors, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and some types of high voltage switches a
nd circuit breakers. It's functions are to insulate, suppress corona and arcing,
and to serve as a coolant. The oil cools the transformer, and provides part of
the electrical insulation between internal live parts. It has to be stable at hi
gh temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause a breakdown or fire.
To improve cooling of large power transformers, the oil-filled tank may have ra
diators through which the oil circulates by natural convection. Prior to about 1
970, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was often used as a dielectric fluid since i
t was not flammable. However, under incomplete combustion, PCBs can form highly
toxic products, Furans, etc. Due to the stability of PCB and its environmental a
ccumulation, it has not being used in new equipment since late 1960's . Today, n
ontoxic, stable silicone-based or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used, where th
e added expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for
a transformer vault. Other less-flammable fluids such as canola oil may be used,
but all fire resistant fluids have various drawbacks in performance, cost, or t
oxicity compared with mineral oil.
7.3
Transformer Impedance
Impedance of the transformers has a material effect on system stability, short-c
ircuit currents, and transmission line regulation, and it is usually desirable t
o keep the impedance at the lower limit of normal impedance design values. Table
7.1 illustrates the range of values available in a normal twowinding transforme
r design (values shown are for GSU transformers with 13.8-kV low voltage). Table
7.1
Nominal System KV
15 25 34.5 46 69 115 138 161 230 500
Winding BIL KV
110 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 825 1425
Typical Impedance values
Minimum
5.0 5.0 5.25 5.60 6.1 5.9 6.4 6.9 7.5 10.95
Impedance at Equiv. 55 ˚C KVA
Minimum
8.34 8.34 8.75 9.34 10.17 9.84 10.67 11.50 12.5 18.25
Maximum
7.5 7.5 8.0 8.4 9.15 8.85 9.6 10.35 11.25 15.6
Maximum
12.5 12.5 14.33 14.0 15.25 14.75 16.0 17.25 18 .75 26.0
Impedances within the limits shown are furnished at no increase in transformer c
ost. Transformers can be furnished with lower or higher values of impedance at a
n increase in cost. The approximate effect of higher- or lower-than-normal imped
ances on the cost of transformers is given in Table 7.2. The value of transforme
r impedance should be determined giving consideration to impacts on selection of
the interrupting capacities of station breakers and on the ability of the gener
ators to aid in regulating transmission line voltage.
Table 7.2 STANDARD IMPEDANCE X
1.45-1.41 1.40-1.36 1.35-1.31 0.90-0.86 0.85-0.81 0.80-0.76
INCREASE IN TRANSFORMER COST
3% 2% 1% 2% 4% 6%
Transformer impedances should be selected based on system and plant fault study
results. Impedances shown are subject to a tolerance of plus or minus In making
comparisons or specifying the value of impedance of transformers, care should be
taken to place all transformers on a common basis. Impedance of a transformer i
s a direct function of its rating, and when a transformer has more than one diff
erent rating, it has a different impedance for each rating. For example, to obta
in the impedance of a forced-air-cooled transformer at the forced-air-cooled rat
ing when the impedance at its self-cooled rating is given, it is necessary to mu
ltiply the impedance for the self-cooled rating by the ratio of the forced-air-c
ooled rating to the self-cooled rating.
7.4
Insulation system
The dielectric tests of the transformer before delivery are entirely directed to
verify the internal insulation system. The external insulation of the bushings
is covered by separate component tests. Impulse tests The tests normally include
impulse testing on the terminals, where a steep-fronted impulse waveshape simul
ates a lightning stroke close to a transformer in service. For very high voltage
transformers an additional impulse test is applied, using a wave shape with lon
ger duration and lower amplitude, but larger energy content. The impulse tests a
re monitored with oscillographs or equivalent transient recorders. This analysis
is quite intricate but gives reliable information on any possible disturbances
in the transformer. Separate source voltage test The correct assembly of the tra
nsformer is verified through tests using AC overvoltage. The separate source vol
tage test is a test in which the whole of a winding is brought up to the same AC
potential by connecting one of its terminals to a test transformer.(With certai
n windings having ”non-uniform insulation” and a neutral terminal intended for direc
t earthing this test is not applicable directly.) Induced voltage test For the i
nduced voltage test the transformer is connected for normal operation, and the t
ransformer is tested at an elevated po
er frequency to avoid overexcitation of t
he core. The test is run either
ith a high voltage during less than a minute, o
r
ith a more moderate voltage during a longer application time
ith simultaneou
s observation of any possible partial discharge phenomena in the transformer. Th
is test method is a relatively recent quality control addition to enhance the as
sessment of the transformer’s insulation system.

IR testing.T e IR of eac winding s ould be measured
using a mego mmeter in acc
ordance wit Sections 10.9 t roug 10.9.4 of t e ANSI/IEEE C57.12.91-1979 Standa
rd,
Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers.
T e transformer

s ould
be deenergized
and electrically isolated wit all terminals of eac windi
ng s orted
toget er. T e windings not being tested s ould be grounded. T e mego
mmeter s ould be applied between eac winding and ground ( ig voltage to ground
and low voltage
to ground)
and between eac
set of windings ( ig voltage to lo
w voltage).T e mego m values along wit t e description of t e instrument, volt

age level, umidity,
and temperature s ould be recorded for
future reference. T
e minimum mego m value for a winding s ould be 200 times t e rated voltage of t
e winding divided by 1000. For example, a winding rated at 13.2kV would ave a m
inimum acceptable value of 2640 mego ms ([13,200V x 200] / 1000). If previously
recorded
readings
taken under similar
conditions aremore t an 50% ig er, you s
ould ave t e transformer t oroug ly inspected, wit acceptance tests performed
before reenergizing.
7.5
Megger details and Usage.

T e megger is a portable
instrument used to measure insulation resistance. T e m
egger consists of a and-driven DC generator anda direct reading om meter. A s
implifiedcircuit
diagram of t e instrument is s own inFigure 1. T e moving ele
ment of t e o m meter consists of two coils, A and B, w ic are rigidly mounted
to a pivoted
central s aft and are free to rotate over a C-s aped core (C on Fig
ure 1). T ese coils are connected by means of flexible leads. T e moving element
may point in anymeter
position w en t e generator
is not in operation.
As curr
ent provided by t e and-driven
generator
flows t roug
Coil B, t e coil will
te
nd to set itself at rig t angles to t e field of t e permanent magnet. Wit t e
test
terminals open, giving an infinite resistance,
no current flows in Coil A.
T ereby, Coil B will govern t e motion of t e rotating
element, causing it to mo
ve to t e extreme counter-clockwise position, w ic is marked as infinite resist
ance.
Figure.7.4
Megger details CoilA is wound in a manner to produce a clockwise
tor
que on t e moving element. Wit
t e terminals marked
"line" and "eart " s orted,
giving a zero
resistance, t e current
flow t roug t e Coil
A is sufficient
to
produce
enoug torque to overcome t e torque of Coil B. T e pointer t en moves t
o t e

extreme clockwise position, w ic is marked as zero resistance. Resistance (Rl)
will protect Coil A from excessive current flow in t is condition. W enan unkno
wn resistance is connected across t e test terminals, line and eart , t e opposi
ng torques of Coils A and B balance eac ot er so t at t e instrument pointer co
mes to rest at some point on t e scale. T e scale is calibrated suc t at t e po
inter directly indicates t e value of resistance beingmeasured. Insulationresi
stance
measured wit t e transformer cold is greater t an w en measured
wit it
ot and is also greater out of oil t an w en immersed in oil. T erefore, in orde
r to determine t e condition of t e insulation, all of t e measured values must
be reduced to a fixed setof conditions. T e reference conditions are a temperat
ure of 20deg C and wit t e transformer filled wit dry transformer oil in good
condition. For t ese conditions t e minimum satisfactory insulation resistance c
orresponding to eac normal
line
to line voltage class is given. Corrected measu
red values lower t an t ose s own in Table 1 indicate t at t at transformer
s ou
ld be dried before energizing. T e measured insulationresistance at t e transfo
rmer temperature is corrected to 20°C by multiplying t e measured value by te cor
rection factor corresponding to t e transformer temperature (Figure 2). If t e i
nsulation
resistance is measured wit t e
transformer out of oil t e measured va
lues s ould first
be divided by 20 and t en corrected for temperature. It is des
irable to ave t e temperature of t e transformer between +40°C and 0°C to keep from
making large corrections Table 7.3 Guide for Minimum Insulation resistance in o
il at 30 deg C Voltage class KV MegaO ms Voltage class KV MegaO ms 1.2 35 92 250
0 2.5 70 115 3150 5 135 135 3750 9 250 160 4350 15 400 196 5400 25 700 230 6300
35 950 287 7800 46 1250 345 9500 69 1900 METHOD OF MEASUREMENTUSING MEGGER T e
best met od to measure insulation resistance is by a megger. T is instrument is
very convenient to use and indicates t e mego m resistance directly. To get unif
orm results,
measurements of insulation resistance
wit t e megger type of instr
ument s ould follow a regular procedure Te recommended practice in measuring in
sulation resistance is to always ground
t e tank and t e core iron or be sure t
ey are grounded. S ort-circuit eac winding of t e transformer at t e bus ing te
rminals. Resistance measurements are t en made between eac winding and all ot e
r windings grounded. Windings are never leftfloating for insulation resistance
measurements.
Solidly grounded winding must ave t e ground removed
in order to
measure t e insulation resistance of t e winding grounded. If t e ground cannot

be removed, as in t e caseof some windings wit solidly grounded neutrals, t e
insulation resistance of t e winding cannot be measured. Treat itas part of t e
grounded section
of t e circuit. For example, in t e case of a t ree-winding tr
ansformer,
t e ig -voltage, tertiary-voltage,
and lowvoltage
windings
are eac
s ort-circuited by connecting t eir terminals toget er. T e ig -voltage

windinginsulation resistance is measured by connecting t e ig voltage termina
ls to t e line or resistance terminal of t e megger. T e low-voltage and tertiar
y-voltage
windings are connected
toget er and
to t e ground
terminal of t e megg
er. T e guard terminal of t e megger, if t e instrument as a guard terminal,is
not used but left floating. T e resistance measured is commonly designated t e
H-LTG resistance. Likewise, t e ot er windings are measured and t emeasurements
called T-HLG and L-HTG resistances. Two-winding transformer would ave onlytwo
resistances,
H-LG and L-HG. T e instrument usedto measure t e resistance s oul
d ave a voltage output of at least500 volts. T e maximum insulation resistance
to be measured must be less t an t e mego ym rating of t e instrument. Resistan
ce
readings
at t e extreme upper end of t e instrument scale are notreliable. W
eret is condition exists, an instrument capable
of measuring a ig er resistan
ce s ould not be used. T e measuring lead s ould be air insulated from all ot er
leads and from t e ground and grounded objects in order to prevent misleading r
esults due to measuring
conductor insulation resistance instead of t e insulatio
n resistance. T e megger type of instrument may be motor driven, and-cranked or
supplied
by a rectifier
instrument is used, t e insulation resistance indicated
by t einstrument s ould be recorded approximately one minute
after e voltage
t
from t e instrument is applied to t e transformer. In ot er words, t evoltage
from t e instrument s ould be applied for oneminute before recording t e resist
ance value.
Wit a and-cranked instrument, t e time interval after starting to

crank t einstrument until recording t eresistance value indicated s ould bot
be less t an 30seconds and preferably s ould be one minute. T is reduction in t
ime is due tot e difficulty of cranking a megger
continuously for one minute. I
n any case, t e time
interval during
w ic t e voltage isapplied s ould be cons
istent t roug out t e tests and s ould be recorded wit t e insulation resistanc
e values. All measurements s ould be made wit t e same procedure to avoid error
s and to obtain comparative results.
7.6
Transformer Oil

T e majority of power transformers
in operation today are filled wit mineral oi
l. T e primary function of t e oil is to provide a ig dielectric insulating ma
terial and an efficient
coolant. It is a by-product
obtained by crude oil refini
ng to fuels suc as petrol or diesel mixed wit additives to give a suitable c e
mical substance
w ic is called a mineral insulating oil. DESCRIPTION Transforme
r Oil is a ig quality electrical insulating oil. It is manufactured using spec
ially selected base stocks to elp provide protection against oxidation and slud
ge formation. Careful processing and andling ensure t at t e oilis stable
and
free of water and ot er contaminants and remains so until it reac es t e user. T
ransformer Oil is recommended for use as an electrical
insulating oil in applica
tions suc as transformers,
oil immersed switc gear, circuit breakers,
oil fille
d capacitors,
tap c angers, electrical
enclosures and fuses, w ere an oil meetin
g te Australian Standard,Britis Standards Institution, InternationalElectro
tec nical Commission or ot er comparable specification is required by t e equipm
ent manufacturer
or user. It s ould not be used w ere safety considerations requ
ire t e use of non-flammable insulating oil Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Page 105

W en t e insulation of an oil-filled transformer deteriorates,
it generates anu
mber of gases fromt e decomposition of insulation. T ese gases dissolve in t e
transformer oil. T e DGA is a laboratory test to analyse t e types and quantitie
s of dissolved gases from oil
samples taken from transformers. T e DGA tests are
carried out by qualified c emists at accredited
laboratory , according to ASTM
D3612. Nine types of dissolved
gases in t e mineral transformer oil sample are b
eing analyzed as per t e Standards requirements.
7.7
Transformer Oil Quality Tests

T e following Oil Quality Tests are performed to c eck is t e conditions of tran
sformer oils. T ese tests are carried out by qualified c emists at accredited la
boratories.
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage Test (IEC 60156)
T is test determinesi
f t e transformer oil as adequate insulating strengt . Low insulating strengt
of oil can lead to transformer failure. Water Content Test (IEC 60814) T is test
determines
t e water content in t e insulating oil based on t e Karl Fis er met
od. T e presence of water can adversely affect t e dielectric strengt s of t e
insulating
oil.
Acidity Test (IEC 60296) T is test measures t e acids contentof
t e oil. T e build-up of acidic compounds cause
t e formation of sludge in t e
transformer.
Sludge as an adverse effect
on t e cooling ability of t e insulati
ng oil t at can lead to transformer over eating. Corrosive Sulp ur Test (ISO 566
2)T is test detects t e presence of corrosive sulp ur in t e insulating oil. Su
lp ur can cause corrosion to t e winding
insulation and conductor of transformer
. From t e quantity
and type of
eac gas
detected, engineers can determine if t
e transformer as partial disc arge, t ermal fault or arcing problem. SIGNIFICAN

CE OF TESTS T e following comments and interpretations, based
on bot tec nical

understanding as well as empirical knowledge, emp asize t ose properties w ic a
re functionally
important to transformer oils: Aniline Point : T e aniline point
is t etemperature at wic a mixture of aniline and oil separates. It provides
a roug indication of t e total aromatic content, and relates to t e solvency o
f t e oilfor materials w ic are in contact wit t e oil. T e lower t e aniline
point, t e greater t e solvency effect. Carbon Type Composition
: T e carbon ty
pe composition
c aracterizes an insulating oil in terms of t e percentage
of aro
matic, nap t enic, and paraffinic carbons. It can be used to detect c anges in o
il composition and to relate certain p enomena t at ave been demonstrated to be
related to oil composition.

Color : T e color of a new oil is generally accepted as an index of t e degree o
f refinement
it is of pale yellow for new oil. For oils in service, an increasin
g or ig color numberis an indication of contamination, deterioration, or bot
. Corrosive Sulfur: T is test detects t e presence of objectionable quantities
of elemental
and t ermally unstable sulfur-bearing compounds in an oil. W en pre
sent, t ese compounds can cause corrosion of certain transformer metals suc as
copper and silver.
Dielectric Breakdown
: T e dielectric breakdown is t e minimu

m voltage at w ic electrical flas over occurs in an oil. It is a measure of t e
ability of an oil to witstand electrical stress at power frequencies wit out f
ailure.A low value for t e dielectric-breakdown voltage generally serves to ind
icate t e presence of contaminants suc as water, dirt, or ot er conducting part
icles in t e oil. Water Content : A lowwater content is necessary to obtain and
maintain acceptable
electrical
strengt andlow dielectric losses in insulation
systems. Flas Point : T e flas point is t e minimum temperature at w ic eat
ed oil gives off sufficient vaporto form a flammable mixture wit air. It is an
indicator of t e volatility oft e oil. Furanic Compounds : Furanic compounds a
re generated as byproducts of t e degradation of cellulosic materials suc as in
sulating paper, pressboard, andwood. T ese compoundsserve as indicators of ins
ulation degradations. Because t ey are dissolved in t e oil, furanic compounds c
an readily be sampled and tested by ig performance liquid c romatograp y (HPLC
). No significant
quantity s ould be detected in new oils. Impulse BreakdownVol
tage : T e impulse breakdown voltage is t e voltage at w ic electrical flas ove
r occurs in an oil under impulse conditions. It
indicates t e ability of an oil
to resist transient
voltage stresses suc as
t ose caused by nearby lig tning st
rokes and ig -voltage switc ing surges. T e results aredependent on electrode
geometry, spacing,
and polarity. Interfacial Tension : T e interfacial tension o
f an oil is t e force in dynes per centimeter required to rupture t e oil film e
xisting atan oil-water interface. W en certain contaminants suc as soaps, pain

ts, varnis es, and oxidation products are present in t e oil, t e film strengt
of t e oil is weakened, t us requiring less force to rupture. For oils in servic
e, a decreasing
value indicates t e accumulation of contaminants, oxidation prod
ucts, or bot . It is a precursor of objectionable
oxidation products w ic may a
ttack t e insulation and interfere wit t e cooling of transformer windings. Neu
tralization Number : T e neutralization number of an oil is a measure of t e amo
unt ofacidic oralkaline materials present. As oils age in service, t eacidity

and t erefore t e neutralization number
increases. A used oil aving a ig neu
tralization number indicates t at t e oilis eit er oxidized or contaminated wit
materials suc as varnis , paint, or ot er foreign matter. (A basic neutraliza
tion number results
from an alkaline contaminant in t e oil.) Pour Point : T e p
our point is t e lowest temperature at w ic oil will justflow. A low pour poin
t is important, particularly in cold climates, to ensure t at t e oil will circu
late and serve itspurpose as aninsulating and cooling medium. It may be useful
for identifying t e type (nap t enic, paraffinic) of oils. Power Factor : T e p
ower factor of an insulating oil is t e cosine of t e p ase angle between a sinu
soidal potential applied to t e oil and t e resulting current.
Powerfactor indi
cates t e dielectric loss of an oil; t us t e dielectric eating. A ig power f
actor is an indication of t e presence of

contamination or deterioration products suc as moisture, carbon or ot er conduc
ting matter, metal soaps and products of oxidation.
Specific Gravity : T e speci
fic gravity of an oil is t e ratio of t e weig ts of equal volumes of oil and wa
ter determined
under specified conditions. In extremely cold climates, specific
gravity as been used to determine w et er ice, resulting from t e freezing of w
ater in oil-filled apparatus, will float on t e oil and possibly result in flas
over of conductorsextending
above t e oil level. T e specific gravity of minera
l oil influences te eat transferrates. Oils of differentspecific gravity may
not readily mix w en added to eac ot er and
precautions s ould betaken toens
ure mixing. Oxidation In ibitor Content : T ese tests provide
a met od for t e q
uantitative determination of t e amount of oxidation in ibitor
(2,6-ditertiary b
utyl-paracresol
or 2,6 ditertiary p enol) present in an in ibited oil. Control o
f t ein ibitor content is an important factor in maintaining long service life
of in ibited insulating oils.

Oxidation
Stability (acid/sludge) : T e acid/sludge test is a met od of assessin
g t e oxidationresistance of an oil by determining t e amount of acid/sludge pr
oducts formed
w en tested under certain prescribed conditions. Oils w ic meet o
r exceedt e requirements tend to preserve insulation system life and ensure acc
eptable eat transfer.
T e test may also be used to c eck t e performance consis
tency of t is c aracteristic of production oils. Gassing Under Electrical Stress
: T e gassing tendency
is defined as t e rate of gas evolved or absorbed by an
insulating oil w en subjected
to electrical stress of sufficient intensity to ca
use ionization. T e c aracteristic
is positive if gas is evolved
and negative
if
gas is absorbed. Polyc lorinated
Bip enyls
: Regulations pro ibiting
t e commer
cial distribution of polyc lorinated bip enyls (PCBs) mandate t at insulating oi
ls be examined for PCB contamination levels to assuret at new products do not c
ontain detectable amounts. Viscosity : Viscosity is t e resistance of oil to flo
w
under specified conditions. T e viscosity
of oil used as a coolant influences
eat transfer rates and consequentlyt e temperature rise of an apparatus. T e v
iscosity of an oil also influences t e speed of moving parts in tap c angers and
circuit breakers. Hig viscosity
oils are less desirable, especially in cold cl
imates. Fig.7.5 S owing t e effect of different gases on transformer life
Years in Service Years in Service
Page 108
Years in Service
Years in Service
Years in Service
Years in Service
Years in Service
Years in Service
Years in Service
7.8
Gas analysis of transformer
Caused By AGEING ELECTRIC ARCS LOCAL OVERHEATING
Table 7.4 Type Of Gas CARBON MONOXIDE, CO CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2 HYDROGEN, H2 ACETY
LENE, C2H2 ETHANE, C2H6 ETHENE, C2H4 PROPANE, C3H6 HYDROGEN, H2
Page 109

METHANE,
CH4 CORONA Oxidation T e oxidation of transformer oil begins as soon as
t e transformer is energized.
A c emical reaction occurs w en t e oilis expose
d to a combination of eat, oxygen, and core and coil components. As t e process
of oxidation progresses, acids and polar
compounds are formed and in turn becom
e sludge. T is sludge will t encoat eat transfer surfaces on
t e core/coil and
t e tank/radiators, reducing t e eat transfer capacity of t e system. T e
oper
ationaltemperatures
are increased, t us accelerating t e degradation of t e oil
. Oil W ic Is In T e Initial Stages Of Oxidization, Forming Acids And Polar Com
pounds. Some sludge deposits will be found in a small percentage of oils in t is
initial stage of oxidization (Acidity levels <.20mg
KOH/g oil). Oil W ic Has A
dvanced In T e Oxidization Process To T e Point W ere Sludge
Deposits Have Been
Formed. T is precipitating sludge coats all surfaces of t e transformers tank an
d radiator walls, as well as t e core and coil oil ways.
In so
doing, eat trans
fer is reduced
causing t e transformer to operate at ig er t an normal temperat
ures, w ic in turn speeds up t e oxidation process (Acidity
levels
of .20mg KOH
/g oil or greater). Moisture T roug Absorption From Te Atmosp ere Above Te Oi
l Level. Many transformer
tanks are designed to seal t e transformer from t e ou
tsideatmosp ere; owever,top side leaksmay develop t at allow normal temperat
ure c anges to cause breat ing. Wit eac new in alation comes more moisture to
be potentially dissolved in t e oil. Units designed as free breat ing also can
experience a build-up
of dissolved moisture. In extreme cases, top cover leaks m
ay be present w ic canallow rain to enter into t e unit directly. Condensation

Inside Transformers. T e moisture is introduced
by exposure to t e atmosp ere a
bove t e oil level. Sudden temperaturec anges can condense t e moisture allowin
g it to run down t e tank walls into t e oil. T ere it will dissolve slowly. Oxi
dation OfOil And Paper Insulation. Since oil andpaper are organic compounds co
ntaining ydrogen, gradual oxidationwill allow t e formation of moisture. T is
can account for a major portion of t e moisture in badly deteriorated oils. oil
is deteriorated beyond an acidity level of .05mg KOH/g
oil t en moisture becomes
a problem Units wit primary voltages above 15Kv s ould ave dielectric reading
s of 30Kv or above and moisture contents below 25ppm. Dielectric reading of less
t an 25Kv, and moisture contents above 30ppm signal t e need for ot oil treatm
ent
Hot Oil Treatment
By eating t e oil to amaximumof 95°C. Processing begins
w en t e oil reac es a minimum of 65 °C. T e eaters ave t e capability
of 38°C tem
perature rise at t e rate of
600 to 1200 GPH. From t e eaters t e oil enters t
e filteration c ambers,. T e Filteration Eart removes sludge, acid and polar co
mpounds from t e oil. Next, t e oil enters t e vacuum
degassing c amber. Vacuum
is maintained at a minimum of 70 cm. T ispart of t e process removes dissolved
moisture,
air, and dissolved gases from t e oil enabling a unit to be processed
even w ile energized.
Page 110

C apter 8
8
TRANSFORMER CONSERVATOR TANK

8.1 Function of t e Conservator Tank T e conservator is an expansion vessel part
ly filled wit oil and connected to t e main transformer tank. Its function is t
o ensure t at t e transformer tank is completelyfilled wit oil at all times T
eConservator, or Expansion-Tank System, seals t e fluid fromt e atmosp ere in
t e main tank by using an auxiliary tank partially filled wit transformer fluid
and connected to t e main tank by piping. T e system allows t e transformer tan
k toremain full,
despite expansion or contraction of t e fluid due to temperatu
re c anges. T e oil conservator is mounted above t e transformer tank and rests
on a suitable rigid olding frame (or on a separate frame, in case of special re
quest). Generally, t e conservator as several
separated sections. T e largest s
ection
is for t e t ermal expansion
of t e transformer
oil. In case on load t
of
apc angers t ere is an ot er section for t e t ermal expansion of t e oil in t
e ermetically sealed tap c anger compartment. T ird section or aseparate small
conservator
is necessary if oil filled cable boxes are used. Eac conservator s
ection as adequate volume considering t e connected
total oil volume and t e te
mperature variation in service. T e oil of t e different conservator sections ca
nnot come intocontact. T e air space above t e oil
of eac conservator section
isconnected
t
roug a pipeline
to an air dryer w ic is mounted at a comfortabl
e eig t for andling. T e airdryer ensures t e breat ing of t e air space abov
e t e oillevel and controls t e umidity. Syntetic or rubber bag conservators f
or airtig t sealing of t e oil are also available. T e end-covers of t e conserv
ator are fixed by bolts. After removing t em t e inner part of t e conservator c
an be cleaned. Eac separated section of t e conservator is provided wit o magn
etic type oil level indicator. T e oil level related to 20 C is marked. An oil f
illing pipe wit a valve is connected
to t e conservator, a draining valve is lo
cated at t e lowest point.Buc olz relays are placed in t e connecting pipe bet
ween t e conservator and t e tank and between t e conservator
and t e oil filled
cable box, if it is used. Between t e tap c anger and t e conservator an oil fl
ow detecting protection relay is placed Prior to assembling
t e conservator per
manufacturer s instructions, t e bladder s ould be c ecked carefully for any con
tamination
or defects, suc as a rip in t e air bag. Also, proper operation
of t
e oil levelfloat sould be verified. T e breat er is provided wit t e conserv
ator tank.
T e breat er is typically a glass vessel w ose top outlet is connecte
d tot e conservator ad bottom outlet is free to air. It is connected vertically
wit t e constervator tank.

