Dpal Ldan Bkra Shis - AHP 43 - AMDO TIBETAN LANGUAGE - An Introduction To Normative Oral Amdo 43 (2016, Asian Highlands Perspectives) PDF

AMDO TIBETAN LANGUAGE
The author has pursued interests in ethnology, linguistics,

and literary translation for 20 years. His upbringing in a
Tibetan tribe, education in Tibetan language and literature
and proficient knowledge of English, Chinese, and German,
have given him a broad base for professional pursuits. This
latest book was inspired by teaching Tibetan for more than a
decade at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. He is currently at
work on a theoretical grammar of modern Tibetan and a novel
www.dpalldan.com providing an overview of his tribe in the 1895–1960 era.
Introduction to Normative Oral Amdo

FORM ࿇ MEANING ࿇ USE
AHP43
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43
úûăă ŞŎāǧŇāřŎāŖȸĹă
ŞŎāǧŇāȦŢāŎŐŉāĸŬřāʈĻāŎă
AMDO TIBETAN LANGUAGE

An Introduction to Normative Oral Amdo
by
ŇŊřāǷŉāŌȇāŚŢŜă
Dpal ldan bkra shis
ASIAN HIGHLANDS PERSPECTIVES (AHP) is a trans-disciplinary journal focused on the Tibetan Plateau
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AID; Emily Yeh, University of Colorado; Fernanda Pirie, University of Oxford; Geoffrey Samuel,
Cardiff University; Gray Tuttle, Columbia University; Hildegard Diemberger, University of
Cambridge; Huadan Zhaxi (Dpal ldan bkra shis ŇŊřāǷŉāŌȇāŚŢŜ), Humboldt University; Jermay
Jamsu ('Gyur med rgya mtsho ŖʀŘāŎŪŇāȢāŎŐǓ), Independent Scholar; Juha Janhunen, University of
Helsinki; Katherine Morton, Australian National University; Keith Dede, Lewis and Clark College;
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KEYWORDS: Tibetan, language, dialogue, grammar
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CITATION: Dpal ldan Bkra shis. 2016. Amdo Tibetan Language: An Introduction to Normative Amdo
Tibetan. Asian Highlands Perspectives 43.
SUMMARY: Amdo Tibetan Language has nineteen chapters, a section on verb conjugation, a section
on grammar, three appendices, and a bibliography. Numerous exercises, dialogues, texts, and special
phrases are also provided. Each chapter consists of course texts, grammar notes, exercises, a
vocabulary list, examples, and supplementary grammar. The texts focus on daily Tibetan life.
Sentences are short and syntactically not overly complex. Exercises provide focus-related examples
to reinforce chapter contents and include dialogues, sentences, and phrase completion. Dialogues
are a major focus and provide a backdrop of communication for practice. Language notes deal with
various grammatical, syntactic, and semantic points. An English-Tibetan wordlist is at the end of
each chapter. The supplemental grammar section addresses grammatical concepts, new phrasal
words, and function words and phrases. Certain phrases and compound words that have not
appeared in contemporary dictionaries are provided with English equivalents.
BACK COVER: ȂŬŎāŊāŊŬŖŢāŞāŋāŎŢĻāȜŢĻāŌɁŉāŇĻāŌɁŉāŊŬŖŢāɆāŘŌŜāŐāʗŇă The author's father and his six

siblings and their descendants. The oldest, Sha wo 'tsho ŚāŌŬāŖŐǓ, was born in 1934 and the youngest,
Lha mo yag ȅāŎŬāŗĹ, was born in 1952. Their descendants live in Bao'an ņŬāȢāŔĻ and Gua shi ze ŎĹŘā
ȂŪāŔĻ townships, Reb gong ŘŪŌāĹŬĻ County, Rma lho ȀāȅŬ Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Mtsho
sngon ŎŐǓāǭŬŉ Province. The photo was taken in August 2013 by the author in Gua shi ze Township.
All photographs at the beginning of each chapter were taken by Dpal ldan bkra shis unless otherwise
indicated.
©2016 Asian Highlands Perspectives. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, translated, licensed, distributed, displayed, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without express prior written permission
from Asian Highlands Perspectives. Clip art in this publication is used with permission from
Microsoft.
Contents
Preface 16
Abbreviations 18
Appendix I: Verb Conjugation 591
Appendix II: Grammar Index 606
Appendix III: Answer Key 614
Chapter 1
Text One 2
Pronouns 2
1.1 Pronouns and possessive pronouns 2
Note-1: verb "to be": ;A/ 3
Text Two 4
Text Three 5
1.2 Pronouns and possessive pronouns 5
Verb "to be": ;A/ 5
Note-2: existential verb: ;R. 6
1.3 Verb "to be": <J. 6
Notes-3: verb "to be" 7
1.4 Existential verb: ;R. 8
Note-4: genitive case 8
1.5 /?-;A/ and /?-<J. 9
1.6 Locality: /? 10
Notes-5: monosyllabic adjectives 10
1.7 Negative adverbs 10
Note-6: interrogative AJ 12
Text Four 13
Text Five 15
Note-7: ergative case 16
1.8 Question words 17
Note-8: where, how much and how 18
Text Six 22
Note-9: Interrogative /? vs. AJ 22
Numbers: One to one hundred 24
-4-
Note-10: numbers above twenty 25
Supplementary Grammar 27
Vocabulary List 31
Chapter 2
Text One 42
2.1 Ergative case 42
Notes-1: Ladon case 43
Text Two 44
2.2 Negative simple present and Ladon variants 44
Notes-2: Ladon case 45
Notes-3: negative adverbs 46
Text Three 47
2.3 Reportive particle $A 48
Notes-4: reportive particle $A 48
Notes-5: /?-;A/ and /?-<J. 50
2.4 Intransitive verbs vs. transitive verbs 51
2.5 Negative present tense forms 52
2.6 Interrogative AJ 53
Text Four 53
Notes-6: LJ., =? and ;? 54
Text Five (numbers above one hundred) 55
2.7 Interrogative adverbs in contrast 57
Notes-7: some interrogatives in contrast 57
Vocabulary List 65
Chapter 3
Text One 74
3.1 Frequency words 74
Notes-1: the same, because, usually, and ever 75
3.2 Position of frequency words 76
3.3 Position of 8R%-$A? in questions 77
-5-
3.4 Three infinitive cases 80
Text Two 81
3.5 Indefinite articles and definite articles 82
Notes-2: 0R, 2R, and %R as definite articles 82
Text Three 85
Notes-3 $% and .R vs. $&A$ and $*A? 84
3.6 Subjective statement vs. reportive statement 85
Notes-4: v<-< and /% 86
Text Four 86
Text Five 88
Supplementary Grammar (/, /?, and some interrogatives) 91
VocabularyList 95
Chapter 4
Text One 104

4.1 Possessive forms of nouns 104
Notes-1: genitive case 106
4.2 Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns 106
4.3 Possessive adjectives 108
Notes-2: demonstrative pronouns 108
Notes-3: some plurality markers 111
Text Two 113
4.4 Possessive pronouns: singular, dual, and plural 114
Notes-4: singular and plural pronouns 115
Text Three 116
4.5 Possessive pronouns 116
Notes-5: ?-< vs. &%-< 117
Vocabulary List 121
Chapter 5
Text One 130

5.1 Present continuous tense 131
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Notes-1: present continuous tense 131
Notes-2: negative present continuous tense 132
5.2 Questions in continuous tense 133
Notes-3: monosyllabic adjectives in continuous tense structure 134
5.3 Questions with interrogative adverbs 135
Notes-4: $R-$A in continuous tense structure 135
Text Two 139
5.4 Postpositions 140
Notes-5: postpositions 141
5.5 Temporal postpositions 142
Text Three 146
5.6 Verb + $R-$A vs. verb + $A-;R. 147
Notes-6: /? in continuous tense questions 147
5.7 Continuous tense with First Person 147
5.8 Negative continuous tense 149
5.9 Types of present and / present continuous tense 150
Supplementary Grammar (ordinal and inclusive numbers) 152
Vocabulary List 154
Chapter 6
Text One 164

6.1 Future tense form: o-;A/ 165
Notes-1: future tense 165
6.2 Future tense form: o-<J. 165
Notes-2: future tense 166
6.3 Future tense forms in contrast 166
6.4 Imminent future tense form: 9J<-$A-;R. 167
Notes-3: imminent future tense 168
6.5 Questions with future tense forms 172
Notes-4: future tense questions with AJ 173
6.6 Negative future tense form 174
Notes-5: negative future tense form 174
Notes-6: future tense forms in clauses 176
6.7 Future tense form of tendency: :IR 176
-7-
Notes-7: :IR 177
6.8 Various tenses in contrast 177
Text Two 180
6.9 Prospective present tense form 181
6.10 Various future tense forms 184
6.11 Future tense forms 185
Notes-8: present tense in future tense mood 185
Vocabulary List 192
Chapter 7
Text One 200

7.1 Simple past tense 200
Notes-1: verb tense forms 201
7.2 Common verbs that change with tense 201
7.3 Common verbs that do not change with tense 203
Notes-2: past tense indicative auxiliaries 203
Text Two 204
7.4 Past tense with auxiliaries 205
Notes-3: use of ,= 205
7.5 Use of be verbs and E-v in past tense 207
Text Three 208
7.6 Negative past tense forms 210
Notes-4 211
Notes-5: emphatic duplication (verb and / or adj.) 212
7.7 Questions in past tense 213
Text Four 218
Vocabulary List 222
Chapter 8
Text One 228

8.1 Positive imperative 228
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Notes-1: imperative forms 229
8.2 Negative imperative forms and self-suggestion 232
Text Two 235
8.3 Infinitive case: / + :.R. 236
Notes-2: infinitive case: / + :.R. 237
8.4 Infinitive case: $A 237
Notes-3: infinitive case: infinitive case: $A 237
8.5 Infinitive case: o 239
Notes-4: infinitive case o 239
8.6 Infinitive case: oR 240
Notes-5: o vs. oR 240
8.7 Infinitive case: oR< vs. oR:A 241
Notes-6: oR< vs. oR:A 241
8.8 Infinitive case oR vs. conditional / 242
8.9 Words that function as modals 244
Text Three 245
8.10 Modal: ,2 246
Notes-7: ,2 247
8.11 Modal: .$R? 248
Notes-8: .$R? 248
8.12 Modal: .$R? with phrasal adverbs 250
Notes-9: .$R? and */ 250
8.13 Modal: /...,%, */ , and /…(R$ 252
Notes-10: /...,%, */, and /…(R$ 254
8.14 Modal: / …OA$?-OA$?-3J. 255
Notes-11: /...,% / OA$?-OA$?-3J. 255
8.15 Use of :)$ 257
Vocabulary List 261
Chapter 9
Text One 270

9.1 Classifiers 271
Notes-1: some measure words 271
-9-
9.2 3%, 3%-%, 3%-%-$9A$, .J-3R, and .J-3R-$9A$ 272
Notes-2: .J-3R-$9A$ and .J-3R 273
9.3 *%, *%-*%-$9A$, and 4B?-4-$9A$ 273
Notes-3: *%-*%-$9A$ and 4B?-4-$9A$ 274
9.4 (-<J, (-4B$, =-=, $9A$, &%, and #-;? 275
Notes-4: (-<J and &% 275
9.5 ,= , ?R%, ;R., and S$? with monosyllabic adjectives 278
Notes-5: Tibetan versions of too and much 289
Vocabulary List 286
Chapter 10
Text One 290

10.1 Adjectives 291
Notes-1: types of adjectives 292
10.2 Various types of adjectives 293
Notes-2: types of adjectives 294
10.3 Noun modifiers and verb modifiers 295
Notes-3: ,. vs. ? 296
10.4 Adverb of manner 297
Notes-4: adverbializer >J. 297
Text Two 300
10.5 S$? and @R%-$A? 301
Text Three 302
10.6 Clause adverbializer: >J. 303
Notes-5: >J. and /…S$? 303
Vocabulary List 307
Chapter 11
Text One 312

11.1 Temporal adverbs: .?, <J$-2<, and 8R<-< 313
Notes-1: temporal adverbs 313
- 10 -
11.2 Adverbs: }R/-/, }R/-/?, $8$-/, $8$-/? and 3…$R%-% 314
Notes-2: temporal and locative adverbs 315
11.3 <A%-%, /%-%, {2?-2, /A-<, <%-$A?, and temporal Ladon case 317
Notes-3 Ladon case variants with numbers 318
Text Two 321
11.4 Present perfect tense vs. past perfect tense 322
Notes-4: perfect tense with ;R. 322
11.5 Experiential perfect tense: MR% 324
Notes-5: MR% 325
11.6 Present perfect tense vs. experiential perfect tense 326
11.7 Present perfect continuous vs. past continuous tense 329
Notes-6: continuous tense 329
Text Three 331
Vocabulary List 340
Chapter 12
Text One 348

12.1 Participle case vs. infinitive case 349
Notes-1: positive participle case 349
12.2 Distribution of positive participle variants 351
Text Two 352
12.3 Negative participle case 353
Notes-2: 3, 3A, and 3J. in participle case 353
12.4 Negative participle variants distribution 355
Notes-3: negative participle cases in varied tenses 355
12.5 Review of infinitive cases 356
Vocabulary List 364
Chapter 13
Text One 370

13.1 Adjective clause 371
- 11 -
Notes-1: /R in adjective clause 372
13.2 More uses of /R 375
Notes-2: /R in adjective clauses 375
13.3 Review of /R 377
Notes-3: function words oR, o, and /R 377
13.4 Adjective clauses: temporal and locative 381
Notes-4: particle ? 381
13.5 Particles ? and /R in adjective clauses 384
Text Two 387
13.6 Review of /R 388
Notes-5: /R in gerundial cases 389
Vocabulary List 398
Chapter 14
Text One 404

14.1 Comparative forms 405
Notes-1: comparative adverbs 406
14.2 Superlative forms 408
Notes-2: superlative adverbs 418
Text Two 414
14.5 comparative forms 423
Notes-5: various comparative structures 424
Text Three 428
14.6 Similarity 430
Notes-6: $&A$ and $&A$-<-$&A$in similarity 430
14.7 Similarity 431
Notes-7: words and phrases of similarity 432
Supplementary Grammar (comparative and superlative) 438
Vocabulary List 443
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Chapter 15
Text One 450

15.1 Passive voice 451
15.2 Passive voice vs. active voice 453
Notes-2 454
15.3 /? in passive sentence 456
Notes-3: /? as causative conjunction 456
Vocabulary List 463
Chapter 16
Text One 468

16.1 Review of definite articles 469
Notes-1: definite articles 469
16.2 Review of indefinite articles 471
16.3 Demonstrative pronouns 474
Notes-2: .J and $/ 475
16.4 Review of /R in adjective clauses 477
Notes-3: /R vs. .J as definite articles 477
16.5 Plural demonstrative pronouns 478
Notes-4: plural demonstrative pronouns 478
16.6 Quantity words 480
Notes-5: quantity words 481
Text Two 482
16.7 $8/-0-2R and $8/-$9A$ 483
Notes-6: $8/-0-2R, $&A$-$R, $8/-0-9R and $8/-$9A$ 483
16.8 Plural demonstrative pronouns 484
Notes-7: plural demonstrative pronouns 485
16.9 Review: &% vs. $&A$ 486
Notes-8: &%, &%-<, $&A$, and $&A$-< 487
Vocabulary List 492
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Chapter 17
Text One 500

17.1 Adverbial clauses 501
Notes-1: adverbial clauses 501
17.2 Temporal clauses 502
Notes-2: temporal clauses 503
Text Two 506
17.3 Clause: reason and purpose 507
Notes-3: clause (reason and purpose) 508
17.4 Contrast conjunctions 510
Notes-4: contrast conjunctions 511
17.5 Conditional conjunctions 514
Notes-5: conditional conjunctions 515
Text Three 519
17.6 Adverbial conjunctions 520
17.7 Special cases of / 523
Vocabulary List 532
Chapter 18
Text One 538

18.1 Noun clause with /R 540
Notes-1: /R in noun clauses and adjective clauses 540
18.2 Included-question noun clauses 543
Notes-2: included-question noun clauses 544
Text Two 549
18.3 oR in noun clauses and infinitive clauses 550
Notes-3: oR as prospective nominalizer 550
18.4 Noun clauses with question words 552
Notes-4: /R in noun clauses 552
Text Three 555
18.5 Reported speech and exact quotations 556
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Notes-5: citational word 9J< 556
18.6 9J< vs. 2>. 557
Notes-6: 9J< vs. 2>. 558
Vocabulary List 565
Chapter 19
Text One 570

19.1 Unreal conditions 571
Notes-1: …o-/ …o-<J. 571
19.2 Real condition vs. unreal condition 573
Notes-2: …/ …o-;A/ vs. …/ …o-<J. 574
Text Two 575
19.3 Past tense unreal condition 576
Notes-3: past tense unreal condition 577
19.4 Wishes and suggestions 580
Notes-4: …o-/ (suggestion) and …3R (wish) 581
Vocabulary List 587
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Preface
Amdo Tibetan Language is a textbook for a systematic study of Amdo Tibetan dialect. Oral Amdo, as
I use the term here, refers to a collection of subdialects that are spoken widely and are mutually
comprehensible in northeastern Tibetan areas in China. After two months of syllabary and
phonology study, students at Humboldt University zu Berlin use this book when learning oral Amdo.
A teacher helps students with understanding text contents and relevant grammar points. Exercises
include dialogues. All contents are components of a real-time teaching course and provide a
curriculum for eight semesters, although an instructor and students might choose to proceed faster
or slower depending on individual circumstances.
Key objectives include enabling learners to study Amdo Tibetan contexualized material. All
examples and exercises are presented using Tibetan customs, social norms, and ways of thinking.
Students are encouraged to use new skills to communicate, practice diologues in pairs, and
through role-play. Communicative skills improve and students gain a rewarding sense upon
completion of chapter contents.
Oral Amdo listening and speaking materials may be found in CDs accompanying Kelsang
Norbu et al. (2000), Kuo-ming Sung and Lha byams rgyal (2005), and Video Tibetan Lessons with
English Translation posted in 2014 on the Internet Archive. While recognizing the importance of
listening and speaking in learning another language, Amdo Tibetan Language focuses on
communicate skills and, simultaneously, grammar and syntax, which aids communication.
Each chapter features focal points introducing new grammar and syntax with tables,
language notes, and examples. All texts provide lesson focal points, language notes, and exercises.
Chapters are arranged to present increasing levels of linguistic complexity within the
confines of chapter objectives. The lessons contain new points that are related to the foregoing
chapters. This ensures that each chapter presents new material, while also reviewing what has been
presented previously. Material contents cover a wide range of contemporary topics, revealing how
and what Tibetans think. This provides culturally rich materials while introducing increasingly
complex materials to meet the learner's growing demand for more linguistic complexity.
Supplemental materials include phrasal compositions, phrasal expressions, and unique syntactical
structures.
Oral Amdo forms vary depending on community. Presenting a 'typical' Amdo dialect is
challenging due to phonetic variations between, for example, ŖȖŬĹāǧŇ 'Brog skad (dialect typifying
herding communities) and ŘŬĻāǧŇ Rong skad (dialect typifying agricultural communities). The
differences between these two large classes of dialects require modification in order to convey
relatively universal features of both. I have chosen to emphasize 'Brog skad. With this in mind, the
book focuses on current Rtse khog County, and its adjacent areas to the north - ŎŇŬāŌ Mdo ba and
- 16 -
ŌŏŉāŎŬ Btsan mo townships in ŘŪŌāĹŬĻ Reb gong County, reflecting contemporary Amdo dialects
understood in such Tibetan autonomous prefectures as ŎŐǓāȅŬ Hainan, ȀāȅŬ Huangnan, ŎŐǓāȕĻ
Haibei, ǫāŌ Aba, ŎĹŬāřŬĹ Guoluo and ķŉāȅŬ Gannan.
Certain compromises are made in phonetic transcription, for example, some words are
transcribed in their written forms instead of oral ones. ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāȕŪŇ, in which the stem verb is orally
pronounced ŗŜ, illustrates this. Such compromises have been made because it is easier for a self-
learner to check a dictionary. Oral forms are generally not listed in dictionaries. The written forms
that I have chosen are generally understood. It also helps the learner to understand the written
forms of basic words that well-educated Tibetans increasingly use in oral communication.
ŇĹŬŜ another typical example, is often orally voiced without suffix but transcribed with the
suffix, namely in its written form, which is widely accepted in transcription. Certain syllables are
challenging to transcribe precisely as voiced, for example, ĹŢ has a slight phonetic distinction. It is a
dorsal plosive and vibrant when it follows syllables without suffixes (ĸŬāŖȌŬāĹŢ) and, dorsal plosive and
voiceless, when it follows syllables with a suffix (ĸŬāŗŢŜāʂāřŪŉāĹŢ). ĹŢ is conveniently used to express
both, given the lack of an exact laryngeal alphabet. Ladon case markers (řāŇŬŉāȔŇ) are not, or rarely,
put in sentences since they are not noticeably voiced. The few exceptions to this are indicated with
attention to syntactic components. Simple future tense forms of verbs occasionally appear in, more
commonly, nomadic dialects. In this text they are uniformly replaced with the present tense when
the statement is vocalized with relevant tense aspect indicative auxiliaries. Present tense forms Ŗőƾŉ
(to arrest) and ĹŅŬĻ (to set free), for example, are used in replacement of their respective future
tense forms ĹɏĻ and ĹŅĻ.
Amdo Tibetan Language has nineteen chapters, with each featuring two to five texts that
have grammar notes, exercises, vocabulary lists with examples, and supplementary grammar.
Course texts commonly revolve around Tibetan daily life. Sentences are short and syntatically within
the reach of students' linguistic proficiency.
Exercises includes dialogues and sentence completion. Dialogues play a key role, providing
context within which learners may practice and reinforce chapter contents. Language notes engage
linguistic points grammatically, syntactically, and symantically. Some linguistic points, if appearing
before their chapter focus, are outlined and then dealt with in more detail later.
A word list with English definition and Tibetan example for each entry appears at the end of
each chapter. Students should memorize as many words as possible. Polysemous words are defined
according to usage in the relevant chapter texts. Sections dealing with supplementary grammar
consist of table contents giving, for example, grammar concepts, new phrases, semantic subtlety of
certain function words and phrases, and so on. Various phrases and compound words, which are not
often defined in contemporary dictionaries, are juxtaposed with English equivalents.
- 17 -
REFERENCES
Kelsang Norbu, Karl Peet, Dpal ldan bkra shis, and Kevin Stuart. 2000. Modern Oral A mdo
Tibetan: A Language Primer. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen.
Kuo-ming Sung and Lha byams rgyal. 2005. Colloquial Amdo Tibetan: A Complete Course for Adult
English Speakers. Beijing: China's Tibetology Press.
Video Tibetan Lessons with English Translation. 2014. www.tinuryl.com, accessed 9 January 2015.
ABBREVIATIONS
FUT Future tense form

PAT Past tense form
PRT Present tense form
E-v Existential verb yod
O-be Objective verb "to be"
S-be Subjective verb "to be"
Adj. Adjective
I thank the people below for their assistance in making this book a reality:
Professor Dr. Antoni Huber Institute for Asia and Africa Studies, Humboldt University
zu Berlin
Dr. CK Stuart Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an City
Dr. Gerald Roche Asia Institute, The University of Melbourne
Dr. Bdud lha rgyal ŌɁŇāȅāȢř Northwest University for Nationalities, Lanzhou City
Gaye Sargent
ŇŊřāǷŉāŌȇāŚŢŜă
Dpal ldan bkra shis
Humboldt University zu Berlin
Berlin, Germany
- 18 -
aR2-5/-.%-0R,
2h-3R.,
Objective Verb "to be":;A/ Existential Verb: ;R.

Subjective Verb "to be": <J. Number
Question Words Ladon Cases
Srin mo gan rkyal ȜŢŉāŎŬāĹŉāȟř, a demoness hostile to Buddhism, lies on her back with
her vital body parts pinned down by temples built in the seventh century, symbolizing
the conquest of evil spirits by Buddhism. Lhasa, TAR (a photograph of an old sketch,
Toni Huber).
Text One: practice these conversations.
2.J-3R, %-35S-3R-;A/, 35S-3R, HR.-2.J-3R,

HR.-?%?-o?-AJ-;A/, %-?%?-o?-;A/,
HR.-?-;A/,
%-5K-<A%-;A/,
%-N%-$R-/?-;A/, %-:)<-3/-/?-;A/,
HR.-$%-/?-;A/,
3<-$J-1R=-3-;A/, 3J-+R$-;$-0R-<J., 3J-+R$-HR:A-;A/,

3R-%:A-<R$?-0-;A/, %J.-$*A?-$%-%-:IR,
1.1 -- Pronouns and possessive pronouns
Pronoun English Possessive pronoun English

% I; me %:C my; mine
3<-$J / 3R / #R-3R she; her 3<-$J:A / 3R:A / #R-3R:A her; hers
HR. you HR:A / HR.-$A your; yours
#R / #<-$J he; him #R:A / #<-$J:A his
%J.-(:R we; us %J.-(:R-$A our; ours
•2•
Pronoun English Possessive pronoun English
HR.-(:R you; all of you HR.-(:R-$A your; yours
#R-(:R / #<-$J-(:R they (male); them

(male)
#R-(:R-$A / #<-$J-(:R-$A their (male);
theirs (male)
3R-(:R / #R-3R-(:R / 3<-$J- they (female); them
(female)
3R-(:R-$A / #R-3R-(:R-$A / 3<-$J- their (female);
theirs (female)
(:R (:R-$A
%-$*A?-! / %J.-$*A?-! we two; two of us %-$*A?-!-$A our (dual)
3R-$*A?-! / #R-3R-$*A?-! they; them (female

and dual)
3R-$*A?-!-$A / #R-3R-$*A?-!-$AA their (female
and dual)
#R-$*A?-! they; them (male and #R-$*A?-!-$A their (male and
dual) dual)
HR.-$*A?-! you two (dual) HR.-$*A?-!-$A their (dual)
Notes-1
1. ;A/ is a linking verb "to be" and is used to express something as matter of fact, and is
henceforth termed objective verb to be (O-be).
2. /? is a postposition, corresponding to from in this text, expressing origin.
3. $%-% to where.
4. $%-/? from where.
Exercise 11 Complete the dialogue with your partner using these words and phrases:
2.J-3R, A-<R, /?-;A/, ;A/, /?-;R%, ?, $%-/?, and $%-%.
.!R/-3(R$ HR.-2.J-3R,
ſ %-____________, HR.-_____________?
.!R/-3(R$ %-2R.-/?-;A/, _____________________?
ſ %-5K-2g/-;A/, HR.-2.J-3R,
.!R/-3(R$ %-.!R/-3(R$_____________, %-#3?-/?-;A/, HR._____________;A/,
ſ %-<-#3?-/?-;A/, HR.-_______________:IR?
.!R/-3(R$ %-A-3.R<-:IR, HR.-________________:IR?
ſ %-3A-:IR, %-:.A-/-:.$-$A-;R.,
.!R/-3(R$ _____________,
•3•
Text Two: verb "to be" and existential verbs
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, :63-\A%-$A-?-O-8A$
:.A-:63-\A%-$A-?-O-$9A$-;A/, A->J-;-><-/--;R., 2R.-
$%-/-;R., :)<-3/-$%-/-;R., A-3J-<A-#-$%-/--;R.,
2R.-o-/$-/-;R., :)<-3/-;R-<R2-/-;R., A-3J-<A-#-3J-
\A%-/-;R., HR.-;R-<R2-/?-AJ-;A/, %-A->J-;-/?-;A/,
<J.-S-%-;R-<R2-/-;R.,
A. Find the four continents in the text above and write them in the blanks below.
A-nJ-<A-#, ____________, _______________, ______________, ______________
B. Which continents are these countries located in?
.0J<-2eR., AJ-&A-$%-/-;R., AJ-&A-A-nJ-<A-#-/-;R.,
1. A-<-?_______________________
2. ?R$-0R_______________________ A-<-?, ?R$-0R,
3. 2=-;=______________________
4. 0-8A________________________ 2=-;=, 0-8A,
5. :)<-0/_____________________ :)<-0/, &-/-+,
6. &-/-+_______________________ @/-$R .LA/-)A, n-$R
7. @/-$R_______________________
8. .LA/-)A______________________
9. n-$R________________________
C. Where do you think the content of each picture is from?
•4•
$;$-2R.-/?-<J., ?R$-0R-/-<-;R., {-:.A-n-$R-/?-<J., A-3J-<A-#-/-;R., :.A-A-3J-<A-#-/?-;A/, t$?-<A-:.A-o-/$-/?-
;A/, :.A-o-/$-$A-L%-KR$?-/-;R., |R-3R-(J-:.A-:)<-3/-/?-<J., 0R-=A/-/-;R., :.A-0R-=A/-/?-<J., tR$?-<A%-:.A-n-</-
?A-/?-<J., 0-=A-/-;R., 2-3R-:.A-82?-VR-3#/-$9A$-<J., #R-3R-.-0R-=A/-/-;R., <J.-S-3<-$J-0-8A-/?-<J., 3(R.-gJ/-:.A-
2R.-/-;R., :.A-2R.-/?-<J., 3(R.-gJ/-/J-0-=-/-<-;R., 9-2-:.A-A-3.R-/?-<J., #<-$J-z-?-/-;R., #<-$J-.$J-=$?-0-
<J.,
Text Three: Verb "to be," existential verb, and postpositions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-#3?,
2R.-#3?-?-(-(J-$9A$-;A/, 2R.-#3?-/-(R=-#-$?3-;R., (R=-#-$?3-0R-.2?-$4%-, #3?-<-A-3.R-;A/, .2?-$4%-

o-$<-$A-!R.-KR$?-/-;R., #3?-2R.-(R=-#-$?3-$A-zR-KR$?-/-;R., A-3.R-><-KR$?-/-;R., A-3.R-?-o-(J,
.2?-$4%-N%-$R-$A-2R.-uR%?-<J., .J:A-(2-YA., .0=-:LR<, <A$-$/?-$A-vJ-2-z-?-<J., z-?-2R.-uR%?-$A-zR-KR$?-/-

;R., #3?-8A%-(J/-(-4B$-$A-/%-<J., .J:A-?-(-$4S-2R-$&A$-.<-lJ-3.R-<J., 2R.-$A-36K?-uR%?-3%-%-#3?-/-;R., $4%-2R-
3%-%-<-#3?-/-;R., .0J<-28$-/-:VA-(, A-3.R-$A-?-(-35S-}R/-8A%-(J/-<, !/-?:-8A%-(J/, 9A-OR/-8A%-/-;R., A-3.R-
/?-PR%-HJ<-$4S-2R-9A-=A%-<J., .J-/-3A-<A$?-3%-%-;R.,
1.2 --Objective verb "to be": ;A/

Subject Complement to be English Notes
%- 8-;?-$9A$- I am a child. appears at the
end of a sentence
%:A-A-1- $&%-2R- My father is clever.
;A/, describes
He is a mathematician. objectively
#<-$J- lA?-<A$-0-$9A$-
A-3.R- ?-o-(J/-0R- Amdo is big in territory.
•5•
Subject Complement to be English Notes
z-?- *A.-0R- Lhasa is an enjoyable
(place).
not required if the
complement is a
%J.-(:R- :)<-3/-/?- We are from Germany. monosyllabic
;A/, adjective
HR.-(:R- 2R.-3A- You are Tibetan
(plural).
#R-(:R- .LA/-)A:A-MA- They are British.
Notes-2
1. ;R. means there is or have, e.g., n%-=-.0J-(-$9A$-;R., There is a book for me / I have a
book. Such expressions indicate ownship or the recipient. o2R.-/-3(R.-gJ/-;R., There are
stupas in Tibet. Its grammatical functions are further considered in this chapter.
2. /…;R. tells something is somewhere, conveying location, contrary to the possessive
notion above.
3. .J is the demonstrative pronoun that in this text.
Exercise 2 Add O-be when necessary.
.0J<-2eR., ;-\A%-\A%-(J/-0R-$9A$-;A/,
1. A-3.R-(R=-#-$9A$______________, 5. ?%?-o?-$A-Z%-3R-<A$-0-iR__________,
2. #J-2-:.A-;$__________________, 6. <A-3,R/-0R-.J-}R/-0R_______________,
3. #3?-$A-2-3R-:.A-;$-3-___________, 7. .2?-$4%-$A-C-,%-}R_____________,
4. A-3J-<A-#-?-o-(J________________, 8. 3<-$J-$9$?-3,R________________,
1.3 --Subjective verb "to be": <J.
Subject Complement Verb "to be" English Notes
?%?-o?-35S- .0=-w/-$A-Z%-3R- Sang rgyas mtsho is Dpal put at the end

ldan's sister. of a sentence
9A-=A%- PR%-HJ<-(J-$9A$- Xining is a big city. describes
.J-<A%-/3-^- SR/-0R- The weather is warm today. subjectively
<J., not required if
#R-(:R- 29R-v-5-0R- They look imposing.
the
z-?- *A.-0R- Lhasa is an enjoyable (place) complement is
.<-lJ-3.R- ,$-<A%- Dar rtse mdo is far away. a monosyllabic
HR.-(:R- %:A-<R$?-0- You are my friends. adjective
2R.-{.- 3<-$J:A-1-{.- Tibetan is her mother tongue.
•6•
Notes-3
1. <J. is a linking verb "to be" that provides conjecture, judgment, or an explanatory tone
based on the speaker’s opinion. It implies I think, in my view, to my understanding, to
my knowledge, and the like, e.g., #R-=?-$4%-3-<J., He is physically clean (judgmental). It
is a subjective verb to be (S-be). In contrast, O-be describes matter-of-factly without a
subjective view, e.g., #R-=?-$4%-3-;A/, He is physically clean (factual).
2. ;A/ and <J. are hereafter generically termed "be verb".
Exercise 3 Write be verbs if necessary in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., ;-\A%-\A%-(J/-$9A$-<J. / ;A/,
1. 9A-=A%-PR%-HJ<-$9A$_______, 35S-}R/-8A%-(J/-$9A$-_______,
2. %-(R?-29%-1R=-3-_______, #<-$J-%:A-3A%-0R-3$R/-0R-5K-<A%-_______,
3. .2?-$4%-(R?-:1$?-$A-1-;:-_______,
4. %-<-A-1-$*A?-!-(/-0_______,
5. $4%-2R-:.A-<A%-_______, <J.-S-.$-(-,%-,%-_______,
6. %J.-(:R-5%-3-=R-2./-&-_______,
7. .-.?-5S.-2./-<-{<-3-28A-2&-_______,
8. 2R.-5%-3-/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-0-_______,
9. /$?-m2?-3R-.J-,$-<A%-_______,
10. 2R.-/3-^-SR_______,
Exercise 4 Make sentences with the given words and, if necessary, a be verb.
.0J<-2eR., Words to use: (J / ?-o / 2R., Sentence: 2R.-?-o-(J,

1. ;$ / z-? _______________________________________
2. MA-P%? / (J / :)<-3/ _______________________________________
3. YR$-($? / A-nJ-<A-#/ /-;R. _______________________________________
4. <J. / /3-^ / SR/-0R / .J-<A% _______________________________________
5. /%-/ / $8%-12-#%-$A / ;R. / .$J-c/______________________________________
•7•
6. >R$-$ / $?3-0R / ;R. / &R$-4K:A-!J%-/_______________________________________
7. o-$< / (J / 5.-0 _______________________________________
8. 3%-0R / o=-#2 / /2-KR$? / ;R. / / _______________________________________
9. A->J-; / o-$< / /-;R. _______________________________________
10. HR.-<-%:A / 2<-/ / ;R. / 1R=-3-35S _______________________________________
1.4 --Existential verb: ;R.

Subject Locality English Notes
2R.- 3,R-|%-/- Tibet is on a plateau. tells locality

with the
%J.-(:R- A-3J-<A-#-/- We are in the USA. postposition
A-1-<-A-3- HA3-/- (My) father and mother are at possessive with

home. Ladon case =
N%-$R- ><-KR$?-/- China is in the east.
A-<-?- ;R., Russia is northeast of

:)<-3/-$A-><-L%-/- Germany.
$/3-35S- 2R.-uR%?-/- Gnam mtsho is in Tibet.
aR2-3-(:R- aR2-#%-/- Students are in the classroom.
:P=-2-9R- 0R-+-=:A-[.-/- The guests are on top of the

Potala Palace.
Notes-4
1. ;R. is an existential verb (E-v), used with Ladon case markers to express possessiveness
or existentiality, e.g., n0R-=A/-/-#%-2-3,R/-0R-;R., There are high buildings in Berlin. oMA-.J<-
[.-0-;R., That person has a brain.
2. There are two forms of E-v: ;R. and :.$. :.$ is rarely used in oral Amdo.
3. Orally, there are two genitive case markers: $A and :C. The former is put after a syllable
that ends with a suffix. In this case, the genitive case marker remains a syllable, e.g., 2R.-$A-
.$R/-0, Tibet's monastery; 5K-<A%-$A-aR2-9, Tshe ring's school. If a noun ends without a
suffix, both markers may be used, e.g., N%-$R:C-.0=-:LR<, N%-$R-$A-.0=-:LR<, China's
economy; %-$A-1-3, %::A-1-3, My parents.
•8•
Exercise 5 Write be verbs, E-v, if needed, postpositions in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-?-o-(J, N%-$R:C-/2-KR$?-;A/, o-$<-$A-L%-KR$?-/-;R.,
1. n-</-?J-<-.LA/-)A-$*A?-!-o=-#2-(J-$*A?_________ o=-#2-$*A?-!-;R-<R2-_________,
2. #3?-;=-P-(J-$9A$_________ ?-(-.J-2R.-$A-zR-KR$?-_________,
3. 1R-V%-0R-+-=-z-?_________ 2R.-$A-A<-=?-MA%-&/-$9A$_________,
4. 2R._________$8A?-!-lJ-<-z-?-PR%-HJ<-(J-2R-$*A?-!_________,
5. #3?-0-:.A-$9$?-(J_________, #R-.<-lJ-3.R_________,
6. A-3J-<A-#-_________o-3%-%-_________, A-3J-<A-#_________o-{.-$=-(J/_________,
7. 2R.-________;=-{.-$?3-________, A-3.R-_______A3-{.-2>., #3?-______#3?-{.-2>.,
8. %-<-%:A-8A-3R (2-3R) .-0-=A-_________, 0-=A-_________MA-5%-3-n-</-?J:A-MA_________,
9. PR%-HJ<-(J/-0R-_________:5S-2-.!:-3R-_________, MA-3%-%-*A.-0R_________,
10. MA-<A$?-$J-VJ=-2-(J_________#R-9R-(5S) PR$-3-:S-3R-_________,
1.5 --Origin: … /?…;A/; …/?…<J.

Subject Complement /? + be English Notes
$;$- 2R.- Yaks are from Tibet. /?
corresponds
#R-3R:A-A- 0-8A- Her father is from Brazil.
to the
1 English
HA-c/-.J- #R-5%- The old dog is from his home.
preposition
/?-;A/, from.
8A-3R-.J-9R- o-/$- Those girls are from China.
/
/-$-.J- %:A-#$-3:A-/%- /?-<J., The pen is from inside my bag.
.%R?-0R-.J- |3-.J:A-:I3- That thing is from next to the box.
<A-3R-.J- I%-%R- The painting is from the wall.
.0J-(-.J- &R$-4K:A-!J%- The book is from the top of the

table.
•9•
1.6 --Locality: /?
Locality Subject Complement English Notes
0R-=A/-/? %J.-(:R- @R%-$A?-*A., We are very happy in Berlin. /? is used to
convey where
aR2-#%-/%- %?- aR2-.R%-;?, I study in the classroom.
or in (more
/?- later).
:)<-3/-/?- .%R?-0R- $R%-.!:, Things are expensive in
Germany.
2R.-/?- /3-^- :H$?, It is cold in Tibet.
o-/$-/?- PR%-HJ<-(J->R?- Z%-@J-;A/, The biggest city in China is

Shanghai.
$/3-3#:- .%R?-2R-.!<-<R- ZA/-;A/, The white thing is a cloud in
/?- the sky.
C-,%-/?- K$?-9R$- .<, Livestock flourish on

grassland.
Notes-5
1. Neither be verb is used when the complement ends with a monosyllabic adjective, e.g., MA-
:.A-;$ This person is beautiful. / *J?-29A-:.A-=R-(J, This man is old. In these two examples,
the complements are monosyllabic adjectives. In the second example, =R modifies the
monosyllabic adjective (J.
2. There are some noun-adjective converters, e.g., (J and &/. (J is attached to a noun to
render a monosyllabic adjective, e.g., #R-$9$?-(J, He is tall. Such compounded adjectives
are treated as monosyllabic. Adjectives ending in &/ are not treated as monosyllabic and
thus a be verb is required, e.g., #R-$9$?-&/-<J., He is tall.
1.7 --Negative adverbs
Negative Examples Translation Notes

adverb
:.A-?-O-$9A$-3-<J., This is not a map. negative form of S-be
:.A-(:R-#J<-3-$4%-3--3--<J., These are not clean One denies subjectively,

dishes. probably based on the
speaker’s view.
3-<J. #R-5%-3-(/-0-3-<J., Not all of them are
doctors.
3<-$J-A-3J-<A-#-/?-3-<J., She is not from

America.
^-2-,$-<A%-3-<J., The moon is not distant.
•10•
Negative Example Translation Notes
adverb
hR-~A-3R-3A/, Stone is not soft. negative form of O-be
expressed as a matter of
3A/ %:A-A-1-24/-0R-3A/, My father is not strict.
fact
#R-aR2-3-;A/, .$J-c/-3A/, He is not a teacher, but
a student.
<R$?-0-(:R-:.A-/-3J., The friends are not

here.
3J. is the negative form
of E-v.
$;$-0R-=A/-/-3J., Yaks are not in Berlin.
3J. locality denied
?-U$-:.A<-A-1-3J., This orphan does not
have a father.
\R$-$-$9$?-3J., Electricity has no
shape.
Intransitive %-.$:--3J., I am not pleased. In such statements, the E-v
verb + 3J. plays the role of be verb.
3<-$J-:I<--3J., She is not changed.
aR2-#%-3A-$4%--, The classroom is not

clean.
3A is put before a
3A + monosyllabic adjective to
monosyllabic
.LA/-)A-:.A-/?-,$-3A-<A%-, England is not far from
here. deny in present tense.
adjective .!R/-3(R$-$9$?-3A-3,RR, Dkon mchog is not tall.
%-3A-:IR, I don't go. 3A denies in present tense

3A + verb in mood.
aR2-3-9R?-3A-*/, The students do not
listen.
PRT
_%?-:#R<-:.A-3A-:#RR<, This car does not work.
#R-3-.$:, He was not delighted. 3 denies verbs in past

tense.
3 aR2-#%-3-$4%-, The classroom was not
clean. 3 denies monosyllabic
;A-$J-.-2R-3-,R/, The letter did not
arrive. adjectives in past tense.
HR?-;A-$J-3-:VA, (You) don't write the

letter!
used to convey negative
imperative
3 8-;?-.J:A-3*3-0?-3-:IR, Don't go together with
that child!
HR.-?J3?-3--#$ (You) don't be sad!
•11•
Exercise 6 Put in pronouns, be verbs, and negative adverbs.
.0J<-2eR., aR2-9-,$-<A%-<J., %-<J3-3-3A-,R/,
1. .J-<A%-$9:-0-?%?-<J., #-l%-$9:-3A$-.3<__________, /%?-!-$9:-*A-3__________,

2. MA-$?3-0R-HA3-/-;R., __________|R-/-__________,
3. 1R=-3-aR2-3-$9A$-;A/, __________.$J-c/-$9A$-__________,
4. aR2-3-9R-VJ=-2-(J, __________?R?-.=-2R__________,
5. %J.-9R-.?-,R$-$-:IR, __________}, __________:KA,
6. t$?-L3?-<-%-.0J-OA.-$A-!J%-/-;R., __________KA-=R$?-/-__________,
Notes-6
1. AJ: This interrogative adverb AJ is most commonly used to ask a yes / no question, e.g.,
HR.- ?%?- o?- 1R=- 3-- AJ- ;A/, Are you Sangs rgyas sgrol ma? To answer, one simply says: ;A/,
%-?%?-o?-1R=-3-;A/, or: 3A/, %-?%?-o?-1R=-3-3A/,
2. There are no Tibetan equivalents to English yes and no. The main verb, or the adjective
complement, is spoken first to give a positive answer, then the whole sentence. In a
negative answer, the verb or the adjective complement is denied first, then a complete
negative statement is put forward, e.g., HR.- =- .0J- (- $9A$- AJ- ;R., Do you have a book? 3J., %-
=- .0J- (- $9A$- 3J., No, I do not have a book. / HR.- .0=- w/-AJ- ;A/, Are you Dpal ldan? 3A/, %-
.0=-w/-3A/, No, I'm not Dpal ldan.
3. Verbs in PRT + $A- ;R. structure conveys a regular action or an ongoing action, e.g., %-
aR2- 9<- :IR- $A- ;R., I go to school, which indicates he goes to school on a regular basis or he
is going to the school.
Exercise 7 Write be verbs, E-v, negative adverbs, and postpositions in the blanks.
%:A-MA%-5K-.0=-_________, %-2R.-_________, %-@R%-0R-,:J-aR2-9-(J/-3R:C-.$J-c/-$9A$_________, aR2-

9-:.A-_________ 2R.-;A$-$A-:6B/-9-$9A$-_________, %-:6B/-9-.J:A-.$J-c/-;A/, 2R.-;A$-$A-:6B/-9-@R%-$A?-
_________(J, :6B/-9________aR2-3-*A->-_________, %?-:)<-3/-$A-{.-_________>J?, %?-
:)<-3/-$A-{.-.R%-$A-;R., :)<-3/-{.-$A-:6B/-9________aR2-3-3%-, %:A-aR2-PR$?-5%-3-=R-(%-(%-