Fig.8.1 Conservator
tank positionT e breat er as two c ambers top c amberis f
illed wit silicagel
and bottom c amber
w ic is of bowl type is filled wit tra
nsformer oil. T e air passes t roug t e breat ers. T e moisture present in te
air is absorbed
by t e silica gel. T e dry air goes inside conservator tank w en
needed. T e presence of moisture c ange
colour of silica gel from blue
to pink.
Conservators are so arranged t at t e lower part acts as a sump in w ic any im
purities entering
t e conservator can collect. A valve/plug is fitted at t e low

est point of t e conservator for draining oil. T e inside of t e conservator s o
uld be cleaned every two or t ree years. T e oil level indicators s ould be kept
clean and Figure
s owing conservator
and connections examined at regular interv
als, and oil s ould be added w en t e level indicated is low.
8.2

Buc olz Relay connection

Most faults in an oil filled Transformer
are accompanied
by t e generation of ga
s. By using a suitable relay t e formation of t is gas can be used as a warning
of a developingfault. Double element relays can be used for detecting minor or
major faults. T e alarm element will operate after a specified volume of gas as
collected to give an alarm indication. Examples of incipient faults are: a.Bro
ken-down core bolt insulation b. S orted laminations c. Bad contactsd. Over eat
ing of part of t e windings T e alarm element willalso operate in t e event of
oil leakage or if air enters t e cooling system. T e trip element will be operat
ed by an oilsurge in t e event of more serious faultssuc as: a. Eart faults
b. Winding
s ort circuits c. Puncture of bus ings d. S ort circuits between p as
es T e trip
element will also operate if a rapid loss of oil occurs. MOUNTING PO
SITION T e relay s ould be mounted in t e connecting pipe between t etransforme
r and t e conservator tank. T is pipe s ould be as long and as straig t as possi
ble,and must be arranged to slope upwards, towards t e conservator,
at an angle
wit in t e limits of 3 to 7 degrees to t e orizontal. T ere s ould be a straig
t run on t etransformer side of t e relay of at lease five times t e internal
diameter of t e pipe, and at least t ree times t is diameter on t e conservator
side. CONSTRUCTION AND METHOD OF OPERATION T e relay consists of a lig tweig t c
ontainer
fitted wit twopivoted elements. It is situated in t e pipe line betwe
en t e transformer and t e conservator tank, so tat under normal conditions
it
is full of oil. T e operating force relies upon t e principle t at w en a body i
s immersed in a liquid it appears to lose weig t.
Page 112

Fig.8.2 Buc olz relay Mercury Swit es Mercury switc es are employed of a specia
l design to prevent
mal-operation
due to excessive transformer vibration. A samp
lerelay of t is type
as to be submitted to a continuous vibratory type test. .
T e mercury switc es test connected to sensitive detecting equipment and no mal
-operations
s ould be recorded. T e mercury switc es are to be spring mounted wi
t in t e switc cylinders
and protected from possible damage. Alarm and trip cir
cuit mercury switc
es will make break and carry continuously 2 Amps at 250 Volts
A.C or D.C. T ey will also make and carry for 0.5 sec. 10 Amps at 250 Volts A.C
. or D.C.
PRINCIPAL
OF OPERATION

T e operating mec anism consists of a solid non-metallic cylinder containing t e
mercury switc , counterbalanced by a smaller solid metal cylinder. Bot cylinde
rs are jointed and free torotate about t e same axis, t eamountof rotation
be
ing
controlled by stops. W en t e relay
is empty of oil, t e weig
t of t e switc

cylinder predominates
and
t e switc system rests against t e bottom stop, t e
mercuryswitc being in t e closed circuit position. W en t e relay is fullof
oil,bot cylinders appear to lose weig t. Due to t e different
densities,
t e s
witc cylinder appears to lose enoug weig tto enable t e weig t of t e counter
balance cylinder
to predominate and rotate
t e w ole system until it reac es t e
top stop, wit t e mercury switc in t e open position.
“ALARM”
OPERATION

W en a slig t or incipient
fault
occurswit in t e transformer, t e gas generate
d will collect in t e top of t e relay ousing. Asgas collects, t e oil level w
ill fall
and increasing amounts of t e alarm switc will appear above
t e oille
vel.T is results
in
gradual restoration of t e apparent lost weig t,
until t e
weig t of t e switc cylinder predominates.
T e element
rotates as t e oil level
continues to fall and eventually t e alarm switc operates.
TRIP
OPERATION
W en a serious fault
occurs,
t e generation
of t e gas is so rapid t at an oil s
urge is set up t roug t e relay. T is oil flow will impinge upon t e flap fitte
d to t etrip element causing it torotate about its axis and
so bring t e mercu
ry switc to t e closed position, w ic in turn operates t e tripping devices. I
n t e event of serious oil loss from t e transformer, bot alarm and trip elemen
ts operate inturn, in t e manner previously described for gas collection. T e o
il level
in t e double
element relay can be monitored against a graduated scale
on t e windows bot sides. SINGLE ELEMENT AND TAP-CHANGER TYPES Single element t
ype relays are available for 1” bore size, designated 1 SE, w ic operate indiscri
minately for Gas or Oil collection and are suitable for small oil filled transfo
rmer, capacitor and potential
transformer protection.
single element relays can
also be used for Tap-C anger type transformers w ic operate for a surge conditi
on or loss of oil only and allow gas, normally produced
during tapc anging opera
tions, to pass freely. T e single element relay as only
one operating element a
nd operates in a similar manner to t at described for t e double element types.
8.3

Transformer Breat ers
Page 113

Transformer Breat ers eliminate oil t ickening and deteriorating w en air space
above it expands and contracts wit climatic variations. Unitsare filled wit s
elf-indicating,
environmentally friendly
Silicagel adsorbent tat c anges color
w en it
reac es saturation level. Ex austed cartridge can be c anged
Transformer

Breat er Protects Oil and Reduces Maintenance
Transformer breat ers,
avoid
t e
problem of oil in a conservator tank t ickening and deteriorating wen t e air s
pace above
it expands and contracts wit climatic variations. breat
ers are fill
ed wit
self-indicating
Silicagel
adsorbent in a cartridge w ic s ould be c ang
es w en t e color of t e gel c anges to pink from blue.
Page 114

C apter-9
9
9.1
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
T ree P ase Connection

Single-p ase transformers can be connected to form t ree-p ase transformer banks
. Normally, t ree nominally identical transformers (P, Q, and R) are used and co
nnected symmetrically (some special cases will be discussed later). T e primarie
s are connected in delta (∆ ) or in wye (Y), as are t e secondaries.
T e possible
combinations are: ∆-∆, ∆- Y, Y-∆ and Y – Y . T e names come from t e appearance of t e dia
gramswe use - see below. A ∆ -Y or Y- ∆ connection introduces a 30° p ase s iftand a
√3c ange in t e voltage ratio as will be discussed
in detail. We will assume t a
t t e individual
transformers are ideal in t e following sections. Delta-Delta
C
onnectionT eterminal connections
are s own in Fig
1 w ereas Fig 2 elps
us und
erstand t e p ase relations ips.
VAB and V12 are t e voltages across
t e primary

and
secondary of one of t e t ree transformers (P). Tey are in p ase wit eac
ot er and differ
in magnitude by t e turns
ratio of t e transformer. T e same i
s true for t e ot er two transformers.
T e currents
IP and IS (pri and sec curre
nts of transformer P) are in p ase wit eac ot er and differ in magnitude by t
e inverse turns ratio.
Fig. 9.1
Page 115

Fig.9.2 Tere are two sets of currents in a delta
connection,
t e line currents,

IL, w ic flow in and outof t e bank, andt e currents w ic flow in t e windi
ngs (inside t e delta) - tese are called p ase or delta currents I∆. T e line cur
rents are √3 larger t an t e delta currents and are s ifted in p ase by 30° . Recall
3-p ase circuits notes: Sample calculation A ∆ - ∆ transformer bank drops t e utili
ty voltage of 138 kV to 4160 V for a manufacturing plant. T e plant draws 21 MW
at 86% lagging. (a) T e apparent power drawn
by t e plant is: P/PF = 21/0.86 = 2
4.4 MVA (b) T e apparent power drawn by t e transformer bank is: 24.4 MVA (TFB c
onsidered lossless) (c) T e current in t e HV lines is: S/(√3 × VLL) = 24.4 M / (√3 × 13
8 k) = 102 A (d) T e current in t e LV linesis: S/(√3 × VLL) = 24.4 M / (√3 × 4160) = 3
384 A (e) T e current int e windings of eac TF is: I_HV = 102/√3 = 58.9 A, I_LV
= 3384/√3 = 1954 A (f) T e load carried by eac TFis: 24.4/3 = 8.13MVA or using
4160
× 1954 or 138 k × 58.9 Delta-Wye Connection T e connection of t e primaries is
t
e same as in t e previous case (delta). T e secondaries are connected in wye w
ic creates a common neutral point N andtwo sets of voltages, line-to-line VLL
and line-to-neutral VLN. In t is case, t e primary voltage of transformer P is
a line-to-line
voltage, and
its secondary voltage is line-to-neutral. W en we
st
ate t e voltage ratio oft e transformer bank, we compare L-L voltages, so t e b
ank ratio
is √3 larger t an t e individual transformer ratios, and t ere is a 30° p
ase s ift. VLL = √3 _ ∟30 VLN
Fig.9.3 Delta-Wye Connection
Page 116

Fig.9.4 ∆ -Y Sc ematic and Voltage P asors Since t e secondary and t e primaryvol
tages of any one transformer are in p ase, t e bank output
voltage must lead t e
bank input voltage
by 30°. T is can be seen in
t e p asor diagram of Fig 4 by com
paring E12 wit EAB. Sample calculation 3 1-p ase step-up TFs rated at 40 MVA, 1
3.2 kV / 80 kV are connected in _-Y and connect a 13.2 kV transmission line to a
90 MVA load.
Calculate: (a) T e load voltage: For one TF, VP is 13.2 kV, VS is
80 kV (w ic is a L-N voltage) For load or bank, VLOAD (L-L) = √3 × VL_N = √3 × 80 k = 1
38 kV (b) T e currents in t e TF windings: For one TF, S = 90 MVA / 3 = 30 MVA I
PRI ∆ = S / VWDG = S / VL-L = 30 M / 13.2 k = 2272 A ISECY = S / VWDG = S / VL-N =
30 M / 80 k = 375 A (c) T e line currents (LV and HV): ILV =√3 × 2272 = 3932 A (fro
m delta toline) IHV =375 A (no adjustment in a wye) Wye-Delta Connection
T e re
verse of t e delta-wye connection, t e bank ratio is _3 smaller
t an t e individ
ual transformer ratios, and t e bank output voltage must lag t e bank input volt
age by 30_.

Wye-Wye
Connection As wit t e delta-delta connection, t e bank ratio is t e sam
e as
te individual transformer ratios, and t e bank output voltage isin p ase
wit t e bank input voltage. T e only extra
possible problem is t at t e neutral
point may s ift causing unbalance of t e line-to-neutral voltages. T is can be
caused by unbalanced loads (different load currents in eac of t e t ree p ases)
. 4-Wire Wye Connection
T ere are two solutions. Use a 4-wire system (see Fig. 1
2.6) and tie t e neutral points toget er - forcing t e line-to-neutral voltage t
o be balanced, or
Page 117

Primary Fig.9.5 4-Wire Wye Connection 3-Wire Wye wit Tertiary
Secondary
Fig 9.6
Primary
Secondary

add a tertiary winding connected in delta (see Fig.9.6) - forcing t e voltages t
o sum to zero.

Calculations
involving T ree-p ase Transformer Banks (6 assumptions) 1. We assum
e bot primary and secondary windings
are connectedin wye (even if t ey are not
). 2. We consider one single-p ase transformer of t is assumed Y-Ybank. 3. We c
onsider t e primary voltage to be t e line-to-neutral
voltage of t e incoming li
ne. 4. We consider t e secondary voltage to be t e line-to-neutral voltage
oft
e outgoing line. 5. We consider t e nominal power rating to be one-tird of te
bank rating.
6. We consider t e load on t is transformer to be one-t ird of t e
load on t e bank. Example
3-p ase bank is rated at 1300 MVA, 24.5 kV / 345 kV, 6
0 Hz, XL = 11.5 %. T is bank connects a 24.5 kV generator to a 345 kV transmissi

ongrid Determine t e equivalent circuit and t egenerator terminal voltage w en
t is transformer
delivers
810 MVA at 370 kV wit a 90% lagging power factor. W
e use t e per-unit met od and work on t e HV side of t e bank using t e six assu
mptions. VBASE = 345/√3 = 199.2 kV, SBASE = 1300/3 = 433.3 MVA, ZT = 0 +j 0.115 pu
SLOAD = 810 / 3 = 270 MVA SLOAD (PU) = SLOAD / SBASE = 270 / 433.3 = 0.6231 pu
VLOAD = 370 / √3 = 213.6 kV VLOAD (PU) = VLOAD / VBASE = 213.6 / 199.2 = 1.0723 pu
I (PU) = SLOAD (PU) / VLOAD (PU) = 0.6231 / 1.0723 = 0.5811 pu _ = cos-1 0.90 =
25.84° V GEN = VLOAD + I×ZT = 1.0723 ∟0 + (0.5811 ∟-25.84) × (0.115 ∟90) = 1.0723 + j 0 +
0.0668 ∟64.16) = 1.1014 + j 0.0601 = 1.103 pu ∟3.12° VGEN = VGEN (PU) ×VBASE = 1.103 × 24.
5 kV = 27.02 kV (answer is line-to-line on LV side) Connections of terminals
Page 118

W en you start making t e connections between t e transformer s terminals and t
e incoming and outgoing conductors, carefully follow t e instructions given on t
e nameplate or on t e connection diagram. C eck all of t e tap jumpers forprop
er location and for tig tness. Re-tig ten all cable retaining bolts after t e fi
rst 30 daysof service. Before working on t e connections make sure all safety p
recautions ave been taken. As appropriate, you s ould make arrangements to adeq
uately
support t e incoming/outgoing connecting cables to ensure t at t ere is n
o mec anical stress imposed on transformer bus ings and connections. Suc stress
could cause a bus ing to crack or a connection to fail. Transformersare usuall
y designed and built to provide good electrical connections using eit er copper
or aluminum
cable. A protective plating or compound t at prevents surface
oxidat
ion on te aluminum terminals is usually applied at t e factory. You s ould not
remove t is coating from tap and line terminals. Also, wen aluminum conductors
are used,
give t em a protective compound treatment at t e terminal as specified
by t e cable manufacturer.

One s ould follow t e instructions provided by t e transformer manufacturer. Tor
que specifications
are sometimes listed on te ardware. After applying proper t
orque, you s ould wait a minute or so, and t en re-tig ten all bolts to t e spec
ified
torque. You s ould use commercially available, properly sized, UL-listed
m
ec anical- or compression-type lugs. T ese terminations s ould be attac
ed to t
e cables as specified by t e termination or cable manufacturer. Suc termination
s are available fromelectrical distributors. Do not install was ers between t e
terminal lugs and te termination bus bar as t is will introduce an added imped
ance and will cause eating and possible connection failure. Some transformer ma
nufacturers recommend t at t e cable size be based on an ampacity level of 125%
of nameplate
rating. W en speaking
to consulting engineers
on t is topic, we ve
found t at t ey recommend t e cable be sized for t e transformer s nameplate rat
ing.
You take
your c oice;
extra safety and extra cost or regular-sized cables.
W atever t e c oice, t e cable insulation rating must be adequate for t e instal
lation. T e cables you install must be kept as far away as possible from coils a
nd top blades.
9.2
Parallel operation of Power transformer

T e need for operation
of
two or more
transformers in parallel often arises due
to: 1) Load growt
, w ic exceeds t e capactiy of an existing transformer2) Lac
k of space ( eig t) for one large transformer
3) A measure of security (t e prob
ability of two transformers failing att e same time is very less) 4) T e adopti
on of a standard size of transformer
t roug out an installationConditions neces
sary for parallel operation T e Polarity
or p ase sequence
is t e same All paral
leled units must be supplied from
t e same network. T e winding configurations (
star, delta, zigzag star) of t e several transformers

ave t e same p ase c ange(angle of displacement) between primary and secondary
voltages T e s ort-circuit impedances are equal, or differ by less t an 10% Volt
age differences between corresponding p ases must not exceed 0.4% Transformers
i
n parallel must be of equal voltage. If t e voltages are
not equal, t e differen
ce between t e voltages
will result in a net voltage, w ic willcause current t
o circulate on t e closed network between t e two transformers T e t eoretically
ideal conditions for paralleling transformers are: 1. Identical turn ratios and
voltage ratings. 2. Equal percent impedances. 3.Equal ratios of resistanc to r
eactance.
4. Same polarity. 5. Same p ase angle s ift. 6. Same p ase rotation Si
ngle-P ase Transformers For single-p
ase transformers,
only t e first four condi
tions apply, as t ere is no p ase rotation or p ase angle s ift due to voltage t
ransformation. If t e turns ratio are not same a circulating current will flow e
ven at no load. If t e percent impedance or t e ratios of resistance to
reactanc
e are different t ere will be no circulating current at no load, but t e divisio
n of load between t e transformers w en appliedwill no longer be proportional t
ot eirKVA ratings. T ree-P ase Transformers T e same conditions old true for
t ree p ase transformers except t at in t is case t e question
of p ase rotation
and p ase angle s ift must be considered. P ase Angle S ift (Vector groups) Cer
tain transformer
connections as t e wye-delta or wye-zigzag produce a 30 s ift be
tween t e line voltages on t e primary side and t ose on t
e secondary
side. Tra
nsformers
wit
t
ese connections
cannot be paralleled wit ot er transformers no
t aving t is s ift suc as wye-wye, delta-delta,
zigzagdelta,
or zigzag-zigzag.
P aseRotation
P ase rotation refers to t e order in w ic t eterminal voltage
s reac t eir maximum values. In paralleling, t ose terminals w ose voltage maxi
mums occur simultaneously are paired. Power
Transformer
Paralleling In practice,
good paralleling can be accomplis ed alt oug t e actual transformer conditions
deviate by small percentages
from t e t eoretical ones. Paralleling is consider
ed
attainable w en
t e percentage impedances of two winding transformers
are wit
in 7.5% of eac ot er. For multi-winding and auto-transformers, t e generally a
ccepted limit is 10%. Power transformers of normal design t e ratio of resistanc
e to reactance is generally sufficiently small tomake t e requirement of equal
ratios of negligible
importance in paralleling. W en it is desired to parallel t
ransformers
aving widely
different impedances, reactors or autotransformers av
ing t eproper ratio s ould be used. If a reactor isused it is placed in series
wit t e transformer
w ose impedance is lower. It s ould ave a value sufficien
t to bring t e total effective

percent impedance of t e transformer plus te reactor up to t e value of t e per
cent impedance of t e second transformer. W en an auto-transformeris used, t e
relative currents supplied
by eac transformer
are determined by t e ratio of t
e
two sections of t e auto-transformer. T e auto-transformer adds a voltage to t
e voltage drop in t e transformer wit t e lower impedances
and subtracts a vol
tage from t e voltage drop in t e transformer wit t e ig er impedance. Auto-tr
ansformers
for use in
paralleling powertransformers are specially designed for
eac installation. T e wiringdiagram s owing t e met od of connecting t e auto-
transformer is usually furnis ed.

In general,
transformers built to t e same manufacturing specifications as indic
ated by t e nameplate may be operated in parallel.

Connecting transformers inparallel w en t e low voltage tension is comparativel
y low requires care t at t e corresponding connecting
bars or conductors ave ap
proximately te same impedance.
If t ey do not, t e currents will not divide pro
perly. Load
S aring : T e total power (kVA) available w en two or more
transform

ers of t e same kVA rating are connected
in parallel, is equal to t e sum of t e
individual ratings, providing t at t e percentage impedances are all equal and
t e voltage ratios are identical. Transformers of unequal kVA ratings will s are
a load
practically (but not exactly) in proportion
to t eir ratings, providing

t at t e voltage ratios are identical and t e percentage impedances (at t eir ow
nkVA rating)are identical, or very nearly so. In t ese cases, a total of more
tan 90% of t e sum of t e two ratings is normally available. It is recommended

t at transformers, t e kVA ratings of w ic differ by more t an 2:1, s ould not
be operated permanently in parallel.
9.3
Vector Groups and Diagrams
Vector Diagram Circuit Configuration
Secondary Star point
Table 9.1 Code Vector group No.
0
Dd0
(0deg)
None
Page 121
Code No.
Vector group
Vector Diagram
Circuit Configuration
Secondary Star point
Yy0
10 % load capacity
Dz0
Full load capacity
Dy5
Full load capacity
5
Yd5
None
(120 deg)
Yz5
Full load capacity
Code No.
Vector group
Vector Diagram
Secondary Y -Star point
Page 122
Dd6
None
6 Yy6 (180 deg)
10 % Load Capacity
Dz6
Full load capacity
11 (30 deg lead)
Dy11
Full Load capacity
Yd11
None
Vector group
Vector Diagram
Secondary Y -Star point
Page 123
Yz11
Full load capacity
9.4
Vector groups and parallel operation

T e vector group marks t e circuitry of windings and t eir p ase position to eac
ot er. It consists of a capital and small letter plus
a code number. T e capit
al letter refers to t e input winding, t e small to t e output winding. T e uppe
r voltage is marked by 1 in front, t e undervoltage by a 2 in front,
regardless
of input or output voltage. A 1 in back on t e contrary, marks t ebeginning of
a winding, a 2 in back t e end. Tabs are marked3 and 4in back. T e numbers cor
relate to letters U V W and distinguis t e 3 p ases. T e neutral point (star po
int) is always
marked N. T e most
common vector groups are summarized alongside,

input left- and, output rig t- and. Unless ot erwise requested, t ree-p ase tra
nsformers are preferentially
delivered in star-star connection. If on secondary
side, in relation to t e primary side, ig er currents at smaller voltages are n
eeded,
preferentially Yd5 / Yd11 is used because of t e winding cross sections.
T e transformers of t e same vector group can be operated in parallel
by connect
ing terminals
A,B,C on t e primary
side wit terminals a,b,c on t e secondary si
de of t e transformers t roug t e respective busbars. However it is possible to
use transformers of vector group (Code 0) in parallel wit t ose ingroup (Code
6) by suitable internal winding adjustment. Paralleling
operation t roug Tap c
anger Transformers connected in parallel even t oug of identical
ratings
will
ave some differencein impedance
leading to unequal load s aring and t ereby ci
rculating
currentst roug t e windings. To minimize t e unequal loads being s a
red t e Load Tap c anger is used to c ange taps automatically
so t at t e voltag
e and ence t e load on t e transformer c anges so t at t e transformers are equ
ally loaded.

C apter-10
Page 124
10 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Power transformers are t e most expensive single elements of HV transmission sys
tems. transformers represent t e largest portion of capital investment in transm
ission and distribution substations.In addition, power transformer outages ave
a considerable
economic impact on t e operation ofan electrical network T eref
ore, it is t e aim of Power Engineers to increase t e reliability of transformer
operation ,usable service life and decrease te transformer maintenance costs T
ransformer are subjected to various
types of s ort circuits
currents, t ermal an
d transient
mec anical stresses w ic occur during
switc ing operation and on fa
ult ence t ey needto be isolated
during suc conditions to avoid insulation fa
ilure and abnormal eating of t e windings
10.1
Types of protection

T e following protection relays / equipment areused depending on t e size, impo
rtance and construction (tap c anger type) of t e transformer. 1. HRC fuses 2. O
vercurrent
protection 3. Graded time lag overcurrent relay 4. Instantaneous eart
fault protection 5. Restricted eart fault protection 6. Buc olz relay (Gas o
perated protection) 7. Differential protection 8. Over-flux protection 9. Over-v
oltageprotection 10. Under voltage protection 11. Surgeprotection ( orn gaps a
nd lig tning arrestors) 12. Under-frequency
protection
T e faults commonly occur
ring inpower transformer are p ase to eart , P ase to p ase, inter turn windin
g, over eating
of winding due to overcurrents. In addition transformers are subj
ected to ot er causes of failure due to core eating, insulation oil breakdown,
improper or insufficient cooling system (circulating
oil), winding displacement
due to mec anical vibrations,
low oil level T e transformer unit protection
syst
em (differential) s ould not operate for faults occurring outside t e transforme
r protection zone. T e transformer overload relay is provided as a back up for f
aults beyond transformer protected
zone. T e following details
of t e transforme
r are required for selecting t e relays and protection sc eme 1. KVA rating 2. V
oltage ratio 3. type of connection (star-delta ,etc) 4. Dry (resinclad) or Oil
filled 5. conservator used or not 6. percentage Impedance
7. Tap c anger type 8.
Cooling system 9. Neutral Eart ing type (solid or t roug resistor) 10. Connect
ed load
Protective system for distribution
transformers
: Small transformers ( below 500
KVA) :H.V fuses for p ase-eart and p ase-p ase faults Graded time lag relays a
re sometimes used for oveloads Above500 KVA or important transformers : 1. Over
current relays 2. Instantaneous eart fault relaysFor transformers upto 5 MVA r
ating 1. Overcurrent protection 2. Restricted eart fault relay 3. Buc olz rela
y Over-flux protectionFor transformers above 5 MVA rating 1.Overcurrent protect
ion 2. Restricted eart fault relay 3. Buc olz relay 4. Over-flux protection 5.
Differential protection 6. Sudden pressure
relays 7. winding temperature alarm
Table 10.1 Type of Fault Overloads (t ermal) Overcurrents sustained
(overload)
T
roug faults (back up protection)
Hig voltage
surges (Lig tning and switc ing)
Heavyinternal faults (p ase to ground, p ase to eart ) Incipient faults (inter
turn s ort circuit, winding insulation breakdown, oil insulation breakdown) Eart
faults Magnetic saturation of core

Protection device used T ermal overload relays Temperature relays alarms Graded
time lag overcurrent
relays Time graded overcurrent
relay HRC fuses (small trans
formers) Lig tning Arrestors, rod gap Buc olz relay trip action Buc olz relay
alarm action Sudden pressure relay Pressure relief valve Eart fault relay Diffr
ential protection Overflux relay Overvoltage relay
10.2

T ermal Overload protection

For liquid-immersed power transformers,
t e temperature
of t e winding
ot-spot
is t e important factor in t e long-term
life of t e transformer. T e insulating
oil
temperature is dependent on t e winding temperature, and is used to indicat
e t e operating
conditions of t e transformer.
Failure to limit t ese temperatur
e rises to t e t ermal capability of t e insulation and core materials can cause
premature failure of t e transformer.

T ermal Protection Functions
THERMAL protection
functionscan be discussed in se
veral broad groups. T e first group is “mec anical”, in t at p ysical sensors and re
lays attempt to detect over-temperatures, and take mitigating action t roug ala
rms and tripping. T ese types of protection functions include direct temperature
sensors, internal t ermal relays,
sudden pressure relays, and gas detection rel
ays. It is important to note t at t e temperature sensors work almost exclusivel
y on top-oil temperature. An important part of t is type of protection is t e tr
ansformer cooling system, as different stages of cooling fans and pumps are star
ted by temperature sensors. Some transformers also use a topoil temperature moni
tor t at includes contacts t at can directly be used for alarming and tripping o
n oil temperature. A second group is overcurrent
based overload
protection, prov
ided by fuses
or overcurrent relays. T ese devices
operate w en
current exceeds
a value t at is an unacceptable overload on t e transformer. T is overload will
cause oil temperature rise,so t e overload functions provide limited t ermal pr
otection by de-energizing t e transformer. T ermal Overload functionavailable i
n modern numerical transformer protection relays acts depending on t e specific
implementation in t e relay, uses some combination of measured current, ambient
temperature, and transformer
oil temperature
to detect
t e presence of an over-t
emperature condition. T e function can t en alarm t e presence of an over-temper
ature condition, remove load from t e transformer, or trip t e transformer off-l
ine. Table 10.2 Standard temperature limits Average winding temperature rise 65 C
Hot-spot temperature rise Top liquid temperature rise Maximum temperature limit
80 C 65 C 110 C Above ambient Above ambient Above ambient Absolute
Table 10.2: Standard temperature limits, 65 C rise transformer,
30 ambient tempera
ture Typical settings for oil temperature are 60 deg C - Switc on Fans 95 deg C
- Alarm 120 deg C – Trip
Page 127
Fig.10.1 Temperature measurement Measuring Ambient Temperature TRANSFORMER opera
ting temperatures are based on rise above ambient temperature. Models of transfo
rmer oil temperatures
generally require directly
measuring t e ambient temperatu
re to determine
t e operating state of t e transformer. For example, as previous
ly defined, t e ot-spot oil temperature is directly dependent on t e ambient te
mperature.
So t e major advantage of measuring t e ambient temperature is improv
ing t e accuracy of top-oil temperature calculations, and ot-spot temperature c
alculations. Measuring t e ambient temperature requires connecting a temperature
probe to t e relay. Temperature probes traditionally use a transducer output, b
ut may use RTD (Resistor Temperature Detector) connections in some instances. Me
asuring Top-Oil Temperature TOP-OIL temperature is easily measured. Suitable top
-oil
temperature sensors are installed as part of t e transformer cooling system
. T e actual
temperature
sensor is usually an RTD mounted in a eated t ermowell
in one p ase of t etransformer. Top-oil temperature sensors are also easy to i
nstall, as sensors t at mount externally to t e tank are available. Directly mea
suring t e top-oil temperatureimproves t e accuracy of temperature based protec
tion functions, and improves t e accuracy of ot-spot temperature calculations.
Use of measured
top-oil
temperature does require a temperature sensor at t e tra
nsformer, wit a p ysical connection to t e transformer protection relay. Wit n
ewer transformer installations, t e topoil temperature may be an output of t e t
ransformer cooling
controls. Measuring
t e top-oil temperature
at only one point
assumes some omogeneity among t e oil temperature in t e transformer tank. It
is possible to use multiple sensors for per-p ase measurements of top-oil temper
ature,
and t erefore perp ase temperature protection of t e transformer.
However
, t e top-oil temperature will be identical between all t ree p ases, unless t e
re is significant load imbalance. Measuring Hot-Spot TemperatureT e aim of temp
erature-based transformer protection is to limitt e impact of t e ottest-spot
temperature on transformer winding insulation. T erefore, using measured ot-spo
t temperature provides t e most accurate protection against transformer over-tem
peratureconditions, and may be t e only measurement required
for protection pur
poses. T e biggest disadvantage to t is met od is t e otspot temperature
sensor
. Practically,
t e sensor must
be installed during manufacture of t e transforme
r, as t e sensor must be p ysically installed in t e transformer winding at a po
int calculated by t e

transformer designer to be t e location of t e ot-spot. As t e temperature sens
ors must also be electrically isolated from t e transformer tanksand windings,
ot-spot temperature sensors are typically fiber-optic sensors. T ese sensors ar
e installed to measure t e ot-spot temperature, for large power transformers. O
il & Winding Temperature
Indicator Oil temperature
indicators
are generally
of t
wo types,one wit rigid stem and t e ot er type wit capillary tube. T ey are f
itted wit temperature sensing elements at t e end of rigid stem or capillary tu
be. Winding temperature
Indicator is provided wit capillary tube wit sensing e
lement
(bulb) at t e end of tube. Sensing elements are enclosed in metal bulb, w
ic are fitted in pockets provided on tank over in t e ottest oil region. Befo

re inserting temperature sensing bulb inside t epocket, transformer oil or eat
conducting grease s ould befilled in pocket. T e union coupling on t e bulb s
ould be screwed tig tly on t e pocket so t at water does not penetrate inside t
e pocket. Capillary tube of instrument must be routed and fixed suc a way t at
it suffers less risk of being pinc ed or
bent or cut off. Plastic
straps are pro
vided wit eac instrument for fixing t e tube. Surplus lengt of tube s ould no
t be cut off since te pressure balanced system will be destroyed. Tube may be m
ade into loop more t an 150 mm diameter and tied to tank in suitable position. U
tmost care
s ould be taken w ile fitting
sensing bulb in t epocket since it is
likely t at capillary tube may form s arp bends and damage t e instrument. Instr
umentsare calibrated and under no circumstances indicator pointer
s ould be mov
ed by and or bent, as it mig t suffer permanent damage. If t e instrument is no
t giving correct temperature indication as a result of improper andling or any
ot er cause, it may be calibrated as given in instrument’s pamp let. Winding tempe
rature indicator
(wit a separate
eater pocket) .Temperature
sensingbulb prov
ided at t e end of capillary s ould be fitted in t e eater pocket in ousing fi
tted on tank cover. Two terminals provided
in ousing are connected to t e eati
ng coil of eater pocket inside t e ousing (outside tank) and to current transf
ormer secondaryterminals from t e inside of tank. (T ese are normally connected
before
dispatc
of transformer). Housing is air filled. Instrument is oused in
t e mars alling box
10.3
Over-flux protection

W en
t e operating system frequency
raises above t e rated transformer
frequency
, t e working magnetic flux
in t e core
and windings increases t ereby
increasin
g iron and coreloses and eating up t e core lamination
stressing
t e laminatio
n insulation.
T e over-flux relay operates on t e V/F
input, w ere voltage is fe
d from te voltage transformer and frequency from t e supply. Over-flux relay is
set wit sufficient time lag
Page 129
10.4
Transformer differential protection
Percentage-restraint differential protective
relays are used as a proven fast ac
ting protection
for power transformers and ave been in service for many years.
Figure 10.2 s ows a typical differential relay connection diagram.
Fig.10.2 Typical DifferentialRelay Connection Diagram Differential elements com
pare an operating current wit a restraining current. T eoperating current(als
o called differential
current), IOP, can be obtained as t e p asor sum of t e cu
rrents entering t e protected element:

IOP is proportional
to t e fault current for internal
faults and approac es zero
for any ot er operating (ideal) conditions.
T ere are different alternatives
fo
r obtaining t e restraining current. T e most common ones include t e following:

W ere k is a compensation
factor, usually taken as 1 or 0.5. Equation 3 and Equa
tion
4 offer t e advantage of being applicable to differential relays wit more
t antwo restraint elements. T e differential relay generates a tripping
signal
if t e operating current, IOP, is greater t an a percentage of t e restraining c
urrent, IRT:

Figure10.3 s ows a typical differential
relay operating c aracteristic. T is c a
racteristicconsists of a straig t line aving a slope equal to SLP and a orizo
ntal straig t line defining t e relay

minimum
pickup current, IPU. T e relay operating region is located above
t e slo
pe c aracteristic (Equation 5), and t e restraining region is below t e slope c
aracteristic. In addition,
t e slope c aracteristic of t epercentage-differenti
al relay provides furt er security for external faults wit CT saturation. A var
iable-percentage or dual-slope c aracteristic, originally
proposed by S arp and
Glassburn,
furt er increases relay security for eavy CT saturation. Fig.10.3 s
ows t is c aracteristic as a dotted line.
Fig.10.3 A percentage differential relay
SOURCES
OF FALSE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY OPERATION
Inrus or overexcitation
conditions of a power transformer produce false differe
ntial currents t at could cause differential relaymisoperation. Bot conditions
produce distorted differential currents because t ey are related to transformer
core saturation.
T e distorted waveforms provide information t at elps to disc
riminate inrus and overexcitation conditions from internal faults. However,
t i
s discrimination can be complicated by ot er sources of distortion suc as CT sa
turation, nonlinear fault resistance, or system resonant conditions. In t e case
of power transformer applications,
possible sources
of false differential curre
nts are: • Mismatc between t e CT ratios and t epower transformer ratio • Variable
ratio of t e power transformer caused by a tap c anger • P ase s ift between t e
power transformer
primary and secondary currents for delta-wye connections • Magne
tizing
inrus currents • Transformer
overexcitation • Current transformer saturation
T e relay percentage restraint c aracteristic typically solves t e first two so
urces
of error mentioned earlier. A proper connection
of t e CTs or emulation of
suc a connection in a digital relay addresses t e p ase s ift problem. A very
complex problem is t at of discriminating internalfault currents from t e false
differential
currents caused by magnetizing
inrus and transformer over-excitat

ion. Inrus Currents Magnetizing
inrus occurs in a transformer
w enever t e pol
arity and magnitude of t e residual flux do not agree wit t e polarity and magn
itude of t e ideal instantaneous value of steady-state flux. Transformer energiz
ation is a typical causeof inrus currents, but any transient in t e transforme
r circuit
may generate t ese currents. Ot er causes include voltage recovery aft
er t e clearance
of an external
fault or t e energization of a transformer in pa
rallel wit a transformer t at is already in

service. T e magnitudes and waveforms of inrus currents depend on a multitude o
f factors,
and are almost impossible
to predict. T e following summarizes t e
ma
in c aracteristics of inrus currents: • Generally contain d.c. offset, odd armon
ics, and even armonics. • Typically composed of unipolar or bipolar pulses, separ
ated by intervals of very low current values. • Peak values of unipolar inrus
cur
rent
pulses
decrease very slowly. Time constant is typically muc greater t
an t
at of t e exponentially decaying d.c. offset of fault currents.
• Second- armonic
content starts wit a low value and increases as t einrus current decreases.
Transformer Overexcitation T e magnetic flux inside t e transformer coreis dire
ctly proportional to t e applied voltage and inversely proportional to t e syste
m frequency.
Overvoltage
and/or underfrequency
conditions can produce flux level
s t at saturate t e transformer core. T ese abnormal operating conditions can ex
ist in any part of t e power system, so any transformer may be exposed to overex
citation.Overexcitation of a powertransformer is a typical case of a.c. satura

tion
of t e core
t at produces odd armonics in t e exciting current. T e t ird
armonic
is t e most suitable for detecting overexcitation conditions, but eit e
r t e delta connection of t e CTs or t e delta connection compensation
of t e di
fferential relay filters out t is armonic. T e fift armonic, owever, is stil
l a reliable quantity for detecting overexcitation conditions. Transformer overe
xcitation causes transformer eating and increases exciting current, noise, and
vibration. A severely overexcited transformer s ould be disconnected to avoid tr
ansformer
damage. Because it is difficult, wit differential protection, to cont
rol t e amount of overexcitation t at a transformer can tolerate, transformer di
fferential protection tripping for an overexcitation condition is not desirable.
A separate transformer overexcitation element, suc as a V/Hz element, t at res
ponds to t e voltage/frequency ratio could be used instead. CT Saturation T e ef
fect of CT saturation on transformer differential protection is double-edged. Fo
r external faults, t e resulting false differential current may produce relay mi
soperation. In some cases, t e percentage restraint in t e relay addresses t is
false differential current. For internal faults, t e armonics resulting
from CT
saturation could delay t e operation
of differential relays aving armonic res
traint or blocking. Te main c aracteristics of CT saturation are t e following:
• CTs reproduce fait fully t e primary current for a given time after fault incep
tion. T e time to CT saturation depends on several factors, but is typically one
cycle or longer. • T e worst CT saturation is produced by t e d.c. component of t
e primary current. During t is d.c. saturation period, t e secondary current ma
y contain d.c. offset and odd and even
armonics. • W
en t e d.c. offset dies out,
t e CT as only a.c. saturation, c aracterized by t e presence of odd armonics
in t e secondary
current Differential
relays perform well forexternal faults,
as long as t e CTs reproduce t e primary currents correctly. W en one of t e CTs
saturates, or if bot CTs saturate at different levels, false operating current
appears in t e differential relay and could cause relay mal-operation. Some dif
ferential relays use t e armonics caused by CT saturation for added restraint a
nd to avoid mal-operations.
CURRENT-TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
FOR DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS
A
simple rule of t umb is t at t eCT’S
on any wye winding of a power transformer s
ould be connected in delta, and t eCT’S on any delta winding s ould be connected
in wye. T is rule may be broken,but it rarely is; problem is ow to make t e re
quired interconnection
between t eCT’S and t e differential relay. Two basic requi
rements t at t e differential-relay connections must satisfy are: (1) t e differ
ential relay must not operate for load or external faults; and (2) e relay
t mus
t operate for severeenoug internal faults. If onedoes not know wat t e prope
r connections
are, t e procedure is first to make t e connections t at will sati

sfy t e requirement of not tripping for external faults. T en, one can test
t e
connections for t eir ability to providetripping for internal faults. T e power
transformers are grouped
according to t e p ase displacement as givenbelow Gro
up 1 :Start – Start, P ase displacement = 0° Group 2 :Start – Start, P ase displacemen

t = 180° Group 3 :Delta – Start, P ase displacement = - 30° Group 4 :Delta – Start, P as
e displacement = +30°
Fig.10.4. Development of CT connections
for transformer differential relaying
-1
As an example, let us take t e wye-delta power transformer
of Fig.10.4 T e firs
t step is arbitrarily to assume currents
flowing in t epower-transformer windin
gs in w ic ever directions
one wis es, but to observe t e requirements imposed b
y t e polarity marks t at t e currents flow in opposite directions in

t e windings on t e same
core, as s own in Fig. 10.4 Wes all also assume t at a
ll t e windings avet e same number of turns so t at t e current magnitudes are
equal, neglecting
t e very small excitingcurrent component. (Once t e proper co
nnections ave beendetermined, t e actual turn ratios can very easily be taken

into account.)
On t e basis of t e foregoing, Fig.10.5 s ows t e currents t at f
low in t e power-transformer
leads and t e CT primaries for t e general external
-fault casefor w ic t e relay must not trip.
We are assuming t at no current f
lows into te ground
from t e neutral of t e wye winding; in ot erwords, we are
assuming t at t e t ree-p ase currents add vectorially to zero. T e next step i
s
to connect one of t e sets ofCT’S in delta or in wye, according to t e rule of t
umb already discussed; it does not matter ow t e connection is made, i.e., w e
t er one way or reversed.
Fig.
10.5 Development
of CT connections for transformer differential relaying.-2
T en, t e ot er set of CT’s must be connected also according
to t e rule, but, si
nce
t e connections of t e first set of CT’s ave been c osen, it does
matter ow
t e second set is connected; t isconnection must be made so t at t e secondary
currents will circulate between t e CT’s asrequired for t e external-fault case.
A completed connection diagram t at meets t e requirements is s own in Fig.10.6.
T e connections would still be correct if t e connections of bot sets of CT’s we
re reversed. Proof t at t e relay will tend to operate for internal faults will
not be given ere, but t e reader can easily satisfy imself by drawing current-
flow diagrams for assumed faults. It will be found t at protection is provided f
or turn-to-turn faults
as well
as for faults between p ases or to
ground
if t e
fault current is ig enoug
. We s all now examine t e rule of t umb t at tells
us w et er to connect t eCT’S in wyeor in delta.
Actually, for t e assumption mad
e in arriving at Fig.10.5,
namely, t at t e t reep ase currents add vectorially
to zero, we could ave used wye-connected
CT’S on t e wye side and delta-connected
CT’S on t e deltaside. In ot er words, for all external-fault conditions except g
round faults on t e wye side

of
t e bank, it would not matter w ic pair of CT combinations was used. Or, if
t e neutral of t e power
transformer
was not grounded, it would not matter. T e
significant point is t at, w en ground current can flow
Fig.10.6 Completed connections
for percentage-differential relaying for two-wind
ing transformer. in t e wye windings for an external fault, we must use t e delt
a connection (or resort to a zero-p asesequence-current-s unt t at will be discu
ssed later).
T e delta CT connection
circulates
t e zero-p
asesequence
component
s of t e currents
inside t
e delta and t ereby keeps t em out of t e external
co
nnections to t e relay. T is is necessary because t ere are no zero-p ase-sequen
ce components
of current on t e delta side of t e power transformer for a ground
fault on t e wye side; t erefore, t ere isno possibility of t e zero-p ase-seq
uence currents simply circulating between t e
sets of CT’S and, if t e CT’s on t e w
ye side
were not delta connected, t
e zero-p ase-sequence components would flow
in t e operating coils and cause t e relay
to operate undesirably for externalg
round faults. Incidentally, te fact t at t e delta CT connection keeps zero-p a
se-sequence currents out of t e external secondary circuit does not mean t
at t
e differential relay
cannot operate for single-p ase-toground faults in t e powe
r transformer; t e relay will not receive zerop asesequence components, but it
will receive and operateon t e positive- and negative-p ase-sequence component
s of t e fault current. T e foregoing instructions for makingt e CT and relay i
nterconnections
apply equally well for power transformers wit more t an two win
dings
per p ase;
it is only necessary to consider two windings at a time as t ou
g t ey weret e only windings. For example, for t ree-winding transformers cons
ider first t e windings H and X. T en, consider H and
Y, using t e CT connection
s already
c osen for t e Hwinding, and determine t e connections of t e Y CT’S. I
f t is is done properly, t e connections for t e X and Y

windings will automatically
be compatible. Figure 10.7 s ows sc ematic connectio
ns for protecting t e main power transformer and t e stationservice power transf
ormer
w ere a generator and its power transformer
operate
as a unit. To simplify
t e picture, only a one-line diagram is s own wit t e CT and power transformer
connections merely indicated.
It will be noted t at one restraint coil
is suppl
ied by current
from t e station-service-bus side of t e breaker on
t e low-volta

ge side of t e station-service
power transformer
in parallel wit t e CT in t e
neutral end of t e generator winding; t is is to obtain t e advantage of overlap
ping adjacent protective zones

Fig. 10.7 Sc ematic connections for main and station-service-transformer
protect
ion. around a circuit breaker, as explained in C apter 1. A separate differentia

l relay is usedto protect t e station-service power transformer because t e rel
ay protecting t e main power transformer is not sensitive enoug to provide t is
protection;
wit a steam-turbine
generator,
t e station-service bank is no larg
er tan about 10%of t e size of t e main bank, and, consequently, t e CT’S used f
or t e main bank ave ratios t at are about 10 times as large as would be desire
d for t e most sensitive protection of t e station-service
Page 136

Fig.10.8 Usual met od of protecting a Scott-connected bank. transformer. Wit a
ydroelectric-turbine
generator, t e station-service transformer is morenearly
1% of t e size of t e main transformer;
consequently, t e impedance of t e stati
on-service
transformer is so ig t at a fault on its low-voltage
side cannot op
erate t e relay protecting
t e main transformer even if t eCT’S are omitted
from t
e low-voltage side of t e station-service transformer;
t erefore, for ydroelec
tric generators it is t e practice to omit t ese CT’S and to retain separate diffe
rential protection
for t e station service bank. In order to minimize t e conseq

uential damage s ould a stationservice-transformer
fault occur, separate ig -sp
eed percentage-differential
relaying s ould be- used on t e station-service
tran
sformer as for t e main power transformer.
Figure 10.8 s ows t e usual way to pr
otect a Scott-connected
bank. T is
arrangement
would not protect against
a groun
d fault on p ase b , but, since t is is on t e low-voltage side w ere a groundcu
rrent source is unlikely, suc a possibility is of little significance. A more
Page 137
Fig.10.9 Alternative protection of a Scott-connected bank. practical objection t
o Fig. 10.8,
but still of secondary significance, is t at, for certain
turn-to t
urn or
p ase-to-p ase faults, only one relay
unit can operate. T is is contraste

d wit t e general practice of providing
t ree relay units to protect t ree-p as
e banks w ere, for any p ase-to-p
ase fault, two relay units can operate, t ereb
y giving double assurance t at at least one unit willcause tripping. However, s
ince Scott-connected banksare used only at or near t e load, it is questionable
if t e added
cost of slig
tly morereliable protection can be justified. An alt
ernative t at does not ave t e tec nical disadvantages of Fig. 5 is s own in Fi
g. 10.9.
Differentially connected CT’s s ould be grounded
at only one point. If mo
re t an one set of wye-connected CT’s is involved, t e neutrals s ould be intercon
nected wit insulated wire and grounded at only one point. If grounds are made a
t two or more different
points, even to a low-resistance ground bus, fault curre
nts flowing in t e ground or ground bus may produce large differences of potenti
al between t e CT grounds, and t ereby cause current to flow in t e differential
circuit. Suc a flow of current mig t cause undesired tripping by t e different
ial relays or damage to t e circuit conductors.
Page 138
10.5
Protection of parallel transformer

W en parallel transformer banks aving individual breakers are located some dist
ance away
from any generating station, a possibly troublesome magnetizing-curren
t-inrus
problem may arise.11 If one bank is already energized and a second bank
is t en energized, magnetizing-current
inrus will occurÐnot only to t e bank bei
ng
energized but also to t e bank t at is already
energized.
Moreover,
t e inrus
current to bot banks will decay at a muc slower rate t an w en a single bank
is energized wit no ot er banks in parallel. T e magnitude
of t e inrus to
t
e bank already connected will notbe as ig as t at to t e bank being switc ed,
but it can easily exceed twice t e full-load-current rating of t e bank; t e pr
esence of load on t e bank will slig tly reduce its inrus and increase its rate
of decay.