_________, %J.-9R-5%-3-o=-#2-$&A$-/?-______, <J.-S-5%-3-$A?-.LA/-{.-2>.-$A-;R., :)<-3/-$A-{.-
.!:-3R-<J.,
•12•
Text Four: be verb, existential verb, ergative cases, adverbs, and postpositions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-3A:A-:5S-2,
3$R/-0R-35S-.-2R.-/-;R., 2R.-/?-3<-$J-*A.-0R-AJ-<J., 3<-$J-*A.-0R-<-<J., #$-3R-<-<J., .R/-.$-#-;?-Z-$AA .R/-.$-#-
;?-3A-Z-$A (A-$9A$-3A-Z-$A (A-$9A$-Z-$A 3<-$J<-#R3-0-;R., 3<-$J?-<%-$A-:.R.-0-=?-$A-;R., (A-$9A$-3A-Z, .%R?-0R:C-
$R%-3,R/-0R-<J., 3<-$J:A-#%-\-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., ^-2-$&A$-$A-#%-\-|R<-3R-!R%-$&A$-<J., #%-2:A-/%-/-*=-?-$&A$-;R.,
aR2-;R/-3,R/-0R-3-<J., aR2-{2?-$&A$-$A-aR2-;R/-|R<-3R-s-2o-;A/, 2R.-/?-(/-;R/-3A-3,R, 2R.-$A-aR2-$?R-(A-3R-$9A$-
<J., 3<-$J?-29%-%/-:SJ?-3-<J.-:.R., 3<-$J:A-aR2-PR$?-9R-=R-3A-(J, #R-9R-=R-*A->-$A-/%-;A/, 3<-$J-aR2-3-.$:-$9A$-
<J.,
Exercise 8 Answer the teacher's questions using ;A/, 3A/, ;R., and 3J..
.0J<-2eR., Teacher: HR:A-A-3-=R-AJ-(J, You: =R-(J, %:A-A-3-=R-(J, / =R-3A-(J, %:A-A-3-=R-3A-(J, (#R-3R-=R-s-2&-;A/,)
1. HR:A-1-;=-/-MA-3%-%-AJ-;R.,____________, 6. .J-<A%-$A-:SA-5B$-AJ-.!:,______________,
2. HR:A-1-{.-2R.-{.-AJ-;A/,______________, 7. %:A-1-)R=-$?=-2R-AJ-<J., _____________,
3. HR.-A-<-?-/?-AJ-;A/,________________, 8. %-.$J-c/-24/-0R-$9A$-AJ-<J.,___________,
4. HR.-.LA/-)A-/?-AJ-;A/,_______________, 9. aR2-#%-:.A-$4%-3-AJ-;A/, ____________,
5. 2R.-{.-.!:-3R-AJ-<J.,_______________, 10. .-.?-5S.-2o.-<-5=-2-AJ-<J.,_________,
Exercise 9 Ask a student questions with the given words.
.0J<-2eR., $9$? / *J?-0-:.A / 3,R, Question:*J?-0-:.A-$9$?-AJ-3,R,

Answer: $9$?-3,R, *J?-0-.J-$9$?-3,R,
1. %J.-(-2R / ;R. / |R-/ / aR2-#% Q: ___________________________________

A:____________________________________
2. /%-/ / aR2-3 / ;R. / 3%-% Q: ___________________________________

A:____________________________________
3. HR:A-HA3-/? / ,$-<A% / aR2-9< Q: ___________________________________

A:____________________________________
•13•
4. 9-#% / /%-/ / aR2-9:A / ;R. Q: _________________________________________
A:__________________________________________
5. $R% / .!:-3R / .0J-( / aR2-9-/? Q: _________________________________________

A:__________________ ________________________
6. I%-%R-/ / ;R. / $*A? / |R-?3 Q: _________________________________________

A:__________________________________________
7. aR2-9 / #-3 / :.A:A / Z Q: _________________________________________

A:__________________________________________
8. :6B/-9 / :.A-/ / 3% / aR2-3 Q: _________________________________________

A:__________________________________________
9. aR2-5/ / .!:-3R / .J-<A% Q: _________________________________________

A:__________________________________________
10. HR:A-/-^ / ;R. / :.A-/ Q: _________________________________________

A:__________________________________________
Exercise 10 Make and answer questions about Mgon po mtsho using the given words
based on the text above.
.0J<-2eR., :VR$-0 / K$-0R Question: 2R.-/?-:VR$-0-K$-0R-AJ-;A/, Answer: 2R.-/?-:VR$-0-5%-3-K$-0R-3A/,

Use these words Question Answer
1. *A. / 2R.-/? / 3$R/-0R-35S ____________________ _________________
2. $R%-.!:-3R / *R / .%R?-0R ____________________ _________________
3. *=-#% / $&A$ / #%-2:A / /%-/ ____________________ _________________
4. aR2-9 / aR2-;R/-.!:-3R / <J. ____________________ _________________
5. aR2-;R/ / |R<-3R-s-2o / aR2-{2?-$&A$ ____________________ _________________
6. :IR-|R / (/-;R/ / 3A-<%-$A / 2R.-/? ____________________ _________________
7. 3$R/-0R-35S / =R-(% ____________________ _________________
8. =R-(J / 5%-3 / aR2-PR$? ____________________ _________________
9. .$J-c/ / 29% / 2R.-/? ____________________ _________________
10. 29%-%/ / :SJ?-3 / aR2-$?R ____________________ _________________
•14•
Exercise 11 Write be verb and, if needed, E-v in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., %J.-5%-/-*J?-0-$?3-;R., $?3-0R-$A-/%-$A-$&A$-%-;A/,
1. %-.J%-3-$?<-:$R.-0-$9A$-___, %-N%-$R-/?-____,
2. PR%-HJ<-:.A-/-%-<-%:A-c/-3R-___, %J.-$*A?-!-3,/,
3. %:A-8A-=A-=R-.$-___, %:A-8A-3R-=R-S$-_____,
4. HR:A-=?-!-$/-_____, .J-%:A-=?-!-____,
5. HR.-=R-.-_____, %?-2v?-/-HR.-=R-2&R-2o.-____,
6. 3R-<%-o-_____, <J.-S-2R.-;=-/_____,
Text Five: Ladon cases, postpositions, interrogative adverbs, and regular action
3J-:#R<-:.A-$%-/-;R., A-3.R-/-;R., 3J-:#R<-:.A-$%-/?-;R%-, 0J-&A/-/?-AJ-;R%-, :R-/-o-$<-/?-AJ-;R%-, 3J-:#R<-:.A-

0J-&A/-/?-;R%-, 3J-:#R<-:.A-$%-%-:IR, OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-#3?-3-:IR, .-=R-/?-29%-, 2R.-/-3J-:#R<-;R., *A/-I%?-
%-MA-3%-%-><-KR$?, zR-KR$?, /2-KR$?, L%-KR$?-$-:IR-$A-;R.,
A. Answer based on the text above.
3JJ-:#RR<-.J-$%-/?--;R%-, 3JJ-:#RR<-.J-$%-/--;R., 3JJ-:#RR<-.J-$%-%--:IR,

________o-$<______, ________2R.______, ________#3?______,
B. Read the paragraphs below and then read the numbered statements and determine if they are
correct.
1 :.A-9A-=A%-$A-A-&J-?%?-o?-1R=-3-<J., 3<-$J?-A-3.R-/-L-2-=?-$A-;R., .-;=-{R<-<-:IR-$A-;R., .J-<A%-3<-$J-

$4%-%-:IR-$A-;R., /%?-!-o-$<-<-:IR, .J:A-$8$-/?-/J-0-=J<-:IR, A-&J-?%?-o?-1R=-3-$?<-:$R.-0-$9A$-;A/,
1. A-&J-?%?-o?-1R=-3-$4%-$A-<J., _________ 3. 3<-$J-0J-&A/-/?-;R%-, ____________
2. 3<-$J-o-$<-<-:IR-$A-;R., ______________ 4. 3<-$J-9A-=A%-/?-<J., ____________
•15•
2 .!R/-3(R$-35S-}R/-0R-/?-<J., #R-$*A.-$A-;R., $;%-*A.-<-2/-.J-$*A?-$*A.-$A-3J., #R-$*A?-!->R$-1J-lJ-$A-;R.,
.!R/-3(R$-<-$;%-*A.-<-2/-.J-$?3-0R-A-3.R<-:IR-$A-;R., #R-$?3-0R-3J-:#R<-$A-!J%-/-;R., #R-(-2R?-2<-$?J%-$+R%-$A-
;R., <J.-S-2/-.J-*A.-$A-3J., #<-$J?-1-;:-z-?-S/-$A-;R.,
1. .!R/-3(R$-0J-&A/-/-:IR, ________ 2. .!R/-3(R$-$A-<R$?-0-3J-:#R<-$A-!J%-/-3J.,______
3. 2/-.J-z-?-/?-<J., __________ 4. $;%-*A.-3J-:#R<-$A-,R$-/-$*A.-$A-3J., _______
3 :.A-/-(R?-3R-35S-<-{=-29%-$*A?-!-;R., #R-$*A?-!-OA/-:.-/-:.$-$A-;R., (R?-3R-35S-#3?-/?-<J., {=-

29%-;/-//-8A%-(J/-/?-<J., #R-$*A?-!-29:-^-;A/, OA/-+:-/-o-{.-.R%-$A-;R., #R-$*A?-!?-o-{.-*A.-0R-$9A$-2>.-
$A-;R.,
1. (R?-3R-35S-z-?-/-:.$-$A-;R., ______ 2. {=-29%-$A?-o-{.-2>.-$A-;R., _______
3. {=-29%-<-#3?-/?-<J., _________ 4. #R-$*A?-!-HA3-5%-$&A$-/?-3-<J., ______
Notes-7
1. Statements in simple present tense may be made in two ways: a) simply with verbs in
PRT and b) with a verb in PRT + $A-;R., e.g., a) %-aR2-9<-:IR, I go to school. b) %-aR2-9<-:IR-
$A-;R., I go to school (regular action). The first example more likely describes what
someone does at a certain time while the second describes what someone does on a
regular basis.
2. Ergative case: An ergative case marker is used to mark an agent when the main verb is
active and transitive, e.g., %??-;A-$J-$9A$-:VA, I write a letter. Ergative case markers $A? and
? are used in oral Amdo:? is attached to a syllable without a suffix. $A? does not follow
this rule, e.g.,.!R/-3(R$-$$A?-_%?-:#R<-$9A$-{R<, Dkon mchog drives a car. / A-3?? or A-3-
$A?-8-;?-~R.-$A-;R., Mother feeds the child.
3. Ergative case makers are not used if the main verb is spontaneous, passive, or
#<-$J-z-?<-:IR-$A-;R., He goes to Lhasa. / _%-$;$-$A-;R.,
intransitive, e.g., The wind is
blowing. / 3-EA-:#R<-=R-:#R<, The prayer wheel turns. / %-/-$A I am sick.
Exercise 12 Answer the questions based on the text above. Use ergative case markers
if needed.
.0J<-2eR., Question: 2R.-/?-:VR$-0-$A?-8A%-=?-AJ-=?, Answer: 2R.-/?-:VR$-0-$A?-8A%-=?-3A-=?,
1….35S-}R/-0R-/?-?-;R%-, _________________ 2….?-$*A.-$A-;R., _________________
3….?-$*A?-OA/-+:-/-:.$-$A-;R.,____________ 4….??-o-{.-2>.->J?, _________________
•16•
5….A-3.R<-?-:IR-$A-;R.,_________________ 6…. $;%-*A.-?-<->R$-1J-lJ-$A-;R.,____________
7….??-o-;A$-.R%-$A-;R., ________________
1.8 -- $%-headed question words

Subject $% Verb English equivalent Notes
1/-5S$?- $%-/- ;R., where with

postposition
HR.-9R- $%-/?- ;R%-, where from with
postposition
3R-9R- $%-%- :IR, where to with dative
Ladon case
%:A-=J$?-*J?- $%- <J., which original form
o=-#2-K$-0R- $%-$%- ;A/, which (plural) plural
8A-=A-:.A- $%-$A- <J. from where; of which with genitive

case
<A-3R-:.A- $%->J.- :VA-.$R?, in which way / how with pronoun-
adverb
converter
--Other question words

Subject Question Verb English equivalent Notes
HR?- (A- :VA-$A-;R., what category
HR?- (A-(A- 9-$A-;R., what category

(plural)
MA-.J- (A-3R-$9A$- <J., how / what kind of what kind of
person
:)<-3/-/-MA- (A-3R-$9A$- ;R., how many / much quantity
aR2-9-/?-aR2-3-9R?- (A-$9A$- 9, what classification
HR.- (A-$9A$-$- 3A-:IR, why / for what reason
HR?- (A-$9A$->J. / (A->J.- L-2-=?-$A-;R., how / in which way way of doing
HR:A-A-1- /3- ;R%-$A-;R., when temporal
A%-!A-:.A- .- <J., how many / much quantity
#R-3R- .-2- ;A/ which number ordinal

number
3<-$J:A-c.-0R- ?- ;A/, who who (singular)
HR:A-aR2-PR$?- ?-?- ;A/, who who (plural)
•17•
Notes-8
1. $%-/? and $%-/ both mean where but function differently in terms of grammar. These
differences are clarified in the supplementary grammar in Chapter Three, in connection
with / and /?.
2. (A-3R-$9A$ has three different meanings: how much, how, and what kind of, e.g., HR.-.?-5S.-
(A-3R-$9A$-.$R?, How much time do you need? / .J-<A%-$A-aR2-OA.-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., How is the
class today? / 8A-3R-.J-MA-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/, What kind of person is that girl?
Exercise 13 Make a question with either an interrogative adverb or a question word

that the corresponding statement answers.
.0J<-2eR., Question: HR:A-MA%-(A-$9A$-;A/, Answer: %:A-MA%-?%?-o?-;A/,
1. SA-2, 3-13-$;-35S___________________, =/, 3-13-$;-35S-.2?-$4%-/-;R.,

2. SA-2, HR:A-*J?-{<__________________;A/, =/, *J?-{<-^-2-2./-0:A-5K?-0-*J<-28A-;A/,
3. SA-2, ?%?-o?-35S:C-.$J-c/-___________<J., =/, 3<-$J:A-.$J-c/-(R?-:1$?-<J.,
4. SA-2, 0.-3-3J-+R$__________________;A/, =/, 0.-3-3J-+R$-.3<-<R-$9A$-<J.,
5. SA-2, HR.-__________________:52-$A-;R., =/, .?-5S.-:KA-$A-;R., %-<J3-3-:IR-.$R?,
6. SA-2, HR:A-1-3-____________________;A/, =/, 2.J-3R-<J., HR.-2.J-3R-AJ-;A/,
7. SA-2, *J?-0-.J____________________;R., =/, #<-$J-#%-2-.J:A-28A-,R$-/-;R.,
8. SA-2, =R-?<-2R.-/?-________________<J., =/, .-=R-^-2-$*A?-2:A-/%-<J.,
9. SA-2, HR.-:)<-3/-/-_______________;R%-, =/, %?-:)<-3/-$A-{.-.R%-:.R.,
10. SA-2, .J-<A%-/3-^-___________________, =/, .J-<A%-/3-^-5-k$?-(J,
11. SA-2, HR:A-1-c/-$A?-________________=?, =/, %:A-A-1?-9-3-$;R-$A-;R.,
12. SA-2, aR2-3-.J-(:R-_________________<J., =/, #R-(:R-A-<-?-/?-<J.,
13. SA-2, HR.-;=-{R<-<-________________:IR, =/, %-_%?-:#R<-<-:.$-$A-;R.,
14. SA-2, MA-.J-9R-_____________________<J., =/, #R-(:R-?%?-o?, 5K-2g/, .!R/-3(R$-<J.,
•18•
Exercise 14 Ask questions with the words in parentheses and write the answers.
.0J<-2eR., 0J-&A/-N%-$R:C-L%-KR$?-/-;R., (d-2) Question: d-2-$%-/-;R., Answer: d-2-A-3.R-/-;R.,
1. ?J%-$J-#-0<-3%:-<A?-/-;R., ($8A?-!-lJ)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,
2. .2?-$4%-$A-PR%-HJ<-$4S-2R-z-?-;A/,(A-3.R-$A-PR%-HJ<-$4S-2R)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

3. #3?-(R=-#-$9A$-<J., (35S-}R/)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

4. .LA/-)A:A-o=-.<-O-O-<J., (:)<-3/-$A-o=-.<)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

5. 1R=-3-35S-=R-.$-<J., (?%?-o?-1R=-3)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

6. .R-5B$?-2R.-/-v.-3R-2-3%-, (0R-=A/)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

7. )R-3R-]-<A-3,R-5.-3?-2o.-!R%-<J., ($%?-<A/-0R-(J)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

8. :.A-/?-.?-5S.-.$-2-<J., (.J-/?-.?-5S.)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,

9. {=-29%-$A?-.0J-(-(J-$9A$-[R$-$A-;R., (.R/-:P2-o=)
SA-2, __________________________, =/,___________________________,

10. :.A-/?-0R-=A/-/-?-,$-<A%-, (:.A-/?-.LA/-)A<)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/,___________________________,
•19•
Exercise 15 Complete the dialogue.
z--3R-1R=-3 A-<R, <A$-:6B/, HR:A-2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-___________<J.,

<AA$-:6B/ @R%-$A?-Z-$A %-;A.-5B3-$A
z--3R-1R=-3 %-2R.-;A$-$A-:6B/-9-$?3-0___________, HR.-:6B/-9-.-2-;A/,
<AA$-:6B/ %-:6B/-9-s-2-;A/,
z--3R-1R=-3 %:A-2R.-;A$-$A-.$J-c/-.!R/-3(R$-*2?-___________, ___________.$J-c/-.$:-$9A$-
<J., HR:A-2R.-;A$-$A-.$J-c/___________;A/,
<AA$-:6B/ (R?-3R-35S-%:A-2R.-;A$-$A-.$J-c/-___________, ___________<-.$J-c/-.$:-$9A$-<J.,
z--3R-1R=-3 ___________=R-(J-$9A$-___________<J.,
<AA$-:6B/ 3-<J., 3<-$J-=R-___________(J, 3<-$J-=R-(%-$9A$-___________, 3<-$J-1=-(J<-=R-?3-

&-_______, .!R/-3(R$-*2?-=R-___________<J.,
z--3R-1R=-3 #<-$J-=R-1=-(J<-S$-&-___________,
<AA$-:6B/ #<-$J-$9$?-___________3,R,
z--3R-1R=-3 #<-$J-$9$?-3?-$&A$-P%?-(%-2o.-;A/,
<AA$-:6B/ #<-$J-2R.-$9A$___________<J.,
z--3R-1R=-3 <J., #<-$J-A-3.R-___________<J.,
<AA$-:6B/ ___________________________________AJ _________,
z--3R-1R=-3 %:A-:6B/-9-@R%-$A?-(J, aR2-3-9R-o=-#2-?R-?R-________;A/, aR2-3-$?3-o-/$-

__________<J., aR2-3-2./-;R-<R2-__________, A-nJ-<A-#-$A-aR2-3-
2./___________, aR2-3-$&A$-A-3J-<A-#:A___________, A->J-;-$A-aR2-3-2#R3?-0?-

S$__________, HR:A-:6B/-9-_______(J,
<AA$-:6B/ 3A-(J, %:A-:6B/-9-___________, %:A-:6B/-9-/-aR2-3-*A->-___________,
z--3R-1R=-3 aR2-3-9R-o=-#2-___________/?-<J.,
<AA$-:6B/ aR2-3-5%-3-o=-#2-$&A$-___________;A/, %J.-(:R-5%-3-:)<-3/-/?-;A/,
z--3R-1R=-3 .J-3-<J., (R?-3R-35S-2R.-/?-<J., 3<-$J-N%-$R-/?-<J., 3<-$J-:)<-3/-/?-___________,
<AA$-:6B/ (R?-3R-35S-2R.-/?-<J., <J.-S-3<-$J-.-:)<-3/-$A-,A-.3%?-<J., *J?-0-:.A-_______<J., HR:A-
<R$?-0-____;A/,
z--3R-1R=-3 <R$?-0-3A/, #<-$J-%:A-MA%-2R-;A/,
•20•
Exercise 16 Use numbers to put the dialogue in the correct order.
Ŀ HR:A-MA%-%-(A-$9A$-9J<, Ŀ %-35S-}R/-0R-/?-;A/,
Ŀ %-0<-=J/-3#/-$9A$-;A/, Ŀ 3A/, A-3.R-/?,
Ŀ HR:A-;:-$%-/?-;A/, Ŀ =R-8J-2./-;A/,
Ŀ AR, A-&J-(R?-3R-35S, HR.-=R-.-;A/, Ŀ (R?-3R-35S,
Ŀ #3?-$A-AJ-;A/, Ŀ HR:A-L-2-(A-$9A$-;A/,
Exercise 17 Make sentences using the given words as subject pronouns and object
pronouns.
.0J<-2eR., As subject pronoun: 3<-$J-%:A-c/-3R-;A/, As object pronoun: %-3<-$J<-:.%-(J,

Pronouns As subject pronoun As object pronoun
#R-3R 1. __________________________ 1. __________________________
3<-$J 2. _________________________ 2. __________________________
#R-3R-9R 3. _________________________ 3. ___________________________
3R-$*A?-! 4. _________________________ 4. __________________________
3R-9R 5. _________________________ 5. __________________________

% 6. _________________________ 6. __________________________
%J.-$*A? 7. _________________________ 7. __________________________
%J.-(:R 8. _________________________ 8. __________________________
:R-9R 9. _________________________ 9. __________________________
%-(:R 10. ________________________ 10. _________________________
#<-$J / #R 11. ________________________ 11. __________________________
#R-$*A?-! 12. ________________________ 12. _________________________
#R-(:R 13. ________________________ 13. _________________________
#R-9R 14. ________________________ 14. _________________________
•21•
Text Six: Postpositions, Ladon case markers, and question words
A. 3J-:#R<-!J%-$A-#-2h-.%-0R,
(RR?-1R/ HR.-$%--%-:IR,
.L%?--&/ 9A-OR/-/-:IR, HR.-$%--%-:IR,
(RR?-1R/ 0J-&A/-/-:IR, HR.-$*A?-!-9A-=A%-/?--AJ-;R%-,
.L%?--&/ 3A/, %J.-$*A?-!-IR-5%-/?--;R%-,
^--2 %-IR-5%-$A-#J-2-$9A$-/?--;R%-,
(RR?-1R/ (A-9J<, HR.-$%--/?-;R%-9J<,
^--2 IR-5%-$A-#J-2-$9A$-/?, %?-2R.-{.-(J-$9A$-2>.-3A->J?,
(RR?-1R/ AR, HR.-$*A?-!?-(A-$9A$-=?-$A-;R.,
^--2 %J.-$*A?-!-;=-{R<-<-:IR-$A-;R.,
Notes-9
1. /? vs.AJ: The former is put at the end of a sentence as an interrogative adverb to raise a
question, positive or negative, e.g., #R-$?<-:$R.-0-$9A$-3A/-/?, Isn't he a journalist? 3A/, #R-
$?<-:$R.-0-$9A$-3A/, No. He is not a journalist. The latter, however, is never used to raise
negative questions, e.g., HR.-aR2-3-AJ-3A/,
2. Additional interrogative adverbs are given in the supplementary grammar in Chapter
Three.
Exercise 18 Choose a word from each group and make a question or a statement.
.0J<-2eR., Question: #<-$J?-.LA/-{.-AJ->J?, Statement: #<-$J?-.LA/-{.-3A->J?,

Pronouns to use as subjects Words to use as complements Main verbs
HR., %-, HR.-(:R, 3<-$J 3R-(:R, 35S-}R/, !/-?:, 2R.-uR%?, 9A-OR/, ?, 9J<, :IR, 2>., 2#.-;R.,
5K-<A%-, %J.-(:R, %J.-$*A?-0R, .0=-w/, .LA/-{., (A-$9A$ $%-/, ;R%-, >J?, aR2-.R%-;?, lJ,
#<-$J #R-$?3-0R, $%-/?, ;R., <J.,
•22•
1. _____________________________ 6. _____________________________
2. _____________________________ 7. _____________________________
3. _____________________________ 8. _____________________________
4. _____________________________ 9. _____________________________
5. _____________________________ 10. _____________________________
Postposition, Ladon case marker, and question word
B.3J-:#R<-!J%-$A-#-2h-$*A?-0,
(R?-1RR/ HR:A-MA%-(A-$9AA$-;A/,
^--2 %:A-MA%-^-2-;A/,
.L%?--&/ %:A-MA%-%-.L%?-&/-9J<, HR:A-MA%-%-,
(RR?-1R/ (R?-1R/-9J<, :.A-%:A-MA%-L%-;A/, HR.-$*A?-!-%:A-1-;:-22-;R%-/-OA$?-OA$?-3J.,
.L%?--&/ 2!:-SA/-(J, .J-29%-$A ;%-$&A$-2>.-/-HR.-<-IR-5%-%-;R%-/-,%,
(RR?-1R/ OA$?-OA$?-3J., HR.-9A-=A%-$A-3A/-/?,
.L%?--&/ 3A/, %-IR-5%-/?-;A/, IR-5%-$A-#J-2-8R=-3-/?-;A/,
(RR?-1R/ #J-2-8R=-3-9J<-/,
.L%?--&/ =%-3.R-$A-#J-2-.J,
(RR?-1R/ 29%-$A :R-/-HR:A-#-0<-A%-P%?-.-;A/,
.L%?--&/ %J.-$*A?-$A-#-0<-A%-P%?______________________,
(RR?-1R/ _____________________, 5%-3-$?=-2R-<J., .-;=-{R<-*A.-0R-$9A$-LR?,
.L%?--&/ 2!:-SA/-(J, $8$-/?-,$
•23•
C. Numbers from one to one hundred
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
$&A$ $*A? $?3 28A Ǭ S$ 2./ 2o. .$ 2&
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2&-$&A$ 2&-$*A? 2&-$?3 2&-28A 2&R-s 2&-S$ 2&-2./ 2&R-2o. 2&-.$ *A->
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
*J<-$&A$ *J<-$*A? *J<-$?3 *J<-28A *J<-s *J<-S$ *J<-2./ *J<-2o. *J<-.$ ?3-&
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
?R-$&A$ ?R-$*A? ?R-$?3 ?R-28A ?R-s ?R-S$ ?R-2./ ?R-2o. ?R-.$ 28A-2&
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
8J-$&A$ 8J-$*A? 8J-$?3 8J-28A 8J-s 8J-S$ 8J-2./ 8J-2o. 8J-.$ s-2&
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
%-$&A$ %-$*A? %-$?3 %-28A %-s %-S$ %-2./ %-2o. %-.$ S$-&
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
<J-$&A$ <J-$*A? <J-$?3 <J-28A <J-s <J-S$ <J-2./ <J-2o. <J-.$ 2./-&
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
.R/-$&A$ .R/-$*A? .R/-$?3 .R/-28A .R/-s .R/-S$ .R/-2./ .R/-2o. .R/-.$ 2o.-&
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
I-$&A$ I-$*A? I-$?3 I-28A I-s I-S$ I-2./ I-2o. I-.$ .$-2&
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
$R-$&A$ $R-$*A? $R-$?3 $R-28A $R-s $R-S$ $R-2./ $R-2o. $R-.$ 2o
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
•24•
Notes-10
1. Numbers above twenty: Each multiple of ten has a different conjunctive element(s) as
shown:
Multiple Conjunctive Example(s) Multiple Conjunctive Example(s)

of ten element(s) of ten element(s)
*A->, l, / *J<, l-$?3, / *J<-$?3, S$-&, <J, <J-S$ <J-.$,
?3-&, ?R, ?R-s, ?R-2o., 2./-&, .R/, .R/-2./,

28A-2&, 8J, 8J-.$, 8J-$?3, 2o.-&, I, I-2o., I-.$,
s-2&, %-, %-$*A?, %-s, .$-2&, $R $R-.$, $R-$*A?,
2. Numbers are often abbreviated, e.g., ?R-.$- = ?3-&-?R-.$; *J<-$?3 = *A->-l-$?3; .R/-$?3 =
2./-&-.R/-$?3
3. For each multiple of ten, the particle ,3-0 may or may not be added, e.g., ?3-&-,3-0 = ?3-
&; S$-& = S$-&-,3-0
4. There are three terms for zero: [.-$R<; $R<-,A$; ,A$-=J
Exercise 19 Mark what your teacher reads.
.$, 2&, S$ <J-S$ .R/-$?3, ?R-28A, 28A, 2&-.$, *A->, *J<-$*A?, 2&-2./, 9 13 3 6 4 19 7 2
20 17 5 1 12 18 8
2&-$*A?, I-2o., 2&-$?3, $?3, 2./, $*A?, s, $&A$ 2&R-2o., 2o., 73 34 99 56 22 88
23 24
$R-.$, %-S$ l-$&A$ *J<-28A,
Exercise 20 Write the correct conjunctive elements of ten.
*A->- $*A?, ?3-&- 28A,

s-2&- 2./, S$-&- 2o.,
28A-2&- 2o., 2./-&- .$,
S$-&- S$ 2o.-&- 2o.,
.$-2&- .$, *A->- 2./,
•25•
.0=--(J/ 2J,
35SS-3R A-<R, .0=-(J/, %-35S-3R-;A/,
.0=--(J/ A-<R, 35S-3R, HR.-2.J-3R-AJ-;A/,
35SS-3R %-2.J-3R-;A/, .-%-HA3-/-3J., %?-?-,$-<A%-$9A$-/-#-0<-$+R%-$A-;R.,
.0=--(J/ HR?-______________________,
35SS-3R 9A-=A%-/, %?-:.A-/-$%-$?J%-$+R%-$A-;R.,
.0=--(J/ ______________________,
35SS-3R @R%-$A?-*A.-0R-<J., .-%-{-:23-.$R/-0<-:IR-$A-;R.,

.0=--(J/ ______________________,
35SS-3R {-:23-.$R/-0-@R%-$A?-(J, .J-/-9-2-3%-%-;R., .J%-?%-.J-/-;=-{R<-2-<-3%-%-;R.,

.0=--(J/ ______________________,
35SS-3R /3-^-<-;$-$A 353?-353?-3-4B?-4B$-$J-$9A$-k$?-$A

.0=--(J/ HR.-#J<-<R-___________,
35SS-3R 3A/, %:A-8A-3R-<-%:A-3*3-0?-;R.,
.0=--(J/ ______________________,
35SS-3R 3<-$J-=R-2&-$?3-;A/, 3<-$J-8J-$A?-*A.-$A-;R.,

.0=--(J/ ______________________,
35SS-3R .-:.A-/?-.?-5S.-28A-<-{<-3-s-2&-<J., *A-3-.-2R-;R.-$A HR?-=$-/-_____________=?-$A-;R.,

.0=--(J/ %?-/2-5-{R=-$A-;R., .-:.A-/-?-<2-$A-;R., ____________________,
35SS-3R A-3J-<A-#-^-2-$&A$-$A-/%-KA<-<-;R%-,
.0=--(J/ HR.-$*A?-!-8J-,$-$A?-*A.-0R-<J.,
•26•
2h-3R.-#-$?2, Supplementary Grammar
LJJ.-1 There are five ergative-cum-instrumental case markers in written Tibetan, as shown
below.
LJJ.-1 Ergative-cum-instrumental case markers

Five $A? GA? IA? ? ;A?
markers
Preceding $-%- .-2-? /-3-<-= no suffix or vowel
suffix
.P-.3$-$A?-3J- 2.J-*A.-GA?-=?- 3A-%/-IA?-%/- A-3?-)-{R=, A-3-;A?-)-
3.:-o$ L-:VA, 2&:, {R=,
Example
.2?-$4%-$A?-:R?- (R?-:1$?-GA?- .0=-:LR<-IA?-\- A-&J?-%-=- A-&J-;A?-%-=-
=%?-LJ., _%?-:#R<-*R, =J/, <R$?-LJ., <R$?-LJ.,
Ergative case Ergative case markers ? and $A? are also employed as instrumental
vs. instrumental case case markers. Instrumental case marker distribution is the same as
that of ergative case markers.
As ergative case marker As instrumental case marker

5K-<A%-$A?-=?-L-:VA,
Tshe ring does his
homework.
5K-<A%-$A?-=?-L-t$?-/$-$A?-:VA,
Tshe ring writes
his homework
with a pen.
8A%-2??-=R-+R$-:.J2?, The farmers sow The farmers sow
8A%-2?-=R-+R$-=$-0??-:.J2?,
crops. crops by hand.
aR2-3-$A?-.0J-(-:.R/, The students read
books.
aR2-3-$A?-.0J-(-?J3?-$A?-:.R/,
The students
silently read
books.
%??-:P=-2-*J=, I see off the guests. %?-:P=-2-_%?-:#R<-$A?-*J=,
I take the guests
with a car.
A-3??-#-+-;?, (My) mother offers
advice.
A-3?-?J3?--$AA?-#-+-;?,
(My) mother
advises with
sincerity.
)-3-$A?-9-3-{R=, The cook cooks food. )-3-$A?-9-3-3J-$A?-{R=,
The cook cooks
food with fire.
.$J-c/--$AA?-(A->J.- How does the teacher
talk?
.$J-c/-$A?-8J-$A?-2>.,
The teacher talks
with sincerity.
2>.,
•27•
Genitive case markers in In written Tibetan, there are five genitive case markers, rather than
written Tibetan the two in oral Amdo.
:VJJ=-1 Genitive case markers

Five case
markers
$A GAA IAA :AA ;AA
Preceding $-%- .-2-? /-3-<-= :-.%-3,:-3J.
syllable
aR2-#%-$A-|R, 2R.-GA-:5S-2, >J=-IA-3(R.-gJ/, A-3:A-2-3R, %-;A-?J3?,
Example .$-;A$-$A-.0J-(, $%?-GA-lJ, 2?3-0:A-:I<-wR$ P2-3,:A-.$R/-0, A-3-;A-$R/-0,
3-29%-$A-2-3R, ȢŌ-GA-<A-2R, aR2-;R/-IA-:PR-|R, %:A-aR2-9, 2-3R:A-*J?-=?,
Ladon case refers to seven Ladon case variants that have overarching
grammatical functions, such as postposition, adjective-adverb converter, and
=-.R/ dative case. They also have other subtle features. The seven variants are used
(Ladon case) dependent on the final syllable they follow - the final sound of the last syllable.
The table below deals with the grammatical intricacies of Ladon case and with
the fixed distribution of the variants. Since the post-suffix ? is not vocalized, the
distribution of the variants corresponds to the suffix.
=--.R/: dative case markers

Variants Preceding Example English Notes
sound
$ $ .$R%-5S$?-$-3-:IR, Don't go to the party! The variant corresponds
to the suffix instead of
the post-suffix.
% % MA-29%-%-%R-?R-2!R., Good people are
praised.
People are recipients of
the praise.
/ / %-35S-}R/-/-:IR, I go to Mtsho sngon. The variant indicates
the destination.
2 2 #J2?-2-5S/-$+R%-, The paint is smeared
on the cover.
The variant points out
where.
3 3 t$?-#J3-3-z3-0-2o2, A patch is made to the The variant indicates on
shovel. what.
: vowel 35S-3R:-.R/-:.A-3-2>., Don't tell this to Mtsho The variant indicates to
mo! whom.
< ./< t$?-3#<-<-$/R.-3- Don't damage the wall! The variant tells to what
the damage should not
;?, be done.
= universal aR2-9-=-aR2-3-:IR, The students go to

school.
The variant indicates
the destination.
•28•
=-.R/ Seven =-.R/ variants are distributed in written Tibetan as shown in the table contents.
Seven =-.R/ variants: ?-<-<-=-.-+-/,

Preceding suffix ? $ 2 . % . / 3 < = No suffix or vowel
Suffix-dependent ? or + . < or <
Freely-distributed / and =
U., (Tibetan rhymes) ?-?-$-2-.-S$-+, %-.-/-3-<-=-., :-.-3,:-3J.-<-.%-<, /-=-$*A?-/A-<%-.2%-&/,
=-.R/: possessive case markers

sound
$ $ .!R/-3(R$-$-8-;?-3J., Dkon mchog has no
child.
nLadon variants
are used with E-v to
% % 5K-<A%-%-;R/-+/-;R., Tshe ring has
knowledge. express
/ / 5K-2g/-/-o-;R., Tshe brtan has money. possessiveness.
2 2 o=-#2-2-!R2?-:LR<-w/, The country has power.

/
o is a Ladon
variant here instead
3 3 /3-3-:IR-o-3J., The night does not pass
by. of a postposition.
: vowel #<-$J:A-{.-(::-*/-o-3J., His speech is too
pointless to listen to.
< vowel / < o-35S:-c/-3R-3J., Rgy mtsho does not
have a wife.
= universal aR2-9-=-aR2-3-3J., The school has no
students.
=--.R/: postposition for

sound
$ $ .$R%-5S$?-$-%?-8=-:.J2?-o$ I donate money for the nLadon
party. variants
% % 8A-=A-:.A?-HA3-5%-%-L-2-=?, This boy works for his express for
family. what.
/ / #<-$J?-3PR/-/-9-3-=?, He cooked for the guests.
oLadon
variants
2 2 #J2?-2->A%-*R, The timber is bought for
the cover. signify
purpose and
3 3 5K-i3-3-%?-:.%-3A-o$ I am not concerned about reason.
Tshe rnam.
: vowel MA-9R:-#-9?-*R, The foods are bought for
the people.
< ./< t$?-3#<-<-?-:S., Soil is transported for the
enclosing wall.
= universal aR2-9-=-.%=-<R$?-;?, Financial aid is given for
the school.
•29•
=-.R/: postposition for
sound
$ $ .$R%-5S$?-$-5S$?-:.-:5S$?, A meeting is held as a Ladon
party. variants
express the
% % ,2-5%-%-#%-(%-$9A$-=?, A small room is built as notion
the kitchen. instead of or
/ / 3PR/-/-%-;R%-, I come as a guest. in
replacement
2 2 t$?-#J2?-2->A%-#J2?-*R, A wooden cover is bought
instead of a metal one.
of.
3 3 5K-i3-3-%?-52-;?, I will represent Tshe
rnam.
: vowel =$->::-<->-:5S%-, Goat meat is sold as
mutton.
< ./< t$?-3#<-<-?2-2o2, A fence is made instead of
an enclosing wall.
= universal #%-2-=-4-29R, A tent is made instead of
a house.
•30•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-.%--0R,
:S-0<-!J%-$A-#-2h,
2.J-3R comfortable; healthy; goodbye %-2.J-3R-;A/,

MA% name; reputation #R:C-MA%-.0=-w/-;A/,
9J< to call; to say 3<-$J?-:IR-9J<,
N%-$R China N%-$R-A->J-;-/-;R.,
:)<-3/ Germany :)/-3/-;R-<R2-/?-o=-#2-(J-$9A$-;A/,
;R% to come #<-$J-.J-<A%-3A-;R%-,
$%-/? from where; where .$J-c/-:.A-$%-/?-;R%-,
,$?-eJ-(J Thank you! HR.-,$?-eJ-(J,
$8$ behind LA?-0-(:R-$8$-/-;R.,
$8$-/? later $8$-/?-,$ 2.J-3R,
,$ to meet; to touch %J.-(:R-2R.-/?-,$
:.A-/ here 35S-3R-:.A-/-3J.,
3J-+R$ flower 3J-+R$-$/-3A-;$
:.A this 3J-+R$-:.A-;$-$A
HR:A yours; your HR:A-9-3-8A3-0R-<J.,
$%-% to where / to which HR.-.-KA-$%-%-?R%-,
:2. to step; to board /3-^-:H$?-3R-<J., |R<-3-:2.,
% I; me HR.-<-%-3*3-0?-:IR,
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, :63-\A%-$A-?-O-8A$
:63-\A% the world :63-\A%-/-o=-#2-.-;R.,
?-O map :.A-:63-\A%-$A-?-O-$9A$-<J.,
•31•
A->J-; Asia A->J-;-\A%-(J/-(J->R?-;A/,
2R. Tibet 2R.-/-.$R/-0-3%-,
$%-/ where ?%?-o?-1R=-3-$%-/-;R.,
A-3J-<A-# America A-3J-<A-#-o=-#2-!R2?-(J->R?-<J.,
o-/$ China o-/$-MA-P%?-(J,
< also o-$<-!R2?-:LR<-AJ-(J,
;R-<R2 Europe ;R-<R2-/-.0=-:LR<-.<-$A-;R.,
MA people MA-:.A-(:R-><-KR$?-/?-3-<J.,
3% a lot of; many aR2-#%-/%-/-.0J-(-3%-,
3%-% a lot of; many |R-/-MA-3%-%-;R.,
{. voice; language 3<-$J-{.-;$
2>. to speak A-1?-$?%-2-$9A$-2>.,
/% inside; within $R.-:.A-/%-$4%-3-3-<J.,
$R%-/ above $4%-2R-:.A:A-$R%-/-/$?-5=-$9A$-;R.,
o=-#2 country %-o=-#2-:.A-/?-3A/, %-N%-$R-/?-;A/,
\A%-(J/ continent \A%-(J/-:.A-/-!$-3%-,
s-2R the five (inclusive) \A%-(J/-s-2R-$%-$%-<J.,
A-<-? Russia A-<-?-o=-#2-?-o-(J->R?-;A/,
?R$-0R Mongolia ?R$-0R-o-/$-$A-L%-KR$?-/-;R.,
2=-;= Nepal 2=-;=-/-<-2R.-0-3%-%-;R.,
0-8A Brazil 0-8A-/-/$?-5=-(J/-0R-$9A$-;R.,
AJ-&A Egypt AJ-&A-=R-o?-@R%-$A?-<A%-,
:)<-0/ Japan :)<-0/-$A-,R/-m?-o-%?-29%-,
&-/-+ Canada &-/-+-A-3J-<A-#:A-HA3-35K?-o=-#2-;A/,
@/-$R Korea @/-$R-;R-<R2-/-AJ-;R.,
.LA/-)A England .LA/-)A-/-o-{.-2>.-$A-3J.,
n-$R France n-$R-<-n-</-?A-o=-#2-$&A$-<J.,
•32•
$;$ yak $;$-2R.-/?-;A/,
{ statue {-:.A-28/-3R-<J.,
2bR?-3 carved; engraved >A%-{-:2<-2bR?-3-:.A-.0=-w/-$A-<J.,
t$?-<A enclosing wall o-/$-/-t$?-<A-(J-$9A$-;R.,
L%-KR$? north t$?-<A-(J-$9A$-o-/$-$A-L%-KR$?-/-;R.,
|R-3R-(J main door; gate |R-3R-(J-:.A-@R%-$A?-3,R,
0R-=A/ Berlin 0R-=A/-:)<-3/-$A-o=-?-<J.,
tR$?-<A% tower tR$?-<A%-:.A-3A-(%-,
n-</-?A France n-</-?A-/-tR$?-<A%-3,R/-0R-$9A$-;R.,
0-=A Paris 0-=A-PR%-HJ<-*A.-0R-$9A$-;A/-9J<,
2-3R girl; daughter 2-3R-:.A-#-:V?-;$
82?-VR-3#/ dancer 82?-VR-3#/-:.A-0-8A-/?-<J.,
3(R.-gJ/ stupa 3(R.-gJ/-:.A-3A-(J,
/J-0-=J Nepal /J-0-=J-/-;=-{R<-2-3%-,
9-2 monk 9-2-9R-PR%-HJ<-/-3J., .$R/-0-/-;R.,
<J.-S however; but 3<-$J-=?-0R-{3-$A <J.-S-2.J-,%-<J.,
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-#3?,
#3? region; area 2R.-/-#3?-$?3-;R.,
?-( place; area ?-(-:.A-%R-3?-*A.-0R-<J.,
(J/-0R big $/-MA-(J/-0R-$9A$-<J.,
$9A$ a; an .0J-(-$9A$-&R$-4K:A-!J%-/-;R.,
(R=-# administration area; region (R=-#-$?3-0R-$%-$%-<J.,
$?3 three :P=-2-$?3-.J-<A%-,R/-$A-;R.,
#3? Khams (region) #3?-A-3.R:C-HA3-35K?-<J.,
A-3.R Amdo (region) A-3.R-/-:VR$-0-3%-,
A-+-$A? the most A-+-$A?-8A3-0R-?A=-+R$-:.A-<J.,
•33•
(J-2R the big one ?A=-+R$-(J-2R-.J-8A3-0R-<J.,
(J->R? the biggest ?A=-+R$-(J->R?-.J-3A-8A3,
o-$< India o-$<-$A-9-3-8A3-0R-<J.-9J<,
!R.-KR$? upper part; above =%-2-:.A:A-!R.-KR$?-/-=$-3%-,
zR-KR$? south zR-KR$?-/-(<-2-:22-$A-;R.,
><-KR$? east ><-KR$?-/-*A-3-><-$A-;R.,
?-o size of territory o=-#2-:.A-?-o-(J, <J.-S-MA-P%?-*%-,
2R.-uR%? TAR 2R.-uR%?-N%-$R:C-uR%?-$9A$-;A/,
(2-YA. politics (2-YA.-fR$-S-(J,
.0=-:LR< economy 2.J-#$-.0=-:LR<-<-<$-=?,
<A$-$/? culture <A$-$/?-?R-?R-3A-:S,
z-? Lhasa z-?-$/?-3(R$-$9A$-;A/,
8A%-(J/ province 9A-OR/-8A%-(J/-/?-9-3-8A3-0R-<J.,
$4S-2R main 9A-OR/-$A-PR%-HJ<-$4S-2R-OA/-:.-<J.,
36K?-uR%? resort; beautiful landscape $9-5-#J-.$-36K?-uR%?-$9A$-;A/,
$4%-2R river A-3.R-/-$4%-2R-3A-3%-, $4%-/-3%-,
.-2R still :P=-2-9R-.-2R-,R/-3J.,
PR%-HJ< city PR%-HJ<-/-9R$-=$-3J.,
MA-P%? population o-/$-MA-P%?-:63-\A%-!J%-$A-(J->R?-;A/,
(J->R? the biggest; the most MA-=R-(J->R?-A-#-?%?-o?-<J.,
o-<A$? Han Chinese o-<A$?-3A-<A$?-(J->R?-;A/,
;-\A% Asia ;-\A%-\A%-(J->R?-;A/,
\A% continent ?:A-$R-=-$A-!J%-/-\A%-s-;R.,
Z%-3R / Y%-3R sister %:A-Z%-3R-.J-<A%-;:-/-3J.,
<A$-0 intelligence =J-=R-(J-/, <A$-0-3A-;R%-,
iR sharp 8-;?-:.A-@R%-$A?-iR,
<A$-0-iR clever; intelligent 8-;?-:.A-<A$-0-iR, <J.-S-2lR/-0-3A-(J,
•34•
#J-2 village #J-2-:.A-/-=$-3%-,
;$ beautiful <A-3R-:.A-@R%-$A?-;$
<A mountain <A-.J-3A-;$ !J%-/-C-<-3J.,
3,R/-0R high .J-2-.0R/-0R-3,R/-0R-$9A$-<J.,
}R/-0R blue .J-<A%-;=-%/-<J., 3A/-3%-,
2-3R girl 2-3R-:.A-~A%-eJ-<J.,
C-,% grassland C-,%-/-/$?-3J.,
}R bluish green; green; vegetable ^-$?3-0:A-/%-2R.-/-}R-3J.,
aR2-3 student aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/-o/-.-aR2-3-$?3-;R.,
.J-<A% today .J-<A%-.$J-c/-3A-;R%-,
/3-^ weather %-3A-:IR, .J-<A%-/3-^-3A-29%-,
SR/-0R warm 3<-$J?-$R/-0-SR/-0R-$R/,
29R-v imposing outlook *J?-0-.J-29R-v-(J,
,$-<A% distant #<-$J-<-#R:A-c/-3R-$*A?-!-#-,$-<A%-,
1-{. mother language %?-.LA/-{.-1-{.-<-2>.-$A-3J.,
%/-; brother %/-;-5%-3-aR2-9-$&A$-/-;R.,
1-;: home %-1-;:-2-d3,
A-1 father A-1-o/-.-HA3-/-3J.,
(/-0 doctor (medical) (/-0-$9A$-<-/.-0-$9A$-3*3-0?-;R.,
,%-,% short ]R-,%-,%-$A?-.R/-3A-:HR%?,
=R year; age %-<R$?-0-=R-(%-3%-%-;R.,
/$? forest /$?-!$-0R-/-<A-?$?-;R.,
!$-0R dense; thick !$-0R-/$?-/?-=3-3A-fJ.,
SR warm #%-2-:.A-SR, $/-3A-SR,
A-3 mother A-3-#-l%-HA3-/-3J.,
:P=-2 traveler; guest #R:A-:P=-2-5%-3-2R.-/?-<J.,
3,R-|% plateau 35S-2R.-3,R-|%-3,R/-0R-AJ-<J.,
•35•
HA3 family; home HA3-:.A-/-MA-$&A$-<-3J.,
[. above; on #%-2:A-[.-/-#R%-2R-:$:-;R.,
YR$-($? sentient being; animal MA-YR$-($?-AJ-;A/,
$8%-12-#% office $8%-12-#%-/-%?-L-2-12-$A-;R.,
5.-0 heat |R-/?-5.-0-(J, /%-%-:IR,
5.-0-(J hot .R-5B$?-^-2-2./-0-5.-0-(J,
/2-KR$? west /2-KR$?-><-KR$?-$A-wR$-KR$?-<J.,
2<-/ in between HA3-5%-$*A?-$A-2<-/-t$?-<A-$9A$-;R.,
HA-c/ old dog HA-c/-$9A$-|R-#-/-*=-;R.,
8A-3R / 2-3R girl; daughter 8A-=A-Z-/%-8A-3R-Z, %?-%R-3-3A->J?,
/-$ pen /-$-.!<-2R-$R%-.!:-3R-<J.,
.%R?-0R thing .%R?-0R-:.A-Z-3R-3-<J.,
<A-3R picture ;=-uR%?-:.A-<A-3R-:S-2R-<J.,
.0J-( book .0J-(-*R-a, <J.-S-[R$-.!:,
#$-3 bag .0J-(-.J-#$-3-:.A:A-/%-/-3J.,
|3 box |3-.J-?%?-o?-$A-<J.,
:I3 / :P3 next to %J.-5%-$A-:I3-/-#R%-<-(J-$9A$-;R.,
I% wall \A%-28A-2R-/-I%-;R.,
I%-%R surface of wall I%-%R-/-|R-?3-$*A?-;R.,
&R$-4K table &R$-4K-.J-3A-2.J,
.!<-<R / .!<-0R white 3A-.!<-0R:A-3$R<-E-/$-0R,
K$?-9R$ livestock :VR$-0-/-K$?-9R$-3%-,
aR2-.R% study aR2-9-/?-aR2-.R%-;?-.$R?,
$R% price 9-3-:.A-$R%-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
$R%-.!: expensive .%R?-0R-.J-$R%-.!:-/, %?-3A-*R,
ZA/ / 3A/ cloud .J-<A%-$/3-3#:-/-3A/-;R.,
.< to flourish; to develop HA3-5%-:.A-MA-3$R-.<-$A-;R.,
•36•
:6S3? to summon; to get together %J.-(:R-.R-.$R%-HA3-/?-:6S3?,
o=-.2% Dalai Lama o=-.2%-.-v-o-$<-/-;R.,
$./-? a lama's main monastery ]-3-.J:A-$./-?-?J-<-.$R/-0-<J.,
:5S-2 life 3%-5S$?-$A-:5S-2-*A.-0R-<J.,
VJ=-2-(J engaged; occupied; busy MA-5%-3-VJ=-2-(J, #R3-$A-3J.,
IR$-3 / PR$-3 ant #%-2-.J:A-/%-/-PR$-3-3%-,
:S-3R / :S-3 like SJ=-.J-2%-#-g-:S-3R-<J.,
2&:-.$ clean; neat *J?-29A-.J-%R-3?-2&:-.$-<J.,
,$-*J near; short in distance aR2-9-,$-*J, !2?-2.J-<J.,
*$-24S$ dirty ?-:.A-*$-24S$-3-<J., 2&:-.$-<J.,
$9:-0-?%? Friday $9:-0-?%?-%-=-aR2-OA.-3J.,
$9:-3A$-.3< Tuesday $9:-3A$-.3<-<-%-KA-o=-<-:IR,
$9:-*A-3 Sunday $9:-*A-3-%?-3=-$?R,
|R-/ outdoor; outside |R-/-LA?-0-3J.,
9-#% restaurant 9-#%-.J-Z, <J.-S-,$-<A%-,
+A.-=$ laziness +A.-=$-2lR/-:P?-$A-:$=-^-<J.,
=J-=R laziness 35S-3R-=J-=R-(J, 2lR/-:P?-(%-,
+$-+$ exact; only #R-.?-5S.-2o.-+$-+$-$A-!J%-,R/,
} early; to be early .J-<A%-#R-,R/-},
:KA to be late #-l%-#R-:PR-:KA,
KA-=R$? outdoor; outside KA-=R$?-/?-:H$?-3R-<J.,
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-3A:A-:5S-2,
#$-3R hard; difficult c/-3R-.J-:5S-2-#$-3R-<J.,