Fig.10.10
Prolonged inrus currents wit parallel transformers. Briefly,
t e cau
se of t e foregoing is as follows: T ed-c component of t e inrus current to t
e bank being energized flows t roug t e resistance of transmission-line circuit
s between t e transformer banks and t e source of generation,
t ereby
producing
a d-c voltage-drop component in t e voltage applied to t e banks.T is d-c compo
nent of voltage
causes a build-up
of d-c magnetizing
current
in t e already-conn
ected bank, t e rate of w ic is t e same as t e rate at w ic t e d-c component
of magnetizing
current is decreasing in t e bank just energized.
W en t e magni
tudes of t e d-c components in bot banks become equal, t ere is no d--c compone
nt in t e transmission-line
circuit feeding t e banks, but
t ere is a d-c compon
ent circulating in t e loop circuit between t e banks. T e

time constant of t is trapped d--c circulating current,
depending only on t e co
nstants of te loop circuit, is muc longer t an te time constant of t e d-c co
mponent
in t e transmission-line
circuit feeding t e banks. Figure10.10 s owst
e circuits involved
and t e magnetizing-current components in eac circuit. T e
significance of t e foregoing is two-fold. First, desensitizing means already d
escribed
for preventing differential-relay
operation on magnetizing-current inru
s
are not effective
in t e bank t at is already energized. Only time delay in t
e operation of t e differential
relay will be elective in preventing
undesired
tripping. However,
if t e banks are protected by separate relays aving tripping
suppression or armonic restraint, no undesired tripping will occur.
EXTERNAL-FAULT BACK-UP PROTECTION
A differentially protected transformer
bank s ould ave inverse
relays, preferab
ly energized from CT’s ot er t an t ose associated wit t e differential relays, t
o trip faultside
breakers w en external faults persist for too long a time. Ane
xception
is t e transformer bank of a unit generator-transformer arrangement w e
re t e generator’s
external-fault back-up relays provide all t e necessary back-up
protection. T e back-up relays s ould preferably be operated from CT’s located as
in Fig. 10.11; t is makes it unnecessary
to adjust t e relays so as not to oper
ate on magnetizing-current
inrus and ence permits greater
sensitivity and spee
d if desired. W en t e transformer is connected to more t an one source of s ort
-circuit current, backup relays in all t e circuits are required, and at least s
ome may need to be directional, as indicated in Fig. 15, for good protection and
selectivity. Eac set of back-up relays s ould trip only its associated breaker
, also as indicated in Fig. 15.
Fig. 10.11 Back-up relaying for transformer connected to one source

Fig. 10.12. Back-up relaying wit two sources.

W en a transformer as overcurrent relaying for s ort-circuit
protection because
t e cost of differential relaying cannot be justified,
t e same overcurrent
rel
ays are used for back-up
protection. It is realized
t at
combining
t e two
funct
ions may work to t e disadvantage
of one or bot , but t is is t e price t at one
must pay to minimize t e investment.
Page 140
10.6
Internal Fault Protection

Gas Operated Relays During in transformer internal faults below oil level, t e a
rc produced causes
decomposition
of
transformer
oil. T e gasesformed by decompo

sition are gat ered in t e air cus ion of t e conservator of t e transformer.
T
e rate of gas developeddepends
on t e arc voltage
and fault current, t e fault
may be
inter-turn,
eart – p ase or p ase to p ase fault and it can be used to det
ect t e fault, t e followingdevices are used. -pressure relief device - rate of
rise preassure device - buc olz relay (Gas accumulator device)
Pressure relief relay

Fig.10.13 Pressure relief
relay normal position T e pressure and pressure relief
relay
is mounted
on t e transformer tank and operates to release gas to t e atm
osp ere during t e following gassing
conditions.
- ig overload peaks - prolong
ed overloads - arcing
faults wit in oil T e pressure
relief valve is aspring lo
aded device and as a seal-seat (Fig. 10 ) w en t
e preassure inside t e tank
in
creases above a certain setvalue t e force on t e movable lever exceeds t e spr
ing restraining force and t e lever moves forward and closes t e alarm contacts
and also opens a valve to release pressure. T e relay as to be reset manually a
fter it operates.
Page 141

Rate –of – rise pressure relay T is relay operates on sudden pressure rise due to e
avy internal arcing and not on static or slow pressure
build up, T e main pressu
re component is a pressure actuated
micro-switc inside a metallic
bellow. Stati
c pressure
do not compress
t
e bellow ,dynamic pressure pus es t e below and ope
rates t e micro-switc as s own in fig. 11
Fig.10.14 Rate of rise pressure relay

Buc olz Relay
Most faults in an oil filled Transformer
are accompanied
by t e generation of ga
s. By using a suitable relay t e formation of t is gas can be used as a warning
of a developingfault. Double element relays can be used for detecting minor or
major faults. T e alarm element will operate after a specified volume of gas as
collected to give an alarm indication.
Examples of incipient faults are: a.Bro
ken-down core bolt
insulation b. S orted laminations c. Bad contactsd. Over eat
ing of part of t e windings T e alarm element willalso operate in t e event of
oil leakage or if air enters
t e cooling system. T e trip element will be operat
ed by an oilsurge in t e event of more serious faultssuc as: a. Eart faults
b. Winding
s ort circuits c. Puncture of bus ings d. S ort circuits between p as
es T e trip element will also operate if a rapid loss of oil occurs.
Page 142

Fig.10.15 Buc olz Relay

MOUNTING POSITION T e relay s ould be mounted
in te connecting pipe between t e
transformer and t e conservator tank. T is pipe s ould be as long and as straig
t as possible,and must be arranged to slope upwards,
towards t e conservator,

at an anglewit in t elimits of 3 to 7 degrees to t e orizontal. T ere s ould
be a straig t run on t etransformer side of t e relay of at lease five times
t
e internal diameter of t e pipe, and at least t ree times t is diameter on t e c
onservator side.
Fig.10.16 Mounting position

CONSTRUCTION AND METHOD OF OPERATION T e relay consists of a lig tweig t contain
er fitted wit twopivoted elements. It is situated in t e pipe line between t e
transformer
and t e conservator tank, so tat under normal conditions
it is ful
l of oil. T e operating force relies upon t e principle t at w en a body is
imme
rsed in a liquid it appears to lose weig t. Mercury Switc es Mercury switc es ar
e employed of a special design to prevent
mal-operation
due to excessive transfo
rmer vibration. A samplerelay of t is type
as to be submitted to a continuous
vibratory type test. . T e mercuryswitc es test connected to sensitive detectin
g equipment and no maloperations
s ould
be recorded. T e mercury switc es are to
be spring mounted wit in t e switc cylinders
and protected
from possible damag
e. Alarm and trip circuit mercury switc es Fig.10.16 Buc olz Relay will make br
eak and carry continuously 2 Amps at 250 Volts A.C or D.C. T ey will also make a
nd carry for 0.5 sec. 10 Amps at 250 Volts A.C. or D.C.
PRINCIPAL
OF OPERATION

T e operating mec anism consists of a solid non-metallic cylinder containing t e
mercury switc , counterbalanced by a smaller solid metal cylinder. Bot cylinde
rs are jointed and free torotate about t e same axis, t eamountof rotation
be
ing
controlled by stops. W en t e relay
is empty of oil, t e weig
t of t e switc

cylinder predominates
and
t e switc system rests against t e bottom stop, t e
mercuryswitc being in t e closed circuit position. W en t e relay is fullof
oil,bot cylinders appear to lose weig t. Due to t e different
densities,
t e s
witc cylinder appears to lose enoug weig tto enable t e weig t of t e counter
balance cylinder
to predominate and rotate
t e w ole system until it reac es t e
top stop, wit t e mercury switc in t e open position.
“ALARM”
OPERATION

W en a slig t or incipient
fault
occurswit in t e transformer, t e gas generate
d will collect in t e top of t e relay ousing. Asgas collects, t e oil level w
ill fall
and increasing amounts of t e alarm switc will appear above
t e oille
vel.T is results
in
gradual restoration of t e apparent lost weig t,
until t e
weig t of t e switc cylinder predominates.
T e element
rotates as t e oil level
continues to fall and eventually t e alarm switc operates.
TRIP
OPERATION
W en a serious fault
occurs,
t e generation of t e gas is so rapid t at an oil s
urge is set up t roug t e

relay. T is oil flow will impinge upon t e flap fitted to t etrip element causi
ng it torotate
about its axis and so bring t e mercury switc to t e closed pos
ition, w ic in turn operates t e tripping devices. In t e event of serious oil
loss from t e transformer, bot alarm and trip elements
operate inturn, in t e
manner previously described for gas collection. T e oil level
in t e double
elem
ent relay can be monitored against a graduated scale on t e windows bot sides.
SINGLE ELEMENT AND TAP-CHANGER TYPES Single element type relays are available fo
r 1” bore size, designated 1 SE, w ic operate indiscriminately for Gas or Oil col
lection and are suitable for small oil filled transformer, capacitor and potenti

al transformer protection.
single element relays can also be used for Tap-C ange
r type transformers w ic operate for a surge condition or loss of oil only and
allow gas, normally produced
during tapc anging operations, to pass freely. T e
single element
relay as only one operating element and operates in a similar ma
nner to t at described for t e double element types.
Limitations
Only internal below faults below oil level are detected Mercury switc cannot be
set forsensitive operation as it may operate for vibrations and mec anical s o
cks to t e pipes, sitting of birds, etc,. It is slow in operation compared to el
ectrically operated relays, minimum operating time being 0.1 sec But it is very
good device to detect incipient faults
Page 145

C apter-11
11 TRANSFORMER TAP CHANGER
Atransformer tap is a connection point along a transformer winding t at allows
t e number of turns to be selected. By t is means, a transformer wit a variable
turns ratio is produced, enabling voltage regulation
of
t e secondary side. Sel
ection of t e tap in use is made via a tap c anger mec anism Supply aut orities
are under obligationto t eir customers to maintain t e supply voltage between c
ertain
limits. Tap c angers offer variable control to keep t e supply voltage wi
t in t ese limits. About 96% of all

power transformers today incorporate on load tap c angers as a means of voltage
regulation. Tap c angers can beon load or off load. On load tap c angers genera
lly consist of a diverter switc and a selectorswitc operating as aunit to ef
fect transfer current from one voltage tap to t e next. It was more t an 60 year
s ago on load tap c angers were introduced to power transformers as a means of o
n load voltage control. OLTC are generally Oil type means t e OLTC is immersed i
ntransformer oil and switc ing contacts makes and breaks current under oil Tap
c angers possess two fundamental features: Fig.11.1 In tank OLTC (a) Some form o
f impedance is present to prevent s ort circuiting
of t e tapped section, and (b
) A duplicate
circuit is provided so t at t e load current canbe carried by one
circuit w ilst switc ing is being carried out on t e ot er. T e impedance
menti
oned above can eit er beresistive or reactive.
T e tap c anger wit a resistive
type of impedance
uses ig speed switc ing,w ereas t e reactive type uses slo
w moving switc ing. Hig speed resistor
switcing is now t e mostpopular met od
used worldwide, and ence it is t e met od t at is reviewed in t is report. T e
tapped portion of t e winding may be located at one of t e following
locations,
depending
upon t e type of winding: (a) At t e line end of t e winding; (b) In
t e middle of t e winding; (c) At t e star point. T e most common type of arrang
ements is t e last
two. T is is
because t ey
give t e least
electrical stress be
tween t e tap c anger and eart ; along wit subjecting te tapings to less p ysi
cal and electrical
stress
from fault currents entering t e line terminals. At lo
wer voltages t e tap c anger may be located at eit er t e low voltage or ig vo
ltage windings.
Page 146
11.1

Selection of On Load Tap C angers

T e selection of a particular OLTC will render optimum tec nical and economical
efficiency if requirements due to operation and testing of all conditions of t e
associated transformer windings are met. In general, usual safety margins mayb
e neglected as OLTCs designed, tested, selected and operated in accordance wit
IEEE and IEC standards
[4], [5], [12], [13], are most reliable. To select t e ap
propriate
OLTC t e following important data of associated transformer windings s
ould be known: • MVA-rating • Connection of tap winding (for wye, delta or single-p
ase connection) • Rated voltage and regulating range • Number of service tap positi
ons
• Insulation level to ground • Lig tning impulse and power frequency voltage of
t e internal insulation Te following OLTC operating data may be derived from t
is information: • Rated troug -current: Iu •Rated step voltage: Ui • Rated step capa
city: Pst = Ui x Iu and t e appropriate tap c anger can be determined: • OLTC type
• Number of poles • Nominal voltage level of OLTC • Tap selector size/insulation
leve
l • Basic connection diagram t e following c aracteristics of
t e tap c anger s ou
ld be c ecked:• Breaking capacity • Overload
capability • S ort-circuit current (espe
cially to be c ecked in case of p ase s ifting applications) • Contact life Fig.11
.2 Different switc ing designs of OLTC’s

Switc ing principle Transformers in and out MANSOOR
Design

Switc ing principle
Design Page 147

Tap points are usually madeon t e ig voltage, or low current,side of t e win
ding in order
to minimise t e current andling requirements
of t e contacts. To
minimise t e number of windings and t us reducet e p ysical size of a transform
er, use may be made of a reversing winding, w ic is a portion of te main win
ding able to be connected in itsopposite direction and t us buck t e voltage.

Insulation
requirements
place t e tap points at t e low voltage end of t e wind
ing. T is isnear t e star point in a star connected winding.
In delta connected
windings,t e tappings are usually at t e centre of t e winding. In an autotran
sformer, t e taps are usually made between t e series and common windings, or as
a series buck-boost
section of t e common winding. T e diverter
switc and ta
pselector is t e only internal moving parts in a transformer. T e diverter
swit
c does t e entire on load making
and breaking of currents,
w ereas t
e tap sele
ctor preselects
t e tap to w ic t e diverterswitc will transfer t e load curr
ent. T e tap selector
operates
off load and t erefore needs no maintenance. Howe
ver
experience as s own
t at in some circumstances inspection of selector switc
es becomes necessary w ere contacts become misaligned or contact braids in fact
fatigueandbreak.
11.2

Mec anical tap c angers

A mec anical tap c anger p ysically makest enew connection before releasing t
e old, but avoids t e ig current from t e s ort-circuited turns by temporarily
placing a large diverter resistor (sometimes
an inductor) in series wit t e s
ort-circuited
turns before
breaking
t e original connection.
T is tec nique over
comes t e problems wit open or s ort circuit taps. T e c angeover nevert eless
must be made rapidly to avoid over eating of t e diverter. Powerful springs are
woundup, usually by a low power motor, and t en rapidly released
to effect t e
tap c anging operation. To avoid arcing at t e contacts, t e tapc angers is fill
ed wit insulating
transformer oil. Tapping normally takes place in a separate c
ompartment to t e main transformer tank to prevent
contamination
of its oil. One
possible design of on-load mec anical tap c anger is s own to t e rig t. It com

mences operation at tap position 2, wit load supplied directly via t e rig t a
nd connection. Diverter
resistor A is s ortcircuited; diverter B is unused. In m
oving to tap 3, t efollowing sequence occurs: Switc 3 closes, an off-load oper
ation.
Rotary switc turns, breaking oneconnection and supplying load current t
roug diverter resistor A. Rotary switc continues to turn, connecting between
contacts A and B. Load now suppliedvia diverter resistors A and B, winding turn
s bridged via A and B. Rotary switc continues to turn, breaking contact wit di
verter A. Load now supplied via diverter B alone, winding turns no longer bridge
d. Fig 1. A mec anical on-load tap c anger Rotary switc continues to turn, s or
ting diverter B. Load now supplied directly via left and connection. Diverter A
is unused. Switc 2 opens, an off-load operation. T e sequence is en carried
t
out in reverse to return
to tap position 2. T yristor-assisted
tapc angers
T yri

stor-assisted tap c angers use t yristors totake t e on-load current w ilst t e
main contacts c ange over from one tap to t e next. T is prevents arcing on

Fig.11.3 OLTC Tap c anger t e main contacts and can lead to a longer service
lif
e between maintenance activities. T e disadvantage is t at t ese tap c angers ar
e more
complex and require a low voltage power supply for t e t yristor
circuitr
y. T ey also can be more costly Solid state (t yristor)tap c angers T ese are a
relatively recent development w ic use t yristors bot to switc t e load curr
ent and to
pass t e load current
in t e steady state. T eir disadvantage is t at
all of t e non-conducting
t yristors connected
to t e unselected taps still dis
sipate power
due to t eir leakage
current. T is power can add up to a few kilowa
tts w ic as to be removed as eat and leads to a reduction in t e overall effi
ciency of t e transformer. T ey are t erefore only employed on smaller power tra
nsformers. Examples of Commonly Used Winding Sc emes

Fig.11.4 OLTC wit Neutral end of tap winding Fig.11.5 Delta connected OLTC 3-po
le line-end tap winding
Page 149

Fig.11.6 Delta connected OLTC 3-pole mid
tap winding T e OLTC design t at is nor
mally appliedto larger powers and ig er voltages, comprises a diverter switc
(arcing
switc ) and atap selector. For lower ratingsOLTC designs are used, w e
re t e functions of t e diverter switc (arcing switc ) and t e tap selector are
combined in a so-called selector switc (arcing tap switc ).

Wit anOLTC comprising
a diverter switc (arcing switc ) and a tap selector (Fi
g.5), t e tap c ange operation
takes place in two steps (Fig. 6). First t e next
tap is preselected by t e tapselector at no load (Fig. 6 position a-c). T en t
e diverter switc transfers t e load current from t e tap in operation to t e p
reselected
tap (Fig. 6 position c-g). T e OLTC is operated by meansof a drive m
ec anism. Te tap selector is operated by a gearing directly from t e drive mec
anism.
At t e same time, a spring energy accumulator is tensioned, t is operates
t e diverter
switc – after releasing in a very s ort time – independently
of t e m
otion of t e drive mec anism.
Fig.11.7 OLTC diverter switc wit tap selector T
e gearing ensures t at t is diverter
switc operation
always takes place after t
e tap preselection operation as beenfinis ed. T e switc ing time of a diverte
r switc lies between 40 and 60 ms wit today’s designs. During t e diverter switc
operation, transition resistors
are inserted (Fig. 6 position
d-f) w ic are l
oaded for 20–30 ms, i. e. t e resistors canbe designed for s ort-term loading. T
e amount of resistor material required is t erefore relatively small. T e total
operation time of an OLTC is between 3 and 10 sec depending on t e respective de
sign.

Fig.11.8 switc ing sequence tap selector

switc ing sequence diverter switc
Page 150

Switc ing sequenceof tap selector – diverter switc (arcing switc ) Power transfo
rmers
equipped wit OLTCs are main
components of electrical
networks. T erefore,

t e operational
reliability of tese transformers and t eir OLTCs is of ig im
portance and as to be kept at a ig level during t eir entire life span. T e p
rincipleof a preventive, i. e. periodic maintenance strategy for oil type on-lo
ad tap-c angers, is based on t etime in service or t e number of operations Mai
ntenance
and
usual c eck-up on t e transformer and include t e following Visual

c eck of t e motor driveunit Protection
test of t e protective relay
oft e tap
-c anger Monitoring of t e tap-canger oil (t e dielectric strengt is t e decis
ive criteria) Regular c eck of t e breat er system (Silicagel)
11.3

Tap c anger troubles ooting

Load tap c anger (LTC) is a mec anical switc ing device; t ey are t e most expen
sive and vulnerable accessories on a power transformer and t ey cause more failu
res and
outages t an any ot er component of apower transformer. LTC function is
to c ange turns ratio wit out interrupting t e load current. LTC failures are c
ategorized as electrical, mec anical, and t ermal. Most of t e failures are mec
anical at t e beginning
and developed to electrical faults mainly occurring due
to problems on t e contacts, transition resistors, and insulation breakdowns. LT
C can be evaluated on-line wit out affecting its normal operation by using a com
bination of acoustic emission and vibration
tec niques (AE/VA). Acoustic Emissio
n assessment
is based on t e fact t at no acoustic activity is expected from ins
ide t e LTC compartment if t e tap c anger is not being operated and if it is in
good condition Vibration
tec nique consists in obtaining t e signature
of one o
peration of t e tap c anger and performs t e comparison of its c aracteristics (
time, amplitude,
energy, etc.) wit anot
er signature obtained
some time in t e
future or wit
a sister unit aving t e same
operation. W en using a combination

of bot tec niques, t e evaluation of t e condition of t e tapc angerw en it
is not being operated is performed byusing acoustic emission w ereas t e evalua
tion during an operation is made by t e vibration tec nique.

New developments : A new type of vacuum switc ing tec nology is being developed
to be – used in OLTCs – is going tobe t e “state of t e art” design at present time and
foreseeable future. transformers t at do not use conventional mineral oil as in
sulating or switc ing medium,suc
as gasimmersed transformers, drytype transform
ers,
and transformers wit alternative insulating fluids meet t ese requirements
t e conventional
tapc angers are not suitable, because t e use of mineral oil a
s switc ing mediumis – for t e reasons mentioned above – not desirable and would mo
reover require tec nically complex and expensive overall solutions.
vacuum type
OLTC’s superiority to competing switc ing tec nologies in t e range of low and med
ium power is based on

• T evacuum interrupter is a ermetically sealed
system
T ere is no interaction w
it t e surrounding
medium, despite te arc T e switc ing c aracteristics do not
depend ont e surrounding medium • T e arc (drop) voltage in vacuum is considerab
ly lowert an in oil or SF6 Low energy consumption
Reduced contact wear • Eliminat
ion of t e insulating
medium as t e arc quenc ing agent Elimination of by-produc
ts e. g. carbon w en using transformer
oil On-line filter becomes unnecessary Ea
sy disposal
• No ageing
of t e quenc
ing medium, Constant
or even improving switc
ing c aracteristics t roug out t e entire life oft e vacuum interrupters (gette
r effect) • No interaction/oxidation during switc ing Hig rate of re-condensation
of metal vapor on contacts extends contact life Constantly low contactresistan
ce • Extraordinaryfast dielectric recovery of up to 10 kV/µs Ensures s ort arcing t
imes (maximum one alf-cycle) even in case of large p ase angles between current
and voltage or ig voltage steepness dU/dt after t e current zero (converter t
ransformers).

Since t e early seventies vacuuminterrupters t at fulfilled t e c aracteristics

required by reactor type OLTCs ave been developed. T ese OLTCs, w ic in gener
al are external compartment
type designs, did not dictate any special requiremen
ts in regards
to t e p ysical
size of t e interrupter. Not so wit resistor type
OLTCs, w ic in general ave

Fig.11.9 selector switc contact system wit roller contacts
Page 152

a very compact design.
Today,
after more t an
t ree decades of development,
vacu
um interrupters ave reac ed an advanced tecnical performancelevel. T e use of
modern clean room and furnace soldering tec nologies during t e production
proc
ess, and new designs of contact
systems
and material
are some of t e milestones
for t is reliable product. T is asmade possible t e design of considerably sma
ller vacuum
interrupters, opening t e door for its application in resistor type
OLTCs wit overall dimensions equivalent to t ose of conventional resistor type
OLTC designs

Fig.11.10 diverter switc contact system OLTCs wit tungsten-copper arcing conta
ct system for oil filled transformers (different scales)

Fig.11.12 Vacuum interrupter designed for different OLTC diverter switc es
Page 153

C apter-12
12 TRANSFORMER TESTING
Power transformers
are t e most expensive single elements of HV transmission sys
tems wic are designed and requiredto remain in operation for a number of deca
des. T erefore, it is essential to c eck t e transformerfor any defects and dev
iations from t e rated values and must be capable of wit
standing different type
s of electrical
faults
as well as mec anical and atmosp eric adverse
conditions.
To confirm t is t e Power transformer is to be tested t oroug ly at different s
tages of manufacturing, after transport and before commissioning.
12.1
Types of Tests

T e following test are done - Type tests - Routine tests - Special tests - Commi
ssioning tests. Type test : is performed on a single transformer of t e specific
type and intended to confirm t e design soundness of t e transformer. Type test
relates
to a first or one manufactured to a given specification and it is presu
med t at all t e transformers
build to t is specification complies wit type tes
t as t e design and met od of manufacture is identical. Routine test are conduct
ed by t e manufacturer on all transformers
before dispatc
and special tests are
conducted
if specified
in t e purc ase document, t ese tests are to be made in
t e presence
of t e purc aser’s engineer. Commissioning tests are done atsite wit
all t e associated equipment and switc gear in place, before c arging t e tran
sformer. Table 12.1 Type Tests Items Objective Met od Capacity / Equipment 1. Te
mperature-rise To measure 1. Actual loading Measures temperature rise of oil tes
t temperature rise of 2. Simulated loading and winding of transformer. /PT oil a
nd
winding of 2.1 s ort
circuit ,CT, Volt-Amp-Watt meter transformer
met od 2.2
T e loading back met od 2.Dielectric
type test To certify t at t e Marx s multip
lier Measures dielectric of t e(Lig tning and transformer as been circuit tran
sformers (BIL ) / Impulse switc ing Impulse designed and
Generator s E Max. Volt
age test, BIL) constructed to 1400 kV 70 kJ wit stand t e specified (BIL)insulat
ion levels Table 12.2
Special Tests
Items 1. Dielectric special test BIL FW&CW

Objective Met od To certify t at t e Marx smultiplier circuit transformer as b
een designed and constructed to wit stand t e specified insulation levels 2. Det
ermination of To measure capacitance Bridge met od capacitance winding- of trans
former to-eart
, and between windings 3. Measurement Zero- To measure Zero p ase
Winding s all be excited sequence
impedance sequence impedance
at rated frequen
cy on t ree
p ase between t e neutral and transformer t ree line terminal connec
ted toget er 4. Determination of To measure sound level 1. Measuring continuous
sound level originating
from active
sound pressure levels, In part of transforme

r term
of eit er A-weig t w ic is transmitted, 2. Rating transformer
eit er t r
oug t e sound emissions dielectricfluid or t e 3. Reportt e result in a struc
ture
supports,
to standard manner t e outer s ell or to ot er solid surfaces fro
m w ic it is radiated
as airborne sound5. Measurement of To determine ratio of
Bridge circuit t e dissipation factor t e power dissipated in (tan d) of t e t
e insulation in watts insulation system to t e product of t e capacitance effect
ive voltage and current in volt-amperes
w en test under a sinusoidalvoltage 6.
Determination of To measure t e radio- Measures partial partial disc arge on inf
luence voltage (RIV) disc arge in terms of RIV transformer generated
by any and
will be measured at internal partial t e line terminal of t e disc arge winding
under test Table 12.3

Capacity 1. Impulse Generator E Max. Voltage 1400 kV 2. C opping Gap 1200 kV

Measures
capacitance of t e transformer.
/Bridge capacitance meter Measures Zero
p ase sequence impedance of t e transformer. /PT ,CT, Volt-Amp-Watt meter Measu
res sound from active part of transformer. /sound level meter

Measures t e dissipation factor (tan d) of t e insulation system capacitance . /
Bridge capacitance meter

Measures partial disc arge level of transformer. /PD Detector and PD analyzer,
Routine Tests
Items Objective Met od Capacity / Equipment
1. Voltage ratio test To measure vol
tage 1.Voltmeter
met
od transformers ave ratio ratio between windings 2.Compari
sion met od and p ase deviation not

3. Ratio bridge met od 2. Polarity
1. Inductive kick 2. Alternating voltage
3. C
omparison 4. Ratio bridge 3. P ase relation test To
determine angular 1. P asor
diagram displacement and 2.ratio bridge relative p ase sequence 3. excited volta
ge
of transformer To determine polarity (sub. or additive )

more t an +- 0.5% Measures polarity of transformer. / Volt-AmpWatt meter

Measures angular displacement and p ase sequence (vector group) of t e transform
er 4. Resistance To measure resistance 1. Bridge met od Measures resistance of m
easurements
of transformer winding 2. Voltmeter-ammeter transformer winding /Vol
tmet od Amp-Watt meter Measures core loss of 5. No-load loss test To measure no-
load loss 1. Average-voltage at specified excitation voltmeter met od transforme
r/ PT ,CT, Voltvoltageand specified Amp-Watt meter frequency 6. Exciting curren
t To measure
current t at 1. Average-voltage
Measures exciting current test main
tain t e magnetic voltmeter met od of t e transformer / PT flux excitation in t
e ,CT, Volt-Amp-Watt meter core of t e transformer 7.Load loss and To measure lo
sses Wattmeter-voltmeter- Measures load loss of t e impedance test occurring at
rated load , ammeter met od transformer / PT,CT, VoltAmp-Watt meter including I2
R loss
and stray loss andmeasured
voltage required
to circulate rated current t
roug
one winding w en t e ot er winding is
s ort-circuited 8.Induce potential
To c eck insulation turn Applied greater t an 1. Generator 500 kW Max. test to t
urn and between rated
volts per turn to frequency 500 Hz
layers of t e winding t
e transformer , t e 2. Generator 250 kW frequency of t e frequency 200 Hz impre
ssed voltage
must 3. Testing Transformer
be ig enoug to limit 4000 kVA 1.5/6.
9/50 kV t e flux density in t e core
Table 12.3 contd.
Routine Tests
Items
9. Applied potential test Objective To test
t e transformers
ability to wi
t stand application of voltage associated wit te specified Met od Applied pote
ntial at power frequency to specified value and eld for t e time specified. Cap
acity / Equipment 1. HV Testing Transformer (3 x 75 kVA) 400V/0-250 kV 2. Reacto
r
Page 156
10. Oil test
11. Insulation resistance test
12. Leakage test
insulation level (insulation between winding -winding
and winding - ground) To d
etermine oil Oil Tester (applied
dielectric strengt ig
voltage
until gap in o
il breakdown and measure t is voltage ) To determine t e Mega o mmeter insulatio
n resistance (applieddc voltage) from individual windings to ground or between
individual windings
C eck leakage of tank Pressurize tank by applying dry nitrog
en. if after 6 ours no pressure drop is registered t e transformer tank is leak
age free

Measures dielectric
strengt of transformer oil. / Oil Tester Measures insulatio
n resistance of t e transformer. / Mega o mmeter

C eck for tank leakage
12.2
Type Tests

1. Temperature-rise test : Transformers aretested under aloading condition t a
t will give losses as near as possible to t ose obtained w en te tranformer is
operatingatits nameplate rating. Transformers are
tested on t e tap connection
giving
t e ig est winding temperature rise w
ic is considered to be reac ed w
en t e temperature rise does not vary more t an 2 C during consecutive 3 our per
iods. Surface temperatures are measured by t ermocouples. Average winding temper
ature
and average winding temperature
rise are
measured by t e ot-resistance me
t od. Ambient temperature
s all be taken
as t at of t e surrounding air, w ic s
ould be not less t an 10°C or more t an 40°C. TEST PROCEDURE FOR TEMPERATURE RISE M
EASUREMENTS
Keep transformers to be tested in room temperature of 25 0C 3 0C for
24 ours before testing for temperature rise. 2. Using
t e O mmeter , measure t
e secondary coilresistance of t e transformer wit t e primary coil open circui
ted. 3. Record t e room temperature, T1, in degrees C
and t e coil resistance, R
1. 4. Arrange
t e apparatus as
s own in Figure 1 wit commercial power
off. 5. C
onnect t e transformers tot e 6.6 amp series circuit outputs A t roug E. Disco

nnect t e series circuit s orting switc
es for t e
outputs t at are loaded wit
transformers
and make certain
t att e outputs w ic ave no transformers connec
ted to t emare s orted wit t e s orting switc es. 6. Note t e volt-ampere capa
city of eac transformer being tested for temperature rise and connect sufficien
t load to eac transformer
approximately equal to its volt-ampere capacity. 7. T
urn on t e power tot e constant current transformer. Adjust t e lamp load so t
at t e product of t e transformer minutes or more. 8. Leave transformers on in t
e overload condition for 4 ours. After 4 ours, reduce
t e load to equal t e v
olt-ampere capacity of t e transformer. Wait 2 more ours.

9.Turn off t e commercial power.
Disconnect bot primary and secondary wires of
t e transformers. Measure t e secondary coil resistance as in step D-2. 10. Rec
ord t ecoil resistance, R2. 11. Connect t e transformer back in t e circuit. Tu
rn on t e commercial power tot e constant current transformer. Wait 15 minutes
or more. 12. Repeat steps
9 t roug 11 at least 2 more times until no furt er
c
ange is observed
in t e secondary coil resistance. 13. Repeat steps9 t roug 12
for eac of t e remaining transformers.
14. T e
temperature rise s all be deter
minedafter t e temperature of t etransformer as become constant. T e temperat
ure s all be considered constant w en 3 successive readings of t e resistance ta
ken at inimumintervals of 15minutes indicate no c ange. 15. T e resistance mea
surement of t e transformer s allbe completed wit in 4 minutes after s ut-down
to get an accurate reading. 16. T e temperature rise s all be calculated T ∆ = [ (
R2 — R1) / R1 ] x (234.5 + T1) Where: T ∆ = Temperature rise. R1 = Cold resistance o
f transformer coil. R2 = Hot resistance
of transformer coil. T1 = Room temperatu
re in degrees
C. 17. Turn off t e commercial power. Close t e series circuits o
rting switc es before removing t e transformer. 2. Dielectric type test (Lig tni
ng and switc ing Impulse test, BIL) Surge or impulse tests T ese tests are carri
ed out in order to investigatet e influence of surges in transmission lines, br
eakdown of insulators and of t e end turns of transformer connections to line. I
n impulse testing, to represent surges generated due to lig tning, t e IEC Stand
ard
impulse wave of 1.2 /50 µs (1.2 times BIL for 50 µs) wave is generally used. By
t e use of spark gaps, conditions occurring
on t e flas over to line are simula

ted. T e total duration of a
single lig tning strike os about 100 s, alt oug t
e total
duration of t e lig tning stroke may be a few seconds. Overvoltages of m
uc ig er duration alsoarise due to line faults, switc ing operations etc, for
w ic impulse waves suc as 100/5000 micro sec duration may be used. In surge
t
ests it is required
to apply to t e circuit or apparatus under test, a ig dire
ct voltage w ose value rises from zero to maximum in a verys ort timeand dies
away again comparatively slowly . Met ods of generating
suc voltages ave alrea
dy been discussed earlier. W ile impulseand ig frequency tests are carried ou
t by manufacturers, in order to ensure t at t eir finis ed products will give sa
tisfactory performance
in service, t e most general tests upon insulating materi
als are Flas -over Tests Porcelain insulators are designed so t at spark over oc
curs at a lower voltage t an puncture, t us safeguarding t e insulator,
in servi
ce against destruction
in t e case of line disturbances. Flas -over tests are ve
ry importance in t is case .

T e flas -over is due to a breakdown
of air at t e insulator surface, and is ind
ependent of t e material of t e insulator. As t e flas -over under wet condition
s and dry conditions differ , tests suc as t e one minute dry flas -over test a
nd t eone minute wet flas -over test are performance. (i) 50 percent dry impuls
e flas -over test, using
an impulse generator delivering a positive 1/50 µs impuls
e wave. T e voltage s all
be increased to
t e 50 percent
impulse flas -over volt

age (t e voltage
at w ic approximately alf of t e impulses applied cause flas

-over of t e insulator) (ii) Dry flas -over and dry one-minute test In t ist e
test voltage ( given in t e B.S.S.) isapplied . T e voltage is raised to t is v
alue in approximately
10 seconds and s all be maintained for one minute. T e vol
tage
s all t en be increased gradually
until
flas - over occurs . (iii)Wet flas
-over and one minute rain test In t is t e insulator is sprayed t roug out t e
test wit artificial rain drawn from source of supply at a temperature witin 10
degrees of centigrade of t e ambient temperature in t e neig bor ood oft e ins
ulator.
T e resistivity
of t e water is to be between 9,000 and11,000 o m cm.I
n t e case of t e testing of insulating materials , it is not te voltage w ic
produces spark-overbreakdown w ic is important , but rat er t e voltage for pu
ncture of a given t ickness ( ie. dielectric strengt ) . T e measurements made
on insulating materials are usually , t erefore , t ose of dielectric strengt a
nd
of dielectric loss andpowerfactor , t e latter been intimately connected wi
t t e dielectric strengt of t e material. It is found t att e dielectric stre
ngt of a given material depends , apart from c emical and p ysical properties
o
f t e material itself,
upon many factors including, 1. t ickness of t e sample t
ested 2. s ape of t e sample 3. previous electrical and t ermal treatment of t e
sample
4. s ape ,
size , material and arrangement
of t e electrodes 5. nature o
f t e contact w ic t e electrodes make wit t e sample 6. waveform and frequenc
y of t e applied voltage (if alternating
) 7. rate of application of t e testing
voltage and t e time during w ic it is maintained at a constant value . 8. tem
perature and umidity w en t e test is carried out 9. moisture content of t e sa
mple.
Impulse Testing

T ese aredone as tests on sample of apparatus. T e impulse test level is determ
ined by t e operating
level (4 to 5 times t e normal operating value ) Apply on to t esample a certai
n number
(say
10) positive
impulse
and 10 negative
impulses of t is particular v
alue. T ey s ould wit stand t is voltage wit out any destruction. To test t e ul
timate impulse strengt , apply increasing amounts of impulse voltage until destr
uction
occurs; during t e tests it is necessary to see
w et er t ere
any dama
is
ge. T e damage may not
be immediately visible, so we
ave it on a ig frequency
( single sweep
and ig speed ) oscilloscope.
In t e event of complete damage,
breakdown of t e insulatordue to t e application
of t e impulse voltage will be
indicated as in (i). If t e insulator as suffered only a minor damage t e wave
form

would s ow no distortion, but would s ow as in (ii). If t ere is no damage caus
ed due to t eimpulse,
t e waveform will be complete and undistorted as in (iii)
. In testing ig voltage insulators w ose actualbreakdown is in air (i.e flas
over takes place before
breakdown of insulator) te porcelain itself can be test
ed by immersing t e w oleinsulator in liquid of ig permeability so t at t ere
would be no outside flas over, and actual breakdown of t e insulator would occu
r.

Fig.12.1 Observed impulse waveforms In specifyingt e flas over c aracteristic i
n air we give t e 50% flas over c aracteristic.
T is is done as flas over occur
at t e same voltage on eac application of t e impulse
.We apply different valu
es of test voltages (impulse) andt e voltage at w ic t ere is 50% probability
of breakdown istaken as 50% flas over voltage. T e impulse flas over voltage al
so
depends on t e time lag of t
e applied impulse
before
flas over time lag of t
e applied impulse
before flas over occurs. T us we ave also got to determine t
e time lag c aracteristics for breakdown.

Fig.12.2 Probability of flas over

If t e voltage remains above a critical value long enoug , flas over occurs. Te
time lag before flas over occurs depends on t e statistical time lag and on t e
formation time lag.

Depending on t e volume of space between t e gap, and also depending on t e natu
re of s ielding,a certain time will be taken for enoug free electrons to be se
t free.T is is t e statistical
time lag. Once t e electrons appear,
depending on
t e voltage applied,
t ey multiply
and ionise t e space. once t e space becomes
conducting,
flas over occurs. T is is formation
time lag. To determine t e time
lag c aracteristic of a device, we can use t e impulse generator to generate im
pulses
of gradually
increasing amplitude and determine t e time of breakdown. At
eac value, t e test must be repeated a number of times so as to obtain consist
ent values.

Fig.12.3 C opped impulse waveform T is type of c aracteristic is important in de
signing insulators.If
a rod gap is to protect a transformer.
T en t e breakdown
voltage c aracteristic oft erod gap must be less t an t at of t e transformer
so as to protect it. Ift e c aracteristic
cross, protection will be offered
onl
y in t e region w ere t e rod gap c aracteristic is lower t an t at of t e trans
former. Table 12.4 System Voltage I.E.C. Impulse Wit stand Voltage 11 kV 75 kV 3
3 kV 170 kV 66 kV 325 kV 132 kV 550 kV 275 kV 1050 kV

Determination
of capacitance winding-to-eart , and between windings
Consider
t e entering of an impulse voltage on t e terminating transformer, as s
own in figure 9.11.
Page 161

Fig.12.4 Surge propagation in transformer winding Due tot e presence of t e int
erwinding
capacitance and t e capacitances to eart of t e transformer windings,
te upper
elements of t e transformer
windings tend to be more eavily stressed
t an t e lower portions. Due to t e velocity of propagation of t e impulse volt
age wouldnot be evenly distributed in t e winding. Due to s arp rise of t e vol
tageof t e surge. t ere is a large difference of
voltage caused in t e winding
as t e wave front travels up t e winding. T us t ere would be an overvoltage acr
ossadjacent windings. Depending on
t e termination, t ere
will be reflections a
t t e far end of t e winding. If t e termination is a s
ort circuit, at t e lowe
st point t e voltage wave w ose amplitude is same as t e original wave but of op
posite polarity isreflected. For a line w ic is open circuited, t e reflected

wave would beof t e same magnitude and of t e same sign. Arising out of t e ref
lections at
t e far end , t ere would be some coils eavily stressed. T e positi
onof t e eavily stressed coils
depending on t e velocity of propagation.
If fl
as over occurs at t e gap (lig tning arrestor) t e voltage of t e impulse sudden
ly drops to zero w en flas over occurs. T is can be represented bya full wave,
and
a negative wave
starting from t e time flas over occurs.
T e c opped wave, t
oug it reduces t e voltage of t e
surge to zero,
will ave a severe effect of
t e winding
due to s arp drop in t e voltage.
T us it is always necessary to sub
ject t e transformer during tests to c opped wave conditions. Generally
t e met
od
isto apply full-waves and seew et er damage as occurred and t en to apply
t
e c opped waves and to see
w et er damage
as occurred and t en to apply t e c
opped waves and to see w et er damage as occurred.

MeasurementZero-sequence impedance on t ree p ase transformer Purpose of t e me
asurement T e zero-sequence impedance is usually measured for star or zig-zag co
nnected windings of t e transformer. T e measurement is carried out by supplying
a current of rated frequency between te parallel connected p ase terminal. T e
zero-sequence
impedance per p ase is t ree times t e impedance measured in t is
way. T e zero-sequence impedance is needed for eart -fault protection and eart
-fault current calculations.
Fig.12.5 Circuit for zero-sequence impedance measurement MEASURING CIRCUIT AND P
ERFORMANCE OF MEASUREMENT
Page 162
G1 supply regulator, T1 transformer to be tested, T2 current transformer, P2 vol
tmeter, P3 ammeter, I test current.

T e zero-sequence impedance is dependent on t e current flowing t roug t e wind
ing. It is measured as a function of test current, and w en necessary t e final
result is obtainedby extrapolation. Measuring Impedance T e impedance is measur

ed by means of a s ort circuit test.Wit one winding s orted, a voltage at t e
rated frequency is applied to t e ot er winding sufficient to circulate full loa
d current - see below:

Fig.12.6 Measuring impedance T e percentage impedance can t en be calculated as
follows:
Z% = Impedance Voltage x100 Rated Voltage Sequence Impedance (Z1 Z2 Z0
) T e calculation above deals wit a balanced 3-p ase fault. Non-symmetrical fau
lts (p ase-eart , p asep ase etc) lead to more complex calculationsrequiring t
e application symmetrical component t eory. T is in turn involves t e use of pos
itive,
negative and zero sequence impedances (Z1, Z2 and Z0 respectively). As wi
t all passive plant, t e positive and negative sequence impedances (Z1 and Z2)
of a transformer
are identical. However, t e zero sequence impedance is dependen
t upon t e pat available for t e flow of zero sequence current and t e balancin
g ampere turns available wit in t e transformer. Generally, zero sequencecurren
t requires a delta winding, or a star connection
wit t e star point eart ed. An
y impedance in t e connection between t e star point and eart increases t e ove
rall zero sequence impedance. T is as t e effect of reducing t e zero sequence
current and is a feature t at is frequently put to
practical use in a distributi

on network to control t e magnitude of current t at will flow under eart fault
conditions.

Transformer
Sound/Noise A Humming is an in erent c aracteristic of transformers
due to t e vibration caused by alternating fluxin t e magnetic core. Sound leve
ls will vary according to transformers due to t e vibration caused by alternatin
g flux in t e magnetic core. Sound levels will vary according to transformer siz
e.Attention to installation
met ods can elp reduce
any
objectionable noise. W e
n possible ,locate t e transformerin an area w ere t e ambient sound will be eq
ual or greater t an t e noise of t e transformer sound level. Avoid locating uni
ts in corners. Make connections wit flexible conduits and couplings to prevent
transmitting vibration to ot er equipment. Larger units
s ould be installed on f
lexible mountings to isolate t e transformer from t e building structure. Sound
Level in Decibels Table 12.5 KVA 150 Degrees Celcius Rise K-1 0-9 Oct-50 51-150
151-300 301-500 501-700 701-1000 Decibels Average 40 45 850 55 60 62 64

Measurement of Tan Delta and Capacitance of Bus ings of Transformers and Winding
paper insulation
T e above measurement
gives an indication of t e quality and s
oundness of t e insulation in t e bus ings. For obtaining accurate
results of ta
n delta and capacitance wit out removing t e bus ings from t e transformers asu
itable
test set capable of taking measurement
by ungrounded
specimen test met od
s all be employed. T isutilizes t e test tap of t e bus ings and a tan delta/c
apacitance test set. Bot tan delta and capacitance can be measured using t e sa
me set-up. Portable capacitance
and tan delta bridge from any reputed manufactur
er could be used for t is test. Portable test set include measuring bridge suc
as SCHERING Bridge or transformer ratio arm bridge, power supply and standard ca
pacitor in one enclosure. Proper safety instructions as per utility practice and
necessary isolation required is to be done prior to commencement of t is test.
Following precautions may be observed during t is test: 1. Measurement may be ma
de on low voltages preferably below 10 kV. It is preferred to ave t e bridge fr
equency different but close to operating power frequency,so t at stray power fr
equency
currents do not interfere wit t e operation
of t e instrument. Measurem
ent
s all be made at similar conditions as t at of t e previous measurement.In
t e event of measurement
being made a varying temperature correction factor ave
to be applied w erever applicable.
Page 164
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.

Porcelain oft e bus ing s ould be clean anddry.Remove any dirt or oil wit cl
ean dry clot . Tests all not be conducted w en t ere is a condensation ont e p
orcelain.
Relative
umidity in excess of 75% is preferred. Connection to te ove
r ead bus at t e bus ing need to be removed,
only if t e bus line affect
t e rea
dings
considerably. Terminals of t e bus ings of eac windings to be s orted tog
et er using bare braided copper jumper. Transformer windings not being tested s
all be grounded.

Evolution of Test Results A large percentage of electrical
equipment failure as
been
reported due to deteriorated condition of t e insulation. A large number o
f t ese
failures can be anticipated in advance by regular application of t is te
st. Canges in t e normal capacitance of insulation indicates abnormal condition
s suc as presenceof moisture, layer s ort circuits or open circuit in t e capa
citance network.
T e interpretation of t e dielectric measurement
are based on o
bserving t e difference: 1. 2. Between measurements on t e same unit after succe
ssive intervals
of time. Between measurements
on similar part of a unit, tested
under t e same conditions around
t e same time e.g. several identical transforme
rs or one winding of a t ree-p ase transformer tested separately. Between measur
ements made at different test voltages on one part of a unit; an increase in slo
pe (tip up) of DF vsVoltage curve at a given voltage in an indication of ioniza
tion commencing at t at voltage.
3.
An increase of DF accompanied by a marked increase in capacitance usually indica
tes presence of excessive moisture in t e insulation. An increase
of DF alone ma
y be caused
to t ermal deterioration or by contamination
ot er t an water. Surfa
ce of t e insulator petticoats
must be cleaned ot erwise any leakage over termin
al surfaces may add to t e losses of t e insulation itself and may if excessive,
give a false indication of its condition. Maximum value of tan delta of class i
nsulation i.e. paper insulation, oil impregnated is 0.007. Rate of c ange of tan
delta and capacitance is very important. Capacitance value can be wit in + 10%,
- 5% in capacitance
value. T e temperature correction factor to be applied
for
temperature ot er t an 20° C is given in t e following table 12.6 w ic is based o
n IEEE 57 standard. Table 12.6 Ambient temperature in °C 10 15 20 25
Temperature correction factor 0.8 0.9 1 1.12
Page 165
30 35 40 45 50 55
1.25 1.4 1.55 1.75 1.95 2.08

Partial Disc arge Detection
in Transformers

Detecting partial disc arge in t e insulation and windings of power and instrume
nt transformers is a well-documented use of acoustic emission monitoring. Disc a
rges
are due
to electric arcing, w ic vaporizes t e dielectric fluid in t e dis
c arge pat , creating a bubble cavitation effect. T ese sudden bursts of acousti
c energy are transmitted by t e fluid to t e external
wall, w ere an acoustic em
ission sensor can sensitively pick
t em up. T ere are special instruments fort
is application, combining t res olded event and counts measurement, along wit m
odulated audio output. T e ideal frequency range as been determined from previo
us studies to be 100-200
kHz. Since t e induced acoustic signal will transmit a
number
of feet in t e wall before becoming completely attenuated, t e location
o
f t e source must be determined by probing at
several locations in a searc patt
ern until t e strongest
signal is obtained ( ig est count rate). A regular maint
enance
program mig t include
recording t e readings
at standardized locations on
t e exterior s ell of t e transformer.
Disc arges typically take place
in a reg
ular pattern associated wit t e 50-cycle AC waveform as s own in t e oscillosco
pe image below.