.R/-.$ business; task .R/-.$-3%-%-n-o$-LJ.,
#-;? / #->? some; part MA-#-;?-2R.-0-<J., #-;?-o-3A-<J.,
Z good :)<-3/-/?-_%?-:#R<-Z,
•37•
(A-$9A$ what HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-$A-;R.,
/ if; to become sick; to feel pain .J-<A%-aR2-OA.-3J., .$J-c/-/-$A-;R.,
#R3 to have free time 1R=-3-35S-3A-:IR, 3<-$J-#R3-$A-3J.,
:.R.-0 desire 2-3R-.J-:.R.-0-3A-(J,
#-3 location; seat; principle %:A-#-3-:.A-3A-2.J, HR:A-.J-AJ-2.J,
#%-\ house rent #%-\-3,R/-0R-<J., <J.-S-#%-2-Z,
(A-3R-$9A$ how much; how HR?-#%-\-(A-3R-$9A$-!J<-$A-;R.,
|R<-3R money |R<-3R-!R%-$?3-*%-*%-3-<J.,
!R% thousand; empty %?-HR.-|R<-3R-$&A$-<-3A-!J<,
*=-? bedroom %:A-*=-?-(%-, 3<-$J:A-*=-?-(J,
aR2-{2? semester aR2-{2?-:.A-/3-:$R-lR3,
aR2-;R/ tuition aR2-{2?-:.A:A-aR2-;R/-|R<-3R-28A-!R%-<J.,
(/-;R/ medical cost /.-0-.J?-(/-;R/-3,R/-0R-!J<-.$R?,
:PR-|R expenditure :PR-|R-(J, <J.-S-;R%-|R-<-3%,
29%-%/ good or bad; good and bad 29%-%/-=/-<J<-H.-0<-4K-$<-$9A$-;A/,
:SJ?-3 mixture .%R?-0-:.A-<A$?-29%-%/-:SJ?-3-<J.,
aR2-PR$? classmate .!R/-3(R$-$A-aR2-PR$?-5%-3-3R-*J?-<J.,
c/-0 senior; elder 2R.-/?-MA-c/-0-#-.2%-(J,
.$: to like; to be happy %:A-1-3-$*A?-!-.$:-$A-;R.,
/-^ contemporary; the same age #J-2:A-/%-/-%:A-/-^-3%-%-3J.,
H.-0< difference 3A%-5B$-:.A-$*A?-$A-H.-0<-(A-$9A$-<J.,
5=-2 half ?A=-+R$-.J:A-5=-2-#R<-LA/,
|R-?3 blackboard |R-?3-/$-0R-$9A$-I%-%R-/-;R.,
aR2-5/ text aR2-5/-:.A-.!:-3R-<J.,
:VR$-0 herder :VR$-0-:VR$-/-;R., <R%-2-<R%-/-;R.,
K$-0R rich; rich person 2R.-/?-:VR$-0-K$-/%-<R%-2-K$
•38•
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-$A-?-(, 3J-:#R<-$9A$
3J-:#R< / @R-OJ train 3J-:#R<-,R$-3-.R-5B$?-z-?<-,R/,

OA$?-OA$?-3J. likely; probably; possible /%?-!-/3-^-:H$?-/-OA$?-OA$?-3J.,
OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/ likely; probably OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, .0=-w/-z-?<-:IR,
.-=R this year .-=R-%-=R-8J-$?3-;A/,
…/?-29% since; from…on… /-/A%-/?-29%-#R-0R-=A/-/-3J.,
*A/-I%?-% every day 3<-$J-*A/-I%?-%-;:-/-;R.,
L%-KR$? north %J.-5%-$A-L%-KR$?-<A-$9A$-;A/,
L-2 work; job %?-L-2-3%-%-=?-3A-,2,
=? to do =?-,2-/-=?, 3A-,2-/-*<-8R$
;=-{R< traveling ;=-{R<-.-v-,R/-=?-(J-$9A$-<J.,
/%?-! tomorrow /%?-!-<-aR2-OA.-;R.,
$8$-/? later; in future $8$-/?-%-2R.-<-:IR,
$?<-:$R.-0 journalist $?<-:$R.-0-.J-#R3-$A-3J.,
$*A. to sleep %-*A/-$%-$*A.-$A-3J.,
>R$-1J poker; cards >R$-1J-lJ.-3R-.$:-$9A$-<J.,
lJ to play LA?-0-{R<-$9A$-|R-/-lJ-$A-;R.,
$?3-0R the three %J.-$?3-0R-2R.-/?-;A/, <J.-S-#R-2R.-0-3A/,
2<-$?J%-$+R% to have a holiday; to have a break %?-=R-I%?-%-2<-$?J%-$+R%-$A-;R.,
29:-^ a couple 29:-^-$*A?-!-:(3-0R-<J.,
o-{. Chinese language o-{.-<-2R.-{.-<A$?-:S-3-<J.,
*J?-{< birthday %:A-*J?-{<-^-2./-0:A-5K?-0-28A-2-;A/,
5K?-0 day .J-<A%-5K?-0-.-<J.,
<J3-3 quickly .-%-5S-<J3-3-:PR,
.R-5B$? this year; this season .R-5B$?-%?-o-;A$-.R%-$A-3J.,
5-k$? heat and humidity /-/A%-.L<-#-5-k$?-(J,
$;R to sway; to cook Y%-/-MA-5S$?-$;R-$A-;R.,
•39•
v.-3R-2 audience; onlooker v.-3R-2-3%-(J->R?-KA-o=-/?-<J.,
.-2 which number; which grade HR.-=R-<A3-.-2-;A/,
;A.-5B3 to be satisfied {<-:V?-3,R-/, %-;A.-5B3-$A
?R-?R individual; separate; every *J?-2-?R-?R-:S-3*3-;A/,
2#R3?-0? in total; altogether :)<-3/-/-2#R3?-0?-MA-(A-3R-$9A$-;R.,
,A-.3%? citizen %-o=-#2-:.A:A-,A-.3%?-3A/,
<R$?-0 friend %:A-<R$?-0-:.A-KA-,$-<A%-,
MA%-2R brother (in relation to sister) #R-3R:A-MA%-2R-(/-0-$9A$-<J.,
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 3J-:#R<-!J%-$A-#-2h,
$*A?-! both 2R.-/-/2-(/-<-2R.-(/-$*A?-!-2!R=-$A-;R.,

%R-3 real; identical :.A-!R-2-%R-3-$9A$-3A/,
353?-<J sometimes 353?-<J-#<-$J:A-:5S-2-#$-3R-<J.,
=%-3.R lower part of a valley =%-3.R-/-<R%-#J-$9A$-;R.,
#-0< telephone #-0<-#J-2-:.A<-=R-$*A?-$A-}R/-/-:,J/,
A%-P%? number A%-P%?-:.A-%:A-;A.-<-3A-;R%-,
$?=-2R clear :S-0<-:.A-$?=-2R-3-<J.,
3=-ZR rest; holiday 3=-ZR-3J.-/, 3<-$J-;=-{R<-<-3A-:IR,
9-2 monk 9-2-=R-(%-:.A-<R%-/?-;R%-,
;=-{R<-2 tourist ;=-{R<-2-3%-%-$9A$-,R/-;R.,
4B?-4B$-$J-$9A$ a little bit #<-$J?-o-{.-4B?-4B$-$J-$9A$-2>.->J?,
k$? humid .J-<A%-/3-^-k$?,
#J<-<R alone %-#J<-<R-HA3-/?-:.$-3A-:.R.,
8J-$A? sincerely; really 35S-3R-8A-=A-.J<-8J-$A?-?J3?-:#R<-$A-;R.,
{<-3 time; minute; coin .-.?-5S.-$?3-<-{<-3-2&R-s-<J.,
%R-,$ to meet .?-5S.-$?3-0-$A-!J%-%J.-$*A?-%R-,$
•40•
aR2-5/-$*A?-0,
2h-3R.,
Negative Present Tense Verb + $A-;R. / $A-3J.

Infinitive Case: …
/-:.R. vs. …$A-:IR Postposition: / vs. /?
Present Tense Intransitive Verb + ;R.
The main hall of Gro tshang rdo rje 'chang Monastery ȌŬāŐĻāǶŬāǯŪāŖĽĻāă(Qutan Si ⶓᯭ
ᇎ), Ledu Ф䛑 County, Haidong ⍋ϰ Municipality, Mtsho sngon (Qinghai 䴦⍋)
Province (2013).
Text One: regular action, infinitive cases, and Ladon cases
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, !R.-*A-3-z-?,
z-?-2R.-uR%?-$A-PR%-HJ<-$4S-2R-;A/, .J:A-=R-o?-=-=R-!R%-$&A$-<-?3-2o-$A-;/-;R., z-?-2R.-uR%?-$A-(2-YA.-<, .0=-

:LR<-<, <A$-$/?-<-:PA3-:P=-$A-vJ-2-<J., z-?-*A.-(-$A-:I3-/-;R., L%-KR$?-<-zR-KR$?-/-<A-(J/-0R-;R., z-?-$A-MA-
P%?-%-:23-s-;R., MA-P%?-$A-2o-(:A-I-2./-2R.-<A$?-;A/, z-?-/-2R.-<, o, #-3(J-=-?R$?-;R.,
2R.-5%-3-z-?<<-3)=-$A-;R%-$A-;R., #R-9R-)R-#%-<-0R-+-=<-33)=-$A-;R%-, :63-\A%-$A-?-(-#$-/?-;=-{R<-2-3%-%-;R%-

$A-;R., #R-9R-2R.-$A-;=-uR%?-%-v-$A-;R%-$A-;R., ;=-{R<-2-9R?-/R<-2-\A%-!-<-0R-+-=<-v-::.R., :.A-$*A?-!-o=-.2%-$A-
.L<-#-<-.$/-#-$A-28$?-?-<J., .L<-#-*A/-I%?-%-MA-!R%-U$-(-<J-;R%-$A-;R., $J->/-0-$A?-#%-2-3%-%-!R/-$A-;R.,
<J.-S-o=-.2%-5%-$A-28$?-?-#-;?-3A-!R/,
z-?-/-.-2R-$/?-I$?-&/-<-.$R/-0-I$?-&/-3%-%-;R., .0J<-28$-/, ?J-:V?-.$J-$?3, .$R/-0-:.A-$?3-0R-/-9-

2-3%-%-;R., :.A-$?3-0R-=R-o?-$A-,R$-/?-@R%-$A?-$=-(J, 2R.-$A-<A$-$8%-.$R/-0-:.A-$?3-0R-/?-@R%-$A?-.<, .J%-3-
:.A-$?3-0R-.J%-?%-$A-aR2-9-(J/-3R-:S-3R-;A/,
3)=-2-3%-%-$A?-)R-2R-eJ-<A$-:.R., )R-2R-eJ-$4$-=$-#%-$A-/%-/-;R., 2R.-$A-3)=-2-<A$?-$A?-3)=-/-\-!J<-3A-.$R?,

<J.-S-;=-{R<-2-<A$?-$A?-!J<-.$R?, z-?<-3)=-,2-/, $%-2-8J-,$-$A?-*A.-0R-<J.,
2.1 --Ergative case markers
Pronoun With ergative case Complement Verb in PRT

% %??-
HR.- HR?-
aR2-#%-/%-/?-;A-$J- :VA,
3<-$J- 3<-$J?-
#R-(-2R- #R-(-2R-$A? / #R-(-2R?-
--With Ladon case variants
Pronoun Pronoun with =--.R/ Complement E-v
%- % <-
HR.- HR. (the variant not voiced)
.0J-(-$9A$- ;R.,
3<-$J- 3<-$J<-
#R-(-2R- #R-(-2R<-
•42•
Notes-1
=-.R/: Ladon case variants are often not spoken because of a contraction, e.g., .!R/-3(R$-35S<-
=-*J-;R., Dkon mchog mtsho has ability. One may hear this sentence as .!R/-3(R$-35S-=-*J-;R..
See the supplementary grammar in Chapter One for more on the use of Ladon variants.
Exercise 1 Complete each statement using =-.R/ variants.
.0J<-2eR., %-2R.-/?-;R%-, (from) (come)
1. %-5S:A-o=-#2-__________MA-P%?-(J-$9A$________, (possessive Ladon case)--(have)

2. PR%-HJ<-__________%-5S:C-o=-#2-$A-MA-*%-________, (locative Ladon case)--(there is)
3. %:A-1-;=________, MA-3%-%-=$-> ____________, (Ladon case)--(Ladon variant + like)
4. %:A-1-;=-2R.-__________, MA-5%-3-z-?_________, (Ladon case)--(Ladon variant + go)
5. %J.-9R:C-#J-2____________MA-3%-%-____________, (locative Ladon case)--(there is not)
6. %:A-1-3-$*A?-!-:.A-/-______________________, (is not here)
7. :)<-3/-______________%-______________, (locative Ladon case)--(live)
8. #<-$J-2R.___________, %-2R.-_____________, (Ladon case + go)--(do not go to)
9. 2R.-MA-:)<-3/___________, 2R.-_________3%-, (locative Ladon case) (negative adverb)
10. :)<-3/-________%?-:#R<-29R-=?-(J-$9A$_____, (possessive Ladon variant)--(have)
Exercise 2 Make statements about regular actions with appropriate tense forms of
the words in parentheses and, if necessary, =-.R/ variants and negative
adverbs.
.0J<-2eR., .!R/-3(R$-<-%-22-$A?-3A-:S, (:S)
1. %-.?-5S.-2./-0-$A-!J% ______ , <J.-S-%:A-@-3-.?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-!J%______, (*=)

2. %?-*A/-I%?-%-.LA/-;A$______, <J.-S, .!R/-3(R$-$A?-$+/-/?-______, (.R%) Verb in PRT + oR is
3. %-______, <J.-S-%:A-<R$?-0-3%-%-______, (2lR/-:P?-(J) an infinitive case,

e.g., b%-,%-%-:IR-oR-
4. %:A-<R$?-0-#-;?-o=-#2-:.A-/?-______, #-;?-______, ( ;A/) .!:-3R-;A/, To go
on foot is difficult.
5. %-.$J-c/-.$:-$9A$-______, <J.-S, #<-$J-.$:-$9A$-______, (;A/)
6. %-o/-.-______, <J.-S-#<-$J-o/-.-______, (#R3)
7. #<-$J______<R$?-0-%/-0-______, <J.-S-#R-<%-$J-=.-$A-3J., (;R.)
•43•
8. #<-$J?-353?-353?-3-(%-:,%-, <J.-S-%-(%-______$+/-/?______, (.$:)
9. %-aR2-9<-o/-:)$?-$A?- ______, <J.-S-#R-aR2-9<-o/-.-______, (:IR)
10. .J-;A/-/-<, #<-$J-<A$-0______, %-______, (iR)
Text Two: regular action, postpositions, infinitive cases, and Ladon case
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-&J-z-3R,
A-&J-z-3R-.-=R-*J<-.$-;A/, .-2R-3R-ZJ%-$9A$-;A/, 3<-$J-z-?-/-:.$-$A-;R., 3<-$J?-5S%-=?-=?-$A-;R., 3<-$J-:.$-?-

0R-+-=-/?-,$-3A-<A%-,
z-?-/?-:PA3-:P=-.J-3R-3A-2.J, ,A-$8%-$A-_%?-:#R<-*%-*%-<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-3<-$J<-_%?-:#R<-$9A$-.$R?-$A-;R.,

.-3<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-fA%-%-$9A$-2!R=-$A-;R., #R3-0-;R.-/, 3<-$J-b%-,%-%-:IR-$A-;R., 353?-353?-3-b%-,%-%%-
:IR-oR-l-3R-3-<J., .L<-#-,R/-/-;=-{R<-2-<-3)=-2-$A?-z-?-:$J%-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-b%-,%-%-<-@R%-$A?-3A-2.J,
A-&J-z-3R-z-?-?-$/?-$A-MA-3A/, 3<-$J-A-3.R-/?-<J., 3<-$J:A-1-3-<->-*J-5%-3-A-3.R-/-;R., .J:A-!2?-$A?-L-2-(A-

$9A$-;A/-/-<, 5%-3-3<-$J:A-#-/-;R., 3<-$J<-<R$?-0-3%-%-;R., <R$?-0-9R?-353?-353?-3-3<-$J-3PR/-/-:2R.-
$A-;R., #R3-0-3J.-/R-$A?, 3<-$J-3PR/-/-:IR-,2-$A-3J.,
3<-$J-z-?-/?-=R-$*A?-:$R<-$A-;R., <J.-S-?J-<-<-:V?-%%?-.-2R-3A->J?, 1-;=-A-3.R-/?->-*J-9R-;R%-/, 3<-$J?-#R-9R-

v-{R<-<-HA.-$A-;R., <J.-S-#R-3R-<%-$J-;%-z-?-=-(-o?-3J.,
2.2 --Negative simple present tense and =-.R/ variants

Subject =--.R/ variants Object Negative E-v
2R.- < t$?-=3-

% : %/-<-YA%-3R-
3A-.J < %-?.-
o=-#2-3%-% : 3J.,
|J<-5$?-
#R-3R-5S < /: |R<-3R-
LA?-0-i3?- 3 :.%-o$-
•44•
--Negative simple present tense and ergative case
Subject Ergative case Complement Negative adverb Verb
A-&J-z-3R- N /A
z-?-/- :.$
?%?-o? -$A?- o-;A$- .R%-,
:#R<-=R-:.A- N/A $;?-KR$?-$- :#R<,
3A-
% + ?/ -$A?- _%?-:#R<- {R<,
%:A-YA%-3R- N /A
9-3-#-5< .$:,
8A%-2-9R + ? / -$A?- .-2<-=?-!- =?,
Notes-2
=-.R/ variants are used to express the four seasons and similar temporal concepts, e.g., !R/-!<-
8A%-2-9R-#R3-$A-3J., Farmers are busy in autumn. / %?-$9:-:#R<-$?3-3->-3A-9, I am not going to
eat meat for three weeks.
Exercise 3 Write =-.R/ variants, verbs, ergative case markers and, if needed, negative
adverbs in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 3<-$J?-$9:-:#R<-<J2-I%?-%-@-3-$*A?-!-<A$-$A-3J., (Ladon case) ( <A$)
1. %:A-A-1<-L-2-(J-$9A$-;R., #R________#R3-0__________, (Ladon case) (don't have)
2. 3<-$J<-z-?-________>-*J-;R., <J.-S-<R$?-0-3%-%-______, (locative case) (don't have)
3. A-&J-z-3R-.L<-#-A-3.R<-:IR-$A-;R., <J.-S-3<-$J-.$/-# _____, (go)
4. %?-.0J-(-3%-%-:.R/, <J.-S-%:A-%/-;-________________, (ergative case) (

:.R/)
5. o-MA-.J____|R<-3R-;R., <J.-S-#<-$J?-|R<-3R_____________, (Ladon case) (2!R=)
6. #<-$J________lJ.-3R-!R/, %_______v.-3R<-v, (ergative case) (ergative case)
7. aR2-3-5%-3-____-.LA/-;A$-.R%-$A-;R., <J.-S-#<-$J?-_______, (ergative case) ( .R%)

8. .J-<A%-/3-^-_________, <J.-S-#-l%-________, (k$?)
9. 9-3-8A3-/-#R-______, 9-3-3A-8A3-/-#R-__________, (.$:)
10. #R-3R-?-<J., %?-3<-$J__________, (%R->J?)
•45•
Exercise 4 Complete the statements with E-v, Ladon case variants, ergative case
markers, and genitive case markers.
.0J<-2eR., %?-2R.-{.-2>.-$A-3J.,
1. 2?R.-/3?-3-<A$-0_____, <J.-S-#R-2lR/-:P?-(J,
2. aR2-3-:.A-$?3-0R-A-3J-<A-#-/?-<J., <J.-S-#R-$?3-0R____.LA/-{.-2>.______,
3. #<-$J:A-o-{.-8J-,$-$A?-3A-Z, #<-$J____.-2R-<-o-{.-.R%-_________,
4. %?-S-o-@R%-$A?-2!R=-$A-;R., %-<%-$J____\R$-[.-_________/-<,
5. aR2-3-#-;?-aR2-9-<-,$-*J, b%-,%-____.J-3R-$9A$-:IR-_________,
6. %____aR2-o-&%-_________, <J.-S-3<-$J<-aR2-o-3%-%-;R.,
7. %____o/-.-(%-:,%-_________, 353?-353?-3-:,%-/-<,
8. |R<-3R-_________/, :5S-2-.!:-3R-;A/,
9. \R$-2f/-/-v-2?3-/-<, #<-$J____.?-5S.-_________,
10. .R-.$R%-:P=-2-3%-%-;R%_________, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-9-3-3%-%-3A-.$R?,
Notes-3
1. 3A: This negative adverb is used to deny both verbs and monosyllabic adjectives, in
present tense. nWhen a verb is denied, it means someone does not do something, e.g., #R-
aR2-9<-3A-:PR, He does not go to school. Such a statement does not suggest regularity or
habituality. oIt denies monosyllabic adjectives in present tense mood to express
something is not so, e.g., $R/-0-:.A-3A-;$ This garment is not beautiful.
2. 3A/: This negative adverb is put at the end of a sentence to deny the complement, e.g., <A-.J-
3,R/-0R-3A/, That mountain is not high. / #R-aR2-3-$9A$-3A/, He is not a student.
3. 3: This negative adverb is used with verbs in PRT to convey a negative imperative, e.g.,
.R/-.$-%/-0-3-12, Don't do bad things!
Exercise 5 Deny the second half of each statement.
.0J<-2eR., ?%?-o?-35S-$A?-o-;A$-.R%-$A-;R., ?%?-o?-35S-$A?-.LA/-;A$-.R%-$A-3J.,
1. A-&J-z-3R-z-?-/-:.$-$A-;R., 3<-$J-A-3.R-/__________________________________,
2. A-&J-z-3R-$A?-5S%-=?-=?, 3<-$J:A-c.-0R-$A?-5S%-=?-___________________________,
•46•
3. 3<-$J<-_%?-:#R<-$9A$-.$R?, 3<-$J<-t$?-g-$9A$-______________________________,
4. A-&J-z-3R-$A?-9-3-9-#%-/-9-$A-;R., 3<-$J?-HA3-/-9-3-________________________________,
5. 3<-$J?-0R-+-=->J?, <J.-S-3<-$J?-?J-<-<-:V?-%%?-________________________,
6. z-?-*A.-(-$A-#-/-:($?-;R., z-?-;<-[%-$4%-2R-$A-:I3-/-_________________________,
7. .L<-#-z-?-/-;=-{R<-2-3%-%-;R., <J.-S-z-?-/-.$/-#-;=-{R<-2-3%-%-_____________________,
8. 2R.-5%-3-z-?<-3)=-$A-:IR, <J.-S-#R-9R-3J-#<-_________________________________,
9. 3)=-2-.J-)R-#%-%-:IR-:.R., #<-$J-/R<-2-\A%-!:A-/%-%-___________________________,
10. 2R.-$A-<A$-$8%-.$R/-0-/?-.<, 2R.-$A-<A$-$8%-PR%-#J-/?-___________________________,
Text Three: present tense, postpositions, Ladon cases, and ergative cases
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
A _%?-:#R<-$9A$
_%?-:#R<-$9A$-;/-//-$A-2.J-(J/-/?-;R%-$A-;R., =3-$A-!J%-/-_%?-:#R<-3%-, 2.J-(J/-$A-<?-L%-KR$?-<-><-KR$?-$-
_%?-:#R<-3%-%-:IR-$A-;R., _%?-:#R<-:.A-;%-3A/-L%-KR$?-$-:IR-$A-;R., ;%-3A/-><-KR$?-$-2*R.-$A-;R., 2.J-(J/-
N%-$R-$A-zR-KR$?-/-;R.,
B
$8%-=3-(J-$9A$
=3-:.A-9A-OR/-/?-35S-}R/-/-:,J/-;R.-, $;?-$;R/-$*A?-/-C-,%-<-#R%-2R-;R., 3,:-{R<-$A-?-(<-b-#R$-9J<, :.A-/?-

/3-^-:H$?-$A :.A-/-<R%-#J-<-:VR$-#J-$*A?-!-;R., =3-:.A:A-,R$-/?-35S-}R/-/-;R%-/, b-#R$-<, .3-.$J-<, k-(-
<A$-$A =3-:.A:A-!J%-/-/3-;A/-/-<-:P=-2-3%-0R-:IR-$A-;R.,
C 8A%-#-$9A$-/,
<R%-#J-$9A$-$A-3,:-{R<-/-8A%-#-$9A$-;R., :U=-(?-$9A$-$A?-8A%-:VJ$-$A-;R., :U=-(?-.J-}R/-0R-
<J., fA%-2-<-<J., .J:A-3,:-{R<-/-=R-+R$-3%-%-;R., :U=-(?-$8/-0-$9A$-$A?-=R-+R$-:S.-$A-;R.,
D #J-2-$9A$
:.A-\A%-o=-#J-2-$A-:.2?-$A-3(R.-gJ/-$9A$-<J., .J:A-o2-/-<A-<-(-3%-%-;R., 3(R.-gJ/-$A-o2-$A-
35S-.J-:.A-/?-3A-<A$-$A %J.-5%-$A-#%-2-#J-2-:.A:A-zR-KR$?-/-;R., #J-2-:.A:A-MA-P%?-=R-I%?-%-
:1J=-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-#J-3A-3%-%-$A?-.-2R-#%-2-=?-$A-;R.,
•47•
2.3 --Statements ending with reportive particle $A
After monosyllabic adjectives
Subject Negative Positive Adjective $A
2R.-/?-<A-5%-3- .3:-
8A-3R-$9$?-<A%-.J- ;$-
3A- $A
_%?-:#R<-.3<-<R-.J- 3IR$?-
8A-=A-$;J<-0R-.J- 29%-
After verbs in PRT
Subject Object Negative Verb in PRT $A
8A-3R-$9$?-<A%-.J?- =?-L- :VA-
g-.J?- C- 9- $A
\- 3A-
?%?-o?-$A?- =J/-
#<-$J?- %- <A$-
Notes-4
$A: This reportive function word is put at the end of a sentence signifying a reportive mood. It
is never put after statements ending with a be verb since be verbs have respective
connotations. Examples include: nAfter a monosyllabic adjective: 3<-$J-;$-$A She is
$A
beautiful. The teller reports what he thinks about her. Without , the statement is factual.
oAfter a verb in PRT: #<-$J?-.0J-(-v-$A He reads books. Someone reports what he has seen.
The primary verbs in such reportive statements are always in PRT though the actions have
already happened. If someone has written a letter, it is not expressed as #<-$J?-;A-$J-$9A$-VA?-
$A, but as
#<-$J?-;A-$J-$9A$-:VA-$A pIt is not used in First Person and First Person Plural if the
First Person or First Person Plural is agentive, e.g., incorrectly, %?-.0J-(<-v-$A I read a book.
qIt is also not used to ask the Second Person and Second Person Plural because the subject
in the answer becomes First Person or First Person Plural. Correct examples are: HR?-(A-$9A$-
=?-$A-;R., What are you doing? / HR.-(-2R-$%-%-:IR-$A-;R., Where are you going? Incorrect
examples are: HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-$A-;R.-$A What are you doing? /HR.-(-2R-$%-%-:IR-$A-;R.-$A Where are
you going? However, an exception is as below: a) when the First Person or First Person
Plural is not agentive (in this case, the verbs are normally inactive or spontaneous): %-/-$A I
am sick. /%-(R$-$A I'm qualified; b) the primary verb is the result of the first verb, e.g., %?-.0J-
(-.J-2v?-/?-$R-$A I read the book and understood.
•48•
Exercise 6 Tell your partner what you think about them using the reportive particle.
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J:A-A-3-______________ 29% %/

%?-2v?-/, #<-$J:A-A-3-29%-$A
1. _%?-:#R<-.J- _____________________
.= 3IR$?
2. $8%-=3-:.A- _____________________ !R%-2 :5%-#-(J

3. 8A%-#-$A-:U=-(?-.J- _____________________ (J (%
4. 9A-OR/-/?-2.J-(J/-/- _____________________ ,$-*J ,$-<A%
%-9-#%-:.A:A-/%-/?-$%-2-*A.-$A
5. 9-3-.JJ- ___________________________ 8A3 3A-8A3

6. % _____________________________ :H$? 5
7. 9-#%-.J- ________________________ (%
(J
8. %J.-$*A?-!- ________________________ 29%-% %/-0
9. %J.-5%- __________________________ K$ .2=
9. #R-$*A?-!:A-HA3-5% ___________________ $4%-/-;R., .2?-/-;R., #3?-/-;R.,
11. %J.-$?3-0R?-_______________________ \-.L%?-=J/, \-.L%?-=J/-$A-3J.,

11. (R?-:1$?, 5K-2g/-<-%-_________________ ><-KR$?-/-;R.-, L%-KR$?-/-3J.,
•49•
Notes-5
1. E-v plays the role of a be verb when it is used with intransitive or spontaneous verbs, e.g.,
z-?-*A.-(-$A-:I3-/-($?-;R., Lhasa is located by the Skid chu River. / #R-0$-;R., He is
frightened. / 3<-$J-.$:-;R., She is pleased. / $/3-.J%?-;R., The sky is cleared up. In
negation. #R-0$-3J., He is not frightened. / #R-.$:-3J., He is not delighted. / $/3-.J%?-3J.,
The sky is not cleared up.
2. /A-<J. vs. /A-;A/: /A, in the both structures, is a complementizer that converts a complete
sentence into a clause subject. O-be and S-be modify the clause subject. S-be conveys an
explanatory, an introductory, or conjectural tone, while O-be conveys a decisive or a
resolute tone, e.g.,#R-3.%-.$R%-.?-5S.-2&-,3-0:A-!J%-*=-/A-<J., He went to bed at ten o'clock
last night. (explanatory) %?-\R$-2f/-/-.-v-/A-;A/, I watch the movie now. (decisive)
Exercise 7 Complete the statements with the phrases given below and, if necessary,
with your own words.
&%-3J., <, !J%-/, /%-/, ;%-3A/...;%-3A/, =3-/, .-2R, $;?-$;R/, }/-/, #R3, o2-/, 3J., :.A-/,
3,:-{R<-/, =R-<-:$R<, <…$*A?-! /3-;A/-/-<, /,
1. MA-(-3J.-:.A- _______________________________(either from Europe or America)

2. %J.-$*A?-! _______________________________(not on the road)
3. #J-2-:.A:A- _______________________________(there is a river in front)
4. aR2-3-.J-$A- _______________________________(books on either side of the student)
5. N%-$R-(J-/A-<J.______________________________(also has many people)
6. #%-2-.J:A- _______________________________(there is nothing inside)
7. #R-(:R- _______________________________(happy in Tibet)
8. %:A- _______________________________(there are many things around me)
9. :VA-.J2-:.A- _______________________________(also old)
10. #<-$J-(:R _______________________________(have both brothers and sisters)
11. 8A-3R-$/- _______________________________(always busy)
•50•
2.4 --Intransitive verbs vs. transitive verbs in PRT
A. Transitive verbs
Subject + ergative case Object Negative adverb Transitive
verb
%- %?- $R/-o-3,$-0R- $R/,
t$?-$9R%- $A?- 2R.-{.- >J?,
3A-
aR2-3-9R + ?- / -$A?- lA?-:#R<- 2!R=,
A-3 + ?- / -$A?- 8-;?-9R- $*R<,
B. Intransitive verbs
Subject With
ergative case
Complement =-.R/ Negative
adverb
Intransitive
verb
%- aR2-#%-/%- % :PR,
t$?-$9R%- >-<-3<- < .$:,
N/A 3A-
aR2-3-5S- Y%- % :#R<,
A-3- _%?-:#R<- < :.$
Exercise 8 Deny the underlined words with negative adverbs.
.0J<-2eR., 3<-$J-z-?-/-:.$-$A-;R., 35S-/$-/-:.$-$A-3J.,

3<-$J-l3-0<-.$:, 3<-$J-}R<-3A-.$:,
1. A-&J-z-3R<-.?-5S.-;R., <J.-S-3<-$J<-<R$?-0-9R-,$-#R3-___________,
2. 3<-$J:A-A-3<-8-;?-3%-, <J.-S-3<-$J:A-c.-0R-$A-A-3<-8-;?-___________,
3. ;<-[%-$4%-2R-A-3.R-/?-,$-<A%-, <J.-S-*A.-(-z-?-/?-___________,
4. 3$R/-0R-<-(R?-.<-aR2-3-;A/, <J.-S-%-<-35S-3R-aR2-3-___________,
5. 3<-$J:A-<R$?-.0:-=?-!-=?-$A-:IR, <J.-S-3<-$J-___________,
6. .R-.$R%-3<-$J-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-:IR-:.R., <J.-S-3<-$J:A-29:-3A-9R-___________,
7. 3<-$J<-#R3-0-___________/, #<-$J<-#R3-0-;R.-/A-<J.,
8. MA-#-;?-$A?-A3-{.-.R%-$A-;R., 5%-3-$A?-___________,
9. z-?-=R-o?-$A-,R$-/?-$=-(J, <J.-S-.<-lJ-3.R-=R-o:A-,R$-/?-___________,
10. %?-#R-<A$-$A <J.-S-#<-$J?-%-___________,
•51•
2.5 --Negative present tense forms
With 3A With 3-<J. With 3A/

A-&J-1R=-3-MA-3A-29%--, A-&J-1R=-3-A-3.R-/?-3-<J., 3<-$J-A-3.R-/?-3A/,
%-<-.!R/-3(R$-3A-:(3?, %-<-.!R/-3(R$-:(3?-0RR-3-<J., %J.-$*A?-!-:(3?-0R-3A/,
#-l%-/3-^-3A-SR-$A #-l%-$A-/3-^-SR/-0R-3-<J., .J-<A%-/3-^-<-SR/-0R-3A/,
MA-.J-=R-3A-(J, MA-.J-c/-0R-3-<J., MA-.J-=R-(J/-0R-3A/,
3<-$J-/3-;A/-/-<-33A-#R3, 3<-$J-/3-;A/-/-<-=?-.=-3R-3-<J., 3<-$J-#R3-3#/-$9A$-3A/,
#R-(-2R-=?-!<-3A-.$:, #R-(-2R-=?-!<-.$:-3#/--3-<J., #R-(-2R-=?-?J3?-(J/-0R-3A/,
#<-$J-3A-:IRR, #<-$J-:IR-3#/-3-<J., #<-$J-:IR-3#/-3A/,
aR2-3-9R?-aR2-/-3A-:.RR., aR2-3-9R-aR2-:.R.-(J/-0R-3-<J., aR2-3-9R-aR2-:.R.-(J/-0R-3A/,
.!R/-3(R$-=?-3A-2.JJ, .!R/-3(R$-2.J-,%-3-<J., #R-2.J-,%-3A/,
MA-.J-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-:IR-/-3A-:.RR., MA-.J-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-:IR-3#/-3-<J., #R-\R$-2f/-/-v-:.R.-(J/-0R-3A/,
Exercise 9 Complete the dialogue. Use be verbs, negative adverbs, verbs in PRT, the
$A
reportive particle , and the interrogative adverb AJ.
A--&JJ-z--3R HR.-<%-$A-L-2<-AJ-.$:,
35SS-*AA. %-_______, L-2-@R%-$A?-Z-$A %-:$R-2-.$:-$9A$-______, #<-$J-=?-<R$?-A-m-$9A$_______,
A--&JJ-z--3R %:A-:$R-2-<-MA-.$:-$9A$-<J., HR:A-:$R-2-$A?-2R.-{.-_______,
35SS-*AA. #<-$J?-2R.-{.-3A-2>., #<-$J-?-$/?-$A-2R.-0______, <J.-S-#<-$J?-o-{.-<-.LA/-{.-4-;-$9A$-
_______,
A--&JJ-z--3R %:A-:$R-2-<-Z-_______, <J.-S-#<-$J?-L-2-3%-%-!J<_______, #<-$J-#-<-3IR$?_______,

.J:A-nJ/-$A?-353?-353?-3-%?-5B$-$&A$-<-3A-$R_______, HR:A-:$R-2-2>.-/-_______3IR$?,
35SS-*AA. A-=-=, #<-$J-#-3IR$?_______, <J.-S-#<-$J?-:R<-2>.-3%-%-;?_______,
A--&JJ-z--3R %:A-:$R-2-$A?-.J-_____;?, #<-$J?-:R<-2>.-3A-;?_____, HR:A-:$R-2-MA-$4%-3-$9A$-_____;A/,
35SS-*AA. .J-.-2>.-.$R?-/?, =?-<R$?-5%-3-$A-$R/-o-$4%-3-______.$R?, #%-2-<-/3-;A/-/-<-$4%-3-
______.$R?,
A--&JJ-z--3R %:A-:$R-2-$A?, "MA-$4%-3-_______/, =?-!-<-$4%-3->J.-=?-_______,2"9J<,
•52•
2.6 --Interrogative adverb AJ
Subject Complement Interrogative adverb Verb / Adjective
HR.- aR2-9<- :IR,
.!R/-3(R$-35S- \R$-2f/-/- .$:,
_%?-:#R<-:.A- 9A-=A%-%- ,R/,
.%R?-0R-:.A- l- AJ- (J,
3A-$/- $9$?-(J/-0R- <J.,
HR?- 9-3-9-/- :.R.,
A-1-:.A?- 8-;?-9R<-|R<-3R- !J<,
Text Four: regular action and postpositions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
A
A-3.R:C-IR-5%-#J-2, :.A-IR-5%-#J-2-<J., :.A-/-_%?-:#R<-<-t$?-g-o$-$A-3J., MA-5%-3-
b%-,%-%-:IR-$A-;R., :.A-/-5S%-#%-<-MA-3%-%-;R., <J.-S-5S%-#%-9R-3A-(J, IR-5%-#J-2-//-MA-
3%-, #R-9R?-8A%-=?-<-=?-$A-;R., :VR$-=?-<-=?-$A-;R., #J-2-:.A-<R%-3-:VR$-<J., MA-:.$-?-
<-5S%-#%-<-aR2-9-5%-3-,$-*J-$A A-#-t$?-L3?-#J-2-:.A-/?-;A/, #<-$J?-.%R?-0R-$9A$-:#<-$A-;R., #<-$J-.J-<A%-
#R3-$A-3J., #<-$J?-9-#%-$9A$-$*J<-$A-;R., A-#-t$?-L3?-:VR$-/-:.$-$A-3J., #<-$J?-<R%-/-8A%-=?-=?-$A-;R.,
B <R%-2R-.$R/-0, <R%-2R-.$R/-0-<J2-$R%-//-;R., .J<-*A/-I%?-%-3)=-2-3%-%-;R%-$A-;R.,

.$R/-0-$A-3,:-{R<-/-#%-2-$?<-2-3%-%-=?-$A-;R., .$R/-0-$A-:.2?-/-3(R.-gJ/-$9A$-;R.,
.J-.-2R-:P2-$A-3J., .$R/-0-$A-o2-$A-<A-.J:A-!J%-/-z-#%-(J-$9A$-;R., .J:A-/%-/-A-MJ?-L-H%-;R.-
9J<, z-#%-$A-:.2?-/-2R.-$A-#J-2-$*A?-;R., .J-<A%-3)=-2-3%-%-$A?-.$R/-0<-{R<-<-o$-$A-3J., MA-#-;?-$A?-.$R/-0-
;=-{R<-$A-;=-uR%?-$9A$-$-$+R%-:.R.-$A-;R., <J.-S-3)=-2-3%-%-.J<-:,.-$A-3J., %-<-3A-:,.-$A
•53•
C <J2-$R%-/, If you were Sgrol ma, how would you answer?
A-#-hR-eJ, A-&J-1R=-3,
1. A-<R-HR.-2.J-3R, %-2.J-3R-;A/, .J-3A/-.J-<J., *A.-0R-2.J-3R,
2. HR?-(A-$9A$-;?-$A-;R., %-MA-$9A$-$-|$-$A-;R., <J.-S-#R-3A-,R/-$A
%-!R/-,R$-$-:IR-$A-;R., _%?-:#R<-3A-;R%-$A
3. .J<-*R/-3J.-$A %?-HR.-*J=, 2!:-SA/-(J, HR.-%J?-%J?-Z-$A

2!:-SA/-(J, <J.-S-%-b%-,%-%-:IR-:.R.,
2!:-SA/-(J, <J.-S-HR.-:R-2o=-<J.,
Exercise 10 Ask your partner a general question with the interrogative AJ. Your
partner answers. Use the given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., :)<-3/-/-.$:, SA-2, HR.-:)<-3/-/-AJ-.$:, =/, 3A-.$:, %-:)<-3/-/-3A-.$:,
1. .R-5B$?-A-3.R<-:IR, Q: _____________________ A: ______________________
2. HA3-5%-;R. Q: _____________________ A: ______________________
3. {.-<A$?-3%-%-2>., Q: ______________________ A: _____________________
4. HR.-<-HR:A-YA%-3R-<A$ Q: ______________________ A:______________________
5. aR2-3-$A-=?-L-v-:.R., Q: ______________________ A: ______________________
6. :.$-?-,$-<A%-, Q: ______________________ A:______________________
7. A-3-$9$?-3,R, Q: ______________________ A:______________________
8. MA%-YA%-28A-;R., Q: ______________________ A: ______________________
9. :)<-3/-{.-.!:-3R-<J., Q: ______________________ A: ______________________
10. $R/-0-;$-$A .J-HR:A-;A/, Q:_______________________ A:______________________
Notes-6
1. LJ.: This verb means do or make and is often combined with nouns as the stem verb
deriving a phrasal verb, e.g., %?-2R.-;A$-aR2-.R%-LJ., I study Tibetan. / #R-;=-{R<-LJ.-$A-:IR,
He goes traveling. It changes in tense forms: LJ. (present), L? (past), L (future), and
LR? (imperative). In oral Amdo, it is pronounced ;? and its tense forms are not
•54•
distinguished, e.g., %?-2R.-;A$-aR2-.R%-;?, I study Tibetan. / #-l%-%?-2R.-;A$-aR2-.R%-;?, I
studied Tibetan yesterday.
2. =? vs. ;?: These verbs respectively mean do and make. The former expresses a concrete
thing being done, e.g., a job, whereas the latter is used to signify something intangible or
abstract being done, e.g., HR?-L-2-.J-=?, %?-:.A-=?, You do that job and I do this! %?-o-3A-
;?, HR?-2R.-3A-(R?, I act like a Chinese and you act like a Tibetan.
Text Five: numbers above one hundred
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2o-/?-?-;-2<-IA-P%?-!
100 2o 1,000
!R%-$&A$ 2,379 !R%-$*A?-?3-2o-<-.R/-.$
103 2o-<-$?3 1,001 !R%-$&A$-<-$&A$ 10,000 OA-$&A$
120 2o-<-*A-> 1,108 !R%-$&A$-<-2o-<-2o. 10,569 OA-$&A$-s-2o-<-<J-.$
200 *A?-2o 1,223 !R%-$&A$-*A?-2o-<-l-$?3 10,076 OA-$&A$-<-2./-&-.R/-S$

300 ?3-2o 1,657 !R%-$&A$-S$-2o-<-%-2./ 19,678 OA-$&A$-!R%-.$-S$-2o-<-.R/-2o.
310 ?3-2o-<-2&-,3-0 1,079 !R%-$&A$-<-.R/-.$ 35,890 OA-$?3-!R%-s-2o.-2o-<-.$-2&
407 28A-2o-<-2./ 1,867 !R%-$&A$-2o.-2o-<-<J-2./ 700,854 :23-2./-2o.-2o-<-%-28A
667 S$-2o-<-S$-&-<J-2./ 1,234 !R%-$&A$-*A?-2o-<-?R-28A 1,000,900 ?-;-$&A$-<-.$-2o
881 2o.-2o-2o.-&-I-$&A$ 2,035 !R%-$*A?-<-?3-&-?R-s 10,000,000 LJ-2-$&A$
992 .$-2o-<-.$-2&-$R-$*A? 2,222 !R%-$*A?-*A?-2o-l-$*A? 100,000,000 .%-K<-$&A$
Exercise 11 Listen and write what you hear. Write the numbers in Tibetan in the right
column.
Check what you hear from Write the numbers you hear in Tibetan.
your partner.
2111 203
64500 5678
3114 654
448 101000
111000 9999
809 6843
•55•
Exercise 12 Ask and answer with the words in parentheses and interrogative adverbs.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-3<-<-.$:, (o) (.$:) SA-2, o-3<-<-AJ-.$:, =/, .$:, o-<-3<-<-.$:,
1. 2R.-$A-MA-..-0-(J, (2R.-5%-3)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
2. :VR$-?-/-:VR$-0-9R?-K$?-:5S, (<R%-?) (8A%-2)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
3. .$R/-0-/?-\R$-2f/-/-v-3A-,2, (#J-2-/%-/?) (v)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
4. 8A-=A-3%-%-9-2-2&:-$A-;R., (8A-3R-3%-%) ()R-3R)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
5. $?<-2-5%-3-$R/-o-;-35<-<-.$:, (MA-c/-0) (.$:)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
6. 2R.-$A-]-3-#-;?-HA3-5%-;R., (KA-o=-/?) ((R?-%J=-3#/-9R)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
7. A-3.R-/?-KJ-3%-%-9, (#3?-/?) (KJ)
,
Q: ____________________________ A____________________________ ,
8. o-{.-<-2R.-{.-:VJ=-2-(J, ({.-<A$?-:.A-$*A?-!) (<A$-:S)
Q: ____________________________, A____________________________,
9. %?-o-{.-3A-$R (Z%-3R) ($R)
Q: ____________________________, A____________________________,
10. l3-0-2R.-/?-@R%-$A?-o$-(J, (l3-0) (?R$-0R-/?)
Q: ____________________________, A____________________________,
•56•
2.7 --Interrogative adverbs in contrast
AJ Explanation /? Explanation
{=-29%-HR:A-8A-=A-AJ- (Is Skal bzang your son?)