Fig.12.7 Core noise associated wit t e transformer power cycle—no discharges.
Page 166
Fig.12.8 Partial discharge burst-like emissions evident on power cycle at regula
r intervals. denotes Transformer needs to be checked thoroughly The AE (Acoustic
Threshold )is set above the core noise level, so only the burst type emission a
ctivity is counted (events and counts). In the RMS mode, the peak –to-average RMS
ratio should also show an increase when such activity is detected.
12.3
Routine Tests
Measurement of voltage ratio and check of phase displacement
These measurements are made to verify the voltage ratio of the windings, their i
nterconnections and phase displacement, i.e. vector group. For purposes of measu
rement, the transformer is exited by a low voltage (some tens of volts) and, usi
ng a null method, comparison is made with an accurate, adjustable voltage ratio
standard. The observed ratios are accepted if they are within the tolerances of
the relevant standard. All standards which are adjusted to IEC permit a toleranc
e of 0.5 % of the ordered ratio on the principal tapping or a percentage of devi
ation which equals 1/10 of the measured impedance on the principal tapping. The
tolerance for other tappings is to be agreed, but not less than the lowest of th
e values above. The turns ratio of a transformer is defined as the number of tur
ns on its secondary divided by the number of turns on its primary. The voltage r
atio of an ideal transformer is directly related to the turns ratio:
The current ratio of an ideal transformer is inversely related to the turns rati
o:
Where Vs = secondary voltage, Is = secondary current, Vp = primary voltage, Ip =
primary current, Ns = number of turns in the secondary winding
and Np = number of turns in the primary winding. TR (turns ratio). This test ene
rgizes any chosen winding at a specified voltage and measures the induced voltag
e on any other winding. The results are then presented as a ratio (e.g. 2:1, 5:1
, etc.) Voltech AT testers do this by dividing one voltage by the other while co
mpensating for winding resistance. Phase is also measured: ‘in-phase’ (positive pola
rity) and ‘antip ase’ (negative polarity). VOC (voltage
open circuit ).
T is test ap
plies a voltage to t e primary winding, reads t e voltage induced in t e seconda
ry winding and presents t e results as a secondary voltage using aMegger of 500V
, t e test is suitable for testing low-frequency power transformers. P ase is al
so measured: ‘inp ase’ (positive polarity) and ‘anti-p ase’ (negativepolarity). Transfo
rmer Oil Quality Tests following Oil Quality Tests are performed to c eck is
t e
conditions of transformer oils. T ese tests are carried out by qualified c emis
ts at accredited laboratories. DielectricBreakdown Voltage Test (IEC 60156) T i
s test determinesif t e transformer oil as adequate insulating strengt . Low i
nsulating strengt
of oil can lead to transformer failure. Water Content Test (I
EC
60814) T is test determines
t e water content in t e insulating oil
based on
t e Karl Fis er met od. T e presence of water can adversely affect t e dielectri
c
strengt s of t e insulating
oil. Acidity Test (IEC 60296) T is test measures t
e acids contentof t e oil. T e build-up of acidic compounds cause
t e formatio
n of sludge
in t e transformer. Sludge as an adverse effect on t e cooling abil
ity of t e insulating oil
t at can lead to
transformer over eating. Corrosive
Su
lp ur Test (ISO 5662)T is test detects t e presence of corrosive sulp ur in t e
insulating oil. Sulp ur can cause corrosion to t e winding
insulation and condu
ctor of transformer. From t e quantity and type of eac gas detected, engineers
can determine if t e transformer aspartial disc arge, t ermal fault or arcing
problem. Test for dielectricstrengt (BDV) Using a BDV testkit, adjust t e ele
ctrodes (12.5
mm dia) slot t at a gap of 2.5 mm is between t em. Carry out six t
ests on t e oil, stirring t e oil between eac breakdown and allowing it to sett
le. Take t e average result of t e six figure and t is s ould be used for accept
ance criteria (i.e. 60 kV) Tests for moisture content (ppm) Using an automatic m
oisture content test set and a suitable syringe t at as been flus ed, inject a
sample of t e oil into t e test set. Depending upon t e make
of t e test set t e
moisture figure may be indicated
by mg H2O. if t is is t e case t e figure may
be divided by weig t of t e sample injected in

grams.
T is will give in parts per million (ppm). Typically
t e moisture content
s ould be less t an 15 ppm for transformers in service. Te recommended values
of insulating oil for new / unused oil before filling in t e equipment (as per I
S: 335/1983) and after filling in t e equipment (as per IS:1866/1983) are given
below in Table 12.7 & 12.8
Table 12.7
S. No. 1 2 3 4 C racteristics / Property Appearance Colour Density at 29.5° C, Max
. Kinematic Viscosity at 27° C, Max Kinematic
Viscosity at 40° C, Max 5 6 7 8 a. b.
Interfacial tension (IFT) 29.5° C, Min. Flas point, Pensky Martin (Closed), Min.
Pour point, Max. Acitity, Neutralisation value Total acidity, Max. Inorganic aci
dity / Alkalinity 0.03 mg KOH / g NIL 0.89 g/cm3 27 cst < 9 cst 0.04 N/m 140° C -
6° C Standard value Clear & transparent, free from suspended matter or sediments
S. No. 9 10 a. b. 11 12 a. b.

C racteristics / Property Corrosive Sulp ur Di-electric strengt (Breakdown Volt
age), Min. gap of 2.5 mm New unfiltered oil After filteration Dielectric dissipa
tion factor (Tan δ ) DDF at 90° C, Max. Specific resistance (resistivity) At 90° C, Mi
n. AT 27° C, Min.

Stan ar value Non-corrosive
30 kV, rms 60 kV, rms 0.002
1500*1012 Ω -cm
Page 169
35*1012 Ω -cm

Transformers in an out MANSOOR

13 a. b. 14 a. i. ii. b. c. .

Oxi ation
Stability Neutralisation value after oxi ation,Max. Total slu ge afte
r oxiation, Max. Ageing characteristics after accelerate ageing (Open Breaker
metho with copper ctalyst) SpecificResistance (resistivity)
At 27° C, Min. At 90°
C, Min. DDF at 90° C, Max. Total Aci ity, Max. Total slu ge value, Max. % by weigh
t 0.2*1012 Ω -cm 0.2 0.05 0.05 2.5*1012 Ω -cm 0.40 mg KOH / gm 0.10% by weight
S.No. 15 16 a. b. 17 18

Chracteristics
/ Property Presence of oxi ation inhibitor Water content New unfi
ltere oil After filtration PCB content SK value

Stan ar value Max. 0.05% treate as absence of oxi ative inhibitor
50 ppm 15 ppm <2 ppm 4 to 8%
Table 12.8
S.No. Chracteristics
/ Property 1 Appearance Stan ar value Clear & transparent
free from suspen e matter or se iments
Page 170

2 3 4 5

Interfacial tension (IFT) 29.5° C, Min. Total aci ity, Max.
0.018 N/M, Min. 0.5 mg KOH/g

Flash point, Pensky Martin (close ), Min. 125° C, Min Di-electric strength (break

own voltage) Below 72.5 kV – 50 kV Min. BDV Min. gap of 2.5mm 72.5 to inclu ing 1
45 kV – 40 kV, Min. 145 kV & above – 30 kV Min. Dielectric issipation factor (Tan
) DDF at 90° C,
Max. Specific resistance (resistivity) – At 90° C, Min. Water content
, Max. Dissolve gas analysis (DGA) Below 145 kV – 0.2 Max. 145 kV & above – 30 kV M
in. 0.1*1012 W -cm Below 145 kV – 25 ppm Max. 145 kV & above – 35 ppm Max. 145 kV &
above – as per IS 10593 latest rev.
6 7 8 9

Prior to energisation of transformer, the oil sample shall be teste for propert
ies an acceptance norms as given in Table 12.9.
Table 12.9
S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Particulars of test BDV (kV rms) Moisture content Tan elta
at 90° C Resistivity at 90° C Interfacial tension Acceptable value 60 kV (Min.) 15
ppm (Max.) 0.05 (Max.) 1*10 : -cm (Min.) 0.03 N/m (Min.
Measurement of Insulation
Resistance of Transformer The measurement of insulatio
n resistance is carrie out to check the healthiness
of the transformer insulati
on. This test isthe simplest an is being wi ely use by theelectrical utiliti
es. This test in icates the con ition of the insulation i.e. egree of ryness o
f paper
insulation, presence of any foreign containments in oil an also any ser
ious efects in the transformer. The measurement of insulation resistance is on
e by means
of megger
of 2.5 kV for transformer win ings with voltage rating of 1
1 kV an above an 5 kV for EHV transformers. All safety instructions have to be
followe as per the utility practice
before carrying
out this test.
It has also
to ensure that high voltage an low voltage win ings are isolate along with t
he concerne
Transformers in an out MANSOOR Page 171

isolaters. In case transformer is having a tertiary win ings, ensure the isolati
on are the same prior
to commencement of the test. Also
the jumpers
an lighting
arrestors connecte to the transformer have to be isconnecte prior to starto
f testing after issue of PTW/SFT. Following precautions may be taken while con u
cting the
above test. 1. Bushing porcelain may be cleane by wiping with a piece
of the ry cloth. 2.When using a megger, observe the usual acci ent preventive
rules.
3. As the win ings possess
a substantial capacitance, the current carryi
ng cor s shoul only be touche after the electric charge have been remove from
them. 4. Connecting wires from the bushing line lea an tank to megger shall b
e as short as possible without joints an shall not touch tank or each other. Te
sting proce ure: IR measurements
shall be taken
between the win ings collectivel

y (i.e.with all the win ings being
connecte together) an theearthe tank (ea
rth)
an between each win ing an the tank, the rest of the win ings being earth
e . Following
measurements are relevant for Auto-transformer, three win ing tran
sformer an reactor.
Table 12.10 For auto-transformer HV/LV+E IV/HV+E LV/HV+LV+E HV/IV IV/LV HV/LV
For shunt reactor HV/E

For win ing transformer HV/LV+TV+E LV/HV+TV+E TV/HV+LV+E HV+TV/LV+E LV+TV/HV+E H
V+LV/TV+E

HV - High
voltage, IV - Interme
iate voltage,
LV-Low voltage, TV - Tertiary volt
age win ings, E – Earth
Recor ate an time of measurement,
sl.no., make
of megge
r, oil temperature an IR values at intervals of 15 secon s, 1 minute an 10 min
utes. The live terminal of the equipment shall be connecte to the win ing un er
test. Evaluation of Test Results Check the IR values with the values
given in t
he test certificate by the manufacturer. These values may be use as bench marks
for future monitoringof the IR values. The IR values varywith the type of ins
ulation, temperature, uration of application of voltage an to some extent on a
pply voltage. The IR
values in air will be nearly 15 to 20 times more than in the transformer oil at
the same temperature. The following table can be use for IR conversion with tem
perature. Minimum insulation
values for one minute resistance measurements for t
ransformers may be etermine by using the following empirical formula: R = CE /
√ kVA Where R - Insulation resistance in ohms
C - 1.5
for
oil fille transformers
at 20° C assuming that the oil is ry, aci free an slu ge free. E - Voltagerat
ing in V of one of the single face win ings (phase to phase for elta connecte
an phase to netural for wye connecte transformers) KVA - Rate capacity
of the
win ing un er test. IR test results below this minimum value woul in icate
pro
bable insulation break own. i) The following IR values may be consi ere as the
minimum satisfactory value at 30° C at the timecommissioning, unlessotherwise re
commen e by the manufacturer. Table 12.11 Rate voltage class of win ing 11 kV
33 kV 66 kV & above

Minimum esire IR value at 1 minute (MΩ ) 300 400 500

Even if the insulation is ry, IR values coul be low ue to poor resistivity of
the oil. The IR values increases with the uration of the application of the vo
ltage. The increase in IR value is an in ication of ryness of the insulation. T
he ratio of 60 secon IR value to 15 secon IR value is calle absorption propor
tion Polarisation
in ex For oil transformers
with Class A insulation with reason
ably rie con ition polarization in ex at 30° C will be more than 1.3. Polarisati
on in ex test is the ratio meteric test, insensitive to temperature variation an
may use to pre ict insulation system performance even if charging currents (i
.e. capacitive, absorption or leakage currents) have not be iminishe to zero.
Since leakage current increases at a fasterrate with the presence of moisture t
hen oes absorption current, the megohm rea ing will not increase with time as f
ast with insulation in poor con ition as with insulation in goo con
ition. The
polarisation in ex is the ratio 10 minute to 1 minute megaohm rea ings. The valu
es given
below are gui elines for evaluating transformer
insulation: Polarisatio
n in ex = 10 min megger
rea ing 1 min megger rea ing Table 12.12 Polarisation In
ex Insulation conition Less than 1 1.0 – 1.1
Dangerous Poor
Page 173
1.1. – 1.25 1.25 – 2.0 Above 2.0

Questionable Fair Goo

Oil Leak Detection
test - Pressure-Pow
ere Chalk Test
This test is use as a leak etecting means by some transformer manufacturers. T
he test piece is mounte in a tank in a manner similar
to itsactual application
. All external surfaces
are coate with
a power ere
chalk an alcohol
mixture.
The tank is fille with oil,
seale
an pressuize to the specifie pressure. Oi
l leaks are easily etecte as iscolorations in the chalk. The test is typicall
y run for 24
hours.
Four switch assemblies are mounte into a test tank simulati
ng the stan ar mounting proce ures. Once the switch assemblies are mounte , the
tank
is fille with transformer oil an seale . The external surfaces the switc
h an the tank in the vicinity of each switch are coate with the chalkalcohol m
ixture. The tank is then pressuize to 7-10 psian left for 24 hours. At theen
of
the
24 hours perio , the chalk is inspecte for signs of oil leak as evi en
se by iscoloratioin of the chalk. Fourof the switch assemblies
that were subj
ecte to the helium leak test were teste using the pow ere chalk pressure test
. No coloration of the chalk shall be observe after the 24 hourhol time. The a
ssemblies must not leak.
Chapter-13
13 GENERAL AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
A power transformer in a sub-station is not only one of the costliest equipment
but is also one of the most important links of the power system. If the power tr
ansformer is require to give a trouble free service it shoul receive proper at
tention
for its maintenance. General maintenance, which is normally
require to
be one on transformers, is of two types Reactive maintenance an Preventative m
aintenance Reactive maintenance, also referre to as break own maintenance,
is t
he most common form ofequipment maintenance practice in in ustry toay. Equipm
ent is neither
service on a regular sche ule basis, nor is it teste to eterm
ine its con ition. With this approach, equipment is repaire or replace when a
failure occurs. Preventativemaintenance is a program ofroutine equipment inspe

ctions, maintenance tasks an repairs which are sche ule to ensure that egra a
tion of equipment is minimize . A well esigne preventative maintenance
program
slightly over-maintains
equipment because sche uling is esigne for the worst
case operating con itions. The overall objective is to prevent operating
problem
s or failures, an ensure reliable operation of a facility.
Pre ictive maintenan
ce is the techniqueof regularly monitoring selecte parameters of equipment ope
ration
to etect an correct a potential problem before it causes a failure. Thi
s is one by

tren ing measure
parameters which allows a comparison
of current parameters
to
historical ata. From this comparison, qualifie ju gments about the nee for co
rrective action can be
ma e. This approach ensures that the right maintenance ac
tivities are performe at the right time.
13.1
Importance of Maintenance

For many companies, maintenance is an activity which is carrie out reactively,
in response to interruptions,
break owns an other unfortunate events. The ramif
ications of this kin of approach can be severe, especially at operations such a
s processing plants, assembly lines an power plants, where the failure of a rel
atively
minor component can isrupt the entire facility. As many companies have
foun out, the total cost of owntime an emergency aroun -the-clock repairs can
be staggering. On theother han , apreventive maintenance program ensures
cont

inuity of operation
an lessens
the anger of unplanne outages.
Planne shut ow
ns take place
uring
perio s of inactivity or
least usage, an as a result, trou
bles can
be etecte in the early stages an corrective action taken before exte
nsive amage is one. The relationship between maintenance quality an electrica
lequipment break own can be seen in the Following results from a survey con uct
e by the IEEE I
Table 13.1Number of Failures Versus Maintenance Quality For All Equipment Class
es Combine Number of Failures
Maintenance Quality Excellent Fair Poor Total All
Causes 311853 67 1231 Ina equate Maintenance 36 154 22 212 Percent of Failures
Due to Ina equate Maintenance 11.6% 18.1% 32.8% 17.2%
13.2
Causes of electrical failure

There are four principal causes ofelectrical failure: ust an irt accumulatio
n; moisture; loose connections;
an friction of moving parts. An effective maint
enance
program shoul aim to minimize
these effects by keeping equipment clean a
n ry, keeping connections tight an minimizing friction.

Page 175

DUST
AND DIRT ACCUMULATION Lint, chemical ust an the accumulation of oil mist
an particles become conuctive when combine with moisture oninsulation. These
can be responsible for egra ation of insulation, tracking an flashovers. Dirt
buil up on coils, in motors, transformers an relays
willobstruct air flow an
increase operating temperatures. This results in ecrease efficiency an equi
pment failure. Contamination cannot be avoi e in certain facilities such as ste
el mills, mines, foun ries an aggregate plants. However, contamination in these
environments can be minimize
with regularly sche ule cleaning
of equipment, a
n the use of properly
esigne apparatus such as encapsulate coils, totally en
close self-coole equipment an separate filtering systems. PRESENCE
OF MOISTUR
E
Moisture
con ensation in electrical equipment can cause
oxi ation,
insulation
egra ation an connection failure. High humi ity prouces free con ensation on
the equipment which can result in short circuiting
an imme iate failure. I eall
y, electrical equipment shoul be operate in a ry atmosphere, but often this i
s not possible, so precautions shoul be taken to minimize the entrance of moist
ure through the use of proper enclosures an space heaters, where appropriate.
L
OOSECONNECTIONS
Electrical connections
shoul be kept tight an torque to reco
mmen e values. Creep or col flow uring loa cycles is a major cause of joint
failure. Har ware on all electrical equipment shoul be checke for looseness
re
sulting from vibration an normal evice operation. Cableconnections an fuse c
lips are common areas where loose connections can be foun . Together with contac
tors an circuit breakers, they shoul routinely be inspecte for tightness.

FRICTION Friction can affect the free om of movement of electrical evices an c
an result in serious failure or improper operation. In circuit breakers, frictio
n can re uce spee of operation - a vitally important factor. Dirt on moving par
ts can cause abrasion an can result in improper operation such as arcing or bur
ning. Devices
shoul not be lubricate unless specifie by the
manufacturer.
The
type an gra es of lubricant
specifie shoul be strictly a here to. Oil an g
rease collect ust an other contaminants, an also attack insulation,
particula
rly rubber. Checkingthe mechanicaloperation of evices an manually
or electri
cally operating any evice that sel om operates shoul be stan ar practice.

Correct
interpretation of maintenance ata from transformers is vital for increa
se reliability, long life, an a vance information on possible nee
of replace
ment. Information accumulate through routine inspections an perio ic tests on
transformers in operation will usually provi e you with a warning of approaching
service problems. Then corrective measures can be taken. More importantly, if t
he available transformer maintenance recor s are effectively interprete ,

it's not unusual for an impen ing failure to be pre icte . This, in turn, allows
appropriate replacement measures,
alleviating the impact of a su en loss. Reco
gnizing
the warnings of impen ing failure
requires careful surveillance ofthe r
ecor s to seek out significant tren s oraberrant behavior. Persistence an a ba
sic knowle ge of a transformer's expecte operational characteristics will help
you realize the full benefit of a maintenance program.
1.2.
3. Regular
inspecti
on
of the external surface
of transformer for any irt an ust an when require

thesame may be cleane Regular inspection of the
external surface forany am
ages ue to rust Possible
rust amages when notice are to be remove an surfac
e treatment restore in the original state by means of primer an finishe paint
s for minimizing risk of corrosion an its subsequent sprea ing Before carrying
outany maintenance work ensure proper safety proce ures as per utility practice
an ensure the following:
4.

a) The transformer
an the associate
equipment shoul be taken out of service,
isolate an properly earthe b) Obtain a permit to work / sanction for carrying
out tests from the shift engineer c) Obtain the keys for the transformer area
13.3

Checks to be carrie out

Following checks may be carrie out 1. 2. 3. 4. Check for signs of corrosion Che
ck all joints for any sign of leakage Check for any sign of mechanical
amage Ch
eck oil levels 5. Check that surroun ing areas are clean an ti y

All results must be entere in the proper format for comparison uring future te
sts. Silica
Gel Breather Check the color of the silica gel breather
so as to pre
vent any eterioration of silica gel breather. It is recommen e to replace
the
same when half to two thir of the silica gel has become
saturate an
become pi
nk in colour. Failure to comply this will result in ecreasing the rying effici
ency of the breather. Silica gelbreather coul be reactivate whilein its char
ge
container or it canbe emptie into a shallow tray. It is require to be heat
e in a well ventilate oven an a temperature of 130-138 egrees till the entir
e mass achieve the original
blue color.
Imme iately after
reactivation the new s
ilica gel must be place in a seale container to avoi any absorbance of moistu
re while cooling.

Conservator Oil Level - Visual Checks Visual checks may be carrie out on regula
r basis for conservator oil levels. If the level is normal no action is require
. In the event of above or below normal level action has to be taken to a or r
emove
some of the oil. The correct oil filling level is normally is to be specif
ie on the information
plate. At a temperature of 45 egree C the conservator
sh
oul be half fille . If the level
shows
the value full oil must be raine off.

If it is low oil must be a e imme iately. Check for Marshalling Cubicle
an Ki
osk Following checksmay be carrie out an all results may be recor e in the f
ormat of comparison
uring future checks. 1. 2. 3.4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.12.
13.14. 15. Conition of paint work Operation of oor han les Operation of oor
s an hinges Con ition of oor seal Door switches working Lights working Heater
working Thermostats working Operation of heating an lighting switches Mounting
of equipment secure Manual operation of switches satisfactory Checking of tightn
ess of cable terminations Checking of operation of contractors (isolating the tr
ip signal, if any) HRC fuses an their
rating Operation of local alarm annunciat
or by pushing push buttons provi e for lamp test, acknowle ge, reset, system te
st, mute etc. to cover all system function 16. Source change over test check by
putting off power sources
alternatively 17. Check for plugs for ummy holes an
replacement, if foun missing.

Note: Transformer / shunt reactor nee not be taken out of service / isolate or
earther while carrying out the above checks. Valve Operation Checks Following c
hecks may be ma e either
at the time of erection orafter a major overhaul. All
results must be recor e in the log for comparison uring future
tests. Check ea
ch value for free operation Check that each
valve is pa locke where applicable
Check that each valve is a equately grease 4. Check that each valve returns to
its "in service" operating
position (open or close ) Cooling System
1. 2. 3.

Regular inspection may be carrie outof the cooling surfaces an when require
clean same from the irt, insects, an leaves or any other air borne irt. This
is important as it affects the fancooling. Cleaning is normally one by water f
lushing at high pressure.
As regar s cleaning of internal cooling
surfaces, no m
ajor are consi ere necessary so long the oil is in goo con ition.
Inthe event
of setting of slu ge formation
of the
oil the slu ge may get eposite from the
horizontal surfaces in ra iators an coolers. The same may be flushe internall
y with cleanoil in connection with oil exchange. In the event the slu ge oesn'
t gets loose the flushing may be one first with petrol an then with oil. Howe
ver, this may be carrie out in consultation with the supplier. Regular inspecti
on of the cooler banks may be ma e. The cooler can be cleane by taking out the
tube packets
an thereby making them assessable for cleaning. For any increase i
n soun level of fan retighten
all mounting supports. Cooling
System - Fans - Co
ntrols Fan control are esigne to operate both manually an automatically. The
automatic function is relate to theloa an energization or both. The followin
g controls
are require to be checke . 1. Manual Control - Fan operation shoul
observe
afterturning the switch to ON position for a brief perio . Oil pump sh
oul be checke by observing the flow through gauges. In case of any malfunction
ing manufacturers may be consulte . Temperature Control - Remove the temperature
bulbs from its well on the si e / top of the transformer. Set the master contro
ller
to the automatic position. The temperature of the bulb shoul be slowly rai
se by using a temperature control
calibration equipment for observe for proper
calibration / operation. Loa Control - Check the secon ary current of the contr
olling CT for proper operation.
Shotthe secon ary of CT (if the transformer is
energize ). Remove the secon ary lea from the control circuit an inject the cu
rrent to the control circuit. Vary the level of the current to observe the prope
r operation.
2.
3.
Cooling System
- Fan - Visual Inspection Following visual inspection checks may
be carrie out without taking a shut own of the transformer to check that
the
f
ans
are operating
at
a esigne spee , airways are not blocke an
guar s an bl
a es are not
amage . Visual check for contamination of motor an fan bla es Che
ck for buil up of moisture in the motor Check bearing lubrication
Check for cor
rect rotation Check for unusual noises 6. Check for corro ing parts Cooling Syst
em - Pumps-Visual Checks
Following visual inspection checks may be carrie out w
ithout taking a shut
own of the transformer
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1.