It is a yes / no question.
{=-29%-HR:A-8A-=A-;A/-/?, One seeks
confirmation because
;A/, he is not so sure.
$9:-*A-3<-HR?-aR2- (Do you study on $9:-*A-3<-HR?-aR2-.R%- One wants to assure

Sunday?) himself: people
.R%-AJ-;?, It is a yes / no question. ;?-$A-;R.-/?, usually do not study
on Sunday.
|R<-3R-s-$A?-AJ-:.%-, (Is five yuan enough?)
It is a yes / no question.
|R<-3R-s-$A?-:.%-/?, One doubts and thus
wants to be sure.
AJ Explanation / Explanation
HR.-3$R/-0R-35S-AJ-;A/, (Are you Mgon po

mtsho?)
HR.-3$R/-0R-35S-;A/-/, nIt is used to ask
It is a yes / no question. when the last syllable
:.A-A-3J-<A-#:A-o=-.<- (Is this the flag of the :.A-A-3J-<A-#:A-o=-.<-;A/- /
ends with suffix .
USA?)
AJ-;A/, It is a yes or no question. /, oOne is in doubt and
HR?-9-3-.J-3R-$9A$-AJ- (Are you able to digest so HR?-9-3-.J-3R-$9A$-3/R/-/, raises questions.
much food?)
3/R/, It is a yes / no question.
Notes-7
1. AJ vs. /?. nThe interrogative adverb AJ is put before monosyllabic adjectives or main
verbs, whereas /? is put at the end of sentences, e.g., .J-<A%-(<-2-AJ-:22, Will it rain
today? / .J-<A%-(<-2-:22-/?, It will not rain. Will it? AJ is not used in a question that
includes such question words as how much, who, what, and so on. The latter could be
termed a tag question. oTo raise a negative question, AJ is never used, e.g., incorrectly,
HR.-.$R%-5S$?-$-:IR-$A-AJ-3J.,; correctly, HR.-.$R%-5S$?-$-:IR-$A-3J.-/?, Aren't you going to the
party?
2. /: As an interrogative adverb, it is put after syllables ending with suffix /, e.g., :.A-HR:A-$R/-
o-;A/-/, Is this your garment? 3<-$J?-\-.L%?-=J/-/, Is she really good at singing?
3. <: It has various meanings depending on its position: also, too, and and, e.g., n%-<-aR2-3-
;A/, I am also a student. o%-aR2-3-<-;A/, I am a student too. p.J-<A%-5K-<A%-<-.!R/-3(R$-;R%-3A-
.$R?, Dkon mchog and Tshe ring do not need to come today.
4. < …<: It means both…and. %?-\-<-=J/, \-5B$-<-:VA, I both sing and write lyrics.
•57•
Exercise 13 Ask a general question. Your partner answers. You continue asking with
question words: (A-$9A$, (A-$9A$-$, /3, (A-3R-$9A$, (A-3R-$9A$-$, (A-$9A$->J., ., $%-/?,
and $%-%. Use the given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., .R-5B$?-.$/-#-A-3.R, (:IR, (A-$9A$-$)

Question: .R-5B$?-.$/-#-HR.-A-3.R<-AJ-:IR, Answer: 3A-:IR, %-3A-:IR,
Question: (A-$9A$-$ Answer: .$/-#-A-3.R-:H$?, %-:IR-/-3A-:.R.,
1. $R/-o-l-(J/-$9A$ (*R-:.R., (A-3R-$9A$)

Q:___________________________ , A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
2. 2R.-/-$;$-<-=$-3%-, (;R., (A-$9A$-$)

Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
3. 2R.-/?-8A-3R-9R-aR2-9<, (:IR, /3,)

Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
4. 8A%-2-9R-o=-/%-%-M$-$A (:IR, (A-$9A$->J.,)

Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
5. 2R.-/?-^-I%?-%-#%-\, (!J<, .,)

Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
6. 2R.-0-9R-$A?-PR%-HJ<, (=$-:5S, $%-/,)

Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
7. HR.-:.A-/?-HA3-3, (b%-,%-%-:IR, (A-3R-$9A$-$)

Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
•58•
1. HR:A-=?-<R$?-$A?-2R.-{.-i3-.$-$9A$ (2>., (A-$9A$->J.-.R%-,)
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
9. 3<-$J (=R-(J, .,)
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
10. MA-(-3J.-:.A-9R-.$R/-0:A-/%-%-, (:IR, $%-%-,)
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Q:___________________________, A: __________________________,
Exercise 14 Complete the dialogue based on the content.
1RR=-3 HR.-_______________________,
.0=--w/ %-.0=-w/-;A/,
1RR=-3 HR.-_______________________, lA? is attached to verbs in
PRT to declare a plan.
.0=--w/ %-=R-?3-&-,3-0-;A/, ?R-$&A$-$-:2.-=-#.-;R., Orally, such a sentence
1RR=-3 HR.-_______________________, normally ends with E-v or

be verb. %-:.A-=?-lA?-;R., %?-
.0=--w/ 3J., %-29:-5%-3J., :.A-=?-lA?-;A/, #R?-.J-=?-lA?-
<J., #R?-.J-=?-lA?-;A/,
1RR=-3 HR.-_______________________,
.0=--w/ %-$*J/-1A$-lA?-;R.,
1RR=-3 HR.-@-3-$*A?-$A-3*3-0?-_______________________,
.0=--w/ %-@-3-$*A?-$A-3*3-0?-:.$-$A-3J., #R-$*A?-!-o=-#2-:.A-/-3J.,
1RR=-3 #R-$*A?-!-_______________________,
.0=--w/ N%-$R-/,
1RR=-3 HR.-:.A<-_______________________;R%-/?,
.0=--w/ .J%-,R$-%-aR2-.R%-;?-$A-;R%-, .-%?-L-2-=?-$A-;R.,
1RR=-3 HR.-PR%-HJ<-/?-________________:.$-/-:.R.,
.0=--w/ PR%-HJ<-/-5S%-#%-<, lJ.-?-3%-%-;R.,
1RR=-3 HR.-KA<-<-1-;:-2-_______________________,
•59•
.0=--w/ .L<-#-,R/-/-.-:IR,
1R=-3 _______________________.L<-#-,R/-/-:IR,
.0=--w/ .L<-#-%:A-1-;:-@R%-$A?-*A.-0R-;A/, $%-?-$%-/-3J-+R$-<-%%-;A/, /3-^-<-SR, .J?-3A-5.-%:A-1-3-$*A?-!
%:A-(%-.?-$A-S/-0-5%-3-.J-/-;R.,
1R=-3 HR?-L-2_______________________,
.0=--w/ %?-5S%-=?-=?-$A-;R., $4S-2R-*R-5S%-<-.R-.3-$A-KR$?-/?,
1R=-3 L-2-.J-_______________________,
.0==-w/ L-2-.J-VJ=-2-(J, 353?-353?-3-9-3-9-#R3-<-3J.-$A
1R=-3 .J-3R-;A/-/-.!:-3R-<J., HR?-L-2-2eJ-AJ-:.R.,
.0=--w/ %?-L-2-3A-2eJ, %-L-2-:.A<-.$:-$A
1R=-3 HR.-:.$-?-/?-HR:A-=?-#%?-%-_______________________,
.0=--w/,, ,$-3A-<A%-, o/-.-%-2R$?-$+R%-_%?-:#R<-<-:.$-$A-;R.,
1R=-3, _______________________.$R?,
.0=--w/ _%?-:#R<-<-^-2-$&A$-$-|R<-3R-?3-&-.$R?, <J.-S-%:A-1-;:-/?-_%?-:#R<-<-:.$-3A-.$R?,
1R=-3 _______________________,
.0=--w/ #-;?-g-8R/-$A-;R., #-;?-&$-&$-$-8R/-$A-;R., <J.-S-%-g-<-3A-8R/, &%-%-<-3A-8R/,
1R=-3 .J?-/-_______________________,
.0=--w/ %-$%-%-<-3A-:IR, /%-/-9-$A-;R., /%-/-$+R%-$A-;R.,
1R=-3 .J-3A-Z-$A <2-;A/-/-HR.-:$=-/-<J.,
.0=--w/ %?-<-.J-:.R.-$A ,$?-eJ-(J,
Exercise 15 Complete the text.
k--zR, k- zR- 2R.- <A$?- <%- *R% - #=- $9A$- <J., ?- .J- /- {.- <A$?- 28A- 2>.- $A- ;R., 2R.- {., @R<- {., ?R$- {., o- {.-
28A- 2R, MA- 2o- (- $A-(percent) .$- 2&- z$- $A?- 2R.- {.- 2>.- $A- ;R., k- zR- <R%- 3- :VR$- $A- ?- (- $9A$- ;A/, mR%- #$- 28A-
;R.,
1. k-zR-$A-zR-KR$?-_____C-,%-(J/-0R-;R., .J:A-.GA=-______<R%-3-:VR$-$A-?-(-;R., .J-/-<J2-$R%-$?J<-3R-uR%?-
($?-;R., <J2-$R%-$A-.$R/-0-$4S-2R-<R%-2R-.$R/-0-______,
2. <J2-$R%-_____.$R/-0-$4S-2R-<R%-2R-.$R/-0-;A/, <J2-$R%-_____k-zR-#=-$A-(2-YA.-vJ-2-;R., vJ-2-.J-<R%-2R-
•60•
;A/, <R%- 2R- $A- /2- KR$?- _____ .- 2<- $A- #% - 2- ;R., ><- KR$?- ______- .$R/- 0- <- aR2- 9- $9A$- ;R., .J:A- 3,:-
{R<-______2R.-$A-#J-2-2./-($?-______,
3. @R-//-mR%-k-zR-$A-mR%-#$-28A-$A-______$&A$-;A/, mR%-.J-k-zR-$A-/2-KR$?-;A/, .J-/-$4S-2R-?R$-0R-______2R.-
;R., <J.-S-?R$-0R-5%-3-$A?-1=-(J<-2R.-{.-2>.-______, @R-//-mR%-:VR$-/$-$A-mR%-#$-______,
Exercise 16 Ask questions with (A-3R-$9A$, ., MA-(A-3R-$9A$, (A-(A-;R., and $%-$%. Answer with
the words in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., A-MJ?-k-(J/-__________, (,$-,A-=J-600)

SA-2, A-MJ?-k-(J/-,$-(A-3R-$9A$-<A%-, =/, =3-,$-,A-=J-S$-2o-;A/,
1. 9A-OR/-/?-35S-}R/-/-__________________ (=3-,$-,A-=J1,200)
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
2. 2.J-(J/-/?-L%-KR$?-$________________ (_%?-:#R<-670)
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
3. IR-5%-#J-2-/-_%?-:#R<-________________ (3%-%-3J.-$A)
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
4. IR-5%-#J-2:A-.GA=-/-__________________ (9-#%-<-3PR/-#%)
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
5. IR-5%-#J-2-/-______________________ (9-#%-(%-(%-=-?R$?)
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
6. <R%-2R-.$R/-0-_____________________ (=R-560) :$R<-;R.,
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
7. <R%-2R-.$R/-0-$A-o2-$A-<A-.J-______________ (3,R-5.-3?1,100)
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
8. <R%-2R-/-_________________________ (MA-OA-2z$) ;R.,
SA-2, __________________________ =/,___________________________
•61•
3A is used to deny verbs in present tense, at times, with a sense of judgment, whereas
3A vs. 3J.
3J. is used to deny matter of fact.
3AA + verb / monosyllabic Notes Verb in PRT + 3JJ. Notes
adj.
%J.-$*A?-!-3A-:PA$ There is a
tendency.
%J.-$*A?-!-:PAA$-$A-3J., All
statements
(-:.A-3A-28<, One tells what he (-:.A-28<--$A-3J., are made as
thinks. a matter of
fact.
.$J-c/-.J-<A%-3A-;R%-, One guesses. .$J-c/-.J-<A%-;R%-$A-3J.,
#%-2-:.A:A-/%-/?-%-3A-:H$ He is usually so. #%-2-:.A:A-/%-/-%-::H$--$A-3J.,
=?-l=-2-:.A?-l=-3A-.R%-, The athlete might
be lazy.
=?-l=-2-:.A?-l=-.RR%-$A-3J.,
Demonstrative Postpositions / and /? are both combined with demonstrative pronouns

pronouns with // :.A, $/, and .J, respectively, meaning here, over there, and there. The
/? following rules are followed to combine them.
:.AA-/ Notes :.AA-/? Notes
#R-(:R-.-:.AA-/--:IR, in present
tense
#R-(:R-:.AA-/?--3A-:.$ :IR-o-<JJ., future
tense
They walk here now. They will not stay here but leave.
/-/A%-%-:.AA-/--2#.-;R., with E-v %-:.AA-/?--3-2#., .J-/?-2#., past
tense
I was living here last year. I did not stay here but over there.
$8$-KR$?-%-:.AA-/--:.$-$A-;R.-o-3-<J., with E-v %?-#%-2--:.AA-/?--3A-*RR, future

tense
I will not be living here in future. I will not buy a house here.
$/--/ Notes $/--/? Notes
$/--/-MA-3%-%-$9A$-;R.-$A #R-(:R-$/--/?-3A-:..$ :IR-o-<JJ., future

tense
with E-v
There are many people. They will not stay there but leave.
$8J?-/A%-#<-$J-$/--/-2#.-;R., %-$/--/?-3-2#.., .J-/?-2#., past

tense
with E-v
He was staying there the year I did not stay there but over there.
before last year.
$8$-KR$?-%-$/--/-;R.-o-3-<J., %?-#%-2--$/--/?-3A-*RR, :.A-/?-*R, future
tense
with E-v
I will not be there in future. I will not buy the house there but
here.
•62•
.J-/ Notes .J-/? Notes
.J-/-C-3J., :.A-/-;R., .J-/?--C-3A-*J, ?-{3-0R-<J.,

with E-v generally
There is no grass over there but Grass does not grow over there;
here. the soil is dry.
.J-/-C-3J.-,=, with E-v .J-/?--C-3-*J?-,=, ?-{3-0R-;A/-,=, past
tense
There was no grass over there. Grass did not grow over there; the
soil was dry.
.J-/-C-;R.-o-<J., ?-/J3-/R-$A?, with E-v
.J-/?--C-*J-o-3-<J., ?-{3-0R-<J., future
tense
Grass would be there because of Grass will not grow over there;
the wet soil. the soil is dry.
/% It is used as both an interrogative adverb and the interrogative conjunction or.
As interrogative adverb Notes As interrogative Notes

conjunction or
3<-$J-(R?-1R/-$A-A-3-<J.-/%-, nOne L-2-:.A-HR?-=?-/%-%?-=?, nThe
Is she Chos sgron's mother? stresses /% Shall I do this job or will you do interrogative
to raise a it? conjunction is
;A-$J-A-m-2R-HR?-VA?-/%-, question. :VA-.J2-HR:A-;A/-/%--3<-$J:A-<J., stressed.
Did you write the good Is this notebook yours or hers?
letter? o /%- oThe
HR.-$*A?-!?-$*J/-!R/-;?-o-3A/- appears at
$*J/-!R/-;?-o-;A/-/%-3A/, conjunction
/%-, the end of appears between
Will you really have no a sentence. Will the wedding be held or two alternatives.
wedding? not?
<?-:.A-2=-$A?-29R?-/%-, <?-:.A-2=-$A?-29R?-/%-3-29R?,
Are these clothes made of Is this cloth made of wool or
wool? not?
L-2-:.A-HR?-=?-/%-, %?-=J$?-*J?-:.A-*R-/%--$/-*R,
Will you do this job? Shall I buy this gift or that one?
.$J-c/-$9A$-A-<-/?-;R%-o-<J.- .$J-c/-A-<-/?-<J.-/%--3-<J.,
/%-,
Will a teacher come from the Is the teacher from the USA or
USA? not?
•63•
/A-<J. is used to express one's assumption or judgment; /A-;A/ is used to make
/A-<J. vs. /A-;A/ intentional or factual statements. Refer to Notes-5, Chapter 2.
/AA-<JJ. / /AA-3--<J. Notes /AA-;AA/ / /AA-3AA/ Notes
8-;?-9R?-{.-(-<J3-3->J?-/A-<JJ., judgment
based on what
.?-5S.-:KA-?R%-, %-:IR-/A-3A/, decisive or
intentional
one knows
.$J-c/-$A?-$>J-$>J-$+R%-/A-3- assumption wJ-3A$-2R<-?R%-, F-$&R$-.$R?-/A-;AA/, unavoidable
solution
<JJ.,
/-/A%-A-3->A-?R%-/A-<JJ., introduction L-2-.J-%?-=?-/A-;AA/, matter of fact
8A-=A-T-5$-:.A?-#-=-*/-/A-3-<JJ., judgment %?-A-1-$A-#-*/-/A-;AA/, matter of fact
•64•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--$*A?-0,,
!R.-*A-3-z-?,
z-? Lhasa z-?-2R.-uR%?-$A-vJ-$/?-;A/,
2R.-uR%? TAR 2R.-uR%?-$A-#R%?-/-2R.-$A-?-(-5%-3-3J.,
PR%-HJ< city PR%-HJ<-/-,A<-2+%-$A?-MA-P%?-3%-,
$4S-2R main o=-#2-:.A:A-YA.-:6B/-$4S-2R-?-<J.,
=R-o? history =R-o?-2>.-/-#R-Z,
!R% empty; thousand 3A-!R%-$*A?-#-l%-:.A-/-;R.,
$&A$ one =$-$&A$-<-$*A?-=$-H-3A/,
?3-2o three hundred ?3-2o-2lA?-/-3%-,
;/ more; above )R-3R-]-<A-3,R-3?-!R%-2o.-$A-;/-;A/,
(2-YA. politics (2-YA.-<-.0=-:LR<-:VJ=-2-92,
.0=-:LR< economy .0=-:LR<-3-o?-/, <A$-$/?-<-3A-.<,
<A$-$/? culture <A$-$/?-<-.0=-:LR<-1/-5/-/-<$-=?,
:PA3-:P= transportation .0=-:LR<-:PA3-:P=-<-<$-=?,
*A.-( Skyid chu River z-?:A-MA-*A.-(-<-.%?-0-;R.,
($? to form; to locate #J-2-:.A-,R$-3<-<A-3$R-$9A$-/?-($?,
L%-KR$? north :.A-/?-L%-KR$?-$-?R%-,
<A mountain <A-(%-, <J.-S-!J%-/?-/$?-5=-o?,
(J big MA-3A$-.J-vR-(J,
2{R< to rotate; to be surrounded 2R.-#3?-<A-$A?-2{R<,
MA-P%? population ?-:.A-MA-P%?-)J-3%-<J.,
:23 ten thousand MA-P%?-:23-$&A$-$A?-)J-3%-<J.,
28A four 28A<-vR?-/-$?3-$&A$-$A?-*%-,
.GA= center :2J/-$A-.GA=-<-3-1R$
#-3(J Muslim z-?-/-2R.-<A$?-#-3(J-;R.,
•65•
2o-( percent !R%-$A-2o-(:A-?3-&-.-<J.,
I-2./ eighty %-uA.-5.-,A-o-I-2./-;A/,
2R.-<A$? ethnic Tibetan 2R.-<A$?-$4S-2R<-#3?-$?3-/-;R.,
5%-3 all 2R.-0-1=-(J<-5%-3-/%-2!/-0-<J.,
3)= to see; to visit %?-]-3-.J<-/-/A%-3)=,
?-( place %-?-(-3%-0R-$9A$-$-:IR-:.R.,
#$ each, responsibility o=-#2-#$-$A-:$R-:6B/-3*3-0?-:6S3,
;=-{R<-2 tourist ;=-{R<-2-3%-0R-KA-o=-/?-;A/,
3%-% many %?-9-3-3%-%-3A-9,
;=-uR%? landscape ;=-uR%?-=-=-;$-0R-3-<J.,
/R<-2-\A%-! Norbu glingka Park /R<-2-\A%-!-.-|R-:LJ.-$A-3J.,
0R-+-= Potala 0R-+-=-2eA.-d3-(J,
v to look \R$-2f/-.J<-%?-:R<-$A?-v-:.R.,
:.R. to want %?->-3A-:.R., }R-:.R.,
$*A?-! both 1-3-$*A?-!-}-?J?-*=-$A-;R.,
o=-.2% Dalai o=-.2%-.-v-.$%-=R-3,R,
28$?-? residency o=-.2%-$A-28$?-?-0R-+-=-;A/,
#-;? / #->? some =$-#->?-5S/-0R-3-<J.,
!R/ to show; autumn :S-0<-#R<-3-!R/, #R-#R%-OR-=%?-/-,%,
3A/-. except HA3-/-%-3A/-.-3J.,
.-2R still :P=-2-$*A?-!-.-2R-=3-/-;R.,
$/? location $/?-:.A-/-o=-0R-$9A$-$A-2%-?R-;R.,
I$?-&/ / P$?-&/ famous 3A-P$?-&/-:.A-35S-}R/-/?-<J.,
.0J example; to be possible #R-3R-?%?-o?-1R=-3-;A/-3A-.0J,
.0J<-28$-/ for example {.-<A$?-.%?-/-.!:, .0J<-28$-/-2R.-{.,
?J-:V?-.$J-$?3 three monasteries (in Lhasa) ?J-:V?-.$J-$?3-2R.-uR%?-$A-<J.,
.$R/-0 monastery .$R/-0?-8A%-=?-3A-$*J<,
•66•
$?3-0R the three MA-$?3-0R-<A$-:S-<J.,
9-2 monk 9-2-<-)R-3R-3*3-0?-3J.,
@R%-$A? very )R-3R-:.A-2lR/-0-@R%-$A?-(J,
$=-(J important .LA/-{.-aR2?, .J-$=-(J,
<A$-$8% classics #R-<A$-$8%-%-.%-$-;R.,
.< to flourish, to develop .0=-:LR<-.<-/-:5S-2-*A.,
.J%-3 in the first place .J%-3-%-o=-#2-.J-/?-;R%-,
.J%-?% nowadays .J%-?%-%-o=-#2-.J-/-3J.,
aR2-9-(J/-3R university aR2-9-(J/-3R-/?-<A$-$/?-aR2,
v-2 like #R-#R:A-A-1-v-2-<J., =J-=R-(J,
3)=-2 pilgrim 3)=-2-5S-{R<-$*A?-<J.,
<A$ to find, to see %?-/%-%-2v?-/?-0.-3-35S-<A$
\ remuneration; rent 3A-3%-%-#%-\-!J<-o-3J.,
!J< to give %?-HR.-|R<-3R-!J<, HR?-%-.%R?-0R-LA/,
.$R? to need, to ought to $R/-0-:.A<-|R<-3R-?3-&-!J<-.$R?,
<A$? kind; type .%R?-0R-:.A-<A$?-:.A-/?-3-:)R$
8J-,$-$A? sincerely %-#R-3R<-8J-,$-$A?-.%?,
$%-2 feeling ?J3?-*A.-/-$%-2-8R<-<-*A.,
*A.-0R happy; comfortable; interesting ?J3?-*A.-0R-;A/-/-=?-2.J,
A-&J-z-3R,
.-=R this year .-=R-/3-^-,A<-2+%-$A?-3A-:H$?,

3R-ZJ% single woman 3R-ZJ%-.J-=R-?R-s-<J.,
5S%-=? business 2R.-3%-%-$A?-.-2<-5S%-=?-$*J<-$A-;R.,
.J-3R like that, very much #R-3R-.J-3R-3A-;$
2.J comfortable; healthy =3-2.J-/-:IR-2.J,
_%?-:#R< auto _%?-:#R<-.J%-,R$-:)<-3/-/?-2.,
•67•
.J:A-nJ/-$A? therefore #R-2lR/-:P?-(J, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-;R/-+/-(J,
.$R%-3R night #R-.$R%-3R-|R-#<-3A-:IR,
z$-+ more A-3-%-<A$-/-.$:, YA%-3R-<A$-/-3A-.$:,
fA%-% / fA%-2 old $R/-0-fA%-2-.J-?-<-3A-.$R?,
2!R= to use %?-aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/?-.LA/-;A$-2!R=,
#R3-0 free time %-\R$-2f/-/-v-oR:A-#R3-0-3J.,
b%-,%-% on foot b%-,%-%-:IR, %-_%?-:#R<-<-3A-:.$
353?-353?-3 sometimes %?-353?-353?-3-(%-:,%-,
l-3R easy .0J-(-:VA-o-l-3R-3-<J.,
2!% to be full of 36S.-#%-:V-<A$?-$A?-2!%-;R.,
?-$/?-$A local .!R/-3(R$-?-$/?-$A-MA-3A/,
>-*J relative (person) %->-*J-5%-3<-:.%-(J,
.J:A-!2?-$A? therefore %-2-:.%-(J, .J:A-!2?-$A?-%?-8A-=A-S/-$A
;A/-/-< although =?-!-l-3R-;A/-/-<-LA?-0-.J?-3A-H$
#-/ on edge V$-#-/-MA-$9A$-=%?-;R.,
#-/-;R. to depend on HA3-5%-:.A-*J?-0-.J:A-#-/-;R.,
<R$?-0 friend <R$?-0-:$:-3.%-.$R%-:6S3?,
3PR/ guest 3PR/-3%-0R-!R/-,R$-/-;R.,
3PR/-/-:2R. to invite (as a guest) t$?-$9R%-$*J/-!R/-$A-3PR/-/-:2R.,
{R= to cook; to boil 9-3-2{R=-/, #R-.$:-2R-;A/,
9 to eat %?->-9, }R-5=-3A-9,
:$R< to last (time) %-0R-=A/-/?-=R-$?3-:$R<-$A-;R.,
/ if HR.-$?3-0R-:IR-/, %-<-:IR,
HA. / OA. to lead; to guide %?-LA?-0-aR2-9<-OA.-$A-;R.,
(-o? familiarity (-o?-3J.-/, .R/-.$-3%-%-12-.!:,
•68•
_%?-:#R<--$9A$ $8%-=3-(J-$9A$ 8A%-#-$9A$-/, #J-2-$9A$
;/-// Yunnan (a province) ;/-//-/?-2.J-(J/-2R.-$A-?-(-;A/,

2.J-(J/ Bde chen (a prefecture) 2.J-(J/-2R.-$A-<%-*R%-#=-$9A$-;A/,
/? from _%?-:#R<-:.A-;/-//-/?-;R%-,
=3 road =3-$?<-2-$9A$-=?-$A-;R.,
;%-3A/…;%-3A/ either…or… %?-;%-3A/-{3?->-9, ;%-3A/-=$->-9,
2*R. to march .3$-.0%-.=-3R<-2*R.,
/?...Ladon case from…to… :.A-/?-#R:C-HA3-3-,$-3A-<A%-,
$;?-$;R/ right and left; both sides :$R-OA.-.J:A-$;?-$;R/-/-Y%-.3$-;R.,
C-,% grassland C-,%-/-8A%-=?-3J.,
#R%-2R three #R%-2R-.J:A-!J%-/->A%-+R$-3%-,
3,:-{R< around .$R/-0:A-3,:-{R<-/-3)=-2-3%-,
?-( places 2R.-$A-?-(-=-=-/?->A%-+R$-3A-*J,
/3-^ weather .L<-#<-/3-^-3A-:H$?,
:H$? cold 2R.-GA-/3-^-.L<-#-SR, .$/-#-:H$?,
<R%-#J village (farming) <R%-#J-/-#J-3A-9R-3*3-0?-2#.-;R.,
:VR$-#J village (herding) :VR$-#J-/-:VR$-0-5S-#-,R<-<-;R.,
$*A?-! both 3A-:.A-$*A?-!-3$R-=R$-/?-3-<J.,
.3J-2 Dme ba (county) .3J-2-9A-OR/-8A%-(J/-IA-mR%-#$-$9A$-<J.,
.3-.$J Dmu dge (county) .3-.$J-k-(-eR%-$A-HA3-35K?-;A/,
k-( Rma chu (county) k-(-3$R-=R$-/?-,R/-/?-o-/$-$-28<,
2o. to pass through k-(-35S-}R/-2o.-/?-28<,
/3-;A/-/-< always; no matter when LA?-0-.J?-/3-;A/-/-<-,-3$-:,J/,
8A% field (agricultural) 8A%-%-?-2R/-:.J2,
8A%-# field (agricultural) 8A%-#-/-3A-9R-?R-/3-3-VJ=,
:U=-(? machine 2R.-/-:U=-(?-2!R=-*%-,
:VJ$ to reap; to cut %J.-9R:A-?-(-/?-$4S-2R<-8A-3R-9R?-8A%-:VJ$
•69•
}R/-0R blue /3-3#:-(A-$9A$-$-}R/-0R-;A/,
=R-+R$ crops =R-+R$-.-2R-5K?-3J.,
:S. to pull; to transport %:A-%/-;?-9R$-=$-:S.-$A-;R.,
:.2? below =%-:.2?-/-:VR$-HA3-#J<-(.-$9A$-;R.,
3(R.-gJ/ stupa 3(R.-gJ/-:R<-$A?-28J%?-o-<J.,
o2 behind <A-:.A:A-o2-/-#J-2-(%-(%-$9A$-;R.,
<A$ to see L-cR.-$A?-o%-<A%-/?-<A$-,2-9J<,
%J.-5% my family %J.-5%-}R/-(.-:.A-/-3J.,
=? to do; to build #R?-=?-3A->J?, <J.-S->J?-#=-;?,
=R-I%?-% every year .0=-:LR<-=R-P%?-%-o?-$A-;R.,
:1J= to increase %J.-5%-$A-K$?-9R$-3A-:1J=,
#J-3A villager %-#J-3A-5S<->-5-<A$?-,J/,
.-2R / .-<% still #R-3R:C-A-3-.-<%-aR2-9-/-;R.,
#%-2 room; house #%-2-:.A-2!R.-0-3A-Z,
A-3.R:C-IR-5%-#J-2, <R%-2R-.$R/-0, <J2-$R%-/,
#J-2 village #J-2-$9A$-..-#-$*A?-$A?-3A-;R%-,

:.A-/ here :.A-/-*A.-$9A$-3J.,
t$?-g bicycle t$?-g-2R.-/-.J%-3-3J.,
o$ to run .J%-?%-#J-2:A-/%-/-:U=-g-o$-$A-;R.,
<J.-S although; but #R?-(%-:,%-$A-;R., <J.-S-,-3$-3A-:,J/,
5S%-#% shop 5S%-#%-:.A-/?-5S%-3A-o$
aR2-9 school aR2-9-/?-<A$-$/?-aR2,
5%-3 all .$J-aR2-5%-3-#3?-$?J%-%-:IR,
,$ distance 5S%-#%-.J-,$-<A%-,
,$-*J near (distance) =?-#%?-,$-*J-/-:PR-2.J,
A-# uncle A-#-!R/-0-?-;A/-%?-3A->J?,
•70•
.%R?-0R thing *J?-0-.J?-o/-.-.%R?-0R-3%-0R-#<-;R.,
:#< to carry on the back .%R?-0R-:.A-:#<-/-3A-H$
#R3 to have free time .J-<A%-%-3A-#R3,
$*J< to manage; to engage in 5S%-=?-$*J<-oR-#R:A-:.R.-0-<J.,
(%-(% small #R-=R-(%-(%-=?-0R-;%-$A
#R%-< garden #R%-<-:.A:A-/%-/?-$%-2-*A.,
8A%-=? agriculture 8A%-=?-29R-=?-$A-}-;A/,
<R%-3-:VR$ agro-pastoral %J.-9R:C-#J-2-<R%-3-:VR$-;A/,
C-? grassland K$?-9R$-3%-/, C-?-)J-%/-/-*/-:PR,
K$?-9R$ livestock K$?-9R$-#-3,R-5%-3-24S%?-/-29%-,
:5S to herd %?-=$-:5S-/-3A-:.R.,
<R% agricultural area <R%-/-}R-5=-;R.,
8A% farming field 8A%-,R$-$-5S.-3-:.J2?,
;R.-? location; address <A-?$?-;R.-?-/-MA-*%-,
$?<-2 new 5S%-#%-:.A:A-/%-/-.%R?-0R-$?<-2-3%-,
$+R% to convert; to let #%-2-:.A-\R$-2f/-#%-%-$+R%-$A-;R.,
:,. to agree MA-3%-(J->R?-,2?-2!R.-.J<-3A-:,.,
:P2 to be completed =R-$*A?-GA-eJ?-/?-#%-2-.J-:P2-o-<J.,
z-#% temple #J-2:A-$8A-2.$-$-z-#%-8A$-28J%?,
A-MJ? father-in-law; old man A-MJ?-.J-=R-(J,
{R<-< circumambulation #R-.$R/-0<-{R<-2-$?3-o$-$A-;R.,
{R<-<-o$ to circumambulate %-.J-<A%-{R<-2-o$-$A-3A-:IR,
.J-3A/-.J so-so /.-0-.J-<A%-.J-3A/-.J-<J.,
*R/ problem; mistake; to matter L-2-?%-*A/-3-=?-/-3A-*R/,
:UR. to fit E-3R-:.A-%:A-3$R<-3A-:UR.,
2.-:IR to depart .-.?-5S.-:KA-;R., %-2.-:IR,
•71•
•72•
aR2-5/-$?3-0,
2h-3R.,
Frequency Words Articles: $9A$, .J, 0R, 2R, %R

Conditional Wish… /-:.R. $% and .R vs. $&A$ and $*A?
Purposive Infinitive Case:… $A:IR #J<, *A?, ?3 vs. $&A$, $*A?, $?3
Infinitive Clause With: …
oR More Interrogatives
The groom's female relatives wait for the bride and her relatives, Gcan tsha (Jianzha ᇪ
ᠢ) County, Rma lho (Huangnan 咘फ) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Mtsho sngon
Province (2008).
Text One: frequency words, infinitive cases, and regular action
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, <J2-$R%-$A-=R-?<,
=R-?<-29:-MA-3*3-:6S3?-$A-.?-(J/-$9A$ c/-$8R/-1R-3R-3*3-.$:-$A-.?-(J/-$9A$-;A/, =R-fA%-2-1<-*J=, =R-
$?<-2-5<-2?-oR:A-.?-(J/-$9A$-;A/, <J2-$R%-/?-=R-?<-1=-(J<-,A-^-$*A?-0-$A-/%-;A/, ;=-P-:.A-/?-=R-?<-o-$A-=A-
,R-v<-<-2lA-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-<J2-$R%-<-z-?-$*A?-!-=R-?<-$A-.?-5S.-3A-$&A$ <J2-$R%-/?-o-^-.%-0R-5K?-0-.%-0R-=R-
?<-;A/,
=R-?<-gJ/-:VJ=-$A-.?-(J/-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?, =R-?<-$A-}R/-/-=R-fA%-$A-d-3-.NA-.$R?, #-%/-$+/-/?-\J%-3A-*/, =R-?<-

}R/-$A-*A/-3-A-+-$A?-$8$-3<-<J2-$R%-/?-$/3-$%-9J<-$A-;R., MA-5%-3-$A?-HA3-/-=R-?<-<-P-1A$-;?-$A-;R., .$R/-0-
$A-/%-%-/3-;A/-/-<-3)=-$A-:IR-/A-<J., $8A-2.$-$A-z-#%-/%-%-2?%-1=-$A-:IR, $/3-$%-$A-.$R%-3R<-=R-fA%-2-$A-IR%-
%R-1<-mR%-<, =R-$?<-$A-PR$-%R-:$$-$A-;R.,
=R-?<-5K?-$&A$-$ MA-<A$?-$J-}-?J?-=%?-$A-;R., /%?-)-1=-(J<-}-3R:C-.?-5S.-$?3-0-$A-}R/-/-:,%-$A-;R., /%?-)-

$A-}R/-=, 8A-3R-<A$?-$A?-9-3-{R=-/A-<J., 8A-=A-<A$?-$J?-z-#%-<-.$R/-0-/?-2?%-1., /%?-)-$A-eJ?-/?, >-*J-9R-1/-
5/-/-=J$?-*J?-!J<-$A-:IR, =J$?-*J?-$A-/%-/-o/-.-$R-<J-<-?A=-+R$-<->-;R., 353?-353?-3-(%-<-;R., 8-;?-(%-
(%-<A$?-$J<-.-2R-/3-;A/-/-<-|R<-3R-!J<-$A-;R.,
8-;?-<A$?-$J<-35S/-/-=R-?<-=R-$&A$-$A-/%-.?-(J/-A-+-$A?-*A.-0R-;A/, #R-9R?-=?-!-1=-(J<-=?-$A-3J., 1-3-9R-/3-

;A/-/-<-#R3-$A-3J., #R-9R?-=R-?<-$A-:IR-|R-$+R%-.$R?, KA-/%-$A-L-2-5%-3-P-1A$-;?-.$R?,
3.1 --Frequency words
Frequency words English Frequency

/3-;A/-/-< always 100 %
o/-. frequently
o/-w/-$A? usually
8R%-$A? usually / ever
353?-353?-3 / 2<-2<-< sometimes

$&A$-<J-$*A?-<J once in a while
1=-(J<…negative (3 / 3A / 3A/ / 3J.) rarely
$+/-/? / 2-$A?...negative adverb (3 / 3A / 3A/ / 3J.) never

0%
•74•
Notes-1
1. $&A$: This cardinal number also means the same, e.g., %J.-$*A?-!-$9$?-$&A$-;A/, We are
physically the same.
2. /R-$A? means because.
3. 8R%-$A? has two meanings: usually and ever (in perfect tense), e.g., %?->-8R%-$A?-3A-9, <J.-S-
.J-<A%-9, I usually do not eat meat but I do today. / HR?->-8R%-$A?-9R?-AJ-MR%-, Have you ever
eaten meat? / %?->-8R%-$A?-9R?-3-MR%-, I've never eaten meat.
Exercise 1 Make true statements about your relatives with frequency words.
.0J<-2eR., A-3-$A?-3-EA-:.R/, A-3-$A?-/3-;A/-/-<-3-EA-:.R/,
1. %:A-A-1-$A?-\R$-2f/-/-v, ________________________________________
2. %:A-Z%-3R-$A?-9-3-{R=-$A-;R., ________________________________________
3. %:A-A-3-.$R/-0:A-/%-%-3)=-{R<-<-:IR,_______________________________________
4. %:A-YA%-3R-$A?-5$?-0<-[R$-$A-;R., ________________________________________
5. %:A-%/-;-$A?-(%-:,%-$A-;R., ________________________________________
6. %-;=-{R<-<-:IR-$A-;R., ________________________________________
7. Y-3R-$A?-#%-2-2&:-.$-;?-$A-;R., ________________________________________
8. %:A-5-2R-5-3R-$A?-o-{.-2>.-$A-3J., ________________________________________
9. %:A-A-&J-$A?-9-3-$3-0R-9-$A-3J., ________________________________________
10. %J.-5%-$A?-9-#%-/%-/?-9-3-3A-9, ________________________________________
Exercise 2 Make statements about yourself with frequency words.
.0J<-2eR., %?-|R$-0-__________3A-9, %?-|R$-0-$+/-/?-3A-9,
1. %?-.-2_____________________:,J/, 5. %?-2R.-H_________________$R/-$A-;R.,
2. %-r%-=A-___________________lJ-$A-;R., 6. %?->-____________________9-$A-;R.,
3. %?-K$?-9R$-_______________:5S-$A-;R., 7. %?-}R-________________________9,
4. %?-A-3.R:C-\-______________=J/-$A-3J., 8. %?-$R/-o-$R%-.!:-3R-_______________*R,
•75•
9. %-.$R/-0:A-/%-%-________________:IR, 11. %?-.L<-C-.$/-:2_______________bR,
10. %?-l3-0-______________________4, 12. %-g-8R/-$A-____________________3J.,
3.2 --Position of frequency words
A.
Subject Frequency Complement Verb
%?- $+/--/?-- (%- :,%-$A-3J., / 3A-:,%-,
%J.-5%-$A-c/-cR/-$*A?-!- 353?--353?--3- \R$-2f/-#%-%- :IR, / 3A-:IR,
2R.-3%-%-$A?- $+/--/?-- *->- 3A-9, / 9-$A-3J.,
B.
Subject Complement Frequency Verb
%?- (%- $+/--/?-- :,%-$A-3J., / 3A-:,%-,
%J.-5%-$A-c/-cR/-$*A?-!- \R$-2f/-#%-%- 353?--353?--3- :IR, / 3A-:IR,
2R.-3A-3%-%-$A?- *->- $+/--/?-- 3A-9, / 9-$A-3J.,
C.
Subject Complement Verb Frequency $A-;R. / $A-3J.
%?- (%- :,%-$A- $+/--/? / 2-$A?- 3J.,
%J.-5%-$A-c/-cR/- \R$-2f/-#%-%- :IR-$A- 353?--353?--3- ;R., / 3J.,
$*A?-!-
2R.-3%-%-$A?- *->- 9-$A- $+//-/? / 2-$A?- 3J.,
Exercise 3 Complete the dialogue with frequency words and the phrases in
parentheses, function words and, if necessary, your own words.
(R?-:1$? $9:-3)$-:.A-#3?-$?J%-%-:IR-<?,
.2%--w/ %-:IR-3A-,2, %:A-.$J-c/-$A?-$9:-3)$-$-________________ (always; =?-L-3%-%-) !J<,
.J-3A/-/, %:A-1-3-$*A?-!?-<-_____________ (often) %-:.$-$A-____________,(:)$)
(R?-:1$? HR.-_______________ (often) @-3-$*A?-!-v-$A-:IR-$A-AJ-;R.,
.2%--w/ _______________ (every week) %-#R-$*A?-!-,$-_______________,
(R?-:1$? #R-$*A?-!-_______________ (.J-3R-$9A$; often) (A-$9A$-$-,$-$A-;R.,
.2%--w/ %-#R-$*A?-!:A-$&J?-U$-;A/-9J<-$A-;R., .J:A-!2?-$A?-#R-$*A?-!?-%-__________ (always; S/)
•76•
(R?-:1$? .J-;A/-/-:-(:R-5%-3-3*3-0?-#3?-$?J%-%-:IR,
.2%--w/ %:A-A-1-;<-3<-<-_______________ (:IR), |R-#-<-_______________ (sometimes;
:2.), A-3-A-1-<-_______________ (never) ______________, (:V=)
(R?-:1$? .J?-/, HR:A-A-3-_______________ (usually; |R<-:IR)
.2%--w/ _____________ (occasionally; :IR), <J.-S-________________ (often; /%-/)
__________ (:.$),
(R?-:1$? HR:A-Z%-3R-_______________(sometimes) @-3-$*A?-!_______________ (v-$A-;R%)

.2%--w/ 3<-$J-<-;R%-$A-;R., <J.-S-%J.-$*A?-!_______________ (occasionally; 3A-:PA$-$A),
(R?-:1$? HR:A-1-3-$*A?-!-_______________ (always; ;A.-5B3; o-<J.,) HR.-MA%-YA%-$*A?-!-<A$-/,
.2%--w/ ______________c/-cR/-$*A?-!-;A.-5B3-$A-;R., (sometimes) <J.-S-.J-____________
(l-3R; 3-<J.; always), HR:A-1-3-$*A?-!-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/,
(R?-:1$? %-1-;:-2-:IR-$A-3J., @-3-$*A?-!?-%-_______________ (<A$; rarely),

.2%--w/ HR.-:.A-<%-3$R-<%-o=, =?-.2%-29%-$A
3.3 --Position of 8R%-$A? in questions

Subject Complement 8R%-$A? Interrogative
adverb
Verb
HR.- aR2-9<- :IR,

HR:A-A-3?- 2=-H-
8R%-$A?-
:,$
>- AJ
9-2-<A$?-$A?- 9,
#<-$J:A-c/-3R- 29%-3R-$9A$- ;A/,
Subject 8RR%-$A? Complement Verb Interrogative
adverb
HR.- 8R%-$A?- aR2-9<- 3A-:IR-
HR:A-A-3?- 8R%-$A?- 2=-H- 3A-:,$-
>- /?,
9-2-<A$?-$A?- 8R%-$A?- 3A-9-
#<-$J:A-c/-3R- 8R%-$A?- 29%-3R-$9A$- 3A/-
•77•
Exercise 4 Raise questions with 8R%-$A? and interrogative adverbs. Answer with
frequency words.
.0J<-2eR., HR?-9-3-<%-$A?-AJ-{R=,
aR2-3-!-2, HR.-<%-$A?-9-3-8R%-$A?-AJ-{R=, aR2-3-#-2, 353?-353?-3-{R=-$A-;R.,
1. HR?-2R.-{.-2>., SA-2,_______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
2. HR.-:)<-3/-/?-?/, SA-2,_______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
3. HR.-<-HR:A-c/-3R-1-;:-2-:IR, SA-2,_______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
4. HR?-/%?-3R<-9-3-:H$?-+R-9, SA-2,_______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
5. 2R.-<A$?-$J?-#-nJ-:,%-, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
6. HR?-(%-:,%-, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
7. HR?-$9:-3)$-$-=?-!-=?, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
8. HR.-aR2-OA.-$A-eJ?-=?, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
9. HR.-\R$-2f/-/-.$:, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
10. HR.-.$R%-3R-*=-oR-:KA, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
11. 2R.-;A$-.!:-3R-<J., SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
•78•
12. 9A-=A%-:H$?-3R-<J., SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
13. A-3.R-/?-.N$?-)-:,%-, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
14. o-$A?-l3-0-9, SA-2, _______________________________,
=/,_______________________________,
Exercise 5 Complete the dialogue using frequency words.
(R?-1R/ HR.-________________,
.2%--P$? %-9A-=A%-/?-;R%-/A-;A/,
(R?-1R/ HR:A-:$R-2-________________,
.2%--P$? %:A-:$R-2-A-#-?%?-o?-*2?-;A/,
(R?-1R/ HR?-________________9A-=A%-/-L-2-=?-$A-________________;R.,
.2%--P$? %?-353?-353?-3-=?-$A-;R.,
(R?-1R/ HR.-HR:A-:$R-2-________________.$:,
.2%--P$? %-@R%-$A?-.$:-$A #<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-<J.,
(R?-1R/ #<-$J?-o-H-________________,
.2%--P$? #<-$J?-9A-=A%-/-$R/-$A-3J.,
(R?-1R/ #<-$J?-2R.-H________________$R/,
.2%--P$? $R/-/A-<J., #R-2R.-$A-?-(<-:IR-/-2R.-H-$R/-$A-;R.,
(R?-1R/ ________________________________,
.2%--P$? #<-$J-=R-*%-$9A$-;A/, 1=-(J<-=R-28A-2&-;?-3?-<J.,
(R?-1R/ HR.-(-2R?________________________________,
.2%--P$? 29R-9:A-/%-/-o-{.-2>.-$A-;R.,
(R?-1R/ ____________________________________,
.2%--P$? #<-$J?-{.-<A$?-3%-%-$9A$->J?-$A
(R?-1R/ ____________________________________,
.2%--P$?,, 29R-9:A-/%-/-o-{.-3A/-.-{.-(-$8/-0-$+/-/?-2>.-$A-3J.,
•79•
(R?-1R/ ;-35<-<J., HR:A-:$R-2-$A-o-35/-%-2>.-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
.2%--P$? A-#-?%?-o?-*2?-#3?-/?-;A/, #<-$J?-2R.-{.-#3?-{.-3A/-.-2>.-$A-3J., A-3.R-{.-
____________, #<-$J?-PR%-HJ<-/?-2R.-H-_____________, <J.-S-2R.-$A-?-(-/?
_____________2R.-H-$R/-$A-;R., #<-$J?-{.-(-3%-%->J?-/-<, _____________2R.-
{.-<-o-{.-_____________,
(R?-1R/ #<-$J:A-c.-3R-_____________<J., #R, pronounced as #= at times and
.2%--P$? .J-3A/-.J-<J., as #= in writtenTibetan, means to
pretend, e.g., #R?-:VA-#R-;?, He
(R?-1R/ __________________________, pretends to write.
.2%--P$? 3<-$J-o/-.-29R-9-/%-%-;R%-$A-3J.,
(R?-1R/ HR.-3<-$J<-_____________3A-.$:-/?,
.2%--P$? 3<-$J-$%-2-3,R, o-{.-(J-$9A$-3A->J?-/-<, o-{.-+$-+$-=2-/A-<J., 2R.-{.___________,
(R?-1R/ 2R.-{.-3-2>.-/-3A-Z-/A-AJ-<J.,
.2%--P$? .J?-3A-5., o-;A/-#R-2&:, 2R.-H-<-__________-3A-$R/,
(R?-1R/ .J?-/-HR?__________________________,
.2%--P$? %?-____________2R.-H-$R/, 2R.-{.-2>., o-{.-____________, S%-3R<-=2-/-o-
{.-__________>J?,
3.4 --Conditional wish (see note 2, p. 237), purposive infinitive case, and infinitive clause
A. Conditional wish: verb / adjective + /-:.RR.

%?-9-3-.-9R?-/-:.RR., I want to eat now.
3<-$J?-;$-/-:.RR., She wants to be beautiful.
aR2-3-9R-;=-{R<-<-?R%-/-:.RR., The students want to go traveling.
%?-c/-3R-;$-3-;A/-/-:.RR., I hope that my wife is beautiful.
.$J-c/-$A?-aR2-OA.-L?-/-3A-:.RR., The teacher does not want to teach.
8-;?-.J?-?R%-/-3A-:.RR., The child does not want to go.
•80•
B. Purposive infinitive: verb + $A-:IRR / $A-;R%
3)=-2-:.A-z-?<-3)=-$A-:IRR, This pilgrim goes to Lhasa on pilgrimage.
/.-0-:.A-(/-#%-/%-%-(/-0<-!R/-$A-:IR, This patient goes to the hospital to see a doctor.
#R-aR2-9:A-/%-%-2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-:IRR-:.R., He wants to go to school to study.
%-:)<-3/-/-:)<-3/-{.-.R%-$A-:IR, I go to Germany to study German.
.-@-/A-=?-!-=?--$A-:IRR, Now all go to work!
.R-.$R%-%J.-(-2R-lJ-$A-:IR, We go play tonight.
C. Infinitive clause: verb + oR

%:A-=?-:$/-HA3-/?-8-;?--$*RR<-oR-;A/, My duty is to take care of the children at home.
b%--,%--%-:IRR-oR-.!:-3R-<J., It is difficult to walk on foot.
2R.-{.--$R-oR-l-$A <J.-S--2R.-{.--2>.--oR-.!:-$A It is easy to understand Tibetan but difficult to speak.
#R-%R-=%?--oR-.-.-.-;A/, It is very easy to make him angry.
#<-$J?-9-3-{R=-oR-%:A-2!R.-0-;A/, It is my idea that he cooks.
#%--%-:.AA-2&:--.$--;?--oR-%:A-3$R<-8, It becomes my duty to clean up this room.
Text Two: 9<-v:A-aR2-5/, $/?-5=-,R<-2,
1. =R-?<-$A-*A/-3-.%-2R, <J2-$R%-/?-MA-9R?-z-#%-<-.$R/-0:A-/%-/?-2?%-:IR$?-$A-;R.,
2. HA3-5%-<J-<J-/-.<-tR$-<J-lJ%-$A-;R., .<-tR$-9R-<?-$A?-29R-$A-;R.,
3. #J-2-=-=-/?-3.:-:1J/-$A-;R., =R-?<-<-*A/-3-2&R-2o.-;R.,
4. <J2-$R%-?-(-/, #J-2-(J-$9A$-$-z-#%-$9A$-;R.-/A-<J., #J-2-=-=<-.-2R-(-4B$-;R.,
5. 5K?-0-.%-0R, 5K?-0-$*A?-0, 5K?-2-$?3-0-A-+-$A?-*A.-0R-<J., *A/-3-:.A-$?3-0R-,A<-2+%-$A?-29:-MA-<->-*J-
z/-:6S3?-$A-*A/-3-<J.,
6. HA3-5%-$9A$-/?-3(R.-3J-$9A$-/3-;A/-/-<-o/-3A-(., HA3-5%-=-=-$A?-3(R.-3J-(-<J-:)R$-/A-<J.,
7. (R/-=3-(J/-3R-5K?-2&-28A-2-$A-*A/-;A/, $?<-2-<-$?<-3R, MA-..-0-&/-5%-3-3)=-$A-:IR-$A-;R.,
8. 3J-+R$-3(R.-3)=-MA%-(J, .J-,A<-2+%-$A?-.$R/-0-(J-2R-?R-?R-/-;R.-/A-<J.,
9. <J2-$R%-$A-}$?-0-9R-3*3-0?-:5S$?-$A-;R., :.R/-0-:.R/-$A-;R.,
•81•
3.5 --Indefinite and definite articles
Indefinite article English Definite article English

L-$9AA$-#%?-/%-/-*=-$A-;R., A bird lies in the
snow.
L-.!<-<R-.J-#%?-/%-/-*=-;R., The white bird
lies in the snow.
%:A-?R-$9AA$-:$=-$A-;R., A tooth of mine is
moving.
%:A-?R-<=-2-2R-:$=-$A-;R., My decayed tooth
is moving.
=$-$9AA$-#J<-(.-<-;R., A sheep stays
alone.
=$-.!<-<R-2R-#J<-(.-<-;R., The white sheep
stays alone.
MA-(-3J.-$9AA$-=3-/-;R%-$A-;R., A stranger comes
on the way.
MA-(-3J.-0R-<A-3$R-/-;R%-$A-;R., The stranger
comes along the
mountaintop.
%?-<A-$9AA$-<A$-$A I see a mountain. %?-<A-3,R/-0R-2R-<A$-$A I see the high
mountain.
Notes-2
1. 0R, 2R, and %R: These particles are used with adjectives and numbers, creating a latent
definite article. 0R is used after suffixes $-.-2-?-/-3 while 2R is used after the suffix : and
words without suffixes. Examples are: MA-.<-3-$?3-0R-=?-!-=?-$A-:IR, MA-c/-0-2 28A-2R-;:-/?-
:.$ The three young people go to work and the four old ones stay at home. The number
the latent definite indicates must be more than two because $9A$ is used as an indefinite
article and$*A?-! as the duality marker, e.g., aR2-3-$9A$-$A?-#R:C-1-3-$*A?-!-/-$A-;R.-9J<, A
student said both his parents are ill. / %J.-$*A?-!-*=-$A-:IR, We both go to bed. %R is used
after a syllable that ends with the suffix . They might be treated as definite articles,
%
something being singled out, among more than one thing, e.g., ?A=-+R$-(%--%R-8A3-3.R$-(J,
The small fruit looks tasty. / ?A=-+R$-(J-2R<-8A3-3.R$-3J., The big one does not look tasty.
2. 5%-3 means all. Since it implies a definite article, an additional article is not required,
e.g., :,?-3A-5%-3-$A?-PR?-:$R-$&A$-:S-2+R/, All the representatives proposed the same
agenda.
3. Definite articles are not used to express a general tone, e.g., 2R.-/?-/3-^-:H$?, It is cold
in Tibet. / 9A-=A%-/?-#%-2-$R%-.!:-3R-3-<J., Houses are not expensive in Zi ling.
Exercise 6 Write indefinite and definite articles and plurality markers in the blanks
where appropriate.
.0J<-2eR., LA?-0-$9$?-<A%-.J-%:A-%/-;-;A/, 8-;?-$9A$-.J-<A%-*J-$A-;R.,
1. MA-c/-0___________#$-MR%-$A-;R.,
2. A-3.R-/?-aR2-$?R-___________.-2<-29%-$A
•82•
3. 2R.-$A-:VR$-0-___________}R-3A-.$:,
n $9AA$ plays the role of any in both question and
4. 9R$-#-3,R___________/3-;A/-/-<-9R$-<-/-;R., statement, e.g., HR.-(-$-$9A$-AJ-;R., Do you have a pen? / %-
(-$-$9A$-3J., I do not have a pen.
5. 8-;?-___________$A?-|J:-#%-/%-/?-v-$A-;R.,
o.J is used as the demonstrative pronoun that as well,
6. .J-<A%-/3-^-___________5-k$?-(J-$A e.g., .0J-(-.J-.$:-$9A$-3-<J., That book is not a good one.
7. \R$-[.-___________%?-*R-:.R.,
8. %:A-<R$?-0-{=-29%-%-9R$-=$-___________3J.,
9. =$-mA-_______<-9R$-mA-_________3*3-0?-3J.,
10. $R?-}R/-0R-___________$R/-/-HR.-28/-3R-<J.,
Exercise 7 Complete the dialogue between a Tibetan herder and a Muslim butcher.
:VRR$-0 %?-=$-:5S%-$A-;R., HR?-$R%-(A-3R-$9A$-!J<-:.R.,

#-3(JJ-5S%-2 $R%-_____:S-:S-3A/, =$->J.-29%-/, =$____|R<-3R-?3-2o, =$->J.-8/-/, |R<-3R-*A?-2o-
;?-3?-;A/,
:VRR$-0 $R%-.J-3R-______$-%?-3A-:5S%-, HR?-$R%-(J________!J<-.$R?, .J-3A/-.-%J.-$*A?-!<-5S%-3J.-$A
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 HR.-2#R3?-0?-=$_________;R.,
:VRR$-0 *A->-,3-0-;R., 3-3R-$?3-<-,R%-2-28A, >2-$9/-#-$%-2&-$?3-;R.,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 3-3R-$?3-_________%?-3A-*R, <J.-S->2-$9/-2&-$?3-_________%?-*R, <J-<J<-|R<-3R-?3-
2o-<-2&-,3-0-;A/, ,R%-2-28A-_________$R%-(J-_______3A-;R%-, <J.-S, $R%-:PA$-/, %?-*R,
:VRR$-0 $/-.$R?-:.A-3A-.$R?-9J<-3A-(R$ *R-/-5%-3-I2?-$A?-*R?,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 3-3R_________.-2<-3A-5S%-$A
:VRR$-0 HR?-,R%-2_________|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-!J<,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 |R<-3R-*A?-2o-<-2./-&,
:VRR$-0 .J-3R-3A-.0J, ,R%-2-_________$-(-~R3?-$A?-|R<-3R-*A?-2o-<-.$-2&-.$R?,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 A-#-:VR$-0, .J?-/-%:A-:.A-/-%J.-$*A?-!<-5S%-3J.-$A HR.-5S%-2-$8/-0-_________:5S=-$A-?R%-,
:VRR$-0 >2-$9/-_________%?-HR.-:5S%-, |R<-3R-#/-/--$R/-.$R?,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 3-3R-$?3_________<-,R%-2-28A-_________HR?-_________:.J.,
:VRR$-0 %?-KA<-<-<-/%-%-:.J.,
•83•
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 A-#-:VR$-0, %?-3-3R-$?3-_________<-,R%-2-28A-2R-I2?-$A?-*R?-/-_________(R$
:VRR$-0 .J-(R$-$A <J.-S-HR:A-$R%-_________;A/,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 (-~R3?-$A?-=$-_________$-*A?-2o-<-2./-&-.R/-s-!J<,
:VRR$-0 HR?-_________3-9J<, 3-3R-hR$-$R->2-$9/-;A/, <J-<J<-*A?-2o-<-2o.-&-LA/,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 ;-.-.J-;?, *A?-2o-<-.R/-s-!J<,
:VRR$-0 (R$-$A 2#R3?-0?-|R<-3R-.-<J.,
#-3(JJ-5S%-2 ___________________________,
Exercise 8 Write $9A$, .J, $%-/ , AJ and (A->J. in the blanks.

A.
aRR2-3-!--2 .0J-(-________.0J-36S.-#%-/-$;R<-o-AJ-;R., o encompasses various grammatical
functions. In this text, it is an infinitive case,
aRR2-3-#--2 ;R.-$A .0J-(-.J-$;R<-3#/-*%-$A e.g., .0J-36S.-#%-/-.0J-(-:.A-$;R<-o-AJ-;R., Is
aRR2-3-!--2 ________$;<-/-|R<-3R-________.$R?, there this book in the library to borrow? /
.J-<A%-HR.-=?-L-:VA-o-AJ-;R., Do you have

aRR2-3-#--2 |R<-3R-.$R?-$A
homework to do today?
B.
aRR2-3-!--2 .0J-(-:.A-:.A-/?-2*<-.0<-o$-AJ-,2,
.0JJ-(--.R-.3-0 ,2-/A-<J., <J.-S-2*<-.0<-o$-,.-________:.A-/-3J.,
aRR2-3-!--2 _______________;R.,
.0JJ-(--.R-.3-0 *A?-,R$-/-;R.,
aRR2-3-!--2 *A?-,R$-$-________:IR-.$R?,
.0JJ-(--.R-.3-0 $;R/-$A-P-$-.J-/-{?-|3 ________;R., :IR-?-________<J.,
Notes-3
1. $% and .R are used in place of $&A$ and $*A? to specify a unit, e.g., c/-:V3-(%->J=-.3-.R,
two bottles of wine; !-<-KJ-3-,A-o-$%-, one kg of sugar; A-|R<-3:R-.R, twenty US cents.
2. Numbers $&A$, $*A?, and $?3 are respectively replaced by #J<, *A?, and ?3 to modify
floor of building and something resembling a rope, e.g., strip, line, or plait, e.g.,
#J<-,R$
first floor; *A?-,R$ second floor; ?3-,R$ third floor; ,$-0-#J<-n, one rope; 0-*A?-n, two
plaits of hair.
•84•
Text Three: articles, regularity, and explanatory tone
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
A-3.R-/?, =R-?<-,A<-2+%-$A?-o-$A-@R<-^-v<-<-2lA-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?, =R-?<-GA-.?-5S.-2R.-$A-?-(-=-=-
.%-$&A$-:S-3A/, ;A/-/-<, .J%-?%-PR%-HJ<-<-PR%-2h=-/-2R.-$A-=A-,R-v<-<-=R-$?<-$A-;R., 2R.-$A-?-(-$8/-0-/?-=R-
?<-(A-$9A$->J.-<R=-$A-;R.-/%-,
:V?-uR%?-/?, =R-?<-^-2-$&A$-$A-}R/-/-$?<-$A-;R., 2>.-YR=-$9A$-$ =R-?<-$A-{2?-2-:,2-:O$-$-
:IR-.$R?-/R-$A?, :V?-uR%?-$A-o=-2R-$A?-^-$&A$-$A-}R/-=-=R-$?<-/A-<J., .J%-?%-;A/-/-<, :V?-uR%?-/?-=R-?<-^-
2-$&A$-$A?-}, =R-?<-5K?-0-s-2-$A-*A/, /?-<-Y/-3, =$-$A-IR.-0-24S?-3-$A?-#-2-$9A$-{R=-$A-;R., =$-$A-/%-OR=-
<-/?-KJ-$A?-9-3-H.-0<-2-$9A$-=?-YR=-;R., HA3-5%-$9A$-$A?-<-<-<-3-$&A$-<J-2>:-/A-<J., >-#R$-3.R$-.3<-<R-
$+R%-, i-&R$-$A?-(%-1R<-2&:-9J<,
2R.-$A-?-(-,A-/?-2v?-/, =R-?<-.?-29%-$9A$-<J., =R%?-,R.-$A-$R-{2?-$9A$-<-<J., 29:-3A-!/-:6S3?-$A-
.?-5S.-<-<J., =R-?<-$A-{2?-2-2N->A?-$;%-:2R.-;?-$A-;R., #%-2-5%-3-$4%-3-;?-/A-<J., $R/-o-?R-3-29R-/A-<J.,
#-3(-;R.-/-,$-$&R.-;?-/A-<J., 2-=R/-;R.-/-:)=-.$R?-/A-<J., (R?-=$?-$A-(R-$-%J=-$A-;R., :.A-5%-3-=R-?<-$A-}R/-
$A-.R/-.$-<J., =R-?<-5K?-2-.%-2R-$A-*A/-/, 29:-3A-5%-3-}-?J?-=%?-$A-;R., #-=$-$4%-3<-::O, $R/-o-?R-3-$R/-/A-
<J., o/-(-L-<-=-?R$?-:.R$?-/A-<J., 9-3-$A-<A$?-HA3-5%-$A-3(R.-#%-/%-%-$$>R3-$A-;R., HA3-5%-$9A$-$A-MA-$9A$-
$A?-.$R/-0-<-z-#%-/?-3(R.-0-:2=-/A-<J., .J:A-$8$-/?-.-HA3-3A-9R?-3*3-0?-9-3-9-/A-<J., =R-?<-$A-{2?-2,
(R?-=$?-$A-(R-$-3%-%-;R., .0J<-28$-/-:(3-<-(R/-=3-(J/-3R-$*A?-! .J?-3A-5., >R$-&$-.-/3-;A/-/-<-o/-3A-(.,
3.6 --Subjective expression vs. reportive expression
/AA-<JJ. Note $AA Note
3<-$J-{.-&/-$9A$-;R%-/AA-<JJ., Probably she has the

genetic gift.
.R-5B$?-$A-.L<-#-SR-$A These are all
de-facto
MA-=.-0-$/-&%-%-*/-/A-3--<J., Probably he has no .J-<A%-$/3-%R-,%-;R.-$A statements,
innate quality. expressing
views
=$-<-,%-!A-:(3-/A-3--<J., based on general
knowledge
8-;?-:.A?-#-*/-$A objectively.
2R.-/?-/3-^-:H$?-/A-<JJ., based on one's
information
=?-l=-2-.J-3IR$?-$A
aR2-3-.$:-2R-.J?-=?-L-:VA-/A-<JJ., Probably he always
does.
.$J-c/-:.A-#-2.J-$A
nafter verbs nput after monosyllabic adjectives
oafter monosyllabic adjectives oused with E-v
pnot immediately used after disyllabic adjectives pused with verbs in PRT
qnot used with S-be
rrarely used to describe First Person
and First Person Plural
•85•
Notes-4
1.v<-< means according to and like, e.g., <J2-$R%-/?-=R-?<-2R.-$A-=R-,R-v<-<-2lA-$A-;R., The New

Year is calculated according to the Tibetan calendar in Reb gong. / .$J-c/-$A-<J-2-v<-<, aR2-3-
9R-.?-,R$-$-aR2-9<-,R/-$A-;R., The students come to school on time as their teacher requires.
2. /% is both a self-question interrogative adverb and the conjunction or. %J.-(-2:R-(A-$9A$->J.-
:IR-/%-, _%?-:#R<-{R<-/%-t$?-g<-8R/, How do we go? By bike or car?
Exercise 9 Express your own opinion with /A-<J. or make factual statements.
1. 8-;?-9R-$*A.-3%-%-.$R?-_____________, 6. A-3.R-/?-z-?:A-{.-2>.-_____________,
2. 2R.-/?-:PA3-:P=-2.J-3R-_____________, 7. #3?-/-MA-<A$?-$8/-0-;R.-____________,
3. :VR$-0-9R?-}R-3%-%-9-_______________, 8. 2R.-/?-5-=-3-*J-___________________,
4. 2R.-$A-?-(-/-o-3%-_________________, 9. 2R.-$A-8A-3R-<A$?-$J<-;:-=?-3%-_________,
5. 2R.-/-$;$-<-=$-;R.-_______________, 10. :VR$-HA-24/-0R-;A/-________________,
Exercise 10 Make reportive or factual statements. Use reportive particles. If

unnecessary, leave blank.
1. .J%-?%-$A-$?<-2-<A$?-$J-%-o=-(J-________, 6. c/-:V3-}R-hR$-.J-*<-3R-______________,
2. 8A-3R-=R-(%-.J-;$-3_________________, 7. .J-<A%-.$J-c/-#3?-?%?-;R.__________,
3. $?<-2-P2-o$?-.J-$9$?-(J___________, 8. t$?-L3?-MA-29%-_________________,
4. .J%-?%-:5S-2-.!:-_________________, 9. %-.J-<A%-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-;R.__________,
5. ?A=-+R$-.3<-<R-.J-8A3-0R-______________, 10. %J.-(:R-\R$-2f/-#%-:.A-/?-,$-3A-<A%-______,
Text Four: articles and demonstrative pronouns
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, PR$?-0R-$*A?-2<-IA-#-2h-.%-0R,
(RR?-35S ;, /%-%->R$
3$RR/-0R-*A. (R?-35S, HR?-(A-$9A$-;?-$A-;R., %?-HR.-<-#-2h-$9AA$-;?-:.R.-$A
(RR?-35S .JJ-(R$-$AA .J?-/-,%-%-#R.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. 2!:-SA/-(J, HR.-?R?-AJ-.=,
(RR?-35S %-?R?-.=,
•86•
3$RR/-0R-*A. %?-L-2-$?<-2-$9AA$-fJ.-;R., %?-.J-=?-/-@R%-$A?-:.R.-$AA HR?-.-(A-$9A$-=?-$A-;R.,
(R?-35SS %?-&%--=?-$A-3J., %-;:-/-;R., %?-8-;?-9R-$*R<-$A-;R.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. HR.-}R/-(.-(A-$9A$-;A/,
(R?-35SS %-}R/-(.-=?-LJ.-0-$9AA$-;A/, .-%-o/-.-;:-/-;R.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. HR.-=R-.-;A/,
(R?-35SS %-=R-?R-2o.-;A/, .-<J3-3-?R-.$<-:2.-$A-;R., HR.-5%-$A-$/?-5=-<J->R.-S, 3$R/-0R-*A.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. (A-$9A$-9J<,
(R?-35SS HR.-c.-0R-AJ-;R.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. .J-.-2>.-.$R?-/?, %-HA3-5%-;R.,
(R?-35SS HR.-*-*R$-:S-AJ-;R.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. =R?-;R., :.A-/-%J.-5%-$A-:S-0<-$9AA$-;R.,
(R?-35SS #R-(:R-?-?-<J.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. %:A-c.-0R-<, 8A-=A-<, 2-3R-<-%J.-(:R-;A/,
(R?-35SS HR:A-8-;?-$*A?-!-~A%-eJ-2R-<J., HR:A-8A-=A-<-2-3R-=R-.-;A/,
3$RR/-0R-*A. 8A-=A-=R-2&-$?3-<-8A-3R-=R-2&R-s-;A/,
(R?-35SS :R, .J-3A/-HR.-<-MA-28/-3R-$9AA$-<J.,
Exercise 11 Make a question that each corresponding statement answers.
1. 3$R/-0R-*A.-$A?-#-2h-;?-:.R.-$A-;R.-$A _______________________________________
2. (R?-35S-$A?-",%-%-#R."9J<, _______________________________________
3. #R-3R-$*A?-$A?-#-2h-;?-$A-;R.-$A _______________________________________
4. 3$R/-0R-*A.-$A?-L-2-$?<-2-$9A$-fJ.-$A-;R., _______________________________________
5. (R?-35S-}R/-(.-:VR$-0-$9A$-;A/, _______________________________________
6. (R?-35S-$A?-3R-<%-$A-HA3-5%-$A-$/?-5=-2>.-$A______________________________________
•87•
Text Five: Infinitive cases and demonstrative pronouns
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, PR$?-0R-$*A?-2<-IA-#-2h-$*A?-0,
(RR?-35S .JJ-3A/, 3$R/-0R-*A., ;-.-HR?-<%-$A-:.R.-0-&A$->R.-S,

3$RR/-0R-*A. :R, %:A-:.R.-0-9J<-/,
(RR?-35S AA/, HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-/-:.R.-$A
3$RR/-0R-*A. %?-\-.L%?-%-*/--/-:.RR., %-VR-lJ?-/-:.RR., \R$-2f/-/-22v??-/--:.R., =?-!-$?<-2-.J-=?--/--:.R.,
(RR?-35S HR.-l=-.R%-%-AJ-:IR, :R-/-HR.-r%-=A-AJ-lJ,
3$RR/-0R-*A. l=-.R%-%-1=-(J<-:IR-$A-3J., <J.-S-r%-=A-9R-353?-353?-3-lJ?-/-:.RR.-$A
(RR?-35S .J?-/-29%-$A %-<-r%-=A-lJ-oR<-.$:, $8$-/?-3*3-0?-lJ-$AA-:IR,
3$RR/-0R-*A. .JJ-;?, /%?-!-r%-=A-lJ-$AA-:IRR,
(RR?-35S ;-.J?-/, /%?-!-}-3R?-.?-5S.-2o.-$A-,R$-/?-,$
3$RR/-0R-*A. ;-;-;,
Exercise 12 Use the phrases below and ask a student what he / she wants to do. Please
refer to Notes-2, Chapter 8.
\-.L%?-%-*/ L-2-=? HR.-<A$

;:-2-:IR VR-lJ \R$-2f/-/-v
#-2h-;? HR.-=-,$ r%-=A-lJ
A3-{.-2>. 3=-ZR<-:IR 9-3-9
HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-/-:.R., %?-<R$?-0-$9A$-$-#-0<-2+%-/-:.R.,
Question Answer
1. ____________________________ 2. ____________________________
3. ____________________________ 4. ____________________________
5. ____________________________ 6. ____________________________
7. ____________________________ 9. ____________________________
10. ___________________________ 11. ____________________________
•88•
Exercise 13 Make true statements about yourself using Tibetan frequency words.
.0J<-2eR., _______________________(always) %?-o/-.-%-<%-$A-8-;?-S/-$A

1. _______________________(seldom) 5. ________________________(never)
2. ____________________(sometimes) 6. _______________________(always)
3. _______________________(rarely) 7. ____________________(sometimes)
4. _______________________(usually) 8. ________________________(never)
Exercise 14 Ask a student what Uncle Sgrol ma skyabs does and when according to his
calendar.
.0J<-2eR., Q: A-#-1R=-*2?-2-2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-/3-;R., A: $9:-^-2-$A-*A/-2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-;R.,

Q: .?-5S.-.-2-$A-!J%-2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-;R., A: KA-SR:A-.?-5S.-$*A?-2-$A-!J%-2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-;R.,
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
$9:--^-2 $9:--3A$-.3< $9:--z$-0 $9:--1<--2 $9:--0-?%? $9:--%J/-0 $9:--*A-3

9 9 9 9 ;<-<-=%? 9 9 9
10 10 10 10 10 10 r%-=A-lJ 10
11 11 #-2h-;? 11 11 11 11 11
12 12 12 12 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 $%-)-:,% 13 13 13 $%-$?J%-LJ.
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
15 2R.-;A$-aR2-OA., 15 15 15 15 15 15
16 16 16 *R-(-o$ 16 16 16 16
17 17 17 17 17 17 \R$-2f/-#% 17
18 18 18 18 18 .$R%-5S$?-$-:IR 18 18
19 19 *=-$A-:IR 19 19 19 19 19
1. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
2. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
3. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
4. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
•89•
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
5. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
6. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
7. Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Q: _____________________________. A: _____________________________.
Exercise 15 Discuss regular activities you want / do not want to do listed below. Use
frequency words.
.0J<-2eR., %?-9-3-2-$A?-{R=-/-3A-:.R., or %?-9-3-/3-;A/-/-<-2{R=-/-:.R.,
9-3, .R%-,
aR2-9, v,
\R$-2f/, =?,
#-2h, {R=,
o-{., :PR,
=?-! *R,
?A=-+R$ =J/,
\, ;?,
1. _____________________________ 9. _____________________________
2. _____________________________ 10. _____________________________
3. _____________________________ 11. _____________________________
4. _____________________________ 12. _____________________________
5. _____________________________ 13. _____________________________
6. _____________________________ 14. _____________________________
7. _____________________________ 15. _____________________________
8. _____________________________ 16. _____________________________
•90•
/? It has many functions as a postposition, causative conjunction, participle particle, and

interrogative adverb.
As from Notes As ablative Notes

o-35S-35S-}R/-/?--;R%-, :.A-/?-HA3-3-,$-3A-<A%-, distance
Rgya mtsho is from Mtsho It is not far from here to home.

sngon.
#-%/-1-3-$A-#-/?-2a2?, .?-5S.-2./-/?-.$-2<--<-%?-=?-!-=?, starting
point of
Bad words are learned from origin I work from seven to nine. time
parents.
.-2-.-#%-/?-:K<, _%?-:#R<-:.A-:.A-/?-#3?-3-:IR-$A-;R., starting
point of a
The smoke came out of a This bus goes to Khams from here. place
chimney.
Prep. through / by Notes Temporal postposition Notes

=?-!-=?-/?--5<-.$R?, Verbs before =R-2./-$A-,R$-/?-8-;?-aR2-9<-3A-*J=, /? , with
One must do the job to get it /? are in PAT The children are not sent to school at numerical
done. and lead to a the age of seven. words,
:.A->J.-?R%-/?-,R/-o-3-<J., result. .?-5S.-2o.-$A-!J%-/?-%-:IR, conveys a
(One) will not arrive by I leave at eight o'clock. temporal
walking so. notion.
.0J-(-3,$-0R-:.A-2v?-/?-3A-5<, ^-2-$&A$-$A-/%-/?-A-1-;R%-o-<J.,
This thick book is so thick (My) Father will return in a month.
that one can never finish
reading it.
Causative conjunction Notes Participle case Notes

9-3-9R?-/?-5<-?R%-, In past tense #R?-g<-8R/-/?-=$-:5S, The
The food was eaten (up). mood, the He herds sheep while riding a horse. actions
secondary
=?-!-=?-/?-P2-,=, 8A-3R-.0J-(-29%-/?-aR2-8<-:IR, take place
verbs indicate simulta-
The work has been done. The daughter goes to school holding
a result. books. neously;
9R$-24=-/?-fJ.-?R%-, %-2v?-/?, #<-$J?-#-3-P$?, the verbs
The livestock was looked for Looking at me, he said nothing. before /?
and found.
are always
in PAT.
•91•
/? as an emphatic affirmative particle and as an interrogative particle
Question Statement Notes
HR.-aR2-3-2&:-o-;A/-/?, %-=R-$?3-$A-}R/-/-aR2-3-2&R?-//?, nWithout /?, questions
become statements.
.-#R-9R-5%-3-3)=-$A-:IR-$A-;R.-/?, #<-$J-<-3)=-$A-?R%-/?,
o /? is stressed in a
8-;?-9R-*=-2+%-/?, %?-#R-9R-2~=-2+%-/?, question; whereas the
;A-$J-:.A-??-VA?-/?, .J-A-1?-VA?-/?, subject is stressed in a

statement.
HR.-;:-/?-:.$-o-;A/-/?, 3A-:.$ %-3.%-.$R%-<-;:-/?-2#.-/?,
/ It has multi-functions such as conditional adverb, temporal postposition, locative

postposition, and infinitive case.
Conditional adverb Notes Infinitive case Notes
It can
HR.-:IR-/-%-<-:IR, All the L-2-:.A-=?-/-a, generally
I will go too, if you go. statements This job is easy to do. be treated
as
.%R?-2R-$R%-.!:-/, |R<-3R-2o-$A?-3A-:.%-, are .%R?-2R-:.A-2!R=-/-2.J, infinitive
100 yuan is not enough if things are hypothetical. This thing is handy (to use). case.
expensive.
1-3-$9$?-(J-/, 8-;?-<-(J-o-<J., %-?-:.A-/?-:.$-/-3A-:.R.,
The children will also grow tall if I do not want to stay here.
their parents are tall.
$A: postposition vs. noun-adj. converter

As postposition Note As noun-adj. converter Note
#R-/3-;A/-/-<-=3--$A-3A-:IR, =3-=R$-+$-+$ on {.-(-S%-3R-?J3?--$A-;A/, heart-
honest
He is always not on the right track, but on the Direct comments are honest.
wrong one.
.0R/-0R-I$?-&/-$9A$-0J-&A/-$A-;R%-$A-;R., from ?J3?--(%-$A-MA-#<-$J-3A/, care-
careful
A well-known leader is coming from Beijing. He is not a careful person.
_%?-:#R<-?-:.AA-$A-:IR, MA-5%-3-:.A-/?-:6S3-.$R?, from 2lJJ-.%?--$A-2-3R<-?J3?-:(R<-$A affection
-beloved
The car leaves from here. All people gather One loses his heart to his
here. beloved girl.
8A-=A-$9A$-$A?-,%--$A-hR-:,-$A-;R., from ,$--<A%-$A-1-;=-;A.-<-@R%-$A?-S/, long
distance
A boy is collecting stones from the ground. One misses his distant home- -distant
town very much.
%-V$--#-$A-:.$-3A-,2, on >-5-$A-{.-(-3A-~/, care-
caring
I cannot stand on the edge of the cliff. Caring advice sounds hard to
hear.
•92•
Temporal postposition Notes Locative postposition Notes
.?-5S.-S$-0-$A-!J%-/-\R$-2f/-!R/-$A-3J., To express a I%-$A-%R-/-|R-?3-$9A$-;R., / is
There is no movie on at seven temporal There is a blackboard on the locative
o'clock. concept, / is wall. if the
^-2-:.A:A-/%-/-.?-(J/-$?3-;R., used with
%?-5S%-#%-$9AA$-/-$R-<J-*R-$A-;R., main
There are three festivals this month. specific I buy bread in a shop. verb is
5K?-0-2./-0-$A-*A/-/-A-1-,R/-2+%-, number.
<A-$A-:.2?--/-$4%-2R-$9A$-;R.-$A the E-v.
(My) father came on the seventh There is a river at the foot of
day. the mountain.
The following sensational markers are vocalized in a flat tone at the end of a
Sensational
statement to express personal feelings. Such markers, if stressed, convert the
markers
statements into tag questions.
Sensational Interrogative Markers

Various Preceding Statement English Notes
form sound
2 2 2R.-0-KA-o=-$A-9-3<-=R2?-2,
Tibetans can get used to
foreign food, can't they?
nThe variant
corresponds to
% % HR.-.R-.$R%-;R%-%-,
You would come the suffix, not
tonight, wouldn't you? to the post-
$ $ You can see with these
3A$->J=-:.A-$R/-/-<A$-$ suffix.
glasses, can't you?
oStressing the
/ / c/-3R-.J?-$R/-o-3%-%-$R/-/,
The old lady wears
many clothes, doesn't variants, one
she? raises tag
questions.
3 3 9-3-:.A-@R%-$A?-8A3-3,
This food is tasty, isn't
it?
$ Vowel She always goes to the pWithout
3<-$J-o/-.-aR2-OA.-<-:IR-$
class, doesn't she? stressing the
/ variants, they
< = . A-3-$A-5B$-=R$-$A?-$/R.-< =,
/ Mother's scolding hurts.
Doesn't it? are sensational
statements.
/: postposition
#<-$J?-%::A-}R/-/-=?-$A-;R., He works / is working before
me.
nused to indicate a
position of action if the
/%?-)-.?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-}R/-/-:,%-$A-;R., (Someone) has breakfast agent is still there
before eight o'clock.
oused to indicate a
|R-/-(<-2-:22-$R-$A It rains / is raining outside.
position where an action
is or was ongoing
%::A-$8$-/-:VR$-0-(-4B$-;R%-$A-;R., Several herders come / are
following me.
<A-3$RR-/-.<-tR$-$9A$-2lJ%?-;R., A prayer flag is erected on the
mountaintop.
%-=3-$A-:I3--/-:IR, #<-$J-=3-$A-,R$-/-:IR, I walk on the side of the road;
he walks on the road.
.$RR/-0-/-9-2-3%-%-<A$-o-;R., There are many monks in a
monastery to see.
•93•
/?: postposition (with locative nouns)
#<-$J?-%::A-}R/-/?-=?-o-<J., He will work before me. future tense
/%?-)-.?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-}R/-/?-:,%?-,=, (Someone) had breakfast before eight

o'clock.
past tense
|R-/?--(<-2-:22-o-<J.- / 22?-?R%-, It will rain / rained outside. future tense

/ past tense
%:AA-$8$-/?--:VR$-0-(-4B$-;R%-,=, Some herders followed after me. past tense
%-=3-$A-:I3--/?--:IR, HR.-=3-$A-.GAA=-/?--?R%-, I will walk on the side of the road, and

you walk in the center of the road!
in imminent
prospect
.$RR/-0-/?-9-2-3%-%-<A$-o-<J., (One) would see many monks in a
monastery
in future
tense
/ vs. /?: locative in various tense

/ as locative postposition Notes /? locative postposition Notes
HA3-/-#-l%-MA-$&A$-<-3J., / with E-v #-l%-HA3-/?--MA-$&A$-<-3-2#., past tense
Nobody was at home expresses Nobody stayed at home yesterday.

yesterday. someone is
$8$-/?-%-:.AA-/-;R.-o-3-<J., somewhere. $8$-/?-%-:.AA-/?--:.$-o-3A/, future tense
I will not be here in I will not stay here in future.

future.
.-%J.-5%--/-:P=-2-28A-;R.-$A %J.-5%-/?--:P=-2-28A-2R-3A-:.$ It tells what
might happen.
There are four guests in The four guests wouldn't stay at my
our home. home.
•94•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--$??3--0,
<J2-$R%-$A-=R-?<,
=R-?< New Year =R-?<-2R.-/?-.?-(J/-$9A$-;A/,
29:-MA family member %J.-5%-%-29:-MA-3%-%-;R.,
3*3-:6S3? gathering .J-<A%-aR2-PR$?-9R?-3*3-:6S3?-o$
.?-(J/ festival 2R.-/-=R-$&A$-$-.?-(J/-.-;R.,
*J? to be born %:A-8A-=A-/-/A%-*J?,
c/-$8R/ junior and senior; young and old c/-$8R/-5%-3-$A?-1A$-=3-2lA,
3*3-.$: to be happy together %-5S-3*3-.$:-3*3-2?R.-;A/,
=R-fA% old year =R-fA%-%-.R/-.$-3%-%-P2-?R%-,
1<-*J= to see off; to send-off #R-3R?-.%R?-0R-1<-*J=-$A-;R.,
2? to welcome 2$-3-.J-<A%-2?-$A-;R.,
d-3-.NA to tie up loose ends .J-<A%-$A-d-3-.J-<A%-.NA-.$R?,
5<-2? to welcome =R-?<-5<-2?, =R-fA%-1<-*J=,
,A-^ month (Gregorian calendar) %-,A-^-2./-0:A-/%-*J?,
;=-P region ;=-P-:.A-/?-1$->-3A-9,
=A-,R calendar 2R.-$A-=A-,R-v<-/-.-^-2-$?3-0-<J.,
2lA to count %?-=$-$A-P%?-!-2lA,
/R-$A? because /3-^-:H$?-/R-$A?-$R/-o-Y2-$A
5< to be completed: to be finished %?-=?-!-=?-5<,
#-SR Good luck! HR.-9R-=3-/?-#-SR,
\J% to talk about; to mention .R/-.$-%/-0-.J-3-\J%-,
*/ to listen; to become; to be allowed #<-$J?-%:A-#-*/-$A
A-+-$A? the most (superlative) 9-3-A-+-$A?-8A3-0R->-<J.,
P-1A$-;? to prepare %?-aR2-OA.-<-P-1A$-;?-$A-;R.,
•95•
$8A-2.$ mountain deity HR.-$8A-2.$-$-..-0-AJ-;R.,
2?%-1= to offer bsang (incense) .-/%?-%-2?%-1=-$A-:IR,
$;% good fortune .J-2-5%-%-$;%-:#R<-$A-;R.,
}R/-/ before (locative) %:A-}R/-/-MA-3%-%-2><-;R.,
=J$?-*J? present; gift =J$?-*J?-3%-/-%-?J3?-.$:,
>-*J relative %?->-*J-3%-%-3PR/-/-2R?-;R.,
$R-<J bread "$R-<J"9J<-/-z-?-$A-MA?-@-3A-$R
35S/-/ for; in connection with #R<-35S/-/, lA?-<A$-.!:-3R-<J.,