The transformer an associate equipment nee not be out of service or isolate
while carrying out visual checks on the pumps. 2. Obtain a 'Permit to Work' from
the Shift Engineer 3. Obtain keys to the transformer compoun an marshalling k
iosk 4. All results must be recor e in a log for comparison uring future tests
in service. 5. Following checks shoul be carrie out a) Check for correct rota
tion b) Check for unusual noises/abnormal
vibration - replacement of rotor an b
earings c) Check for corro e parts ) Check for electrical problems Win ing Tem
perature
In icators – Test Following tests may be carrie out: Cooler control,
ala
rman trip test 1. Temperature in ication calibration of WTI bulb 2. Secon ary
in uction test

Before
carrying the tests it may be ensure that the transformer an the associat
e equipment is e-energize , isolate an earthe . Cooler control, alarm an tr
ip test The setting of temperatures shoul be as per the approve scheme. The va
lues given below
are in icative values. However, these values are not to be take
n for grante an are to be verifie with
manufacturers
instruction manual.
1. A
ccess the local win ing temperature in icator an set the temperature in icator
pointer to the first stage of cooling value (65 egree C). Check that the fans o
f those coolers set to first stage are operating. - Set the temperature in icato
r pointer to secon stage cooling value (80 egree C). Check that thefans of th
ose coolers set to secon stage are working. - Set the temperature in icator poi
nter to the alarm value (110 egree C). Check with the
control room that the ala
rm signal has been receive . - Set the temperature in icator pointer to the trip
value (125
egree C). Check
with the control room that
the trip signal
has been
receive Temperature in ication calibration of Win ing Temperature In icating (
WTI) bulb

Removethe WTI bulb from the transformer pocket an insert the bulb into thecal
ibrate temperature
controlle bath. Raise the temperature of the bath in 5 egr
ee
steps an check the response of theWTI after 10 minutes. This may be continu
e up to amaximum temperature of 130 egree C. The tolerance permitte fortemp
eraturein ication is 3 egree C. Lower the temperature of the bath in 5 egree
step an check the response of the temperature in icators after 10 minutes. At t
he same
time check the trans ucer output. The tolerance in icate for temperatur
e in ication is 3 egree C. Check the alarm an trip switch settingby rotating
the pointer slowly to the set temperatures. These settings will be in icate usi
ng a multi-meter. Recor the values at which theswitches operate . Once these c
hecks are complete return the bulb to the pocke in the transformer cover. Do n
ot forget to bring the maximum level pointer to match the temperature in icator.
Oil Temperature
In icator - Test Remove the OTI bulb from the pocket on the tra
nsformer li an insert them into the calibrate temperature controlle oil bath
. Increase the temperature of the oil bath in 20 egree C steps
from O egree C
up to a maximum temperature of 120 egree C. Check an recor OTI rea ings again
st bathtemperatures up the range (tolerance 3 egree C). Access the
oil tempera
ture
in icator an rotate
the pointer
slowly to the alarm value (95 egree C) an
the trip value (110 egree C) an check their operation. Using a resistance me
ter,
across the switches. Gas an Oil Actuate
Relay - Test The
use of gas opera
te relay as protection for oil-immerse transformers is base on the fact that
faults as flashover, short-circuit an local overheatingnormally result in gas-
generation.
The gas-bubbles gathering in the gas-operate relay affect a flat-co
ntrolle contact that gives an alarm signal. Following tests may be carrie out:
Gas an oil relay inclination
(Only at the time of pre-comissioning) Gas an oi
l relay alarm Gas an oil relay trip 4. Gas an oil relay surge at pump energiza
tion Before
con ucting
above tests
ensure that transformer an associate equipm
ent is e-energize , isolate an earthe . 1. 2. 3.

Page 181

Check the stability of the alarman trip contacts of the buchholz relay uring
oil pumpstart by both manual an automatic control to ensure spurious alarms an
trips o not result.
13.4

Maintenance an testing proce ures

Insulation measurements
shall be taken
between the win ings collectively
(i.e.w
ith all the win ings being
connecte together) an the earthe tank (earth)
an
between each win ing an the tank, the rest of the win ings being earthe . Follo
wing measurements are relevant for Auto-transformer, three win ing transformer
B
ushsings
Regular cleaning of the bushing porcelene from irt an ust shoul be
carrie out in the areas where the air contains impurities such as salt, cement,
smoke or chemical substances, the frequency may be increase .

Connectors To avoi prohibite temperature rise intheelectrical connection of
the transformer, all screw joints shoul be checke an retightene . Use of ther
movision camera may be ma e for any hot-spots in the joints. Maintenance of Insu
lating Oil One of the most important factor responsible for the performance of t
hetransformeris the quality of the oil. Normally insulating oil is subjecte t
o ielectic an moisture contents at site for monitoring the con ition of the oi
l. Test for ielectric strength (BDV) Using a BDV test kit, a just the electro e
s (12.5 mm ia) sot that a gap of 2.5 mm is between
them. Carry out six tests on
the oil, stirring the oil between each break own an allowing it to settle. Tak
e the average result of the six figure an this shoul be use for acceptance cr
iteria (i.e. 60 kV) Table 13.2
For autotransformer
HV/LV+E IV/HV+E LV/HV+LV+E HV/IV

For win ing transformer
HV/LV+TV+E LV/HV+TV+E TV/HV+LV+E HV+TV/LV+E
Page 182

IV/LV HV/LV
LV+TV/HV+E HV+LV/TV+E

Note.: HV - High
voltage, IV - Interme iate voltage,
LV-Low voltage, TV - Tertia
ry voltage win ings, E – Earth Recor ate an time of measurement,
sl.no., make o
f megger, oil temperature an IR values at intervals of 15 secon s, 1 minute an
10 minutes. The live terminal of the equipment shall be connecte to the win in
g un er test. using the following empirical formula: R = CE / √ kVA Where R - Insu
lation resistance
in ohms
C - 1.5
for
oil fille transformers at 20° C assuming th
at the oil is ry, aci free an slu ge free.E - Voltage rating in V of one of
the single face win ings (phase to phase for elta connecte an phase to netura
l for wye connecte transformers) KVA - Rate capacity of the win ing un er test
.

The following IR values may be consi ere as the minimum satisfactory value at 3
0° C at the time commissioning, unless otherwise recommen e by the manufacturer.
Table 13.3 Rate voltage class of win ing 11 kV 33 kV 66 kV & above

Minimum esire IR value at 1 minute (MΩ ) 300 400 500

The full etails of the IR an othe tests are given in the above section of Tran
sformer testing Tests for moisture content (ppm) Using anautomatic moisture con
tent test set an a suitable syringe that has been flushe , inject a sample of t
he oil into thetest set. Depen ing upon the make of the test set the moisture f
igure may be in icate by mg H2O. if this is the case the figure may be ivi e
by weight of the sample injecte in grams.This will give in parts per million (
ppm). Typically the moisture content shoul be less than 15 ppm for transformers
in service. Prior to energisation of transformer, the oil sample shall be teste
for properties an acceptance norms as given in Table 3. Table 13.4
S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Particulars of test BDV (kV rms) Moisture content Tan elta at 90˚ C Resistivity a
t 90˚ C Interfacial tension
Acceptable value 60 kV (Min.) 15 ppm (Max.) 0.05 (Max.) 1*10 : -cm (Min.) 0.03 N
/m (Min.
13.5

Maintenance tests recommen e
Measurement
of Insulation Resistance The measurement of insulation resistance is
carrie out to check
the healthiness
of the transformer insulation. This test i
sthe simplest an is being wi ely use by theelectrical utilities. This test i
n icates the con ition of the insulation i.e. egree of ryness of paper insulat
ion, presence of any foreign containments in oil an also any serious efects in
the transformer. The measurement of insulation resistance is one by means of m
egger
of 2.5 kV for transformer win ings with voltage rating of 11 kV an above
an 5 kV for EHV transformers. All safety instructions have to be followe as pe
r the utility practice
before carrying
out this test. It has also to ensure tha
t high voltage an low voltage win ings are isolate along with the concerne is
olaters. In case transformer is having a tertiary win ings, ensure the isolation
are the same prior to commencement of the test. Also
the jumpers
an lighting a
rrestors connecte to the transformer have to be isconnecte prior to startof
testing after issue of PTW/SFT. Following precautions may be taken while con uct
ing the above test.
1. 2. 3. 4. Bushing porcelain may be cleane by wiping
with
a piece of the ry cloth. When using a megger, observe the usual acci ent preven
tive rules.
As the win ings possess a substantial capacitance, the current carry
ing cor s shoul only be touche after the electric charge
have been remove fro
m them. Connecting wires from the bushing line lea an tank to megger shall be
as short as possible without joints an shall not touch tank or each other.
Inspection / Maintenance
of Tap Changer Generally the temperature of OLTC compar
tments is a few egree Celsius less than the main tank. In case the temperature

is foun to be higher
than this
in icates a sign of internal problem an the OLT
C compartment
nee to be opene . Prior to opening of OLTC compartment the same s
houl be thoroughly inspecte for external
symptoms of potential problems. Also,
inspect
the integrity
of paint, wel leakes, oil seal integrity, pressure relea
se evice an liqui level gage prior to opening of OLTC.

Page 184

Following e-engerisation, close all the walls between oil conservator, transfor
mer tank an Tap Changer hea . Then lower the oil level in iverter switch oil c
ompartment by raining the oil for internal inspection. Upon entering the OLTC c
ompartment check for gaskit eterioration if any, compartment floor for any ebr
is which may in icate abnormal wear.

Following items may be checke an manufacturer's engineer consulte for etails
of maintenance. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Function of control switches OLTC stopping on position Fastener tightness Signs
of moisture such as rusting, oxi ation or free stan ing water Mechanical
clearan
ces as specifie by manufacturer's instruction booklet Operation an con ition o
f tap selector, changeover selector an arcing transfer switches Drive mechanism

operation Counter operation Position in icator operation an its co-or ination
with mechanism an tap selector position Limit
switch operation Mechanical block
integrity Proper operation of han -crank an its interlock switch Physical con
ition of tap selector Free om of movement of external shaft assembly Extent of a
rc erosion on stationary an movable arching contacts Inspect barrier boar for
tracking an cracking
After fitting with oil, manually crank
throughout
entire r
ange Oil BDV an moisture content (PPM) to be measure an recor e

Finally, the tap selector compartmentshoul be flushe with clean
transformer o
il carbonization
which may have been eposite shoul be remove . Min BDV shoul
be 50 kV an moisture content shoul be less than 20 PPM.

Importance
of variations
in soun level
The au ible soun level of a transformer, either ry-type or liqui -fille , is l
argely epen ent on the ratio of the applie voltage to the number of active tur
ns in
the primary win ing (volts
per turn)
or on the egree of istortion in the
loa current. To a lesser egree, it's epen ent on the tightness of core an c
oil clamping
components
an
the external tank structure. If a noticeable change
in soun level is etecte that cannot be explaine by changes in loa ing practi
ces, your firstcheck shoul be the input or output voltage on the transformer b
ecause its soun level is very sensitive to changes in voltage. If the voltage i
ncreases,the soun level will also increase. As such, you shoul verify that th
e measure voltage is within the nameplate rating for the tap setting on the tra
nsformer. If it consistently
excee
s the tap voltage
by more than5%, the transf
ormer is overexcite an shoul be e-energize an a tap selecte that is withi
n 5% of the applie voltage.

Transformers esigne to existing stan ar s can be safely operate at overvoltag
es of up to 5%, but the soun level will increase noticeably. If the applie vol
tage is within the range of the tap setting on the transformer, an there is an
unexplaine
increase in soun level, there coul be internal amage
that has sho
rte one or more win ing turns in the primary win ing. This woul re
uce the eff
ective number of turns an increase the volts per turn an the soun level. If t
his problem is suspecte , the transformer shoul be remove from service for acc
eptance
tests. For liqui -fille transformers, if these tests are inconclusive a
n the unit is to remain in service, oil samples shoul be taken for gas-in-oil
analysis on at least a monthly basis until the analyses refute or confirm the in
ternal
win ing problems.
An increase in soun level can also be the result of lo
a current istorte by harmonics. Check the connecte loa for any changes.The
re may
possibly be a eveloping problem with a loa component
that has intro uce
loa istortion on the transformer.
As various loa segments are switche in a
n out, listen to the soun level for any abrupt changes. Loa current with a hi
gh harmonic content can cause higher temperatures than the esigner anticipate

in the magnet
core or in the win ings. If any noticeable increase in soun level
iscause by loa harmonics, you shoul take steps to minimize or eliminate the
a itional loa ing on the transformer. Evaluating tank heatingHot spots on the
tank surfaces of liqui -fille transformers, or enclosures of ry-types, that a
re severe enough to blister or
iscolor the paint may in icate the existence of
open or shorte internal lea connections. These eficiencies may create changes
in the current paths, resulting in inuce currents in the tank wall. When tank
heating occurs, the transformer shoul be eenergize as soon as possible an e
lectrical tests performe . Win ing resistance an impe ance measurements are esp
ecially important when tank heating is observe , as changes in these characteris

tics will in icate changes in the internal connections. For liqui -fille transf
ormers, an oil sample shoul be taken for gas-in-oil analysis. If tank heating p
ersists, or a gas-in-oil analysis in icates an increase in combustible
gas above
the limits shown in Fig. 1, an internal inspection shoul be ma e to observe an
y evi ence of irregularities
in the internal connections. If a efective connect
ion is i entifie
,an experience repair organization may be able to make a fiel
repair
an recon ition the transformer. The surface of the oil
shoul be exami
ne for evi ence of carbon or burnt insulation. If the oil is iscolore to the

point that the internal parts cannot be seen, the transformer shoul be remove
to a repair facility for untanking an examination. Transformer oil maintenance
First,
when reference is ma e to oil (askarel), this is one in a generic sense
an the term relates to a group of synthetic, fire-resistant,
chlorinate
, aroma
tic hy rocarbonsuse as electrical insulating
liqui s.These liqui
s serve as a
heat transfer me ium. If a liqui -fille transformer
is equippe with a pressure
gauge, pressure
rea ings shoul be taken uring those times when top-oil
temper

ature rea ings are taken. Comparison of the pressure rea
ings shoul be note on
a regular basis an correlate to the temperature rea ings. Whether a transform
er has a pressure gauge or not epen s on the type of oil preservation system. T
he general types of oil preservation systems are as follows.

Page 186
* Free Breathing.
These transformers
have vents above the oil that allow air to
enter an exit as the oil expan s an contracts ue to variations in the operati
ng
temperature. * Seale . A seale transformer oes not have vents but is esign
e to withstan the internal pressure variations resulting from the compression
of the gas space above the oil as the oil volume changes ue to thermal expansio
n an contraction. * Conservator. These type transformers have a main tank that
is completely fille with the insulating liqui an a separate
external reservoi
r. This external
tank is provi e with
a quantity of flui slightly greater
than
that isplace by the expansion an contraction of the insulating
flui in the
main tank. The external tank is mounte abovethe main tank an is connecte by
a short pipe that allows the insulating liqui to flow back an forth. * Automat
ic gas seal. Transformers of this type have a space fille with
nitrogen above t
he liqui . The open space is connecte to a nitrogen bottle an a regulator. The
regulator
blee s off nitrogen from
the transformer tank when the liqui rises a
n a s nitrogen when the liqui falls. This proce ure maintains the internal ga
s pressure within an allowable range. In a ition to the above types, there are
other variations.Most transformers in commercial applications are either free b
reathing or seale . A seale unit will usually have a pressure gauge. But, afre
e breathing unit will not. A seale transformer with a wel e -on cover shoul ma
intain a consistent relationship between top-oil temperature
an pressure. If a
review of the maintenance recor in icates that
perio s of maximum temperature
o not have correspon ingly high pressure rea ings (with minimum pressure rea ing
s at lowest temperatures), a leak inthe gas space shoul be suspecte . If the p
eaks an valleys of the pressure rea ings o correspon to similar peaks an val
leys in the temperature reaings but the values of the pressure rea ingsare ec
lining over time, you shoul check the liqui level for loss of flui an inspec
t the transformer for flui leaks. Many seale units with bolte -on covers an g
asket seals will
lose gas pressure if a positive pressure is maintaine for an e
xten e perio of time. These same units may allowthe entrance of air if a nega
tive
pressure is
maintaine
over an exten e perio . Concern in
regar to this c
on ition
shoul epen on the ambient
weather
con itions (humi ity, precipitatio
n, an airborne contamination), an the egree of cyclic variations in oil tempe
rature. Be careful not to create con itions that will raw moisture or other con
taminants
into the transformer through a leak.When con itions exist that woul
ten to allow the entrance of contaminants,
an the pressure rea ings in icate a
leak, the transformer shoul be eenergize an a pressure test performe . Most
leaks can be foun an effectively seale ; however, large gasket areas, especia

lly those using cork or compositiongaskets, will often allow the gra ual eclin
e of gas pressure, even though an i entifiable leak cannot be foun . When operat
ing transformers
with minor gas leaks, you shoul closely monitoroil tests of t
he flui ielectric an water content. If there is no
noticeable eterioration,
the concern for a gra ual loss of gas pressure shoul be minimal.

Significance
of liqui level For liqui -fille transformers, the liqui level sh
oul vary with the top-oil temperature,
as the tank pressure varies with a seale
transformer. If the in icate liqui level pattern oes not follow the rise an
fall of the top oil temperature,
you shoul
investigate for oil leaks. If none
can be foun , you shoul check the
liqui
level
gauge's operation at a convenie
nt outage. The liqui level shoul not escen below the minimum in ication ont
he gauge or rise above the maximum in ication uring extremes of operating con i
tions. If these limits are excee e , you shoul consult the manufacturer orinst
ruction book to establish the proper oil level an the existing level shoul be
checke at the earliest available outage. If the oil level is consistently
below
the minimum in ication, the transformer shoul not be operate until the intern
al level is checke to ensure that no live parts are expose above the flui an
that the minimum oil level reaches the upper tank opening of any existing exter
nal cooling ra iators. You shoul carefully follow the manufacturers' instructio
ns when a ing oil to a transformer. If the instruction book cannot be locate ,
the manufacturer shoul be contacte as there are often critical variations in t
he replenishment
flui s use , an the manner in which they are intro uce to
the
flui
alrea y in the transformer. Oil temperature interpretation For liqui
-fil
le transformers, an operating temperature above normal limits can be in icative
of internal problems with the core an coil components, orwith the normal exch
ange
of heat from the core an coil assembly to the surroun ing air. However, an
un erstan ing of what shoul be the normal operating
temperature of a transform
er often lea s to confusion. Most liqui -fille transformers are rate with a te
mperature rise of either 55 [ egrees] C or 65 [ egrees]
C. This rate temperatur

e rise will beprinte on the nameplate an is efine in various stan ar s as t
he average wining temperature rise aboveambient. The temperature rise must the
reforebe a e to the ambient or surroun ing air temperature to arriveat thee
xpecte full-loa temperature for existing con itions. Even with the un erstan i
ng that the nameplate temperature rating is an average win ing temperature rise
above ambient, there is no gauge on atransformer that measures the average win
ing temperature because it cannot be irectly measure . It can only be measure
through a series of tests that woul be impractical to make outsi e a factory te
st installation.
The temperature
measure on the gauge is the top-oil temperatur
e an
sometimes a simulate win ing temperature. Both of these measurements will
in icate the temperature rise plus the ambient. The important point to note her
e is that the nameplate temperature rise is not the temperature one sees on the
temperature gauge of a transformer when operating at full loa . The rise in gaug
e temperature cannot be precisely correlate to the nameplate temperature rise w
ith the
information available to most users. But, this correlation can be approx
imate if the transformer is operating correctly. The relationship between the m
easure top-oil temperature an the average win ing temperature varies somewhat
from esign
to esign but usually the top oil-temperature
will be 5 [ egrees] C
to 10 [ egrees] C lower than theaverage win ing temperature.
The
win ing temper
ature in icator, if one is provie , will usually rea the win ing's hottest spo
t temperature, which is from 5 [ egrees] C to 10

[ egrees] C higher than the average win ing temperature. Remember that all measu
re temperatures must have the ambient temperature subtracte tocome up with th
e temperature risesreferre to on the nameplate an in the stan ars Another va
riable
that confoun s analysis of temperature rea ings is the time elay experie
nce between a change in loa , or a change in ambient temperature, an the event
ual transformer temperature change. The time to reach a temperature equilibrium
following a change in either or both of these con itions can be 4 hrs or more fo
r a typical transformer in a commercial application.
Therefore, you shoul compa
re temperature
rea ings at the same time of ay.
If one, the variables will be
minimize , assuming that the patterns for loa variations an changes
in ambient
temperature are somewhat consistent for correspon ing time perio s.The effect
of varying ambient temperature over long time spans can be eliminate in large p
art if the ambient temperature is recor e so that it may be subtracte from the

temperature values rea on the gauges. If temperatures un er similarloa con i
tions are showing an increase when ambient temperatures are subtracte , you may
have thermal
problems eveloping in the
transformer
an acceptance tests, inclu
ing win ing resistance
measurements an issolve gas analysis, shoul be perfor
me an compare with prior tests.

Performing oil tests Oil tests can be separate into two general categories; tho
se
that assess the imme iate serviceability of the oil an those that assess the
egree of aging. To evaluate the imme iate serviceability
of the oil, two impor
tant tests are carrie out: etermination of ielectric strength an eterminati

on of water content.Youshoul review these test measurements to verify no su
en changes that woul in icate thepossibility of the entrance of moisture or ot
her contaminants.
If there is a su en change,
the transformer
shoul be careful
ly inspecte for leaks an the oil processe if the ielectric is belowthe 28kV
level, or water content is above 30 ppm (parts per million). You shoul refer t
o the manufacturer's instructions for oil processing practices appropriate for t
he transformer. The principal in icators to assess
the egree of aging of the in
sulation
system
(lea con uctor insulation, win ing insulation, core
insulation,
an the flui insulation) are interfacial tension, color, an aci
ity. These in
icators shoul be reviewe for any abrupt changes as they woul normally change
very little from year to year. A significant change in these values may in icat
e overheating of all or part of the insulation system. If there is an interfacia
l tension ecrease of 20% or more, or an aci ity increase of 25% or more (with a
change in the color of at least one full point on the ASTM-D1500 color scale be
tween annual rea ings), the oil shoul be re-sample an teste for confirmation
of the results. Theseabruptchanges enote an accelerate aging of the insulat
ion system, which woul be in icative of overheating of the insulation.

The transformer shoul besche ule for acceptance tests as soon as possible if
these results are verifie . Gas-in-oil analysis
As a
liqui -fille transformer i
nsulation system ages, the oil an paper gra ually
eteriorate, pro ucing
combus
tible gases that are issolve in the oil. Stu y of these gases has le to the r
ecognition of the pro ucts of normal aging aswell as certain combinations of ga
ses that, in sufficient quantities, can provi e warning of eveloping problems.
Performing
a gas-in-oil analysis provi es a valuable maintenance tool, especiall
y if one on a regular basis, so that normal tren s for each transformer can be
establishe . The laboratory
report of the test results will list the key combust
ible gases etecte an their quantities expresse in ppm.Fig. 1 (see page 54),
taken from the Gui e for Interpretation of Gases Generate in Oil-Immerse Tran
sformers (ANSI/IEEE C57.104),lists the 90% probability norms of combustible gas
levels fortransmission
rate transformers (normally 115kV an higher). These v
alues shoul be use as a gui e only. There is no universal agreement among expe
rts on limitsforparticular gases; as such, it's important to establish normal
tren s for in ivi ual transformers. Similar norms have not been establishe for
lower voltage transformers as a separate category. However, experience is accumu
lating that
in icates the limits shown in Fig. 1 are suitable gui elines that ma
y be use for lower voltage transformers (4.16kV to 34kV). The mostimportantga
s to note is acetylene (C2H2).
This gas requires arcing for its pro uction an l
evels above 35ppmshoul be investigate . Ethane an ethylene are next in or er
ofconcern an in icate an intense hot spot. If an elevate level of carbon mon
oxi e is also etecte , paper insulation is involve in the hot spot.
Elevate l
evels of methane without correspon ingly high values of ethylene an ethane in i
cate a hot spot of less intensity. The presence of a highlevel of carbon monoxi
e woul again in icate that paper insulation was involve . Hy rogen inicates t
hat corona is present in the oil. Corona results from the partial break own of o
il when
it is electrically stresse to a critical value. Hy rogen theoretically
shoul be a key gas in maintenance analysis but, in practice, the level of hy ro
gen varies so wi ely from test to test that its usefulness
is obscure. If the li
mits
in Fig. 1 are excee e , or if establishe tren s for a particular
transform
er su enly change, the transformer shoul be acceptance teste . ANSI/IEEE C57.1
04 an its references give complete information on interpreting gas analysis at
a an shoul be consulte for more information on this subject. Insulation resis
tance measurements Insulation resistance tests taken with a megohm meter are val
uable maintenance
measurements since they are easy to make with portable instrum
ents
an may be effective in fin ing efective insulation. However, on liqui -fi
lle transformers, these rea ings are often erratically variable from test to te
st. There may be a measurement range as much as 50%. The variations are ue in l
arge part to the nature ofthe insulating oil that takes into solution substance
s that ten to polarize un er the application of the DC voltage stresses pro uce
by the megohm meters.
Insulation resistance measurements on ry-type

units
are usually more consistent, an therefore, more useful than on liqui -fil
le transformers.
Another significant factor affecting megohm rea ings of liqui
-fille units is that there are various combinationsof soli an liqui insulat
ions that are use in transformer construction. An a itional factor to consi er
when measuring insulation resistance is the temperature of the transformer beca
use heat affects each material ifferently. Insulation resistance is usually mea
sure when the transformer is cooling own. But when oing so, a problem exists
in that each material cools at a ifferent rate. The ual uncertainty of the exa
ct temperature of each insulation component, an the egree to which its resista
nce variation affects the overall rea ing, makes temperature correction of the m
egohm values very imprecise. Because of thesevariations, tren s in insulation r
esistance rea ings within [+ or -]50%are selom significant an shoul always b
e supporte with other tests such as issolve gas analysis, measurement of oil
ielectric strength, an etermination of water content. Meaning of changes
in p
ower factor Power factor measurements are not usually recommen e for ry-type t
ransformers.
If insulation power factor measurements are carrie outfor a liqui
-fille transformer, an corrections are ma e for temperature accor ing to the
instructions for the particular
test set, the measurements
shoul show little
va
riation over long perio s of time. If there is a su en increase in the rea
ing,
or if it excee s 2%, obtain an oil sample for water content measurement, ielec
tric strengthmeasurement, an color evaluation. High power factor rea ings are
usually cause by moisture in the insulation system. If oil tests in icate the w
ater
content is less than 30 ppm, the color of the sample is acceptable, an the
ielectric strength is goo , a high water content in the insulation systemis u
nlikely. Clean theexternal bushing surfaces
an check for cracksor other efec
ts. If no bushing efects are i entifie , take an oil sample for issolve gas a
nalysis an review the results for any abnormality. If the above steps o not gi
ve an explanation for thehigh power factor, return the transformer to service.
Then, sample the oil for issolve gas analysis on a monthly basis until the abs
ence of increasing combustible gas inicates the transformer is performing norma
lly. At that point take a careful rea ing of the
power factor an suspen testin
guntil the next perio ic maintenance is sche ule . At that time take another re
a ing of the power factor to see what change has taken place. Because transforme
rs are usually
very reliable, it's easy to forget to carry out routine maintenan
ce proce ures. Butrecognizing that a transformer can represent a relativelysiz
able
capital
expen iture, that these units are a critical component in provi ing
epen able electrical service, an that a safe electrical system inclu es trans
formers operating correctly, it's important to take the time an effort to prope
rly maintain
this type equipment.The full value of a maintenance program can be
realize
by reviewing accumulate maintenance
ata with the above
gui elines
in
min . Simple routine observations an
measurements, which shoul be ma e an re
cor e on a regular basis, can provi e valuable insights into the internal opera
tion of most transformers. The iscipline review of these observations along wi
th perio ic tests such as oil evaluation, insulation resistance measurements, an
sometimes issolve gas analysis, can give optimumassurance that a transforme
r is not being allowe to fail ue to a correctable efect. These measures will
also
increase the likelihoo of recognizing the inevitable approach of a failure
ue to a

causethat
might not be correctable.
This knowle ge will allow preparation for
a
sche ule changeout of the efective transformer
an eliminate the chaos an ex
pense that usually accompany an unplanne outage.
Annexure - A
OIL SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Scope: This proce ure escribes the techniques
for sampling oil from oil fille
equipment such
as power transformer an
reactors using stainless steel sampling
bottles fitte with valves on both si es. Apparatus: i) Stainless steel sampling
bottle of volume one litre as per IS9434 - 1992 ii) Oil proof transparent plas
tic or transparent PCV tubing iii) A rille flange in case sampling valve is no
t suitable for fixing a tube Sampling Proce ure: (Refer
Fig. -----) 1. 2. Remove
the blank flange or cover of the sampling
valve an clean the outlet with a lin
t free cloth to remove all visible irt. If the sampling valve is not suitable f
or fitting a tube, it may be necessary to use a separate flange with a nozzle in
the centre suitable to connect the transparent plastic /PVC tube (refer Fig.--
---------).
Connect a short oil proof plastic tube (aroun one meterlong) at bo
then ofthe stainless steel sampling bottle (5) as shown in (Fig&l ots;&l ots;
&l ots;&l ots;).
Page 192
3.