:IR-|R expense ;R%-|R-<-:IR-|R-3$R-3A-,$
KA-/% inside and outside =?-#%?-.J-KA-/%-$4%-3-<J.,
5$?-0< newspaper 0R-=A/-/?-5$?-0<-$R%-.!:-3R-<J.,
Y-3R sister-in-law %:A-Y-3R-<-YA%-3R-$*A?-!-3A-3,/,
5-2R nephew; cousin %:A-5-2R-.-=R-2&-$?3-;A/,
5-3R niece; cousin %:A-%/-;-$A-8A-3R-%:A-5-3R-;A/,
.-2-:,J/ to smoke .-2-:,J/-3#/-)J-*%-<J.,
r%-=A-lJ to play basketball #-l%-.J-<A%-%-r%-=A-lJ-#R3-3J.,
\-=J/ to sing \-=J/, VR-lJ, *A.-0R-LJ.,
$R/-o something to put on; clothes .J%-?%-$R/-o-$%-.$R?-<J.,
$R%-.!: expensive 5B-=J/-.J-$%-.!:,
2-$A? ever HR.-2-$A?-aR2-9<-AJ-:IR,
#3?-$?J% camping .!R/-3(R$-#3?-$?J%-%-:IR-$A-;R.,
<J2-I%?-% every time :.A-/?-%?-<J2-I%?-%-3R$-3R$-9,
$&J?-U$ beloved child $&J?-U$-3%-/-:5S-2-)J-.!:-<J.,
S/ to miss; to remember %?-.-1-;=-S/-$A-;R.,
8R%-$A? by nature; normally; ever #R-8R%-$A?-8A-=A-<J., 8A-3R<-:S-/-<,
|R-# outdoor |R-#-/-HA-3%-%-$A?-%<-v-$A-;R.,
;A.-5B3 to be satisfied HR.-;A.-5B3-/-%-.$:-$A
•96•
<%-3$R-<%-o= wayward; to get one's way 8A-=A-3$R-!R%-.J-<%-3$R-<%-o=-<J.,
=?-.2% fate; destiny c.-3R-|-<-3-.J-=?-.2%-lR$-$A
?/ to feel bored; to feel lonely %-HR:A-$*R$-$+3-3-?/-$A
:H$?-+R cold %?-(-:H$?-+R-$+/-/?-3A-:,%-,
eJ?-=? to be late #R-/3-;A/-/-<-aR2-OA.-$A-eJ?-=?,
29R-9 factory 29R-9-:.A<-29R-2-!R%-$*A?-;R.,
/-< even though #R-;A?-/-/-<-=?-!-=?-$A-;R.,
$%-2-3,R haughty; presumptuous MA-(%-(%-, $%-2-3,R,
(J-$9A$ much %?-o-{.-(J-$9A$-3A->J?,
2&: to make .R-.$R%-%?-9-3-2&:,
/.-0 patient /.-0-(/-0<-3)J.-?R%-,
(/-#% hospital (/-#%-/%-/-/.-0-+$-+$-<J.,
(/-0 medical doctor (/-0-3%->R?-8A-=A-<J.,
@-/A all MA-@-/A-=3-/-;R.,
$*R< to take care of c/-3R?-LA?-0-$*R<-$A-;R.,
%R-=%? to get angry MA-5B-,%-.J-%R-=%?,
.-.-. instant; immediately #R:C-#R%-OR-.-.-.-.J%?-:PR,
2&:-.$ neat; tidy %-#%-2-2&:-.$-:.A-.$R?,
3$R<-8 to become one's responsibility :$/-tA-3R-:.A-%:A-3$R<-8,
$/?-5=-,R<-2
<J-<J every; each 3A-<J-<J<-.0J-(-$&A$-<J-;R.,

.<-tR$ prayer flag |%-4S$-4S$-.J:A-!J%-/-.<-tR$-$*A?-;R.,
2lJ%? to erect .<-tR$-.J-$*A?-!-#<-$J?-/-/A%-2lJ%?,
=-= some #<-$J-?-(-=-=-$9A$-$-3A-.$:,
3.:-:1J/ to shoot an arrow; archery %?-3.:-:1J/, HR?-:2J/-!R/,
$&A$-$A?-3A-5. more than one %-%/-;-$&A$-$A?-3A-5.-;R.,
•97•
(-4B$ several %-.$:-<R$?-(-4B$-;R.-/-&A-3-<%-,
(-<J several #R-3R<-$*J/-*J-(-<J-;R.,
(R/-=3 prayer; wish c/-3R-.J?-:(A-#<-(R/-=3-o$
$?<-2 young man $?<-2-.J-1R-5S.-(J,
$?<-3R young woman $?<-3R-.J-|R<-3R<-2?J<,
..-0-&/ pious; devout MA-..-0-&/-?J3?-*A.-9J<,
}$?-0 lay tantric specialist }$?-0-<J2-$R%-/-$%-3%-<J.,
(R?-12 to practice the dharma %?-5K-:.A-/-(R?-12-$A-3J.,
#%? snow .J-<A%-|R-/-#%?-(J-$9A$-:22-$A-;R.,
:$= to move ?:A-$R-=-:$=-$A-;R., <J.-S-%?-3A-5S<,
<=-2 rotten; decayed 9?-<=-2-9R?-/-#R$-3A-2.J,
#J<-(. stray; alone =-$-#J<-(.-.J-,%-!A?-9-*J/-(J,
(-3J. strange; unfamiliar MA-(-3J.-.J-MA-(J/-$9A$-<J.-9J<,
#$-MR% to suffer .-%-?-:.A<-=R2?-?R%-, #$-MR%-$A-3J.,
.-2< nowadays .-2<-o-3A-3%-0R-/R$?-0R-<J.,
5-k$?-(J sultry N%-$R:C-zR-KR$?-5-k$?-(J,
28/-3R delicate 8A-3R-$/-28/-3R-$9A$-<J.-/%-,
:S-:S similar; same 35K<-3-$*A?-!-:S-:S-<J.,
>J. strength; power %->J.-3A-(J, <J.-S-%:A-%/-;->J.-(J,
.J-3R such; so .J-3R-3-2>., .J-3A/-#R?-:5B$-0-9-:IR,
2#R3?-0? all together; in total 2#R3?-0?-=$-$?3-:5S%-$A-3J.,
,R%-2 sheep (two year old male) ,R%-2-<->2-$9/-5%-3-1R-=$-<J.,
>2-$9/ male sheep >2-$9/-$A->-8A3-0R-<J.,
#-$% adult (animal) >2-$9/-#-$%-<A/-3,R,
I2?-$A? together %?->2-$9/-<-3-3R-I2?-$A?-:.J.,
3-3R ewe 3-3R-<-35K<-3R-3R-=$-;A/,
:VR$-0 herders :VR$-0-9R?-}R-)J-9-<J.,
•98•
:.J. to drive %?-K$?-9R$-<A-3$R<-:.J.,
$;R< to lend .J%-?%-|R<-3R-$;R<-a, .R3-2#-.!:,
+$-+$ exact; plenty #<-$J<-|R<-3R-+$-+$-<J.,
0<-o$ to copy .0J-(-:.A-%?-0<-o$
>J=-.3 bottle >J=-.3-.J-(%-/-<-/%-%-(-o-3-$%->R%-,
A-3.R-/?, :V?-uR%?-/?, 2R.-$A-?-(-,A-/?-2v?-/,
v<-< according to .?-5S.-v<-<-aR2-OA.-<-:IR,

2lA to count 8-;?-.J?-.-2R-2lA-3A->J?,
.J%-?% nowadays .J%-?%-(%-:,%-3#/-*%-,
PR%-2h= town PR%-2h=-/-#%-2-3,R/-0R-3%-,
{2?-2 during :,2-:O$-$A-{2?-2-YR$-*J/-(J,
:,2-:O$ battle :,2-:O$-$A-OR.-/?-MA-3%-%->A-?R%-,
o=-2R king o=-2R-<-24/-3R-$*A?-:PA$-$A-3J.,
} early .-/%?-aR2-3-5S-@R%-$A?-},
/? barley /?-2R.-$A-9-3-$4S-2R-$9A$-<J.,
Y/-3 bean Y/-3-2R.-/-g-(?-:-2!R=-$A-;R.,
IR.-0 animal's stomach 3A:A-1R-2-=-IR.-0-3A-9J<,
24S?-3 cooked |R-%-24S?-3-%-3A-.$:,
#-2 soup #R-3R-#-2<-vR?-/--,$-0-lA$-0R<-.$:,
/%-OR= guts :)<-3/-/?-/%-OR=-3%-%-AJ-9,
(R?-=$? religion (R?-=$?-<-(2-YA.-$*A?-!-#-#-<J.,
(R-$ rite; ritual (R?-=$?-GA-(R-$-$-#-3%-,
i-&R$ ear 3%-2R-.J:A-i-&R$-P%-/?->A%-;R.,
(%-1R< alcohol cup :P=-2?-(%-1R<-$?3-:,%?,
=R%?-,R. consumption =R%?-,R.-<-,R/-5.-.R-3*3-/-29%-,
$R-{2? opportunity $R-{2?-3%-, <J.-S-$&A$-<-3A-9A/,
•99•
,/-v? bad omen 1R-<R$-P$?-/-,/-v?-;A/,
$4%-3-;? to clean #%-2-$4%-3-;?-/-%-3A-Z,
#-3( argument; quarrel IR.-;-$*A?-$A?-/-/A%-#-3(-2a%?,
,$-$&R.-;? to make a decision /-/A%-$A-#-3(-.J-,$-$&R.-;?,
2-=R/ debt 5S%-@-=R$-/?-2-=R/-9$
$.R/ evil /R/-0-.J-$.R/-$A?-29%-;R.-#-<J.,
2<-(. hindrance; obstacle .R/-.$-29%-2R<-2<-(.-3%-,
:O. to wash .J-<A%-%?-$R/-0-:O.-.$R?,
o/-( jewelry 8A-3R-3%-%-$A?-o/-(-:.R$?,
3(R.-#% shrine 3(R.-#%-/%-/-{-$-3-$-5S$?-;R.,
$%-3% a lot of; much :.A-/-v.-3R-$%-3%-;R.,
:(3 a religious dance 5K?-0-2&-2-$A-*A/-/-:(3-!J$-o-<J.,
>R$-&$ fireworks >R$-&$-8-;?-9R<-35S/-/-*J/-#-(J,
o/-3A-(. do not stop; incessant ;=-{R<-2-z-?-/-o/-3A-(.,
:PA3-:P= transportation :.A-/?-z-?<-:PA3-:P=-2.J,
%-o=-(J arrogant %-o=-(J-/, 13-#-:L%-,
P2-o$? haughty; arrogant 3A-P2-o$?-.J:A-#R$-/-&%-3J.,
c/-:V3 grape c/-:V3-5%-3-3%<-3R-3A/,
}R-hR$ unripe; green !->-}R-hR$-$A?-?R<-$9/,
#3?-?%? to be physically good .J-<A%-A-1-#3?-?%?-3J.,
$/3-%R-,% to become sunny .-$/3-%R-,%-;?-*A-3-><-,=,
#-2.J eloquent MA-#-2.J-.J-N%-$R:A-$4S-:6B/-<J.,
HA3-2.$-3-(R?-35S-.%-#R-3R:C-PR$?-3R-$?<-2-3$R/-0R-*A.,
?R?-.= to be at leisure; to be carefree .$/-#-2R.-/?-8A%-2-9R-?R?-.=,

}R/-(. before (temporal) }R/-(.-#R-:VR$-0-$9A$-<J.,
<J3-3 quick <J3-3-:IR, (<-2-:22-o-<J.,
•100•
:2. to turn to; to get on &R$-4K:A-!J%-%-3-:2., *J/-#-(J,
$/?-5= situation; information HR:A-KR$?-/?-$/?-5=-$&A$-<-3A-$R
~A%-eJ-2R cute 8-;?-(%-(%-.J-~A%-eJ-2R-<J.,
:.R.-0 desire; want %-2.J-,%-;A/-/, :.R.-0-$8/-0-3J.,
l=-.R% sport l=-.R%-2R.-/?-3A-.<,
?A=-+R$ fruit ?A=-+R$-$A?-=?-1%-%-1/,
A-m-2R the good one :.A-$*A?-!:A-/%-/?-:.A-A-m-2R-<J.,
36K?-3 beautiful woman 2-3R-36K?-3<-3A-.$:-3#/-?-;R.,
fA% old ,A-5S$?-$?<-fA%-$A-H.-0<-(J,
3.R-3J. empty-headed; without principle 8A-=A-3.R-3J.-.J?-|R<-3R-2!A3?-,=,
$/% to give A-=$-$A?-3)=-2<-&%-<-$/%-$A-3J.,
•101•
•102•
aR2-5/-28A-2,
2h-3R.,
Possessive Pronouns Forms of Plural Pronouns

&%-< in Negative Statements $&A$-< in Negative Statements
Possessive Forms of Nouns ?-< in Negative Statements
Possessive Adjectives
Two shrines, Sger rtse (Gaize ᬍ߭) County, Mnga' ris (Ali 䰓䞠) Administrative Region,
TAR (2003, Toni Huber).
Text One: possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-3.R:C-#J-2-$9A$-$A-=$?-YR=,
.J-<A%-%J.-(:R-A-3.R-$A-2R.-#J-$9A$-$-v-$A-:IR, \A%-o=-#J-2-35S-}R/-8A%-(J/-k-zR-2R.-<A$?-<%-*R%-#=-/-;R., .J-9A-=A%-

$A-zR-KR$?-$A-<?-=3-,$-,A-=J-2o-<-.$-2&-;A/, #J-2-.J-/-HA3-5%-?3-2o-<-*A->-<-#J-MA-2#R3?-0?-*A?-!R%-*A?-2o-<-
28A-2&-;R., #J-3A-5%-3-$A?-A3-{.-2>.-$A-;R., #%-=J2-$A-/%-/-:.$-$A-;R., #R-9R:C-3J?-0R-35S-}R/-8A%-(J/-$A-><-zR-
353?, .J%-?%-$A-3$R-=R$-2R.-<A$?-<%-*R%-#=-/?-(.-9J<,
#J-MA-3%-(J->R?-8A%-2-<J., =R-+R$-$4S-2R-PR-<J., 8R$-#R$ Y/-3, $3-<A$?-$A-=R-+R$-<-:.J2?-$A-;R., .J?-3A-5., HA3-

5%-2o-,3-0-:S-3-$9A$-$A?-:VR$-/-K$?-9R$-:5S-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?, #J-2-:.A-<R%-3-:VR$-<J.-9J<-/-(R$-$A :VR$-
0-<A$?-$J?-8A%-2-<A$?-$J:A-K$?-9R$-<-:5S, 8A%-2-<A$?-$J?-:VR$-0-<A$?-$J:A-8A%-<-:.J2?, #J-2-.J?-3*3-=?-;?-
$A-;R., #J-2-/%-$?J?-$A?-#J-(%-2./-/-2$R?-;R., !R.-KR$?-$A-#J-2-28A-$A-MA%-%-;<-!R.-<, (.-KR$?-$A-#J-2-$?3-$A-
MA%-%-3<-!R.-9J<-$A-;R., #J-2-2./-0R-<%-<%-$A-?-/-($?-;R., :.A->J.-#J-2-Y%-,2, 8A%-=?-2.J-3R->J.-=?-,2-9J<,
2&A%?-:PR=-$A-$8$-/?, #J-2-.J-/-:I<-wR$-3%-%-:L%-$A-;R., .0J<-28$-/, aR2-3-<, =?-LJ.-0, 5S%-2-3%-%-#J-

2-:.A-/?-,R/, MA-:.A-<A$?-$J-o/-.-#J-2:A-/%-/-:.$-$A-3J., .J%-3-5S-2-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?, \A%-o=-$A?-.-2R-<-.J%-3-$A-
:IR-=$?-3%-%-o/-:6B/-;?-$A-;R.,
4.1 --Possessive forms of noun
Noun with Modified words English Note

suffix
.!R/-3(R$- .0JJ-(--:.A-/-3J., Dkon mchog's book is not
here.
The genitive
case marker
.J-2-5%- K$$?-9RR$-|R-#-/-;R., That family's livestock is
outside the house. $A is used to
lJ-#R$- ?--(-;$-$A The land of Rtse khog is
modify
beautiful.
(R?-1R/- $A A--3-.J-<A%-;:-/-3J., Chos sgron's mother is not nouns.
at home today.
(R?-.<- aRR2-9-Z-$A Chos dar's school is good.
/-/A%- /3--^-.R-5B$?-<-A-/-3-/-<J., The weather last year was

exactly the same as this
year.
•104•
Noun with Modified words English Note
suffix
]-V%- .0JJ-(-:.A-/-3J., Dkon mchog's book is not
here.
0J-&A/- $A K$?--9R$-|R-#-/-;R., That family's animals are
outside the house.
2<-$%- ?-(-;$-$A The land of Rtse khog is
beautiful.
Noun without Modified words English Note

suffix
A-3 0-LA-$A-;R., (My) mother loses hair. Either :A or
1R=-3 {.-@R%-$A?-~/-$A Sgrol ma's voice is $A is put
:A- melodious. after a
%
or
8A-=A-$%-/-;R.-$A Where is my son?
noun
1-=A -$A- tR$?--<A%-8J-,$-$A?-3,R-$A The Eifel Tower (in Paris) is without a

really tall. suffix.
#<-$J c/--3R-MA-24S$-$9A$-<J., His wife is a bad person.
MA-5%-3 :5SS-2-)J-.$:-<J., Everybody's life gets better.
Exercise 1 Write genitive case markers in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-3%-%-$A?-<%- $A <?-MA%-2!R=-$A-3J.,
1. 2R.-_____?-(-3%-%-/?-<%-<%-_____<?-MA%-3A-2!R=,
2. %_____%/-;-_____c/-3R-o-3R-$9A$-;A/, )J is a comparative adverb, e.g.,
3. 2R.-_____.$R/-0-_____9-2-$*J/-3A-1A$ :)<-3/-$A-.0=-:LR<-)J-29%-<J.,
The German economy gets
4. z-3R-5K-<A%-_____A-1-z-?<-:IR->$->$-<J.,
better. 8-;?-.J-)J-=?-<J., That
5. <A-&R$-=J-2-.J_____lJ-/-9R$-=$-3%-%-;R.,
child works more.
6. \A%-o=-#J-2-_____$8A-2.$-_____z-#%-?R-3-<J.,
7. .$:-w/-1R-V%-_____($?-?-z-?-/-3J.,
8. 1R=-3-_____.J%-3_____:.$-?-:.A-/?-,$-<A%-,
9. .!R/-3(R$-*A.-_____:VR$-?-_____:5S-2-#$-3R-<J.,
10. 2R.-/?-(%-3-$A?-*J?-0-_____<?-MA%-2!R=-$A-3J.,
11. .R-.$R%-_____v.-3R-2R.-_____{R<-<J.,
12. #J-2-:.A____l-2:A-]-3-#J-2-:.A-/?-3-<J.,
•105•
Notes-1
1. ?, as a particle, combines with a verb in PRT to form a noun, e.g., :PR-? (destination);
:.$-?, (address); ($?-? (location). To modify such nouns, genitive case markers are
dispensable. %:A-:IR-?, = %-:IR-?, #<-$J-:.$-?, = #R:C-:.$-?, z-?-($?-?, = z-?:A-($?-?,
2. A genitive case marker and a noun together form postpositions that correspond to such
English prepositions as in, on, at, etc., e.g., .R-.$R%-$A-v.-3R-2R.-$A-{R<-<J., The performance
tonight is about Tibet. / |R<-3R-?3-&-$A-,R$-$-.-|R<-3R-3A-.$R?, No more money is needed on
top of thirty yuan (someone has).
3. A genitive case marker before a be verb can be possessive, e.g., .0J-(-:.A-9R-%J.-(-2R:C-;A/,
These books are ours. / :.A-.0=-w/-$A-<J., It is Dpal ldan's. / .J-.!R/-3(R$-$A-<J., That is
Dkon mchog's. / $/-1R=-3-$A-<J., That one is Sgrol ma's.
4.2 --Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns
Singular
Pronoun Possessive adjective Possessive pronoun Example
% %:C %:C %-%:A-1-3-<-:.%-(J,
HR. HR:A HR:A HR:A-1-;=-$%-/-;R.,
#R / #<-$J #R:A / #<-$J:A #R:A / #<-$J:A #<-$J:A-$9$?-3A-(J,
3<-$J / 3R / #R-3R 3<-$J:A / 3R:A / #R-3R:A 3<-$J:A / 3R:A / #R-3R:A #R-3R:C-<A$-0-3A-iR,
Dual
%J.-$*A? %J.-$*A?-$A %J.-$*A?-$A %J.-$*A?-$A-:.$-?-$&A$-<J.,
HR.-$*A? HR.-$*A?-$A HR.-$*A?-$A HR.-$*A?-$A-%R-A-/-3-/-<J.,
#R-$*A? / #R-$*A?-$A / #R-$*A?-$A / #R-$*A?-$A-:S-.0<-:.A-<J.,
#<-$J-$*A?-! #<-$J-$*A?-!:A #<-$J-$*A?-!:A
3<-$J-$*A?-! / 3<-$J-$*A?-!:A / 3R-$*A?- 3<-$J-$*A?-!:A / 3R-$*A?- 3R-$*A?-!:A-<%-28A/-3A-$&A$-$A
3R-$*A? / #R-3R-$*A?- !:A / #R-3R-$*A?-!:A !:A / #R-3R-$*A?-!:A
!
•106•
Plural (more than two)
%J.-(:R %J.-(:R-$A %J.-(:R-$A %J.-(:R-$A-:IR-?-#-#-<J.,
HR.-(:R HR.-(:R-$A HR.-(:R-$A HR.-(:R-2?3-5=-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
#R-(:R / #<-$J-(:R #R-(:R-$A / #<-$J-(:R-$A #R-(:R-$A / #<-$J-(:R-$A #R-(:R-$A-3A-<A$?-2R.-<J.,
3R-(:R / #R-3R-(:R / 3R-(:R-$A / #R-3R-(:R-$A / 3R-(:R-$A / #R-3R-(:R-$A / 3R-(:R-$A-o-{.-@R%-$A?-Z-$A
3<-$J-(:R 3<-$J-(:R-$A 3<-$J-(:R-$A
9R
Note: n is more often used than (:R, although they both are plurality markers, e.g., #R-9R; %J.-9R;
#R-3R-9R oSubject pronouns are also used as object pronouns.
Exercise 2 Write genitive case markers in the blanks below.
.0J<-2eR., 8-;?- $A -]R-,%-,

l3-0 : A piece of butter is put in a
1. #<-$J?-%______=J$?-*J?-:.R.-$A-3J., .J______o-35/-%?-3A->J?, bowl one-third full of hot water and
2. HR.-HR.-<%______=?-!<-AJ-.$:, HR.______=?-!-.!:-3R-AJ-<J., allowed to melt. Cheese and barley
flour are added and then mixed

3. #<-$J______$R/-o-5%-3-:O.-.$R?-$A $R/-o-<A$?-$J-2&:-.$-3-<J.,
with the hand. Sugar is added
4. 3<-$J______MA%-2R-5%-3-$A?-z-?-/-5S%-o$-$A-;R.,
according to individual preference.
5. HR.-(:R-2R.______l3-0-AJ-.$:, l3-0-2R.-/?-9-3-$4S-2R-$9A$-;A/-/A-<J., As used here, it means source of
6. #R-$*A?-!______l3-0-:VR$-/-;R., <R%-/-3J., livelihood. %:A-l3-0-:.A-/-3J., "The
source of my livelihood is not here."

7. #R-(:R-#3?-______>-{3-3-.-.$:-$A-AJ-;R., .J%-3-.$:-$A-3J.,
8. 2R.-/?-,A-5S$?-______1A$-=3-zR., A-3J-<A-#-/?-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
9. A-3.R______2R.-5%-3-N%-$R______,A-.3%?-;A/,
10. .!R/-3(R$-:.%-o$-(J-$A #R______(%-3-<-8A-=A-#R______3*3-0?-:.$-:.R.-$A-3J.,
11. ?-:.A______;=-uR%?-;$-$A <J.-S-3#:-.2$?-24S$-$A
12. :VR$-.0:-9R______:.$-?-4-;A/, <J.-S-.J%-?%-#-;?-______:.$-?-#%-2-;A/,
Exercise 3 Write genitive case markers and pronouns in the blanks.
1. t$?-/$-:.A-%______;A/, .J______#-3.R$-;$-$A
2. MA-:.A-$*A?-______/%-/?, $%-______$9$?-3,R, $%-______$9$?-.3:-$A
3. %:A-%/-;-#R______-.LA/-;A$-______.$J-c/-/-.$:-$A-3J., .J______o-35/-HR?-AJ->J?,
•107•
4. .J-<A%-%?-;=-{R<-2-(-4B$-<A$ .J-(:R______o=-#2-$%-$%-<J.,
:.R. is polysemous:
5. K$?-9R$-$/-(:R-______2.$-3R-;R%-$A-;R., 3<-$J______<-:.A-/?-,$-@R%-$A?-<A%-, nto want: %?-!-<-
6. #R%-2R-$/-______3J-+R$-;$-$A <J.-S-.J______SA-3-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-8A3-$A :.R., I want candy.

oto think: %?-#R-t$?-
7. (/-:.A-/.-0-:.A-______;A/, $/-/.-0-$/-______<J., L3?-;A/-:.R., I think
8. (/-______<A/-$R%-)J-3,R-<J., 2R.- ______3%-5S$?-$A?-.!:-$A-;R., he is Lcags byams.
4.3 --Possessive adjectives
Singular
Pronoun Genitive case marker Example
:.A ?-:.A-$A-9-3-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-8A3-$A
.J :A- / -$A- 3J-+R$-.J:A-3$R-/-4%-3-$9A$-:#R<-$A-;R.,
$/- 8-;?-$/-$A-=$-/-.%R?-0R-A-m-$9A$-;R.-$A
Dual
:.A-$*A?- .0J-(-:.A-$*A?-$A-lR3-0-0R-$&A$-<J.,
.J-$*A?- $A- MA-.J-$*A?-$A-1-;=-$&A$-3-<J.,
$/-$*A?- E-$/-$*A?-(J-;R., %-:.A-.$R?,
Plural (more than two in quantity)
:.A-(:R / :.A-9R .%R?-0R-:.A-(:R-$A-2.$-0R-?-<J.,
.J-(:R / .J-9R 9R:A- / -$A- .%R?-0R-.J-9R:A-<A/-%?-!J<,
$/-(:R / $/-9R K$?-9R$-$/-(:R->J.-29%-$A
:.A-<A$?-$J aR2-3-:.A-<A$?-$J-$A-.$J-c/-.J-<A%-3A-;R%-,
.J-<A$?-$J :A- / -$A- .0J-(-$?<-2-.J-<A$?-$J:A-:IR-|R-%?-!J<,
$/-<A$?-$J MA-$/-<A$?-$J-$A-:5S-gJ/-9R$-=$-<J.,
Notes-2
1. The demonstrative pronoun .J is used to avoid repeating pronouns, e.g., %-lA?-<A$-$A-aR2-OA.-

$9A$-;R., <J.-S-%-.J<-3A-.$:, I have a math class but I do not like it. / %:A-$R/-o-3-$R/, HR.-
<%-$A-.J-$%-/-;R., Don't wear my clothes! Where are yours?
2. English phrases such as my thing and his thing are expressed as %:A-.J and #<-$J:A-.J For
example, =$-HJ<-#<-$J:A-.J-$/-<J., His passport is that one. / %:A-.J-:.A-/-;R., Mine is here.
•108•
Exercise 4 Write genitive case markers, pronouns, and ergative case markers.
.0J<-2eR., % :A -A-3-#J-2:A-/%-/-;R., %-o/-.-3<-$J-v-$A-:IR,
1. z-?-____{.-@R%-$A?-~/-$A <J.-S-$R-.!:-$A nGenitive + $A-.R/-/ means
for the sake of. %-3<-$J:A-.R/-/-

2. #3?-0-9R-$9$?-(J-9J<, ____-%J?-%J?-(J-$A
3A-#R3-$A, I am busy because
3. ]-3-.J____/%-:#R<-$9A$-#J-2-:.A-/?-;A/, %-____3A-.$:-$A of her. o#-<J. conveys the
4. t$?-/$-:.A-%____A-3____<J., %?-=?-L-:VA-.?-____2!R=-$A-;R., notion seem or likely, e.g.,
3<-$J-:IR-#-<J., She might go.

5. .$J-c/-____#-2h-5%-3-.R/-;R.-$A %____.%-=J/-;?-/-:.R.,
6. 8-;?-____*R/-=?-/-$>J-$>J-$+R%-.$R?-/A-<J., .J-3A/-.- ____:R<-$A?-*R/-=?-/A-<J.,
7. 9-2____.$R/-0-/-;R., ____OR3-<-/-3J.,
8. o=-#2-:.A-____1A$-=3-8J-,$-$A?-8A2-$A ____=$-2!<-(A-$9A$->J.-;?-$A-;R.,
9. %?-3<-$J____o?-=R/-$A <J.-S-3<-$J?-% ____o?-=R/-$A-3J.,
10. aR2-9-:.A____:$R-2-.-/%?-:.A<-;R%-$A-;R., HR.- ____,$-/-AJ-:.R.,
.!RR/-3(R$ HR.______-.$:-<R$?-$?<-2-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
(RR?-P$? %-3R______,R$-$-.%?-$A <J.-S-3<-$J-353?-353?-3-.!:-=?-<-<J., 3<-$J______.R/-/-%-
3A-#R3-$A ^-2-:.A______3)$-$-3<-$J______1-3-$*A?-!-v-$A-:IR-.$R?, HR.-_%?-:#R<-
$9A$-AJ-;R.,
.!RR/-3(R$ ;R., %?-_____2!R=-$A-3J., #R3-0-;R.-/-HR.->R$ HR?-%:C ______HJ<-/-(R$
(RR?-P$? <J.-S, %_____#-=R-2-^-2-:.A:A-/%-%-3J., #<-$J-:VR$-$-_____1-3-$*A?-!-v-$A-:IR-/A-<J.,
#<-$J-3J.-/, .-(A-$9A$-;?,
.!RR/-3(R$ %?-HR.-_%?-:#R<-{R<-oR-)R=-;,
(RR?-P$? _____-.!:-3R-;A/-/A-<J., %?-_%?-:#R<-______{R<-/?-$&A$-<-3A->J?,
.!RR/-3(R$ .J<-*R/-3J., *A/-3-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-______/%->J?-/A-<J.,
(RR?-P$? _____HR:A-#$-<J., %?-HR.-#$-$-{<-/-3A-:.R.,
.!RR/-3(R$ HR?-%-#$-$-{<-$A-3J., HR.-<R$?-;?-,2-/-%-.$:-/A-;A/, ?%-*A/-HR.->R$
(RR?-P$? .J?-/-(R$-$A %______8A-=A-OA.-;R%-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
•109•
.!RR/-3(RR$ %?-______%R-AJ->J?, %?-_____-}R/-(.-AJ-<A$
(R?-P$? #<-$J-HR.______8A-3R-______aR2-PR$?-;A/, .J?-3A-5., #R-$*A?-!-<R$?-0-<-<J.,
.!RR/-3(RR$ HR?-1R=-3-9J<-/?, /%?-!-______<-HA3-/-;R., ______8A-=A-HA.-<->R$
(R?-P$? .J?-/-%-/%?-!-;R%-,
.!RR/-3(RR$ (R$-$A 8-;?-______HA3-/?-:.$-$A-:)$ _____3*3-0?-lJ?-/-(R$-$A %J.-______%?-:#R<-
.R%-$A-:IR,
(R?-P$? .J?-/, ,$?-eJ-(J, /%?-!-,$
.!RR/-3(RR$ #-SR,
Exercise 6 Complete each statement using pronouns, genitive case markers, and
ergative case markers.
.0J<-2eR., aR2-PR$?-9R, % :A- MA%-%-5K-<A%-9J<, %- 36S.-.$J-/?-;A/, :.A-%:A -A-1-;A/, #<-$J?-.-,J%?-%-

9A-=A%-%-HA.-;R%-, #<-$J-?%-*A/-KA<-1-;:-2-:IR, %:A-@-3-$*A?-!-:VR$-/-;R., #R-$*A?-! -353?-
353?-3- %- v-$A-;R%-$A-;R.,
1. .-=R-^-2-2./-0:A-5K?-2-*J<-28A-$A-*A/, %-=R-28A-2&-;A/, %______8A-=A-$A?-______" A-1" -3A-:2R., A-<R-

c.-0R-9J<-$A-;R.,
2. %_____Z%-3R-$*A?-!-2R.-/-3J., _____A-3J-<A-#-/-;R., .R-5B$?-%:A-1-3-$*A?-!- ____v-$A-:IR-9J<-$A-;R.,
3. aR2-9-/?-%:A-(J.-=?-2R.-{.-8A2-:)$-______{R<-;A/, <J.-S-.-%?-YA.-$8%-%-L-2-=?-$A-;R.,
4. %____:.$-<R$?-<-%J.-$*A?-!-#%-2-$&A$-$A-/%-/?-=R-$?3-:$R<-$A-;R., ___-%-o-;A$-aR2-<R$?-;?-$A-;R.,
5. t$?-L3?-2v?-/-2R.-$9A$-<J., <J.-S-______2R.-{.-2>.-$A-3J., ______@-3-<-MA%-YA%-______2R.-
{.-i3-.$-$9A$-2>.-$A ______2R.-{.-2>.-3A->J?-/%-2>.-3A-:.R.-/%-,
6. #<-$J?-:VR$-/-9R$-:5S-$A-;R., <J.-S-______?J3?-PR%-HJ<-(J-$9A$-/-;R., ______.$:-<R$?-$A-,R$-$-@R%-
$A?-.%?-$A-;R.,
7. .!R/-3(R$-$A-8A-=A-______K$?-:5S-<R$?-;?-$A-;R., .J-;A/-/-<, ______aR2-9-:IR-:.R.-$A-;R.,
8. #<-$J-t%-=%-#J-2-/?-<J., %-(.-0-#J-2-/?-;A/, ______@R%-$A?-,$-3A-<A%-,
9. 3<-$J-MA-{R<-=R$-$9A$-<J., ______%:A-#-2h-3A-*/-$A
10. .J-<A%-%:A-=$-$-=J$?-*J?-$*A?-:LR<, <J.-S-______3-<J., ______Z%-3R-$A-<J.,
•110•
11. 3<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-<J., %-______@R%-$A?-.$:-$A
12. 3<-$J-.-A-3-$9A$-<J., ______8-;?-$*A?-;R., ______8-;?-=R-(J-2R-=R-s-<-(%-%R-=R-$*A?-;A/,
13. 1R=-3-<-.!R/-3(R$-*2?-%:A-HA3-35K?-;A/, _____2R.-$A-#J-2-$9A$-/-;R., ______8J-$A?-*A.-0R-<J.,
____#%-2-4-;-$9A$-;R.,
14. #%-2-*$-24S$-:.A-______3-<J., #R-$*A?-$A-#%-2-/3-;A/-<-2&:-.$-;A/,

15. 8-;?-:.A-$?3-0R-2R.-0-<J., ______2R.-/?-;R%-/A-<J., .-______.LA/-{.-L%-3-$9A$-2>.-$A-;R.,
16. ;=-{R<-2-3%-%-$9A$-:.A-/-;R.-$A ____%R-3-.!:-$A ;=-{R<-2-$?3-$A?-2R.-{.-2>.-3A->J?, %?-____#-
2h-;?-3A-,2,
17. .J-2R.-;A$-$A-.0J-(-<J., <J.-S_____HR:A-3-<J., ______:.A-/-3J., ?%-*A/-%?-:HJ<-;R%-,
18. ,%-!A-9J<-/-?J3?-&/-$9A$-<J., ______>-9-oR<-.$:, ______5%-#J-2:A-/%-/-3J.,
19. YR$-($?-$9A$-i3-<A$-@R%-$A?-$?=, ______2v?-/-~A%-eJ-2R-;A/, ______o/-.-(:A-/%-/-;R.,
______ 3(-$+R-<A%-, ______3.R$-}R-/$-;A/, YR$?-($?-______$%-<J.,
20. %?-YR$-($?-.J<-v-:.R., ______$%-/-;R., %-:5S=-$A-:IR,

21. %J.-(-2R?-A3-{.-.R%-$A-;R., {.-(______.!:-3R-3-<J.,
22. %J.-(-2R:C-.$J-c/-@R%-$A?-29%-$A ______%J.-(:R-:SA-5B$-3%-%-:SA-$A
23. %-<-%:A-ZA%-3R-.J-<A%-Z%-%-?R%-, @-3-$*A?-!?-_____*R-.$R?, ____*R-.$R?-9J<, <J.-S-5S%-#%-/%-/?___-
$&A$-<-3A-S/-$A
24. @-3-$*A?-!-<-%, %:A-ZA%-3R-o/-.-3*3-0?-;R., ______@R%-$A?-:(3?,
25. HR.-$?<-cR.-$9A$-<J.-:.R.-$A-;R., 8A-3R-3%-%-$9A$-______.$:-$A-;R.,
26. 1R<-:.A-HR:A-A-3-______<J., HR._____3-<J., 1R<-$*A?-!-A-/-3-/-;A/-/-<-,
27. HR.-L-2-3%-%-;R., ______8J-,$-$A?-.!:-=?-(J,
28. %:A-#%-2-(%-$A ______(A-3R-$9A$-<J., %?-HR.-<-#%-2-2eJ-:.R., HR?-2v?-/-_____(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
Notes-3
1. Plurality markers , 9R <A$?- $J, and (:R are put after a noun to pluralize, e.g., aR2- 3-- 9R, (all
the students); aR2-3-<A$?-$J (the students); 29:-3A-(:R (the family members).
2. <A$?-$J: This inclusive plurality marker categorizes. 8A%-2-<A$?-$J-$+/-#R.-;A/, :VR$-0-<A$?-
$J?-$8A-%R, Farmers are sedentary; herders are migratory.
3. .J is used both as the definite article the and as the demonstrative pronoun that.
•111•
Exercise 7 Complete the dialogue between a foreigner and an Amdo man using
pronouns, possessive pronouns, and genitive case markers.
KAA-\AA%-2 HR._____<?-(A-$9A$-;A/,
2RR.-0 %?-<?-2!R=-$A-3J.,
KAA-\AA%-2 .J-;-35<-<J., 2R.-<-8R%-$A?-<?-3J.-/A-AJ-<J.,
2RR.-0 2R.-MA-<-<?-;R.-/A-<J., .0J<-28$-/-%-1R.-%$-.2%-:)A$?-3J., %-1R.-MA-_____<?-<J.,
KAA-\AA%-2 .J?-/-HR.-_____<?-3A%-(A-$9A$-;A/,
2RR.-0 8-=, :.A-%_____A-3_____KR$?-$A-<?-<J.,
KAA-\AA%-2 2R.-$A?-A-1-_____<?-3A-2!R=-/A-AJ-<J.,
2RR.-0 3-<J., o-35/-:.A-3R-$9A$-<J., _____A-1-%:A-A-3-5%-$A-3$-0-;A/-/A-<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-8-;?-$A-
<?-A-3-_____<?-;A/-.$R?, %:A-A-3-3/:-3-;A/-/, %?-A-1-______<?-2!R=-/A-<J., <J.-S-.J%-
?%-/%?-!-$&A$-<-$&A$-<J., MA-<A$?-$J?-<?-2!R=-$A-<-3J., <?->J?-$A-<-3J.,
KAA-\AA%-2 _____A-1-3$-0-;A/-/, #<-$J?-<-_____A-3-$A-<?-2!R=-.$R?-/A-AJ-<J.,
2RR.-0 2!R=-.$R?-/A-3-<J., .0J-.J-3R-$9A$-3J., $*J/-1A$-;?-/A-<-MA%-2eJ-YR=-2R.-/-1=-(J<-3J.,

KAA-\AA%-2 .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/-fR$-S-3A-(J, .J%-?%-_____o=-#2-/-<-MA-3%-%-$A?-$*J/-1A$-/-<?-MA%-2eJ-$A-;R.,
<J.-S-8A-3R-3%-%-$A? _____8A-3R-9R<-35S/-/-:S-3*3-3-<J.-:.R.-$A-;R.,
2RR.-0 <J., 2R.-/?-MA-<A$?-$J-?R?-.=-/A-<J., .-2<-;%-<?-3%-%-$9A$-.<-$A-;R.,
KAA-\AA%-2 .J-fR$-S-(J-$A _____$/?-5=-%->R.-S,
2RR.-0 PR%-HJ<-/%-/-<%-$A-#J-2-<-5S-2-____MA%-<?-=-2!R=-$R-$A ___<R$?-0-$9A$-$A?-8-;?-=$-HJ<-=J/-
oR-.!:-$A-9J<,
KAA-\AA%-2 _____o-35/-(A-$9A$-<J.,
2RR.-0 29:-2-$*A?-!?-:)<-3/-/?-8-;?-$9A$-24?-/A-<J., _____MA%-%-" 8-=-.!R/-3(R$-5K-<A%-" :.R$?-

:.R.-/A-<J., .J:A-/%-/?-" 8-=-" <?-;?, <J.-S, =$-HJ<-$A-!J%-$A-A-1-_____<?-"5K-2g/-" <-=$-HJ<-
!J%-_____A-3-_____<?-"z-3R-35S-" <J., :)<-3/-$A-:VJ=-;R.-3A-$-$A?-_____3A-(R$ 8-;?-$A-
<?-1-3-?-$&A$-$A-<?-<-3-<J., <?-_____:.R$?-/-N%-$R-$8%-52-(J/-3R-#%-$A-(R$-3(/-;A-$J-.$R?-
9J<-/A-<J.,
KAA-\AA%-2 _____fR$-S-(J-$A .J:A-$8$-/?-(A-$9A$…
2RR.-0 1-3-$*A?-!?-<?-;R.-/-29%-2?3?, :VJ=-;R.-=?-#%?-$A-;A-$J-<-=R/-?R%-, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-8-;?-$A-<?-

•112•
MA%-%-" 8-=-" ,R$?-;R.-$A
KA-\A%-2 1-3-$A-=$-HJ<-!J%-$A-<?-_______(A-$9A$-<J.,
2R.-0 _____<?-MA%-3-<J., _____MA%-<J., A-1:A-MA%-%-.!R/-3(R$-5K-2g/-9J<-/A-<J., A-3:A-MA%-%-z-3R-
35S-9J<-/A-<J., =$-HJ<-=J/-.?, " 5K-2g/-" <?-2&R?, " .!R/-3(R$-" MA%-%-2&R?, .J?-3A-5., z-3R-35S-
$A-=$-HJ<-$A-!J%-/-MA%-l-2-/?-3J.-$A MA%-$A-52-2-xxx 2o2-;R.-$A .J<-:2R.-YR=-$9A$-AJ-;R.,
Text Two: possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-3.R:C-#J-2-$9A$-$A-=$?-YR=,
\A%- o=- #J-2- /- .$R/- 0- $9A$- ;R., .J:A- MA%- %- ?- .!<- ><- 9J<- /A- <J., .$R/- 0- $A-:IR- |R- <- 9- 2- $A- ;R%- #%?-\A%- o=- #J- 2-
<J., .$R/- 0- .J-#J- 2- <%- $A- .$R/- 0- <J., .$R/- 0- :.A- <- .$R/- 0- (J- $9A$- $A- #R%?- % - $+R$?- /A- <J., .$R/- 0-(J- .J<- " <R%- 2R-
.$R/- 0-" 9J<, <R%- 2R- .$R/- 0- <J2- $R%- ?- (- $A-.$J- =$?- 0- $A- .$R/- 0-A- +- $A?- (J-2R- <- A- +- $A?- $=- (J- 2R- ;A/, .J:A- .$R/-
2.$-$-><-{=-w/-o-35S-9J<-/A-<J.,
\A%-o=-#J-2-$A?- $8A-2.$-3%-%-!J/-$A-;R., #J-2-$8%-$A-$8A-2.$-$4S-2R-$A-MA%-%-A-MJ?-z-<A-9J<-$A .J-3A/-., #J- 2- ?R-

?R<- <%- <%- $A-$8A- 2.$- <- ;R.- /A- <J., $8A- 2.$- 9R-$A- :.$- ?- ,A-2+%- $A?- <A-(J- +$- +$- <J., <J.- S- #J- 2- ?R- ?R- /- #R- 9R<- z-
#%- =?- ;R., $8A- 2.$- 9R- MA- .0:- 2R- <- MA- H.- 0<- &/- $A-3=- 2-;A/- :.R.- $A- ;R., =- =- $9A$- }R/- (.- $A- .3$- .0R/- ;A/-
:.R.-$A-;R., %$-o/-/, 2!/-3-2&-$*A?, .J%-3-$A-2!/-0:A-.P-2R-2R.-$A-$8A-2.$-,R$-3-9R-;A/-9J<,
$8A-2.$-hR$-$R?-5K-KA-3-/?-1/-3A-,R$?-:.R.-$A-;R., .J?-3A-5., $8A-2.$-9R-MA-8.-(J-9J<, #R-9R-3OA$-0-,R.-o<-.$:,