4.

Open the valves (4) an (6) on the stainless steel bottle (5), allow 250 ml (app
rox.) of oil to flow into the bottle by opening value (1). Close (4), (6) an (1
).
Disconnect tube from the flange an rinsebygently tilting the bottle upsi e
own such that no air bubble is forme insi e uring rinsing. Expel this oil in
to the waste bucket;(7) by opening valves (4) & (6) 5. Connect the tube (3) to
the flange (2). Hol the bottle in vertical position as shown in Figure (&l ots;
&l ots;). Slowly open the equipment-sampling valve so that oil flows through the
sampling
bottle. 6. After stainless steel sampling bottle (5) has been complete
ly fille with oil, allow about one litre to two litres of oil to flow to waste
bucket (7), till no air bubbles areseen from top outlet. 7. Stop the oil flow b
y closing of first the valve (6) an then valve (4) an
finally the sampling val
ve (1). 8. Disconnectthe sample bottle (5) an then isconnect the tubing from
the main equipment
an the sampling bottle. 9. Label the sample (Refer annexure
AI). 10. Sen the informations as per as per Annexure - AII along with the sampl
es. 11. In case of critical samples furnish information as per Annexure - AIII

Precautions:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. When sampling oil, precaution shoul
be tak
en to eal with any su en release of oil Sample shoul normally be rawn from t
he bottom-sampling
valve.
Proper closing of both the valves (4) & (6) of the bot
tle
shoul be ensure imme iately after the collection of sample. Due care shoul

be taken to avoi exposure of oil to air while sampling.
Sampling shoul be o
ne preferably in a ry weather conition. Sample shoul be taken whenthe equipm
ent is in its normal
operating con ition. Care shoul be taken to
hol the bottl
e in place insi e the container when transporting. Testing shoul be carrie out
as early as possible. Annexure AI Labling of the Oil Sample Bottle a. Bottle Nu
mber..................
: b. Company Name.................:c. Substation Name...
............: . Equipment Name or ID No... : e. Sampling ate..................
.: Annexure - AII Details to be Furnishe along with the Samples 1. Bottle Numbe
r....................................................................: 2. Name o
f Substation.............................................................:
3. Eq
uipment Name/I entification No..........................................: 4. Dat
e of sampling.................................................................:

5. Oil temperature..............................................................

.....: 6. Win ing
Temperature...................................................
........: 7. Loa (in case of transformer) or Voltage (in case of reactor)......
.: 8. Date of last filtration...................................................
.........: 9. Oil top up (if any)...............................................
.................: 10. Manufacturer's serial number.............................
...................: 11. Weather con ition......................................

........................: In Case of New transformer/reactor following a itiona
l informations to be furnishe 12. Date of commissioning........................
.................................: 13. MVA/MVAR rating..........................
......................................: 14. KV rating...........................
................................................: 15. Oil type (Parafinic/Naptha
nic)................................................: 16. Cooling (ONAN/ONAF/OFA
F)...................................................: 17. Type of oil preservat
ion (Air Cell/Diaphragm type/Direct breathing): 18. Make........................
........................................................ :
Annexure - AIII
DATA INPUT FORMAT FOR CRITICAL EQUIPMENTS
1. Voltage profile for last Six months in icatingmaximum an minimum values an
% of time voltage more than rate voltage.
2. Loa ing
pattern (Monthwise)
of the
transformer for last six months Max. Loa Max. Loa Normal Loa Current (A) Cur
rent (A) Current (A) MW....... MW....... MW....... MVAR..... MVAR..... MVAR.....

3. Date of last filtration
carrie out 4. Type of oil preservation system: Air c
ell in conservator/ iaphragm in conservator/Direct Breathing 5. Any Buchholz Ala
rm / trip Operation
in Past: 6. Any oil topping up one in the past:
Yes/No Yes/No
Page 194

7. Whether complete oil was change any time: 8. Present BDV/Moisture content va
lue: 9. Color of Silica gel 10. Date of Commissioning: 11. Manufacturer's Serial
Number:
Yes/No
Annexure - B
TRANSFORMER DATA SHEET SMALL TRANSFORMERS
Customer Name: _______________________ Project/Quote
Number: ________ Item No.__
_ KVA Rating: Frequency: 50 HZ 60 HZ Impe ance: % ˚C / ˚C

Win
ing Temperature Rise: (Stan ar ) Primary Voltage (KV) : Primary Taps: Stan a
r ( 2-2 ½)) : Primary BIL (KV): Primary Connection Delta or Wye :
Primary Termination Switchgear throat Bus Duct Air Terminal Chamber : ANSI Segme
nt:

Secon
ary Voltage (KV): Secon ary BIL (KV) : Secon ary Connection Delta Wye : Se
con ary Termination
Switchgear throat BusDuct Air Terminal Chamber : ANSI Segme

nt: Secon ary Bushing Arrangement Stan ar (X1-X2-X3-X0
X0-X1-X2-X3) : Secon ary

Termination Location Right Left
: Insulating
Flui
:( Mineral oil Silcone flui
) :ApplicationLocation:
In oor Out oor : Force Air Rating (OA OA/FA OA/FFA)
Soun Level Stan ar ____ Special ________

Special Tests: Witness__ Temperature __ Impulse QC __ ANSI __ Soun __

Drawings: Stan ar ____ Other Special Instructions:

Repro ucible _____ Electronic DXF File _______.
Annexure - C
TYPICAL TECHNICAL PARTICULARS FOR A 315 MVA, 400/220/33KV TRANSFORMER
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 i) ii)
iii) AUTO- TRANSFORMER PARTICULARS RATINGS /VALUE
S Name of the manufacturer, a ressan M/s. ABC country
Governing Stan ar s IS-
2026, IEC-60076 Service (Out oor/In oor) Out oor Rate frequency
(Hz) 50 Hz No.
of phases Three Type of cooling ONAN/ONAF/OFAF No. of win ings Rating (MVA) Wit
h ONAN cooling With ONAF cooling With OFAF cooling Three HV 189 252 315 IV 189 2
52 315 LV 63 MVAR+3 MVA 84 MVAR+4 MVA 105 MVAR+5MVA
Page 196

9
a) b)

Rate voltage (KV) (HV/IV/LV) Short circuit withstan level (kA) an uration (s
ec) Connection symbol Temperature rise of oil above reference peak ambient tempe
rature of 50 eg.C At full ONAN rating At full ONAF rating At full OFAF rating
T
emperature rise of win ings, above reference peak ambient temperature of 50 eg.
C At full ONANrating At full ONAF rating At full OFAF rating Temperature gra ie
nt betweenwin ings an oil Limit of hot spot temperature for which transformer
is esigne .

400/220/33 As per IS & 2 sec., HV & IV si e system fault level is 40kA YN, a0,
11
10 11
i) ii) iii) 12

50 eg.C 50 eg.C 50 eg.C
i) ii) iii) 13 14

55 eg.C 55 eg.C55 eg.C Approx. 15 eg.C 98 eg.C at an average waighte year
ly ambient of 32 eg.C
S.No. 15

PARTICULARSTime in minutes for which the transformer can be run at full loa wi
thout excee
ing the max. permissible temperature at reference ambient temperactu
re of 50 eg.C when Supply to fans is cut off but the oil circulating pumps are
working Supply to oil circulation
pump is cut off but the fans are working When
supply
to both the fans an the oil circulating
pump
is cut off Guarantee
"No l
oa losses"
at rate voltage, normal ratio an rate frequency an 75 eg. C ave
rage win ing temperature (kW)
RATINGS / VALUES
a) b)
20 minutes 20 minutes
c) 16 a)
10 minutes 80 KW Max.

Page 197
b)
17
a)
State whether the losses are firm or subject to tolerances. Incase it is subject
to
tolerance in
icate the ceiling for
tolerances.
Guarantee
loa losses at rat
e output, rate frequency correcte for 75 eg. C win ing temperature for the:
(KW) Principal
tap Lowest tap Highest tap
16.(b) as above.
Guarantee cooler los
ses at rate
output, normal ratio, rate voltage, rate frequency at ambient tem
p. of 50 eg. C (KW) 16.(b) as above
Firm
i) ii) iii) b) a)
500 KW Max. 600 KW 550 KW Firm 14 KW Max.
18
b)
Firm
S.No. 19

PARTICULARS Over excitation with stan time
RATINGS / VALUES
i) ii) iii) 20

125% 140% 150%
Positive
sequence
impe ence on rate MVA base, rate current an
frequency an 75 eg. C win ing temp at Principal tap (%)(HV/IV, HV/LV, IV/LV)
60 Sec. 5 Sec. 1 Sec. approx. HV-IV HV-LV IV-LV
i)
12.5+10%
45+15%
30+15%
ii) iii)
Highest tap (%) Lowest tap (%)
12.25 app. 13.0 app.
45 app. 45 app.
30 app. 30 app.
Page 198

21 22

Zero sequence impe ence at principal tap (%) Leakage reactance for HV, IV an LV

0.9 to 1.0 P.U. of positive sequence impe ance. Same as clause 20.0
23 24 i) ii) iii)

Capacitance to earth forHV, IV an
LV Efficiency at 75 eg. C win ing temperatu
re on: 100% loa 75% loa 50% loa
7500 pF, 7500 pF, 18000 All are approx. values At Unity Power Factor 99.82 99.85
99.87
S.No. 25

PARTICULARS Regulation at full loa at 75 eg. C expresse as percentage of norm
al voltage, at i) ii) Unity (1.0) Power factor (P.F) 0.85 PF (lagging) CORE DATA
: 0.93 7.28%
RATINGS / VALUES
26
i)
ii) iii) iv)

Material for core laminations Governing Stan ar s & correspon ing gra e Thicknes
s of laminations
Insulation between
core laminations Insulation of core bolts, w
ashers
an plates etc. Max. flux ensity in core steel at rate voltage, frequen
cy an at 90%, 100% an 110% voltage (Tesla) Number of limbs of the core Magneti
sing in rush current

HI-BI, AISI Stan ar CRGO
0.27
mmApprox. Inorganic Insulation Core bolts-Fiber Glass, Plates-Pre compress
e Boar 1.53, 1.7 & 1.87 Tesla respectively
v)
vi) vii)

Five 5 to 6 times the rate current

Page 199
viii) a) b) c) ix)

No loa
current at normal tap on an frequency for 85% of rate voltage
100% of
rate voltage 105% of rate voltage Core bolt insulation withstan voltage for o
ne minute (Kv)
0.15% Approx. 0.2% Approx. 0.3% Approx. 2.5 kV
S.No. 27 i)

PARTICULARS Data on win ings Maximum current ensity at CMR an con uctor area (
A/Sq.mm) a) b) c) ii)
a) b) c) iii) a) HV IV LV Con uctor material HV IV LV Insu
lating material use for HV win ing
RATINGS / VALUES
<2.7 A/Sq.mm, 168.4 mm2 min. <2.7 A/Sq.mm, 137.8 mm2 min. <2.7 A/Sq.mm, 392.8 mm
2 min.

Electrolytic Gra e Copper

Craft paper covering
on con uctors an PCB Blocks between Discs, PCB wraps an S
pacers between ifferent win ings.
b) c) iv) a) b)

IV wining LV win ing Insulating material use between HV an IV win ing IV an
LV win ing
Page 200

PCB wraps an spacers between ifferent win ings

c)

LV win ing an core
v)
vi) vii)

Details of special arrangement
provi e to improve surge voltage istribution in
the win ing Whether HV win ing inter leave Position of the tappings on the win
ing

HV Win ing shall
be interleave
/countra
shiel e HV Win ing shall be interleave

/countra
shiel e Towar s the line en of IV Win ing i.e., on 220kV si e of seri
es win ing for achieving +/- 10% of HV variation in steps of 1.25%. It shall be
of constant flux voltage variation type
viii)

Maximum current ensity un er short circuit (A/Sq.mm) PARTICULARS RATINGS / VALU
ES 24 A/Sq.mm 24 A/Sq.mm HV 1300, 570, IV 950, 395, LV 250, 95, Neu. 170 70
S.No. a) b) 28 i) ii) HV IV

Test Voltages: Lightning withstan test voltage (kV peak) (HV, IV, LV, Neu.) Pow
er frequency
withstan test voltage (kV, rms) (HV, IV, LV, Neu.) Switching surge
withstan voltage (kV, peak) (HV, IV, LV, Neu.) Partial ischarge level at 364
kV (Pico-coulomb)
Noise level when
energise at normal
voltage an frequency wit
hout
loa ( b) Governing
stan ar Whether the offere transformer can be transpo
rte on railways to estination.
YES/NO i) ii) COOLING SYSTEM: Name of manufactu
rer, a ress & country Mo el an type
iii) 29 30 (i)
1050,
--,
--,
--

Less than 500 pc 86 b
NEMA TR-1 Yes
(ii) 31
32

Manufacturers recommen e

Page 201
iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) xii) xiii)

Number of cooler banks Number of fan/oil pump per cooler bank Number of stan by
fan/oil pump Rate power input kW (approx.) Capacity
(cu.m/min or Lt./min) Rate
voltage
(volts)
Efficiency of motor at full loa (%) Temp. rise of motor at full
loa BHP of riven equipment Degree of
Protection (IP)of motor Temp. range over
which cooler control is a justable ( eg.C) PARTICULARS
2 x 50% 4/2 1/1 per cooler bank Oil pump = 3.7 KW, Fans = 0.7 KW each Fan = 368
Cu.m/min., Pump = 3400LPM 415 Volts 80% approx. As per IS-325 Pump = 3.7 Kw, Fa
n=0.7 KW IP-55 40-140 eg.c
S.No. xiv)
RATINGS / VALUES Yes

Whetherthe fan an /or pumps
are suitable for continuous operation at 85% of the
ir rate voltage Calculate time constant in hours
xv) a) b) 33 i) ii) iii)

Natural cooling
Force
air cooling On Loa Tap Changing gear (OLTC) Name of manu
facturer,
a
ress an country Mo el
an type Class as per
IEC 60214 an correspo
n ing rate insulation levels Rate current (Amps) Rate voltage (kV) Number of
steps Step voltage (kV) Whether control suitable
for Remote/local operation Auto
/manual operation
Parallel operation Rate voltage & frequency of rive motor(vo
lts & Hz) an permissible variation
4 hours 2 hours

High Spee resister Type 220kV Class
iv) v) vi) vii) viii) a) b) c) ix)
800 amp 220kV Class 16 2.888 kV Yes Yes Yes 415 V 50 HZ 3 Phase

Page 202
x)

Rate voltage
of protective control evices (volts)
Particulars of protective e
vices provi e (Over current/over run/Restarting evice) Whether the control pan
elcomplete
with OLTC control equipment for installation in the Control room inc
lu e in the scope of supply at no extra cost YES/NO Time taken to change one st
ep(sec.) Temperature of tap-changer eNeu.ironment Minimum/Maximum
110 V AC
xi)
Oil Surge Relay
xii)
Yes
xiii) xiv)
5 sec Approx. suitable for entire range of oil temperature

S.No. xv) 33 xvi) a) b) c) ) e) f)

PARTICULARS
Temperature of motor- rive mechanism
environment Rate characteristi

cs Rate through current
(Amp) Maximum rate through current (A) Rate
step volt
age (kV) Maximum rate step voltage (kV) Rate frequency (Hz) Rate insulation l
evel

RATINGS / VALUES -5 eg.C to 50 eg.C

505.2 amp (actual current of HV at full loa & at min. tap) 800 amp (rate curre
nt of OLTC) 2.888 kV 3.5 kV 50 HZ 245 kV Class (460 kV rms BIL: 1050 kVp)
xvii)

Relevant
rate step voltage (kV) (Rate step voltage correspon ing to specific r
ate through current)
Oil compartments for ivertor switches & selector switches
Pressure withstan rating Vaccum withstan
rating Detailsof protective service
s against increase of pressure provi e Oil flow controlle relay Yes/No
2.888 kV at 505.2 amp
xviii)
a) b) xix) a)
15 PSi Full
Yes
Page 203

b) c) xx)

Over pressure relay Yes/No Pressure relief evices Yes/No Details of limiting e
vices for
protection of OLTC against
transient over voltages an any limitation
impose uring tests on complete transformers Temperature
rise of contacts & co
rrespon ing contact material in air/oil Transition impe ance type & value
No No No limitation on Transformer testing
xxi)

Less than 20 eg C/ contact material as per supplier's st . Resistor type / will
furnish later
xxii)
S.No. xxiii)

PARTICULARS No. of operations correspon ing to maximum rate through current an
relevant
rate stepvoltage Whether copies of type tests performe on OLTC encl
ose YES/NO
Partial ischarge (micro columbs at ---- kV) Details
of oil purifica
tion an filteration
plant Manufacturer,
a ress
& country
Mo el Capacity Govern
ing stan ar . BUSHINGS:
(HV, IV, LV) Mo el an type Rate current (Amps) Lightni
ng impulse
withstan voltage(HV,IV,Neutral an LV) (kV Peak) Switching surge wit
hstan voltage (kV Peak) Power frequency withstan voltage
RATINGS / VALUES 2,00,000
33 xxiv) Yes

xxv) xxvi) a) b) c) ) 34 i) ii) iii)
NA
As per supplier’s
recommendations 60 litres per min Supplier’s std. HV IV LV Neu. Co
ndenser Bus ing <-oil communicating type-1250 1250 3150 2000 1425 1050 250 170
iv) v)
1050
--
--
--
Page 204
a) Wet for one minute
(kV rms) b) Dry for one minute (kV
rms) vi) vii) viii) ix)
Visible carona disc arge voltage (kV rms) Partial disc arge level
at 364 kV (Pi
co-coulomb) Creapage distancein air (mm) Quality
of oil in bus ing and specific
ation of oil used lits.) Weig t of assembled bus ing (kg)
630 630 320
460 460 175
95 95 --
75 75 --
< 10 pC for HV, IV & LV 10500 6125 1300 900
200, 55 ltrs apprx. (EHV Grade oil)
x)
1000
450
50
S.No. xi)

PARTICULARS Free
space required above t e transformer tank top for removal
of ba
nk (meters) W et er terminal
connectors for all bus ings included in t e scope
o
f supply (YES/NO) Are bus ing dimensions as per specification (YES/NO) W et er t
est tapprovided
or not (YES/NO) CONSERVATOR: Total volume (liters) Volume betwe
en t e ig est and lowest visible oil levels (lts.) Material of air cell b) iv)
Literature on air cell enclosed
YES/NO Continuous temp. wit stand capacity of ai
r cell Tank: Material and t ickness of plate for tank construction 8 meters
RATINGS / VALUES
xii)
Yes
xiii)
Yes
xiv) 35 i) ii)
Yes
Yes
NA
6500 lits. 5600 lits.
iii) a)
Nitrile/Neoprne/Hyplon Yes 100 deg. C
36 i)
Mild Steel Side = 10mm, Bottom=50 mm, Top Cover = 20 mm Approx. Bell type
Page 205
ii)
Tank cover conventional or bell type
iii) iv) v) a) b) vi) a)
No. ofpressure relief devices provided Operating pressure of relief device
Vacc
um wit stand capacity of Main tank Radiators and accesssories Pressure wit stand
capacity of Main tank
2 8 psi approx.
Full Full

Continuous internal Pressure of 100 kN/sqm over normal ydrostatic pressure of o
il
S.No. b) vii) viii) ix)

PARTICULARS Radiators and accesssories W et er t e impact
recorder provided Perm
issible limits of displacementduring transit Confirm w et er impact recorder fi
tted during Transit Yes/No Bus ing type current transformers: i) ii) iii) iv) v)
vi) vii) viii) ix) Voltage class No. of cores Ratio Accuracy
class Burden Accur
acy limit factor Maximum resistance of secondary winding (o ms) Knee point volta
ge (volts) Current rating of secondaries(Amps) Insulating OIL Name of Manufactur
er, address & country Governing Standard Quantity of oil Before Filling Before C
ommissioning Yes
RATINGS / VALUES

Impact recorder s all be fitted during Transport. Yes
37
As per Specification As per Specification
As per Specification As per Specification
38 i) ii) a)
IS-335 75 KL including 10% extra
Page 206
b)
Parameter of insulating oil Before Filling Before Commissioning Before Filling B
efore ‘ commissioning
i) Moisture content
(PPm) ii) Tan delta at 90 deg.C iii) Res
istivity (O m-cm) iv) Breakdown strengt (kV) v) Interfacial tension at 20 deg.C
15 0.002 35 X 10 12 30 kV 0.04 N/m 10 0.05 1x10 2 60 kV 0.03 N/m
S.No. 39 i) ii) iii) 40 i)
PARTICULARS Temperature indicators
- Range & AccuracyOTI WTI RWTI Minimum clear
ances(mm) In oil- Between
p ase to p ase- Between p ase to ground ii) a) b) In
Air - Between p ase to pase - Between p ase to ground WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS:
i) a) b) c) d) e) f) Weig ts
(kg) Core Windings Tank Fittings Oil Total weig ts
of complete transformer wit oil and fittings Approx. 73500 38000 25000 40000 60
000 240000 HV 4000, 3500,
RATINGS / VALUES
0 to 150 deg. C +-1.5% o to 150 deg. C +-1.5% o to 150 deg. C +-1.5% HV IV LV

Adequate wit respect to s ape of electrode and Voltage Class IV 2000, 1820, LV
530 480
41
Page 207
ii) a) b) c) d) iii)

Dimensions (meters)
Overall eig t above trackOverall lengt Overall
breadt
Mi
nimum bay widt required for installation of t e transformer Weig t of t e eavi
est package of t e transformer arranged for transportation LIFTING JACKS: Number
of jacks included in one set Type and make PARTICULARS
Approx. 9.15 17.3 12.6
150 Tonnes
42
A) i) ii)
6 Hydraulic, Make XYZ RATINGS / VALUES 80 Tonnes 150 mm 470 mm 320 mm 4 Nos. 167
6 mm 1676 mm

S.No. iii) iv) v) vi) B) i) ii) iii) Capacity Pitc Lift

Heig t in close position
RAIL TRACK GUAGES: 3 rails or 4 rails Distance between
adjacent rails on s orter axis Distance between adjacent rails on longer axis
Page 208

POWER TRANSFORMERS IN AND OUT MANSOOR

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POWER TRANSFORMERS IN AND OUT MANSOOR

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POWER TRANSFORMERS

Fig 2.8 Transformer core and Laminations

And so on ….. 50 times every second

ith such devices is difficult. Fortunately, the impedances of most instruments

(120 V AC) accurately for measurement and relaying in an Electrical net

inding of a capacitance potential device is specified in

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