>- 9, U$- .R$- 9, 8J- #%- <- (J-9J<, .J- ;A/- /- <, 5K- :.A- /?- MA- $9A$- $- .!:-%=- <- 2<- (.- ;R.- /, $8A- 2.$-.$R?- 0- (J-
:.R.-$A-;R., /%-2!/-0-i3-.$-$9A$-;A/-/, $8A-2.$-.J-3R-$=-(J/-$9A$-$-2lA-$A-3J., \A%-o=-#J-2-/-^-2-2./-0:A-
/%-[-<R=-;R., .J:A-.3A$?-;=-$8A-2.$-9R-.$:-$A-:)$-oR-<J., $8A-2.$-.$:-/-=R-=J$?-=R/-,2-9J<,
•113•
4.4 --Possessive pronouns
Singular $%
Subject Pronoun Genitive case Complement English
MA- $%- t$?-/$-:.A-<J., Whose pen is this?
.%R?-0R- $%- 3.R$-.!<-<R-<J., Which thing is white?
o=-#2- $%- o=-?-0J-&A/-;A/, Which country does

Beijing belong to?
$8A-2.$- $%- z-#%-$/-<J., Which mountain deity's
shrine is that?
$A-
t$?-/$-:.A- MA-$%- <J. / ;A/, Which person's is this
pen?
z-#%-$/- $8A-2.$-$%- <J. / ;A/, Which mountain deity's
shrine is that?
0J-&A/- o=-#2-$%- <J. / ;A/, Which country is Beijing a
part of?
5K-<A%- ?-$%- <J. / ;A/, From which place is Tshe
ring?
Dual / Plural $%
Subject Pronoun Genitive Complement English
case
MA- $%-$%- t$?-/$-:.A-9R-<J., Whose pens are these?
.%R?-0R- $%-$%- 3.R$-.!<-<R-<J., Which things are white?
o=-#2- $%-$%- o=-?-0J-&A/, 3:R-?A-#R-<- Which countries' capitals

are Beijing, Moscow, and
0-=A-<J., Paris?
$8A-2.$- $%-$%- z-#%-$/-9R-<J., Which mountain deities'

shrines are those?
$A
t$?-/$-:.A-9R- MA-$%-$%- <J. / ;A/, Whose pens are these
(pens)?
z-#%-$/-9R- $8A-2.$-$%-$%- <J. / ;A/, Which mountain deities'
are those shrines?
0J-&A/-<-3:R-?A- o=-#2-$%-$%- <J. / ;A/, In which countries are
Beijing, Moscow, and
#R-<-1-=A- Paris?
5K-<A%-<-.!R/- ?-$%-$%- <J. / ;A/, From which places are

Tshe ring and Dkon
3(R$- mchog?
•114•
Notes-4
1. One $% is used to singularize which and two $% are used to pluralize, e.g., HR.-.%R?-0R-$%-%-
.$:, Which thing do you like? / HR.-.%R?-0R-$%-$%-%-.$:, Which things do you like?
2. One ? is used to singularize who and two ? are used to pluralize, e.g., HR:A-HA3-/-?-;R.-,
Who is at your home? / HR:A-HA3-/-?- ?-;R., Who are at your home?.
3. One <% is used to singularize own (or each) and two <% are used to pluralize, e.g., %?-%-
<%-$A-=?-!-=?, I do my own job. / #R-9R?-#R-9R-<%-<%-$A-=?-!-=?, They do their own jobs.
4. One (A is used to singularize what and two (A are used to pluralize, e.g., HR?-L-2-(A-=?-$A-;R.,
What do you do (as a job)? / HR?-L-2-(A-(A-=?-$A-;R., What work do you do?
Exercise 8 Several people are planning a trip to Amdo. Fill in singular pronouns,
dual and plural pronouns, Ladon case markers and, if necessary, other
appropriate words based on the context.
2!RR.-1A$-0 =R-$8$-3:A-/%-%-, %J.-(-2R-A-3.R<-&A$-:IR, _______:IR-:.R.,

aRR2-3 %J.-(-2R-5%-3-:IR-:.R., %J.-(-2R-A-3.R-$A-?-(-_______:IR, (R$ is polysemous: to be allowed, to be
2!RR.-1A$-0 .J%-,R$-0R-=A/-/?-0J-&A/-/-:IR, 0J-&A/-/-:IR-?-(-4B$-;R., OK, to be good enough, e.g., nHR.-.-2R-?R%-
/-3A-(R$You are not allowed to go now.

aRR2-3 ?-(-.J-9R-_______<J.,
o.J-<A%-/3-^-:H$?-$A !R.-H-:.A?-AJ-(R$The
2!RR.-1A$-0 2R.-$A-<A$-$/?-8A2-:)$-#%-<-N%-.L%-3A-<A$?-aR2-9-(J/-3R, weather is cold today, is this jacket good
aRR2-3 %J.-9R-/3-:IR, enough? p:.A-(R$-$A <J.-S-.J-3A-(R$-$A This is
2!RR.-1A$-0 ^-2-2./-0-$A-5K?-2&-28A-$A-*A/, %J.-9R-0R-=A/-/?-=3-3-(?, good but that is not good.

aRR2-3 %J.-9R-0J-&A/-/?-_______:.$
2!RR.-1A$-0 *A/-3-$?3-3-:.$ #R3-0-;R.-/, _______$A-:IR-?<-<-?R%-/-(R$
aRR2-3 0R-=A/-/?-0J-&A/-/-:1<-/-|R<-3R-_______.$R?,
2!RR.-1A$-0 $?=-2R<-3A->J?, $8%-/-<J-<J<-|R<-3R-s-2o-;R., _____-3-:.%-/-HR.-9R-_______$A?-$R/-.$R?,
aRR2-3 %J.-(-2R-3*3-0?-:IR-/%-, _______$A-?-/?-:IR,
2!RR.-1A$-0 <2-;A/-/, 5%-3-3*3-0?-:IR, _______5K?-0-2&-28A-$A-*A/-:IR-3A-,2,
aRR2-3 %-<-aR2-3-$8/-$?3-*A/-3-.J<-:IR-3A-,2,
2!RR.-1A$-0 _______;A/,
aRR2-3 .!R/-3(R$-*2?, 5K-=R, 2N-.R/-<-%-, _______;%-3A/-5K?-0-2&-$?3-;%-3A/-2&R-s-=-:IR, .J-

;A/-/-_______(R$
•115•
2!RR.-1A$-0 .J-(R$-$A .J-;A/-/, $/3-P-$A-1J:R-_______$A?-*R?, $8$-/?-%?-|R<-3R-KA<-!J<,
aR2-3 A-3.R-/?-*A/-3-(A-3R-$9A$-:.$ ?-(-_______:IR, %J.-(-2R?-.%R?-0R-_______:6B/-.$R?,
2!RR.-1A$-0 A-3.R-/?-.J%-,R$-9A-=A%-%-:1<, 2v?-/, %J.-(:R-.J-/?-*A/-3-28A-:.$-.$R?, .J-/?-<J2-$R%-<-lJ-#R$-
$-:IR, $R/-o-<-.%R?-2R-3%-%-3A-.$R?,
aR2-3 *A/-3-_______<J2-$R%-/?-<-*A/-3-_______lJ-#R$-/?-:.$
2!RR.-1A$-0 5K?-0-*J<-$&A$-/?-*J<-28A-$A-2<-<-<J2-$R%-/?, 5K?-0-*J<-s-/?-*J<-2./-$A-2<-<-lJ-#R$-/?,
aR2-3 %J.-9R?-_______$A-<R$?-0-HA.-;R%-/-AJ-(R$
2!RR.-1A$-0 ,$?-2o=-3-28J%?, _____3A-(R$ :IR-<R$?-5%-3-5/-#$-:.A:A-aR2-3-;A/, ______$A-<R$?-0-
??-<-HA.-;R%-3A-(R$
Text Three: genitive cases and kinship terms
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 3$R/-0R-*A.-=-:LR<-2:A-:UA/-;A$
%:A-<R$?-0-3$R/-0R-*A.-=$?,
%?-/3-;A/-/-<-HR.-S/-$A-;R., %-<-29:-3A-5%-3-$A?-HR.-:.$-?-*A.-0R-<J.-:.R.-$A-;R., %?-HR.-v-$A-;R%-2?3?-/A-<, #R-(:R-<-:IR-o-;A/-9J<, #R-(:R-9J<-/,
%:A-MA%-Z%-1R=-3-*2?, 1R=-3-35S, 1-3-1R=-3-:23-<-?%?-o?-35S, A-#-.A/-0, A-/J-*A-3-1R=-3-;A/, .-:-(:R-<J3-3-,$-,2-o-/,
%J.-(:R-<J2-$&A$-$-;R%-/-AJ-(R$ ;R%-/-:.$-?-$A?-AJ-:.%-,
HR:A-<R$?-0-(R?-:1$?-$A?,
2005=R:C-^-$*A?-0-$A-5K?-15*A/,
4.5 --Pronouns
Singular ?
Subject Pronoun Complement English
MA-:.A- ?- <J. / ;A/, Who is this person?
.!R/-3(R$-$A-A-1- ?- <J. / ;A/, Who is Dkon mchog's father?
Plural ?
MA-$/-9R- ?-?- <J. / ;A/, Who are those people?
.!R/-3(R$-$A-@-3- ?-?- <J. / ;A/, Who are Dkon mchog's parents?
?--? with genitive case marker

:VA-.J2-:.A-9R- ?-?:A / $A- <J. / ;A/, Whose notebooks are these?
$?<-2-:.A- aR2-3-?-?:A / $A- .$J-c/-<J. / ;A/, Which

man?
students' teacher is this young
•116•
Notes-5
1. Question ;:-/-MA-?-?-;R. might have two answers: a) ;:-/-MA-?-<-3J., (No one is at home.)
and b) ;:-/-MA-$&A$-<-3J., (There is not even a single person at home.) In the first answer,
? means anyone, not who.
2. &% refers to something inanimate in questions and negative answers, corresponding to
any, e.g.,HR.-.%R?-0R-&%-:HJ<-o-AJ-;R., Do you have anything to carry? / 3J., %-.%R?-0R-&%-
:HJ<-o-3J., No, I do not have anything to carry. For detail, refer to Notes 4, Chapter 9.
Exercise 9 A young herder and his friends trespass on a private grassland to herd
animals. Complete the dialogue between the young man and the land
owner.
A
?--2.$ 9R$-H-$/-_____<J., 9R$-5%-3-%J.-5%-$A-C-?:A-,R$-/-;R.-$A
z--.0= 8A-=A-$9$?-<A%-_____<J., _____/3-;A/-<-:.A-/-9R$-:5S-$A-;R.,
?--2.$ #R:C-1-3-_____<J., $/?-5=-:.A-%?-#R-5%-%-2>.-.$R?, $8/-$A-?-,R$-/?-9R$-:5S-YR=-$%-/-;R.,
z--.0= A-3-(R?-35S-*A.-<-A-1-{=-29%-$*A?-!-<J.,
?--2.$ _____<-$%-/-;R., :.A-/?-,$-AJ-<A%-,
z--.0= <A-:.A:A-1<-/%-/-;R., <J.-S-#R-$*A?-!-;:-/-3J.-$A
?--2.$ _____$%-/-;R.-$A
z--.0= %?-3A->J?, <J.-S, #R-$*A?-!-z-?<-3)=-$A-:IR-9J<-$A-;R., z-?-$A-=3-/-;R.-/-,%-,

B
?--2.$ _____ :.A-/?-9R$-:5S?-/-(R$-9J<,
=$$-mAA @-3-$*A?-!?, <J.-S, ,$?-o-3-28J%?, .J%-?%-_____C-?:A-,R$-/-C-9-o-3J.-$A
?--2.$ C-3J.-/A-<J., .J%-?%-?-=-C-?-3J.-$A fR$-$+3,
=$$-mAA .R-5B$?-.L<-#-,/-0-(JJ-$A C-{3-,=, .JA.-!-$/3-:)R-8/-$A %J.-(:R-2!R.-0-$9A$-3J.-$A
?--2.$ %J.-(-2R-9J<-/-_____<J., HR.-3A/-.-.-2R-mA-2R-$8/-0-<-:.A-/-;R.-/?,
=$$-mAA ;R., _____<A-.J:A-o2-/-;R., %?-:.A-/-?-2.$-HR.-M=-$A-;R.,
?--2.$ A, $.R/-U$ ?-2.$-24/-0R-%-<J., HR.-.!:-%=-_____;R.-/, %?-.J-9R-3A-2?3, HR.-<-HR:A-<R$?-0-
9R-$A?-_____$A-9R$-=$-,J., 9R$-$-(.-0-|R<-3R-2&-,3-0-!J<-.$R?,
=$$-mAA (J-9R$-$-%?-(.-0-!J<, #-(%-%-___(.-0-3A-!J<, #-(%-<A$?-$A?_____9-3A-,2, =$-:5S?-/-AJ-(R$
?--2.$ ;, 8A-=A, HR.-K-3A-,%-/, :R-$*A?-!-$8%-%-$+$-$A-:IR,
•117•
2.$--1 Certain nominals are utilized to personalize, or as noun-adjective converters.
Personalizing particles
0--0R-2-2RR-3--3R-&/-w/--3#/
Word English Particle Personalized Tibetan English
2.$ I;
ownership
0R 2.$-0R owner $/-$A-2.$-0R-?-<J., Who is the owner
of that?
c/ old 3R c/-3R old lady %:A-A-3-c/-3R-$9A$-;A/, My mother is an
old lady.
82?-VR dance 2 82?-VR-2 dancer 82?-VR-2-.J-1R-|R-;$ The dancer is
handsome.
=? to work;
task
3#/ =?-3#/ doer;
worker
=?-3#/-#R-3-<J., He is not the
person who did it.
) tea 3 )-3 cook )-3-:.A-.J-<A%-;R%-, This cook came
today.
\J/ stupid 3 \J/-3 idiot
(female)
c/-3R-$/-\J/-3-$9A$-<J., The old lady is an
idiot.
3R normally refers to the female gender
Note 3#/ usually combined with verbs
&/ and w/ noun-adjective converters
Noun - adjective converter &/

Nouns English &/ Combined words Tibetan English
;R/-+/ knowledge ;R/-+/- with knowledge;

knowledgeable
#<-$J-MA-;R/-+/-&/-<J., He is a
knowledge-
&/ able person.
{. voice {.-&/ with voice 3<-$J-{.-&/-<J., She is a singer
with a nice
voice.
G-&R horn G-&R-&/ with horns; =$-G-&R-&/-.J-9%?, Please catch
horned the sheep with
&/ horns!
.2%-( power .2%-(- with power;
powerful
#R-MA-.2%-(-&/-$9A$-;A/, He is a
powerful man.
&/
<A$-0 intelligence <A$-0- with
intelligence;
#R-MA-<A$-0-&/-$9A$-<J., He is an
intelligent
&/ intelligent person.
C grass C-&/ with grass; <A-C-&/-/-<A-?$?-:#R<, Animals roam
grassy on grassy
mountains.
In most cases, &/ can be treated as the equivalent of with or of, e.g., MA-.2%-(-&/, a man
Note of power;=$-G-&R-&/, sheep with horns. Attributive adjectives are followed by a genitive
case marker to modify a noun, e.g., #R-<A$-0-&/-$A-MA-$9A$-<J., He is an intelligent man.
•118•
Verb - adjective converter
3
Verb English 3 Combined words Tibetan English
PAT
.0< to copy .0<-3 copied :.A-;A-$J-.0<-3-$9A$-<J., This letter is a
copied one.
VA? to write VA?-3 written ;A$-(-:.A-.0<-3-3-<J., VA?-3- This document is
not copied, but
<J., hand-written.
2+< to translate 2+<-3 translated \R$-2f/-.J-2+<-3-$9A$-<J., That movie is a

dubbed one.
2>? to copy from 2>?-3 duplicated :.A-3-lR3-3-<J.-2>?-3-<J., This article is
not the original,
3 but a duplicated
one.
21A$? to edit 21A$?- collected .0J-(-:.A-21A$?-3-$9A$-<J., This book is a
collection of
3 articles.
>R< to escape >R<-3 escaped 24S/-3->R<-3-.J-?-<J., Who is the

escaped
prisoner?
Noun - adjective converter

w/
Noun English Particle Combined word Tibetan English
>J? know-
ledge
knowledge-
>J?-w/
able
#R-MA->J?-w/-$9A$-;A/, He is a knowledg-
eable person.
{. voice {.-w/ sonorous /

resonant
3<-$J-\-3-{.-w/-$9A$-<J., She is a singer
with a sonorous
voice.
]R mind; ]R-w/ opinionated; MA-]R-w/-;A/-/-.R/-:P2, Intelligent people
opinion w/ intelligent do things success-
fully.
.2% power .2%-w/ powerful MA-.2%-w/-/-#-%R-;R., A powerful man is
influential.
YR$ life YR$-w/ sentient lA->A%-YR$-w/-AJ-;A/, Are plants
sentient?
C grass C-w/ with grass <A-C-w/-/-<A-?$?-:#R<, Animals cling to
grassy mountains.
Not n w/ means have, e.g., #R-=-;R/-+/-w/, He has knowledge.
e oAs an adjective converter, it is combined with monosyllabic nouns.
•119•
Tibetan English
8-;?-$A-(J.-<-29:-2-:.A-$*A?-3*3-0?-;R., This couple stays together because of the child.
3<-$J:A-2.J-:)$?-$A-(J.-<-8A-=A-.J?-?J3?-#<-;?-$A-;R., That man is concerned for her safety.
P=-A-4-$9A$-=R/-o::A-(J.-.-3<-$J-}-?J?-:IR-$A-;R., She goes early in order to get a good seat.
Definite article latent adjective: 0R-2R-3-3R

Adj. English Particle Combined word Tibetan English
T-5$ naughty T-5$-0R naughty 2-(%-T-5$-0R-=R-@R%- The naughty boy
person is very young.
$A?-(%-,
#$-3R sad, unlucky #$-3R-3 unlucky
person
%?-#$-3R-3-.J<-~A%-eJ- I sympathize with
the ill-fated
$A woman.
undisciplined; undisciplined That

cR.-0R violent 0R cR.-0R-2R person
8A-=A-cR.-0R-2R-.J-&%-<- undisciplined
3A-*/, man is good for
2R nothing.
/R$?- rich 3 /R$?-3R-3 a rich
(female)
/R$?-3R-3-.J-?J<-$-(J, The rich lady is
stingy.
3R 3R
3$R- empty- 3$R-!R%-3 empty- 3$R-!R%-3-$/, 3A-=?- She is a stuipd
headed / headed woman.
!R% stupid person .$-=?,
$;R- cunning; $;R-&/-0R trickster MA-$;R-&/-0R-$A-#<-3- Do not trust that
foxy trickster!
&/ */,
Words ending with 3 and 3R usually indicate the female gender; whereas, words ending
Note
with 0R and 2R indicate the male gender.
•120•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--28AA-2,,
A-3.R:C-#J-2-$9A$-$A-=$?-YR=,
35S-}R/ Qinghai 35S-}R/-$A-#=-$&A$-#3?-$A-?-(-;A/,
<%-*R% autonomous ?-(-:.A-.0=-:LR<-$A-,R$-/?-<%-*R%-;A/,
#= prefecture 35S-}R/-/-<%-*R%-#=-S$-;R.,
$A-<? from :.A-$A-<?-%:A-HA3-3-,$-<A%-,
=3-,$ distance /%?-!-#R-(:R-=3-,$-<A%-%-:IR-.$R?,
,A-=J kilometer :.A-/?-%:A-HA3-3-,A-=J-2o.-;R.,
2#R3?-0? in total; altogether %-=-2#R3?-0?-|R<-3R-2o.-;R.,
2>.-3#/ speaker; eloquent person #R-2>.-3#/-$9A$-<J.,
#%-=J2 bungalow #%-=J2-:.A-.-2R-P2-3J.,
$R-/R what (one) heard %?-$R-/R-\-{.-~/-3R-$9A$-<J.,
3$R-=R$ Mgo log (place) 3$R-=R$-:VR$-?-;A/,
2R.-<A$? ethnic Tibetan 2R.-<A$?-$/?-?-3,R-|%-;A/,
5S-2 tribe 5S-2-$?3-$>R$-!-:.A:A-#R%?-%-$+R$?,
5S-3A tribal people 5S-2-:.A-/?-5S-3A-5%-3-:S-3*3-;A/,
/%-$?J? a part of; affiliation =?-#%?-:.A-5S$?-0-(J-$9A$-$A-/%-$?J?-;A/,
#J-(% small village #J-(%-:.A-#J-(J/-/-*/-$A-;R.,
2$R? to be divided (PAT) $$-5%-3-HA3-v<-<-2$R?,
!R.-KR$? upper direction !R.-KR$?-/-3A/-:,A2-$A-;R.,
;< up ;<-=-3-:$R-*J/-#-(J,
;<-!R. upper direction =%-2-:.A:A-;<-!R.-/?-:V-3A-*J,
(. down; lower (.-<-3-:IR, :.A-/?-#R.,
3<-!R. lower direction 3<-!R.-/-:V$-wA<-$A-;R.,
<%-<% one's own (plural) :,?-3A-9R?-<%-<%-$A-2?3-0-\J%-,
•121•
($? to form; to be situated z-?-.2?-/-($?,
2>.-/R what (some) said .$J-c/-$A?-2>.-/R-%?-@-3A-$R
Y% to protect; to defend 8-;?-:.A-Y%-.!:-$A
3%-(J->R? the most MA-3%-(J->R?-2R.-<A$?-<J.,
=R-+R$ crops =R-+R$-3J.-/-9-o-3J.,
PR wheat 8A%-2-9R?-PR-:.J2?-$A-;R.,
8R$-#R$ potato 8R$-#R$-.J%-,R$-2R.-/?-3-<J.,
$3 oil $3-3J.-/-9-3-8A3-0R-3-<J.,
$3-<A$? all kinds of oil $3-<A$?-5%-3-9-3-3-<J.,
:.J2? to sow 8A%-%-}R-5S.-3-:.J2?,
.J?-3A-5. furthermore; more than that .J?-3A-5., #R-$-,%-$9A$-<-<J.,
:S-3 similar; around; or so |R<-3R-?3-&-:S-3-$9A$-$A?-.J-3A-#$
:5S to be alive; to herd %?-=$-:5S, HR?-9R$-5S?,
:VR$ herding area :VR$-/-8A%-?-*%-/A-<J.,
<R% valley; agricultural area <R%-/-C-?-.!R/-/A-<J.,
8A%-? farmland 8A%-?-3J.-/-8A%-2-=?-!-3J.,
(R$ to be OK; to be allowed |R<-3R-$?3-$A?-(R$-$A
<A$?-$J all (plural) MA-<A$?-$J-$%-%-:IR-$A-;R.,
3*3-=? cooperation 3*3-=?-;?-/-?J3?-*A.-$A
(R$-(R$ definitely OK .-HR.-?R%-/-(R$-(R$-;A/,
2&A%?-:PR= liberation 2&A%?-:PR=-$A-}R/-/-=3-:.A-3J.,
$8$-/? after; behind; later =3-:.A-$8$-/?-=?-/A-<J.,
:I<-wR$ change ?-:.A-/-:I<-wR$-(J-:L%-$A-;R.,
:.A-<A$? this kind .%R?-0R-:.A-<A$?-$%-%-:)R$
o/-. regularly; always %-o/-.-;:-/-3J.,
/R-$A? because; due to #R-$9$?-<A%-/R-$A?, MA-$9$?-&/-<J.,
.-2R-< still #R-.-2R-<-=%?-3J.,
•122•
:IR-=$? custom :IR-=$?-$-29%-%/-3J.,
o/-:6B/ to maintain; maintenance :IR-=$?-:.A-o/-:6B/-LJ.-oR-$=-(J,
0 hair #R:A-0-?J<-<R-<J., %:A-.J-/$-$R-;A/,
LA to lose hair #R:C-0-?J<-<R-LA-$A-;R.,
~/ melodious \-~/-/-*/-:.R.-*J,
MA-24S$ bad person MA-24S$-$-.$:-3#/-*%-,
<?-MA% family name MA-.J:A-<?-MA%-%?-3A-S/-$A
8J-,$-$A? sincerely %-8A-3R-$/-/-8J-,$-$A?-.%?-$A
$*J/-1A$ marriage; to marry %-.-$*J/-1A$-;?-;R.,
>$->$ to doubt; certain #R-:IR->$->$-<J., .-3-:$R$
&R-=J-2 squat <A-&R-=J-2-.J-$/?-3(R$-$9A$-<J.,
.$:-w/-1R-V% Dga' ldan Authority .$:-w/-1R-V%-.J%-3-YA.-$8%-;A/,
(%-3 wife %:A-(%-3-=R-*%-$9A$-;A/,
*J?-0 man; husband (%-3-24/-/-*J?-0-$A?-[R.-$A-;R.,
v.-3R performance; entertainment .J-<A%-|R-/-v.-3R-3%-,
{R< about; group 2R.-$A-{R<-/?-#<-$J?-3%-%->J?,
]-3 lama 2R.-/-]-3-3%-,
:-(:R we :-(:R-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-:IR,
:.% to be enough; affection #%-%-=?-/->A%-(-$A?-3A-:.%-,
:.%-(J to have an affection %-%:A-8A-3R<-:.%-(J,
<A$-0-iR intelligent %:A-<R$?-0-:.A-<A$-0-iR-$A
A-/-3-/ exactly the same; identical .%R?-0R-A-/-3-/, <J.-S-<A/-$R%-3A-:S,
:S-0< picture :S-0<-:.A-?R-3-<J.,
<%-28A/ nature; characteristic #<-$J-<%-28A/-IR%-,
:IR-? destination .R-.$R%-%-:IR-?-3J.,
#-# separate (%-3-<-%-#-#->J.-;R.,
2?3-5= idea; thought 2?3-5=-.-29%-$A <J.-S-#R-.J<-:,.-$A-3J.,
•123•
:O. to wash $R/-o-5%-3-%:A-c/-3R-$A?-:O.,
5S%-o$ to do business %?-aR2-9-:.R/, #<-$J?-5S%-o$
>-{3 dry meat >-{3-$A?-<J3-3-1R-3A-o$-$A
:.%-o$ concern; to think .-%-:.%-o$-$&A$-<-3J.,
:.%-o$-(J full of concern aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-#R-:.%-o$-(J,
;=-uR%? scene; landscape ;=-uR%?-;$-?-/-;=-{R<-2-3%-,
3#:-.2$? air PR%-HJ<-/?-3#:-.2$?-3A-29%-,
:VR$-.0: herder :VR$-.0:-9R?-9R$-:5S-$A-;R.,
4 Tibetan tent .J%-?%-4-$A-/%-/-:.$-3#/-*%-,
lR3-0-0R author .0J-(-:.A:A-lR3-0-0R-?-<J.,
#-3.R$ color #-3.R$-$-$-#-3%-,
< nomad household; wing :VR$-0:A-<-<R%-/?-,$-<A%-,
SA-3 smell :.A-/-SA-3-8A3-0R-$9A$-8J/-:.$
.J-3R-$9A$ so much; so %->-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-.$:,
<A/-$R% value; price <A/-,%-<A/-$R%-$A?-3A-35S/,
!R.-H jacket !R.-H-3-$R/-/-/3-^-:H$?-$A
%J?-%J? virtually; truly 8A-3R-$/-%J?-%J?-36K?-$A
2!R= to use %?-_%?-:#R<-2!R=-$A-3J.,
.R/ interest; meaning lR3-.J<-.R/-3J.,
.R/-;R. to be interesting; to be meaningful ;R-=J-3-;?, L-2-.R/-;R.-12?,
.%-=J/ acceptance L-2-:.A-.%-=J/-;?-3#/-3A-*%-,
*R/ mistake; a wrong 8-;?-aR2-9<-3A-:IR-/-%:A-*R/-3A/,
$>J-$>J-$+R% to scold .$J-c/-.J-$A?-o/-.-$>J-$>J-$+R%-$A
OR3-< market OR3-<-/-5S%-9R$-@R%-$A?-3A-3%-,
o? familiarity MA-.J<-o?-;R.-3#/-#R-<J.,
o?-=R/ to get familiar %?-*J?-3-$/-/-o?-3A-=R/,
,$ to encounter; to meet <R$?-0-$?3-0R-.J-<A%-,$-/A-<J.,
•124•
.%? to be affectionate 2.$-0R-<A$-/?-HA-.%?-$A-;R.,
:HJ< to take; to carry 8-;?-.J?-.%R?-0R-uA.-3R-:HJ<-3A-,2,
#-=R-2 driver #-=R-2-.J?-_%?-:#R<-3IR$?-3R->J.-{R<,
)R= to teach %?-#<-$J-lA?-<A$-)R=-$A-;R.,
$*A?-$?3-$9A$ a couple of MA-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-$A?-(R$
#$-$-{< to cause trouble 8A-=A-$A?-%-#$-$-{=,
^-2 month .-^-2-$?3-0-<J.,
(J.-=? major %:A-(J.-=?-\R$-[.-$A-{R<-;A/,
{.-<A$? languages HR?-{.-<A$?-.->J?,
8A2-:)$ research; study 2R.-<A$-$/?-8A2-:)$-#%-:.A-/-;R.,
YA.-$8% government YA.-$8%-.2%-(J-/-:2%?-3A-#$
:$R< to take (time); to last %-0R-=A/-/?-=R-$?3-:$R<-$A-;R.,
i3-.$ perfect; flawless #<-$J?-2R.-{.-i3-.$-&A$-2>.-$A
:LR< to reach; to receive %-=-.J-<A%-:UA/-;A$-$9A$-:LR<,
(J-2R the big one (J-2R-<R-<-(%-%R-iR-<J.,
(%-%R the small one LA?-0-(%-%R-8A-=A-$9A$-;A/,
HA3-35K? neighbor %:A-HA3-35K?-$A?-%-3PR/-/-:2R.-$A-;R.,
*$-24S$ dirty #R<-;$-*$-24S$-2.J-,%-%-$/R.-<,
L%-3 skillful; versed #R-3R-=$-l=-0-L%-3-$9A$-;A/,
,%-!A wolf ,%-!A-<-=$-$*A?-.P-2R-;A/,
i3-<A$ intelligence i3-<A$-o?-/-:)R/-,%-.<,
3(-+R beak; lip L-.J:A-3(-+R-<A%-,
/$-$R black H-/$-$R-.J-$R/-/-3A-=R,
$?<-cR. young and brave man $?<-cR.-.J?-8A-3R:C-?J3?-:$$
.!:-=? difficulty; trouble .!:-=?-M%?-/-2?3->J?,
.!:-=?-(J difficult; troublesome :VR$-=?-.!:-=?-(J,
2eJ to exchange %?-(J.-=?-2eJ-:.R.,
•125•
;-35< interest; interesting .R/-(%-.J<-;-35<-3J.,
:.A-3R-$9A$ this much HR.-:.A-3R-$9A$-:5B$-0-9-.R/-3J.,
3$-0 groom 3$-0-<-A-8%-:PA$-$A-3J.,
3/:-3 bride 3/:-3-$A?-8-;?-$*R<-$A-;R.,
$&A$-<-$&A$ not different; exactly the same :.A-9R-$&A$-<-$&A$-<J., 29%-%/-3J.,
YR= the way (one does something) HR:A-:VA-YR=-3A-Z-$A
fR$-S complication; confusion fR$-S-3-29R, .J-3A/-.R/-3A-:P2,
.< to flourish; to be popular o-/$-.0=-:LR<-.<-$A-;R.,
24? to give birth /-/A%-8A-3R-.J?-8A-=R-$9A$-24?,
MA%-:.R$? to give a name 8-;?-$A-MA%-%?-:.R$?,
=$-HJ< ID; passport =$-HJ<-3J.-/-o=-#3?-3-:PA3,
:VJ=-;R. related %?-$8%-=?-<-:VJ=-;R.-$A-L-2-3A-=?,
3A-$ figure; person .J-<A%-3A-$-$?3-$A?-$+3-2>.-$A-;R.,
;A-$J document; letter %?-;A-$J-$+/-/?-3A-{<,
=R/ to get; to obtain .0%-;A$-.J-<A%-=R/-.$R?,
52 substitute; replacement 2-=R/-$A-52-2-%?-9R$-!J<,
;R%-#%? source; origin ;R%-#%?-3J.-<-:IR-#%?-+$-+$-<J.,
$=-(J-2R the important one $=-(J-2R-*/-oR-<J.,
<J2-$R%-$A-=R-?<,
:IR-|R expense :IR-|R-3J.-/-;R%-|R-3J.,

.$J-=$?-0 Dge lugs Sect; Dge lugs follower A-3.R-/?-MA-5%-3-.$J-=$?-0-3A/,
.$R/-2.$ abbot of a monastery .$R/-2.$-.J-LA/-_2?-(J-9J<,
!J/ to take refuge in; to beseech #J-3A-9R?-$8A-2.$-!J/,
?R-?R individual; every MA-?R-?R-$A?-8=-:.J2?-o$
+$-+$ plenty; exact K$-0R-.J<-|R<-3R-+$-+$-;A/,
.0:-2R hero #<-3-3J.-/-.0:-2R-$A?-(A-$9A$-=?,
•126•
H.-0<-&/ special; characteristic #R-:.A-MA-H.-0<-&/-$9A$-<J.,
}R/-(. previously; before }R/-(.-<A->R.-5%-3-/$?-;A/-9J<,
.3$-.0R/ military leader .3$-.0R/-.J:A-1R-2-2$<-;R.,
%$-o/ legend %$-o/-5%-3-2.J/-0-3A/,
2!/-3 worldly deity 2!/-3-2&-$*A?-2R-Y%-3-<J.,
2!/-0 Buddhism 2R.-2!/-0-.<,
,R$-3 original; first %-,R$-3<-2R.-/?-;R%-,
MA-8. human character =.-0-.J<-MA-8.-&A$-3J.,
3OA$-0 sexual intercourse 3OA$-0-,R.-/-/.-<-:6K3-.$R?,
3OA$-0-,R. to have sex 24/-0-9R?-3OA$-0-3A-,R.,
U$-.R$ jealousy U$-.R$-3J.-3#/-?-<J.,
U$-.R$-9 to be jealous; to envy %-#R<-U$-.R$-9,
8J-#% hatred 8J-#%-.J-3R-$9A$-$%-/?-;R%-/A-<J.,
2lA to respect; to regard; to count %?-.$J-c/-2lA-$A-;R.,
[-<R= a folk festival [-<R=-^-2-S$-0:A-/%-;A/,
=R-=J$? bumper harvest =R-=J$?-L%-/-?J3?-SR-$A
o=-? capital city %-o=-?-0J-&A/-/-:IR,
$8$-3 latter }R/-3<-vR?-/-$8$-3-29%-$A
.J%-,R$ originally .J%-,R$-%-;R%-3A-2?3-$A
3A-<A$? ethnicity o-$<-/-3A-<A$?-3%-,
aR2-9-(J/-3R university aR2-9-(J/-3R-/-2?3-]R-$?<-2-;R.,
=3-3-(? to get on the road .3$-.0%-.J-<A%-=3-3-(?,
*A/-3 day *A/-3-$?3-$A?-%-5S-:IR,
:1< to fly L-<-$/3-P-:1<-,2,
;%-3A/…;%-3A/… either…or… ;%-3A/-HR.-?R%-, ;%-3A/-%-:IR,
$/3-P airplane $/3-P-L-v<-3A-:1<,
1J:R ticket (Chinese) 1J:R-3J.-/-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-3A-:)$
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/?...2<-<… from…to… ?:A-$R-=-/?-^-2:A-2<-<-,A-=J-.-;R.,
5/-#$ unit .%R?-0R-:.A-5/-#$-$?3-0-$A-<J.,
HA. to take; to guide :.A-/?-*J/-#-(J, 8-;?-1<-HA.-<R$?,
$?<-2 young man $?<-2-9R-S/-|R-3%-,
H flock; group 9R$-H-$*A?-z/-$&A$-$-:SJ?-;R.,
9R$-H flock of animals #R-5%-%-9R$-H-(J-$9A$-;R.,
C-? grassland C-?-3J.-/-9R$-$A-:1J=-#-3A-.<,
OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/ probably OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-%-KA-o=-<-:IR,
fR$-$+3 nonsense fR$-$+3-3-2>., %<-*/-#R3-3J.,
5.-0 heat .R-5B$?-5.-0-(J-$A
$/3-:)R precipitation $/3-:)R-3J.-/, C-(-3A-o?,
8/ bad; not good #R:C-aR2-:V?-8/-$A
mA-2R herd mA-2R-$9A$-($-0:A-OR.-/-;R.,
o2 back %:A-o2-;3-3J-/,
o2-/ behind %J.-5%-$A-o2-/-<A-(J-$9A$-;R.,
24/-0R strict; shrewish A-&J-$/-24/-0R-A-K-$9A$-;A/,
.!:-%= difficulty .!:-%=-M%?-/-$*R3-=$-o?,
(.-0 fine; punishment aR2-3-T-5$-$-(.-0-(R.,
#-(% young (animal) 9R$-#-(%-%-$R%-3A-;R%-,
K-3A-,% to overact; overbearing #R-:.A-%-o=-$A?-K-3A-,%-,
$8%-$+$ lawsuit; litigation IR.-;-$*A?-!?-$8%-$+$-;?,
<J2-$&A$-$ altogether; at one time L-2-5%-3-<J2-$&A$-$-3A-:P2,
vR$? to be hungry .-%-vR$?-$A-;R.,
9-3-{R= to cook %-9-3-2{R=-/-3A-Z,
2.J-:)$? safety 2.J-:)$?-3A/-/-%-?J3?-3A-2.J,
?J3?-#< concern ?J3?-#<-3-LJ., 2.J-:)$?-<J.,
}-?J? early /%?-I%?-%-%-}-?J?-=%?-$A-;R.,
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aR2-5/-s-2,
2h-3R.,
Verb + $R-/? Structure Verb + $A-;R. Structure

Postposition Present Continuous Tense
Verb + $R-$A Structure Cardinal No. and Ordinal No.
Landscape, Sger rtse (Gaize) County, Mnga' ris Administrative Region, TAR (2003, Toni
Huber).
Text One: present continuous tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-3.R-$A-:VR$-0-$9A$
%-A-3.R-$A-.3J-2-mR%-$A-:VR$-0-$9A$-;A/, %?-:.A-/?-:5S-2-$A-{R<-:$:-<J-2>.-:.R., %?-(%-.?-$A-<?-29%-1-;=-

/?-mA-2R-;?, %-.-4-$A-/%-/-:.$-$A-3J., <J.-S-@-3-$*A?-!-<-3A%-YA%-<A$?-$J-4-$A-/%-/-:.$-$A-;R., .J-(A-$9A$-<J.-
9J<-/, %J.-9R?-9R$-=$-#-#->J.-:5S-$A-;R., .J-<A%-%?-=$-mA-;?-$A-;R., %:A-:.$-<R$?-?-$/?-$A-mA-2R-$8/-0-(-4B$-
;A/, #R-(:R-$A?-<-=$-:5S-$A-;R., /%?-I%?-%-=$-9R-,%-%-$+R%-, .J-/?-%-5S-#-$&A$-$-:.-$A-;R., ,%-!R%-/?-#J<-<R-
=$-:5S-oR-8J-,$-$A?-.!:-$A %J.-(:R-$A?-o/-.-3*3-0?-*A/-3-$+R%-$A-;R., .J-<A%-=$-mA-<R$?-0-(:R-%:A-3*3-0?-
3J., %?-Y%-/-9-o-<J-*R-$A-;R., #R-(:R-$A?-<A-3$R-/-=$-:5S-$A-;R.,.J-(A-<J., :VR$-?-/-5S%-<-3J.-9J<-/, .J%-?%-:VR$-
?-/-:I<-wR$-(J-:L%-$A-;R., :.A-<J.-$/-<J.-!R/-oR-.!:-3R-<J., <J.-S-,-,R<-$9A$-2>.-/-:.A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
%J.-5%-$A-<-mR%-,R$-$A-,$-*J-?-/-;R., mR%-,R$-/-#%-2-$?<-2-3%-%-=?-$R-$A o=-/%-$A-MA-3%-%-<-:.A<-:R%-$R-$A MA-

$?<-:LR<-:.A-<A$?-$J?-$4S-2R<-5S%-=?-=?-$A-;R., o-$A-9-#%-<-)J-3%-%-;R%-$A-;R., #%-2-$?<-2-5S%-#%-$?<-2-
$/-/-:.A-/-<J., mR%-,R$-/-:I<-wR$-3IR$?-3R-:L%-$A-;R., .-mR%-,R$-/?-o-{.->J?-oR-@R%-$A?-$=-(J-$A .J-3A/-.,
mR%-,R$-/?-:.$-oR-.!:-3R-<J., .J-<A%-%?-A-3-!R.-H-$?<-2-$9A$-*R-2?3-$A <J.-S-%?-.!:-=?-MR%-$A-;R., 5S%-o$-
3#/-$A?-2R.-{.-3A->J?-$A %?-o-{.-3A->J?, %J.-$*A?-!?-1/-5/-/-$R-2h-3A-:UR.-$A <J.-S, .J%-?%-?-$/?-$A-2R.-
3%-%-$A?-<-5S%-#%-|R-:LJ.-$A-;R., .-%?-2R.-{.-2>.-3#/-$9A$-:5S=-.$R?-$A #-l%-2R.-$9A$-$A?-5S%-#%-$?<-2-
$9A$-|R-:LJ.-$R-$A .-%-.J-2-5%-%-$R/-o-*R-$A-:IR,
%:A-:5S-2-$A-,R$-/-%-3A-.$:-?-3%-%-;R.-$A .R-5B$?-.JA.-!-(<-2-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-:22-$A .L<-#-5.-0-(J-$A .J:A-nJ/-$A?-

C-,%-/?-C-3A-Z-$A .J?-3A-5., C-?-)J-%/-<-)J-*%-, MA-)J-3%-<J., 9R$-$A-:1J=-#-<-.<-$A-3J., :VR$-0-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-
#%-2-o$-$R-$A .-%J.-5%-$A?-<-#%-2-=?-oR<-P-1A$-;?-$R-$A 9R$-3-:1J=-/-;R%-|R-3J., ;R%-|R-3J.-/-#%-2-$9A$-(A-
$9A$->J.-=?,
$%-v<-/-<, %-5K-$%-2R<-9R$-mA-;A/-/A-<J., .J<-*R/-3J.-$A %?-<%-$A-8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-*J=-:.R.-$A-;R., %:A-@-3-

$*A?-!?-<-.J-2!R.-0-.$:-$9A$-<J.-:.R.-$R-$A <J.-S-%-aR2-9-?R%-/-:KA-?R%-9J<,
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5.1 --Present continuous tense
Verb in PRT + $A-;R.

Subject Verb in PRT $A-;R., English
%?- :VA- I am writing. / I write.

HR?- =?- You are working. / You work.
t$?-L3?-$A?- v- Lcags byams is watching. / Lcags byams
$A-;R., watches.
%J.-(-2R- :IR- We are walking. / We walk.
#<-$J?- :.R/- He is reading. / He reads.
HA-c/-.J- 9$- The old dog is barking. / The old dog barks.
Verb in PRT + $RR-$AA

Subject Verb in PRT. $R-$A English
#R-(-2R?- :VA- They are writing.
HR?- =?- You are working.
t$?-L3?-$A?- v- Lcags byams is watching.

$R-$A
%J.-(:R- {R3- We are getting thirsty.
#<-$J?- :.R/- He is reading.
HA-c/-.J- 9$- The old dog is barking.
Notes-1
1. Verb in PRT + $A-;R. structure signifies various tense moods: simple present tense,
indicating a regular action, and present tense or past tense continuous. The tense mood
depends on the context. The question What are you doing? might receive this answer: %?-
.0J-(-:.R/-$A-;R., in which the tense is present continuous, given the context. To answer the
question What do you do? (regular action), the same answer is used.
2. Verb in PRT + $R-$A structure is the contracted form of verb PRT+ $A-;R. + reportive
$A
particle , which is used to make a reportive statement on an ongoing action. A specific
time is often clarified with such temporal adverbs as yesterday, today, and the like, e.g.,
#-
l%-#<-$J?-=?-L-:VA-$R-$A (:VA-$A-;R.-$A) He was writing homework yesterday. / .-#<-$J?-=?-L-
:VA-$R-$A (:VA-$A-;R.-$A) He is writing his homework now.
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Exercise 1 Write $R-$A or $A-;R., appropriate tense forms of the verbs in the blanks. Use
postpositions, negative adverbs, and, if necessary, ergative case markers.
.0J<-2eR., %?-\R$-2f/-$9A$-$-v-$A-;R., #<-$J?-\R$-2f/-$9A$-$-v-$R-$A
1. {<-3-1R=-3-<-.!R/-3(R$-_______aR2-.R%-;?-___________,
2. %?-=?-#%?-_____________L-2-=?-_____________,
3. :VR$-0-.J-9R-$A?-C-,%-___________K$?-9R$-:5S-___________,
4. %-<-%:A-@-3-$A?-<R%-_____________8A%-=?-=?-___________,
5. %?-aR2-9-_____________.%R?-=$?-.R%_____________,
6. #-l%-%-?-(-.J-/-HR.-|$-_____________,
7. %J.-(-2R-2R.-/-0R-+-=:A-=R$?-_____________:IR-___________,
8. o-$<-____________2R.-3%-%-$A?-(A-$9A$-=?-____________,
9. #R-(:R-KA-___________lJ-__________3J., /%-__________lJ-___________,
10. 2R.-_____________MA-3%-%-KA-o=-<-:IR_____________,
Notes-2
1. Verb in PRT + $A-3J. structure: It is the negative form of the verb in PRT + $A-;R.
structure, e.g., %?-=?-L-:VA-$A-3J., I am not writing my homework (continuously); or, I
do not write my homework (usually). / %?-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-3J., I am not watching a movie
(continuously); or, I do not watch movies (usually).
2. Verb in PRT + $R-$A structure: To deny this structure, E-v in its positive original form
$A-;R. is replaced with its negative form 3J., and then the reportive particle is used, e.g.,
#R-(:R-|R-/-lJ-$A-3J.-$A They are not playing outside.
Exercise 2 Confirm or deny, in regular tense or continuous tense.
Regular actions Present continuous tense
1. %?-.$/-#-$R/-o-SR/-0R-$R/___________, 1. %-<-(R?-:1$?-aR2-9<-:IR-__________,
2. 8A-3R-.J-(-2R?->-5S/-0R-9-_____________, 2. .-5K-2g/-$A?-o-;A$-.R%-____________,
3. HR?-9-o-3%-%-{R=-________________, 3. MA-$?3-=3-/-;R%-________________,
4. .!R/-3(R$-\R$-2f/-/-.$:__________, 4. %-<-%:A-<R$?-0-s-$A?-82?-VR-o$-______,
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5. %-aR2-9<-:IR-:.R.-______________, 5. .0J-(-:.A-:5S%-__________________,
6. %J.-(-2R-#%-2-$&A$-$A-/%-/-:.$-_______, 6. %J.-28A-2R?-*R-(-o$-_______________,
7. }-SR<-aR2-OA.-;R.-________________, 7. .J-<A%-%-(R?-:1$?-$-,$-____________,
8. aR2-{2?-:.A:A-/%-lR3-;A$-:VA-.$R?-_____, 8. #R-$?3-0R-$A?-#-2h-;?-____________,
9. aR2-3-(:R-$A?-2R.-{.-2>.-__________, 9. 3J-:#R<-.-9A-=A%-%-,R/-______________,
Exercise 3 Report what you and your classmates do or are doing. Use the given
phrases.
.0J<-2eR., /-$-$9A$-*R, #<-$J?-/-$-$9A$-*R-$R-$A / #<-$J?-/-$-$9A$-*R-$A-3J.-$A
About yourself About others
1. 2R.-<-:IR _________________________ 1. l3-0-9__________________________

2. lA?-<A$-.R%________________________ 2. 1-;:-S/_________________________
3. #-0<-$+R%-________________________ 3. ,-3$-:,J/________________________
4. |R<-3R-!A3 _________________________ 4. =?-!-=?________________________
5. |R<-3R-$?R$________________________ 5. %-=-#%__________________________
6. }-?J?-=%?________________________ 6. o-{.-aR2_________________________
7. .N$?-)-:,%______________________ 7. .0J-(-:5S%________________________
8. 9-3-{R=__________________________ 8. MA-$9A$-$-,$______________________
9. @-3-S/___________________________ 9. }R-+$-+$-9_______________________
5.2 --Questions in continuous tense
A. With question words stressed

Subject Question words Continuous tense structure
%:A-@-3-$*A?-!?- (A-$9A$- =?-$R-$A / =?-$A-;R.,
HR.- (A-$9A$-$- |R-/-:.$-$A-;R.,
5K-<A%-$A? (A-$9A$-$- o-;A$-.R%-$A-;R. / .R%-$R-$A
.$J-c/-.J?- $%-/- 2R.-;A$-OA.-$R-$A / OA.-$A-;R.,
2?R.-/3?- (A-$9A$-$- =?-%/-$R-$A / =?-%/-$A-;R.,
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:.A-2-5%- $%-%- %R<-$A-;R. / %R<-$R-$A
%- (A-$9A$-$- :)<-3/-/-:.$-$A-;R.,
%J.-(-2R- (A-$9A$-$- *R-(-o$-$A-:IR-$A-;R.,
B. The words in bold are stressed.
HR.- |R-/-(A-$9A$-$- :.$-$A-;R.,
5K-<A%-$A?- o-;A$-(A-$9A$-$- .R%-$A-;R. / .R%-$R-$A
.$J-c/-.J?- 2R.-;A$-$%-/- OA.-$R-$A / OA.-$A-;R.,
2?R.-/3?- =?--(A-$9A$-$- %/-$R-$A / %/-$A-;R.,
:.A-2-5%- ?-(-$%-%- %R<-$A-;R. / %R<-$R-$A
%- :)<--3/--/-(A-$9A$-$- :.$-$A-;R.,
%J.-(-2R- *R-(-o$--$A-(A-$9A$-$- :IR-$A-;R.,
Notes-3
Monosyllabic adjectives + $R-$A / $A-;R. structure: Monosyllabic adjectives are used in

such structures to convey continuous tense mood, e.g., .!R/-3(R$-$A?-.!:-$R-$A / .!:-$A-;R.,
Dkon mchog is having / has a difficult life. / 1R=-3-=?-24S$-$R-$A / =?-24S$-$A-;R., Sgrol ma is
having / has bad luck.
Exercise 4 Tell what you and others are undergoing with the given phrasal adjectives.
.0J<-2eR., With .!:-$R-$A (R?-:1$?-$A?-.!:-$R-$A c/-3R-$9:-:#R<-$&A$-$-3J.-/,

With .!:-$A-;R., %-|R<-3R-3J., %?-.!:-$A-;R.,
About yourself About others

1. ?J3?-#$ _________________________ 1. ?J3?-#$ ________________________
2. $/?-5=-24S$______________________ 2. $/?-5=-24S$______________________
3. /.-%/ __________________________ 3. /.-%/ __________________________
4. $9$?-3,R ________________________ 4. $9$?-3,R _______________________
5. |R<-3R-*%-_________________________ 5. |R<-3R-*%-_________________________
6. [.-0-8/_________________________ 6. [.-0-8/_________________________
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7. :5S-2-*A._________________________ 7. :5S-2-*A._________________________
8. ?J3?-SR__________________________ 8. ?J3?-SR__________________________
9. =?-%<___________________________ 9. =?-%<-__________________________
5.3 --Questions with interrogative adverbs
Subject Complement Verb + $A Interrogative

adverb
E-v
HR?- =$- :5S-$A-

8A%-2-$/-$A?- :VR$-=?- ;?-$A-
KA-\A%-2-:.A- 9A-=A%-/- :.$-$A-
%J.-$?3-0R- \R$-2f/-/-v-$A- :IR-$A- AJ- ;R.,
]-3- .J-<A%-:.A<- ;R%-$A-
MA-5%-3- /%?-!-lJ-$A- :IR-$A-
HR.-$*A?-!- :.A-/?-.R-.$R%- :.$-$A-
Subject Complement Verb + $A E-v Interrogative
adverb
HR?- =$- :5S-$A-
8A%-2-$/-$A?- :VR$-=?- ;?-$A-
KA-\A%-2-:.A- 9A-=A%-/- :.$-$A- /%-,
%J.-$?3-0R- \R$-2f/-/-v-$A- :IR-$A- ;R.- /?,
]-3- <,
.J-<A%-:.A<- ;R%-$A-
MA-5%-3- /%?-!-lJ-$A- :IR-$A-
HR.-$*A?-!- :.A-/?-.R-.$R%- :.$-$A-
Notes-4
Interrogative adverbs in the table contents, apart from AJ, are put at the end of sentences to
raise questions, e.g., 8A%-2-9R?-8A%-:VJ$-$R-$A-/?, or 8A%-2-9R?-8A%-:VJ$-$A-;R.-$A-/%-, Are the farmers
harvesting?
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Exercise 5 Make questions and answers in pairs about what we are doing using the
given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., .$J-c/ / |R-?3-!J%-%- / ;A-$J-:VA Question: .$J-c/-$A?-|R-?3-!J%-%-;A-$J-:VA-$A-AJ-;R.,

Answer: :VA-$R-$A #<-$J?-|R-?3-!J%-%-:VA-$A-;R.-$A
Words to use Question Answer

1. aR2-PR$?-$8/-0-9R / ;R% 1. __________________ 1. ___________________
2. .$J-c/-$A? / aR2-OA.-;? 2. __________________ 2. ___________________
3. aR2-3-9R? / */ 3. __________________ 3. ___________________
4. .$J-c/-$A? / ?-/$-2!R= 4. __________________ 4. ___________________
5. %J.-(-2R? / aR2-5/-s-2-aR2 5. __________________ 5. ___________________
6. aR2-PR$?-$8/-0-9R? / =? 6. __________________ 6. ___________________
7. %? / aR2-OA.-@-$R 7. __________________ 7. ___________________
8. %J.-(-2R? / 2R.-{.-,-~.-.R% 8. __________________ 8. ___________________
9. HR? / ;<-3<-<-v 9. __________________ 9. ___________________
10. aR2-PR$?-$9A$-.J-<A%-;R% 10. _________________ 10. __________________
11. %-t$?-/$-$9A$-.$R? 11. _________________ 11. __________________
12. HR. / vR$? 12. _________________ 12. __________________
Exercise 6 Ask and answer to talk about yourselves using the given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., HR?-.-=R-2R.-;A$-.R%-, Question:HR?-.-=R-2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-AJ-;R., / HR?-.-=R-2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-;R.-/?,

Answer: .R%-$A-;R., .-=R-%?-2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-;R.,

1. :.R. / HR?-t$?-g-$9A$ / *R-/ 1. __________________ 1. __________________
2. HR.-2R.-< / :IR / =R-I%?-% 2. __________________ 2. __________________
3. HR?-(A-$9A$ / =? / .-2< 3. __________________ 3. __________________
4. HR?-$R/-o- / $R/ / :.A 4. __________________ 4. __________________
5. HR?-.-2 / :,J// 5. __________________ 5. __________________
6. HR:A-.LA/-;A$ / .R% / 8A-=A-$A? 6. __________________ 6. __________________

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7. HR.-v-$A / :IR / \R$-2f/-/ 7.
7. __________________
___________________
8. HR:A-.LA/-;A$ / .!: / 8A-=A-$A? 8. __________________
8.
___________________
9. 8A-=A-<-c/-3R / :.$ / 3*3-0? 9.
9. __________________
___________________
10. HR?-.$:-<R$? / :5S= / $9A$ 10. _________________ 10. _________________
11. HR?-L-2 / =? / =?-#%?-/- 11. _________________ 11. _________________
12. HR. / *A. 12. _________________ 12. _________________
Exercise 7 Ask and answer using the phrases in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., %?-{.-<A$?-.R%-$A-;R., ((A-$9A$)

Question: HR?-{.-<A$?-(A-$9A$-.R%-$A-;R.-/?, Answer: %?-2R.-{.-.R%-$A-;R.,
Sentence Words Question Answer

1. %?-\-.L%?-%-*/-$A-;R., ( $%-%) 1. ______________ 1. ______________
2. #<-$J?-t$?-g-=?-$R-$A ((A-$9A$) 2. ______________ 2. ______________
3. A-3-$A?-9-3-{R=-$A-;R., (?-$9A$-$) 3. ______________ 3. ______________
4. A-1-$A?-)-:,%-$R-$A ($%-/)
4. ______________ 4. ______________
5. %J.-(-2R-3*3-0?-:.$-$A-;R., ($%-/)
5. ______________ 5. ______________
6. %J.-(-2R?-L-2-3%-%-=?, ((A-(A) 6. ______________ 6. ______________
7. %-?J3?-#3?-?%?-$A-3J., ((A-$9A$-$) 7. ______________ 7. ______________
8. A-3-$9$?-$8A-2.J-,%-<J., ((A-3R-$9A$) 8. ______________ 8. ______________
9. .R-.$R%-:P=-2-$*A?-;R%-, (?-?)
9. ______________ 9. ______________
10. %?-9-3-3%-%-$9A$-{R=, ($%-$%)

10. ______________ 10. ______________
11. A-1-$A?-?J3?-2.J-$R-$A ( (A-$9A$->J.) 11. ______________ 11. ______________
Exercise 8 Complete the dialogue between the two classmates.
0--?%? A-<R, HR.-?-;A/,

$;;-1RR/ %-HR:A-aR2-PR$?-$;-1R/-;A/,
0--?%? HR.-2.J-3R, HR?-#-0<-$%-/-_____, ($+R%)
$;;-1RR/ %?-(2-(-$A-_%?-:#R<-?-5B$?-/-$+R%-$A-;R., HR?-(A-$9A$-_______, (=?)
•137•
0-?%? %?-HA3-/-8-;?-_______, HR.-.J-<A%-$%-/?-;R%-, ($*R<)
$;-1R/ 9A-=A%-/?, %-HR.-,$-/-_______, (:.R.)
0-?%? .J-(R$-$A %:A-c/-3R-$A?-9-3-_______, %J.-(-2R?-3*3-0?-9, ({R=)
$;-1R/ <J.-S, .J:A-}R/-/-%-:IR-?-$8/-0-$9A$-;R.,
0-?%? HR.-(2-(-/-%R->J?-3J., .-HR.-$%-%-:IR-_______, (.$R?)
$;-1R/ %-,A-2.J-=?-#%?-%-&A$-:IR-.$R?, .J-/-%:A->-*J-$9A$-$A?-%-<-,$-/-_______(:.R.)
0-?%? ____________________________________?
$;-1R/ #<-$J-,A-2.J-=?-#%?-$A-<-{R<-$A-/%-/-_______, %-.-;R.-?-/?-,$-3A-<A%-, (:.$)
0-?%? HR.-.?-5S.-(A-3R-$9A$-_______, (.$R?)
$;-1R/ %-;/-<A%-$9A$-$-3A-:.$ OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-.?-5S.-5=-2-$9A$
0-?%? HR.-;R%-/-%:A-c/-3R-<-_______, (.$:) 3<-$J?-HR.-<J3-3-<A$-/-_______(:.R.)
$;-1R/ 3<-$J-____________, (*A.)
0-?%? 3<-$J-*A.-0R-<J., 1%-2R-)J-&R3-3-:PR-$A-;R.-$A HR:A->-*J-$A?-,A-2.J-=?-#%?-/-(A-$9A$-______, (=?)
$;-1R/ #<-$J?-_______, (5S%-o$) <J.-S-#R:C-c/-3R-$A?-,A-2.J-=?-#%?-/-L-2-_______, (=?) .J:A-nJ/-
$A?-#R-.J-/-_______, (:.$)
0-?%? .-%?-<-HR.-<J3-3-<A$-/-_______, ,J%?-}R/-3-%J.-$*A?-!-=R-S$-$A-}R/-=-,$-/A-<J.,(:.R.)
$;-1R/ <J.-;, .?-5S.-(A-3R-$9A$-3IR$?-$A .-HR?-(A-$9A$-_______, (=?)
0-?%? .?-.J2-$9A$-$A-lR3-1A$-0-____, <J.-S-%:A-=?-#%?-/%-/-MA-3%-%-$A?-=?-!-____, (2&:) (:(R<)
$;-1R/ .J?-/-HR.,
0-?%? %?-.-.J:A-KR$?-$-:.%-o$-$A-3J., <J.-S-8R<-<-%?-<-=?-!-$?<-2-_______, (:5S=)
$;-1R/ HR?-L-2-(A-3R-$9A$-fJ.-/-_______, (:.R.)
0-?%? .J-.-%?-<-_______, c/-3R-$A?-%?-|R<-3R-:5S=-:.R.-$R-$A (>J?)
$;-1R/ AR, .J-9J<-<, 3<-$J-@R%-$A?-______, .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, %?-HR.-L-2-$9A$-!J<, HR.-AJ-.$R?, (:I<)
0-?%? .-%J.-$*A?-!?-#-0<-/%-/?-3A-2>., .-%?-HR.-z$-.-<J3-3-<A$-/-_______, (:.R.)
$;-1R/ .J?-/-.?-5S.-S$-0-$A-!J%-/?-,$-/-(A-3R-<J.,
0-?%? .J?-/-.J-;?, HR.-<J3-3->R$ :$R<-:I%?-3-;?,
•138•
Text Two: continuous tense and postpositions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, :VR$-0-5K-<A%-=-:LR<-2:A-:UA/-;A$-&A$
(%-<R$?-5K-<A%-=$?,
.-KA:A-2<-<-%-3-#R3-,=, .J-<A%-%-#R3-$A <J.-S-aR2-#%-$A-/%-/-?J3?-*A.-$A-3J., ^-2-$&A$-0R-:.A:A-<A%-:5S-2:A-,R$-

/?-%?-.R/-.$-$?<-2-3%-%-<A$-$A-;R., %-?/-$A-AJ-;R., aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-.!:-$A-AJ-;R., HR?-:SA-5B$-:.A-3R-3%-%-
:SA-$A .J-<A%-%?-HR.-$/?-5=-3%-%-$9A$-2>.-:.R.-$A-;R.,
.-,J%?-%-,R$-.%-0R<-KA-=R$?-$-;R%-/A-<J., 3A-?/-$A-9J<-/-m/-<J., $4S-2R<-1-3-9R, MA%-YA%-, /%-|R?-?-HR.-S/-$A

aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-.!:-$A-AJ-;R.-, %?-.J-:S-.!:-$A-3J., aR2-3-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-:.A-3%-$A $/-3%-$A-9J<-$A-;R., 3%-
oR-3%-$A <J.-S-=?-o-3J.-/, %:A-?J3?-;%-1-;:-<-$*J/-*J, HR:A-,R$-$-:#R<-$A .J:A-nJ/-$A?, %-35S/-/, =?-o-3%-/-
3,:-$&A$-$-.R/-.$-%/-0-$9A$-3-<J.,
,A<-$A?, o=-/%-/?-MA-5%-3-/R-$R-$A =-=-$A?-|R<-3R-2?3-$R-$A =-=-$A?-$8$-KR$?-$-:.%-o$-$R-$A $%-;A/-/-<, .

-(A-$9A$-;?-.$R?-$A $8$-/?-(A-$9A$-;?-.$R?-$A-;R., :SA-5B$-:.A-<A$?-/3-;A/-/-<-#R-9R:C-3$R-/-:#R<-$A-;R.,
3,<-$+$?-/, .3A$?-;=-:5S-2-29%-%-$9A$-$-<R=-o-<J., %:A-#%-2-$&A$-$A-:.$-<R$?-$*A?-!-$A?-$9:-3)$-$-
o/-.-|R<-3R-:5S=-$A-;R., #R-$*A?-!-.J-<A%-:.A-/, /%?-!-$/-/-;R.-/A-<J., %-%R-3?-(.-$A-;R., %J.-9R:C-1-;=-/?-MA-
<A$?-$J-.J-3R-3-<J., MA-=-=-$9A$-(-nJ/-3A-Z-/-<-?J3?-*A.-$A-;R., =?-.=-$A-;R., :.A-HR?-?J3?-]/-*A.-<-=?-]/-
.=-<J.-:.R.-/-,%-, <J.-S-:.A-/-MA-5%-3-:5S-2:A-.R/-/-?J3?-(.-=?-(.-<-:IR-$A-;R.,
PR%-HJ<-/-MA-hR$-$R-9J.-=R%-=R%-;;?-$A-;R., C-,%-$A-.$%-$A-{<-3-:S-3R-<J., MA-.J-3R-3%-%-<A$-/-(.-$A $%-?-$%-/-9J.-

=R%-=R%-, MA-$.-$A-;R., 9-#%-$A-/%-/, 5S%-#%-$A-/%-/, MA-:5S$-?-$9A$-/-:<-.A-<A-<A, 1/-5/-//-$R-2h-3R.-oR-<-.!:-
3R-<J., _%?-:#R<-hR$-$R-$%-?-$%-/-o$-$R-$A #-=R-2-@-/A-/R-$R-$A MA-:.A-9R-2?3?-/, %?-;%-1-;=-$A-$/3-}R/-0R, ?-
#-;%?, %%-}R/-0R-S/-$A
%?-aR2-OA.-$A-2<-/-;A-$J-:.A-:VA-$A-;R., {<-3-2&-,3-0-$A-$8$-/-aR2-OA.-$9A$-;R., aR2-PR$?-9R-KA<-<-;R%-$A-;R.,

aR2-3-3%-%-$A?-b%-,%-<-!R.-,%-$R/-$A-;R., %?-.J%-,R$-MA-:.A-<A$?-.3<-eJ/-/-:IR-$A-;R.-:.R., <J.-S-#-l%-.J-<A%-%-
%?-<-b%-,%-$9A$-$R/-$A-;R., 3-$R/-/-5.-0-3A-H$-$A
•139•
HR:A->-{3-<-l3-0-%?-9-$A-;R., :.A-/?-o-$A-9-3-%-#-3A-3)J.-/-<, ;:-$A-9-3-353?-353?-3-8J-,$-$A?-.$J-2-<J.,
$8$-/?-.-3-{<, .-:.A-/?-%?-:VA-353?-:)R$ ;A-$J-$8$-3:A-/%-%:A-:S-0<-$9A$-HR.-2{<-;,
HR:A-(%-<R$?-1R=-3-$A?,
,A-^-5K?-=,
5.4 --Postpositions
Subject Noun + Post- E-v English

genitive case position
.LA/-)A- AR-\A%- /- Britain is in Europe.
^-2- $/3-3#:- /- The moon is in the sky.

3J-+R$- w3-G:A- /%-/- The flowers are in the garden.
aR2-3- aR2-9- /- The students are at school.
%- #%-2:A- /%-/- ;R., I'm in the room.
%-5S- 35S- #-/- We are by the river.
#R-<%- 2R.- /- He is in Tibet.
=$-5%-3- <A- 3$R-/- All the sheep are on a mountain.
9-3- )-#%-$A- /%-/- The food is in the kitchen.
With postposition Subject E-v English

&R$-4K:A- !J%-/- .0J-(- The books are on the table.
Y%- /- 5S%-#%- Shops are on the street.
aR2-9:A- /%-/- %- ;R., I am in the school.
=?-,R$- /- #R-3R- She is at work.
aR2-#%-$A- /%-/- aR2-3-9R- The students are in the classroom.
aR2-3-9R:C- 3./-/- |R-?3- The blackboard is in front of the

students.
•140•
With postposition Subject E-v English
&R$-4K:A- o2-/- A-1- At the back of the desk is (my)
father.
MA-$*A?-$A- 2<-/- 3<-$J- She is between two people.
|R-?3-$A- $R%-/ / $*:-/- .$J-(R?-$A-:S-0<- Above the blackboard is Dge

chos' picture.
&R$-4K:A- :R$-/- .0J-(- The book is under the table.
.0J-(:A- =R$?-/- / :I3-/- /-$- ;R., A pen is next to the book.
o-35S:C- .GA=-/- 35S-P- A ship is in the middle of the

ocean.
.3-2:A- 82?-/- (%- Alcohol is at the bottom of the
bottle.
\A%-!-$A- #-$+.-/- 5S%-#%-$9A$- Across from the park is a shop.
Notes-5
1. Genitive case maker + locative noun + /-;R.: nPostpositions generally consist of a

genitive case marker, a locative noun, and a Ladon case variant, e.g., .!R/-3(R$-$A-o2-/-HA-
$9A$-;R.-$A There is a dog behind Dkon mchog. / <A-$A-3$R-/-.<-tR$-$9A$-;R.-$A There is a
prayer flag on the mountain. oIf the locative noun itself is a geographical term, then the
genitive case marker is not used, e.g., %-2R.-/-;R., I am in Tibet. / %-HA3-/-;R., I am at
home. / #R-;R-<R2-/-;R., He is in Europe.
2. The following temporal adverbs do not require Ladon variants in order to express
temporal concepts: .J-<A%, /%?-!, #-l%, #J<-*A/, $8J?-*A/, .R-.$R%, .-/%?, /-/A%, .R-5B$?,
etc.
Exercise 9 Complete the dialogue with regular or ongoing actions using the Tibetan
equivalent of the English words in parentheses.
Person from Khams Person from Amdo
1. HR?-:.A-/-(A-$9A$-______/?, (doing) %?-___________, (in school…studying)

2. HR?-______(A-$9A$-.R%-$A-;R., (in school) %?-@-/A-______, (studying)
3. @-/A-9J<-/-(A-$9A$-<J., @-/A-9J<-/-5%-3-9J<-/A-<J., A-3.R-/-MA-5%-3-$A?- ____,
(using)
4. HR.-______:.$-$A-;R., (where) %-aR2-9-$A-______:.$-$A-;R., aR2-3-$A-*=-#%-/%-/-
MA-3%-$A(outside)
5. #3?-/-______MA-3A-3%-, aR2-9<-;R%-3#/-3%- ______aR2-9<-:IR-3#/-+$-+$-;A/, (in Amdo)
•141•
%-3J., (in the dormitory) #3?-<R%-?-AJ-;A/,
6. ______8A%-=?-3%-%-3J., (in Khams) <J.-S-%:A-1-;=-_____8A%-=?-=?-3#/-3%-, (in
Amdo)
7. ______ -2R.-$A-/%-/-o-{.-2>.-3#/-3%-%-3J.- .J-3-<J., %:A-2R.-<A$?-<R$?-0-______-o-{.-2>.-
$A (in Amdo) 3#/-+$-+$-;A/, (among)
8. ______2R.-H-$R/-3#/-)J-*%-<J., (in Khams) ______$R/-3#/-)J-*%-<J., (also in Amdo)
9. HJ.-______<R$?-0-3%-%______, (in ;R., <J.-S, %:A-<R$?-0-9R______3J., HR:A-______

Amdo…have) (A-$9A$-;R., (in school) (in hand)
10. %______-UJ%-2-$9A$-;R., (in hand) HR?-3-EA-_______________, (regularly chant)
11. =R?-;R., ______%?-:.R/-$A-;R., (even in the %?-___________, __________.0J-(-+$-+$-
classroom) :.R/-$A-;R., (in the classroom) (on the street)
12. MA-HR.-:S-3R______..-0-&/-;R.-$A-3J., .J-3-<J., %-..-0-(J, <J.-S-:.R/-#R3-3J.-$A
(among)
13. HR.-?%-*A/-______;R., %?-HR.-,$-:.R.-$A /%?-!-<-______;R., HR.->R$ (here)
(where)
14. ,$?-eJ-(J, /%?-!-,$ 2.J-3R,
5.5 --Postposition of time
Post- Question Answer English

position
*A/-/ days /3-$A-*AA/-/-HR.-z-?<-:IR, %-$9:-*A-3-$A-*AA/-/-:IR, Which day do you go to

Lhasa?
I go to Lhasa on Sunday.
HR.-^-2-$%-$A-/%-%--z-?<- %-^-2-$?3-0::A-/%-%-z- In which month will you
go to Lhasa?
/%-% months
:IR, ?<-:IR, I will go to Lhasa in
March.
years HR.-/3-$A-=R<-z-?<<-:IR, %-.-=R<-z-?-:IR, In which year will you go
to Lhasa?
in the I will go to Lhasa this year.
morning .$R%-3R<-HR.-$%-/-;R., .$R%-3R<-%-HA3-/-;R., Where are you at night?
I am at home at night.
in the What do you read in the
afternoon
KA-SR<-HR?-(A-$9A$-[R$-$A- %?-KA-SR<-2l3?-1%-[R$- afternoon?
<
in the
;R., $A-;R., I read novels in the
afternoon.
evening
HR?-=?-L-/3-:VA, %?-=?-L-/%?-3R<-:VA, When do you do your
homework?
at night I do it in the morning.
•142•
Post- Question Answer English
position
HR.-/3-=%?-$A-;R., %-.?-5S.-2./-$A-!JJ%-%- When do you get up?
I get up at seven o'clock.
=%?-$A-;R.,
!J%-% hours
HR?-$%-)-/3-:,%-$A-;R., .?-5S.-2&-$*A?-$A-!JJ%-%- When do you have lunch?
I have lunch at twelve
:,%-$A-;R., o'clock.
HR?-.$/-#<<-(A-$9A$-=?-$A- .$/-#<<-%-#R3-;R., What do you do in the

winter?
;R., I am free in the winter.
< seasons
.L<-#<<-HR.-$%-$?J%-AJ-;R., ;R., .L<-#<<-%-$%-$?J%- Do you have holidays in
the summer?
;R., Yes, I have holidays in the
summer.
.?-5S.-2./-0-/?--2o.-0::A- 3J., .J:A-2<--<-%-HA3-/- Are you at home from
seven to eight?
2<--<-HR.-HA3-/-AJ-;R., 3J., No, I am not at home
/?...2<-<
from … to during that period.

5K?-0-$?3-0-/?-s-2-$$A-2<-- 3A-Y%-, %?-.J:A-2<-<--#R3- Are you on fast from the
third to the fifth days?
<--HR?-#R3-0-AJ-Y%-, 0-3A-Y%-, No, I am not fasting
during that period.
/3-$%%-%--HR.-$%-%-:IR, /3-$%%-%-%-$%-%-3A-:IR, Where do you go at
midnight?
midday I go nowhere at midnight.
$%-% *A/-$%%-%-HR?-9-3-9-$A-AJ-;R., 3J., *A/-$%--%-%?-9-3-9- Do you eat at noon?
midnight No, I do not eat at noon.
$A-3J.,
Exercise 10 Ask and answer. Pay attention to ongoing actions, regular actions, and
postpositions.
Postposition Phrases to use Question Answer

1. /?-2<-< 5K?-0, HR?-=? 1. ______________ 1. __________________
2. $%-% /3-$%-, HR.-HA3-/ 2. ______________ 2. __________________
3. !J%-% .?-5S., l=-.R%-%-:IR 3. ______________ 3. __________________
4. < !R/-! HR?-=R-+R$-2# 4. ______________ 4. __________________
5. !J%-% .$-2, HR.-#R<-,$ 5. ______________ 5. __________________
6. /%-% ^-2, 5.-0-(J 6. _____________ 6. __________________
7. *A/-/ .LA/-)A<-:IR 7. ______________ 7. __________________
8. $%-% *A/-$%-, *A-:R.-24/ 8. ______________ 8. __________________

•143•
9. < .$R%-3R, /3-^-k$? 9. ______________ 9. __________________
11. /%-% ^-2-:.A, HR?-*R-(-o$ 10. _____________ 10. _________________
11. *A/-/ *A/, HR.-o$?-$9A$-;R. 11. _____________ 11. _________________
12. /?-2<-< =R-$?3-$A-}R/, HR?-(A-=? 12. _____________ 12. _________________
13. /%-% ^-2-$?3, (<-2-:22 13. _____________ 13. _________________
13. < /%?-3R, HR?-/%?-)-:,% 14. _____________ 14. _________________
Exercise 11 Write temporal and locative postpositions and, if necessary, genitive case
markers in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 5K?-0-2&R-s-$A- *A/-/ -%-aR2-9<-:IR,
1. .R-5B$?-$A-!R/-!__________%J.-5%-$A-29:-MA-5%-3-1-;:-2-:IR,
2. A-3.R-___________=R-$?<-o-^-$*A?-0:A-___________<J.,
3. %:A-*J?-{<-^-2-2./-0-___________5K?-0-S$-0-;A/,
4. %?-.$R%-3R___________&%-<-=?-$A-3J.,
5. .L<-#___________%?-:VR$-___________=$-:5S-$A-;R.,
6. HR?-/%?-3R___________(A-$9A$-:,%-$A-;R.,
7. %J.-9R:C-;:-___________MA-3%-%-.$/-#___________#R3-;R.,
8. %?-.?-5S.-.$-2___________.$R%-3R:C-.?-5S.-S$-0___________L-2-=?-$A-;R.,
9. /%?-3R___________.?-5S.-2./-0___________%-=%?-$A-;R.,
10. ^-2-:.A___________%-.R/-.$-3%-, .-%-3$R-/-$A-;R.,
11. *A/-$%-___________HR.-$*A.-$A-AJ-;R., %-$*A.-$A-3J.,
12. ^-2-$8$-3___________%-.R/-.$-$&A$-<-=?-o-3J.,
13. HR.-HA3-3-.?-5S.-.___________,R/-$A-;R.,
14. .-/%?-.?-5S.-S$-___________|R-/-P$?-o-$R-o-3%-$A
•144•
Exercise 12 Write the time in the blanks indicated by each watch.
n .-.?-5S.-$*A?-<-5=-2-<J., r _____________________________
o ____________________________
s _____________________________
p ____________________________
t _____________________________
q ____________________________
Exercise 13 Use the given words and phrases to tell what you do at the given time.
.0J<-2eR., 10.56 / #<-$J / aR2-PR$? / lJ

.?-5S.-2&-,3-0-<-{<-3-%-S$-$A-!J%-%-#<-$J-<-aR2?-PR$?-9R-r%-=A-lJ-$A-;R.,
1. 9:07 / aR2-#%-/ ,R/ ________________________________________________
2. 2:30 / KA-SR:A-=?-! / =? ________________________________________________
3. 7:16 / %? / :$R-lR3 ________________________________________________
4. 12:00 / 9-3 / 9-$A-;R. ________________________________________________
5. 4:40 / =?-! / PR=-$A-;R. ________________________________________________
6. 12:06 / aR2-#%-/%-/? / ;R% _______________________________________________
7. 17:45 / 5S%-o$ ________________________________________________
8. 23:34 / *= / :IR ________________________________________________
9. 19:30 / .0J-( / [R$ ________________________________________________
10. 24:57 / *=-#%-/ / $*A. ________________________________________________
11. 11:07 / =?-<J? / ,R$ / =?________________________________________________

12. 16:25 / =?-(. / =?-#%?_________________________________________________
•145•
Text Three: postpositions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, $/?-3(R$-$%?-<A/-0R-(J,
$%?-<A/-0R-(J-?-3$R-3?-!R%-S$-2./-2o-2&-28A-<J., MA%-%-$%?-+A-?J-<-:2R.-$A-;R., :)A$-gJ/-$A-.GA=-/-($?-;R.-/R-

$A?, $/:-/?-.-2<-<, 2R.-/?-/%-2!/-0, o-$<-/?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-$%?-<A/-0R-(J-$/?-3(R$-;-3J.-$9A$-$-2lA-
$A-;R., o-$<-2-9R<-35S/-/, .J-#R-9R:C-*2?-3$R/-$A-28$?-?-;A/, /%-2!/-0-<A$?-$J<-35S/-/, .?-:#R<-$A-35S/-
LJ.-%R-3-;A/-/A-<J., ?-(-=-=-/?-2R/-0R-<A$?-$A?, $%?-<A/-0R-(J-<A-2R-hR-eJ-2%-<A3-.$-2lJ$?-&/-/-$R-$A-;R., .J:A-!J%-
%-2R/-(R?-$A-YR=-$+R.-0-0R-!R/-0-$>J/-<2-$/3-/?-22?, o-$<-{3-?-(J/-0R:A-!J%-$A-(-(J/-28A-2R-<-$%?-<A/-0R-(J-$A-
#-#R<-/?-:L%-$A-;R.,
3)=-2-i3-.$-9R-$%?-<A/-0R-(J<-$%?-{R<-<-$/3-35S<-35S-{R<-;?-$A-MA-5K-$%-2R:A-/%-,J%?-$&A$-$-:IR-/A-<J., 3)=-
{R<-:.A-3R-$9A$-5K-$&A$-=?-$&A$-$A-36.-0-(J-$9A$-<J.-9J<-/-(R$-(R$-<J.,
,A-=R-!R%-$*A?-<-$*A?-$A-=R-2R.-$A-(-g-=R-<J., $%?-<A/-0R-(J<-$%?-{R<-<-$/3-35S<-35S-{R<-;?-/-=R-{=-;-3J.-$9A$-
<J., =R-:#R<-S$-&-$A-/%-%-=R-{=-:.A-,J%?-$&A$-,R/-$A-;R., :63-\A%-$A-;=-P-?R-?R-/?-3)=-2-9R?-$%?-<A/-0R-(J<-
3)=-{R<-<-=?-%$-;A.-$?3-$A-..-0-i3-.$-;?-:.R.-$A-;R., /%-|R?-?-3)=-.?-^-2-*-$%-/-z$-$A?-Z-9J<, g-$A-
=R<, $%?-<A/-0R-(J<-3)=-,2-/-5S$?-$?R$-w2-:I<-$A?-)J-(J-;A/-/A-<J.,
$%?--<A/-0RR-(JJ, $/?-3(RR$-]-/--3J.-0--8A$
$%?-<A/-0R-(J-.%-$/3-35S<-*A/-3-2&-28A:A-<A%-=-3)=-{R<-LJ.-0, .?-5B$?-(J?-.$:-2R,
^-2-s-2-/?-^-2-2&-2:A-2<,
:$R-lR3-0:A-*A/--*A?-!R%-s-;A-=R
1 ^-2-s-2:A-5K?-017/?302< 1 ^-2-2o.-0:A-5K?-013/?-26-2<
2 ^-2-S$-0:A-5K?-016/?292< 2 ^-2-.$-2:A-5K?-012/?-252<
3 ^-2-2./-0:A-5K?-015/?-282< 3 ^-2-2&-2:A-5K?-011/?-242<
#J<-:PR-;A/-/, .?-5S.-.-<%-PR?-L?-/-(R$ 5%-3-5K?-2&R-s-^-2-*-$%-;R.-.?-$%?-
<A/-0R-(J<-,R/-.-:)$
z-?-;=-{R<-!%-9A?-2R.-GA-3)=-2-.%-KA-o=-IA-;=-{R<-2-5S<-:P=-*R.-GA-<R$?-<3-.%-:#R<-(-:.R/-IA-;R., %-5S?-.-<%-><-2-;%-\-;A-;R., ><-2-=?-<R$?-0-5S?-;=-{R<-2-
.%-3)=-2-.$-=-:P=-28.-i3-0:A-(-/?-1/-?3-5S$?-0, o-%?-GA-(-/?-]-/-3J.-0-8A$-:.R/-IA-;R.,
•146•
5.6 --Verb + $R-$A structure vs. verb + $A-;R. structure
Verb + $R-$A Verb + $A-;R.

Example Note Example Note
1R=-3-$A?-)-{R=-$R-$A nThe action is
happening.
1R=-3-$A?-)-{R=-$A-;R., nThe action is
either regular
MA-$9A$-$A?-#-l%-$+3-2>.--$R-$A MA-$9A$-$A?-$+3-2>.--$A-;R., or ongoing.
oseldom refers to oMonosyllabic

|R-/-#%?-:22--$R-$A First Person and
|R-/-#%?-:22--$A-;R., adjectives can
First Person Plural be used with it.
MA-$9A$-%-$R-$A MA-$9A$-%-$A-;R.,
pused with pIt is not
8-;?-.J-$9$?-*J-$R-$A monosyllabic 8-;?-.J-$9$?-*J-$A-;R., reportive.
adjectives
A-3-@R%-$A?-*A.-$R-$A A-3-@R%-$A?-*A.-$A-;R.,
qOne reports what
v.-3R-2-<A$?-$J-2?RR.-$R-$A he knows. v.-3R-2-<A$?-$J-2?RR.-$A-;R.,
3<-$J-3$R-.!!<--$R-$A 3<-$J:A-3$R-.!<--$A-;R.,
Notes-6
Verb + $R-/? Structure is the contracted form of verb in PRT + $A-;R. + /?, in which /? is
self-reportive, is used by First Person and First Person Plural to express reportive statements
in continuous tense mood, e.g., %?-.-#R%-2R-:6$?-$R-/?, I am planting trees. / %?-/-/A%-#R%-2R-
:6$?-$R-/?, I was planting trees last year.
5.7 --Continuous tense with First Person and First Person Plural
Verb PRT + $RR-/?

Subject Verb $R-/?, English
%?- \-.L%?-%-*/ I'm listening to music. nOne reports

what he
%J.-$*A?-!?- #-0<-$+R%- We two are making a phone call.
himself is /
was doing.
%J.-(-2R- |R-#-/-lJ- We are playing at the entrance.
odescribes
%J.-(-2R- HA3-3-:IR- $R-/?, We are going home. First Person
and First
%?- .0J-(-:.R/- I am reading a book. Person Plural
%-<-1-3-$*A?-!?- ?A=-+R$-9- I and my parents are eating fruit.
.!R/-3(R$-<-%- 8J-$A?-.$:- Dkon mchog and I are (being)

happy.
•147•
Exercise 14 Use Tibetan words that correspond to the English words in parentheses
and complete the dialogue between two villagers.
=3--0-!--2 A-<R, HR?-(A-$9A$-______, (do)

=3--0-#--2 %-8-;?-______, (wait) .-353?-%:A-8-;?-aR2-9-/?-KA<-<-______, (come) 8R<-<-______
=?-!-(%-(%-$9A$-;R.-$A (here)
=3--0-!--2 =?-!-(%-(%-______;R., (what)
=3--0-#--2 vR?-<, b-:.A-:$$-$A-;R.-$A (-o$_____, (negative adverb) %?-:.A-=?-____, (want to do)
=3--0-!--2 .J-*R/-(J-$9A$-3-<J., HR.->R$ %J.-$*A?-!?-;=-{R<-2-$/-9R<-v,
=3--0-#--2 $/-(:R-______<J., (from where) (-=$?-;-35<-<J.,
=3--0-!--2 .$-$?3-0:A-/%-%-:.A-(:R-______ ______, (to where) (go) $R/-o-<-*%-*%-$R/-;R.-$A
=3--0-#--2 ______8A-=A-.J?-2R.-H-$9A$-$R/-;R.-$A (on the right) #R-2v?-/-)R-3R-$9A$-$-<A$-$A <J.-S-#R-,$-
$-8A-=A-$9A$-<J.,
=3--0-!--2 <J., #<-$J:A-______-MA-.J-8A-3R-$9A$-AJ-<J., (next to) $9$?-hR$-$R-g-<J.,
=3--0-#--2 %?-3<-$J-;$-3-$9A$-<J.- ______, (think) <J.-S-$9$?-4K-$<-$9A$-(J-?R%-,
=3--0-!--2 8A-=A-(%-(%-.J-______;A/, (who) #<-$J?-.%R?-0R-______$9A$-AJ-H$ (so much)
=3--0-#--2 HR?-:.A-______HA3-5%-$&A$-/?-;A/-AJ-:.R., (the three)
=3--0-!--2 _____>J?, (who) ;A/-/-3A/-/, #R-$?3-0R?-#$-_____, (to experience) %R-$A-d=-/$-$-vR?-<,
=3--0-#--2 #R-(:R-______/-,%-, (to be happy) %J.-$*A?-!-=%-#R$-:.A:A-@/-/-:IR-3A-,2-3R,
=3--0-!--2 HR?-(A-$9A$-______, (think) =%-#R$-:.A:A-@/-/-:IR-3A-,2-/-<, %?-*A.-#$-=R?->J?,
=3--0-#--2 .-_____-3-2>., (anything) #R-9R-_____ (arrive) #-<R$-$J<-#R.,
=3--0-!--2 .-HR:A-8-;?-<-______;R%-$R-$A (on the way)
=3--0-#--2 A-;-35<, 8A-3R-$/-$A?-b%-,%-$9A$-b%-$3-______$R/-;R.-$A (on top of)
=3--0-!--2 ______.-2R-]-3-$9A$-$A-:S-0<-$9A$-<-;R.-$A (on top of that) .!R/-3(R$-$?3-0R,
=3--0-#--2 .-%-:IR, 8-;?-$/-/-______ (arrive),
•148•
5.8 --Negative continuous tense
Verb in PRT + $AA-3JJ.

Subject Object Verb / $A-3J. English
adjective
%?- 2R.-;A$- aRR2- I am not studying Tibetan. The tense is
present
continuous
3<-$J?- \-.L%?- =JJ/- She is not singing a song.
or past
continuous
$/-(-2R- :5S-2- *AA.- Those (people) are not depending
happy with life. on the
context.
%J.-(-2R- |R$-0 .$:-- $A-3J., We do not like garlic.
*J?-29A-.J?- .%R?-0R- :##<-- That man is not carrying

anything.
MA-.J-$?3-0R-$A?- .-2- :,JJ/- The three people are not
smoking.
.!R/-3(R$-<-%?- (%- :,,%- Dkon mchog and I are not

drinking.
Exercise 15 Make negative statements using the verbs in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., 1R=-3-35S-9A-=A%-/-?/-$A-3J., (?/) 8<-2-$9A$-$A?-=3-<A$-$A-3J., (<A$)
1. *-*R$-.J-________________, (1J-:.J2?) 6. /3-^-.-2R-)J-:H$?-$-______,(:IR)

2. MA-3%-%-$9A$-#-:R$-/-________, (;R%) 7. A-3-$A?-8-;?-__________, ($*R<)
3. #<-$J?-2R.-$A-:5S-2-_________, (>J?) 8. 29:-^-$*A?-!?-.J-<A%-_____, (#-lR.-;?)
4. o=-#2-$*A?-#-l%-.J-<A%-______, (:PA$) 9. 8<-3-$9A$-$A?-=3-_______, (<A$)
5. :63-\A%-.R-8$-8A-2.J-________, (;R%) 10. #<-$J-3R-5S$?-$A-!J%-/-______, (2?R.)
Exercise 16 Use the question words in parentheses and convert each statement into
questions.
.0J<-2eR., 3$R/-0R-*A.-8J-$A?-2?R.-$A-;R., ((A-$9A$-$) 3$R/-0R-*A.-(A-$9A$-$-8J-$A?-2?R.-$A-;R.,
1. %?-.R-8$-c/-3R-$A-.R/-/-.!:-=?-3%-%-MR%-$A-;R., (?-$9A$-$A-(J.-<)_____________________
2. A-1-<-A-3-$*A?-!?-%:A-/-2R<-$R/-o-$R/-$A-;R., (?-$9A$-$)__________________________
3. mA-2R-mA-3R-<A$?-$J?-C-,%-/-K$?-9R$-:5S-$R-$A ($%-/) ______________________________
•149•
4. 8A-=A-=R-(%-$9A$-$A?-<-=$-:.J.-$R-$A ((A-3R-$9A$) ______________________________
5. 8A-3R-$?3-$A?-%R-v-$A-}/-/-;$-=?-;?-$R-$A (?-?-$A?)______________________________
6. 2R.-/?-8A-=A-<-8A-3R-$A?-|R-/?-=$-:)-;?-$A-3J., ((A-$9A$-$)__________________________
7. 2R.-MA-$A?-}R-5S.-3%-%-9-$A-3J., (??)________________________________________
8. %:A-;:-2-KA-\A%-2-=R-I%?-%-3%-%-;R%-$A-;R., ((A-3R-$9A$)____________________________
9. %-0R-=A/-/?-=R-$?3-:$R<-$A-;R., (=R-(A-3R-$9A$)__________________________________
10. 1-;:-$A-{R<-/?-%?-=$->-S/-$A-;R., ((A-$9A$)__________________________________
5.9 --Types of present tense and present continuous
Simple present Continuous / habitual / regular

A-3.R-/?-o-{.-<-2>., Chinese is also
spoken in
A-3.R-/?-o-{.-<-2>.--$A-;R.,
Chinese is also
spoken in Amdo.
Amdo.
?A=-+R$-:VR$-?-/?-3A-*J, Fruits do not
grow in herding
?A=-+R$-:VR$-?-/-*J-$A-3J., Fruits do not grow /
are not growing in
areas. herding areas.
%?-#-nJ-3A-:,%-, I do not drink
coffee.
%?-#-nJ-:,%-$A-3J., I am not drinking /
do not drink coffee.
#<-$J-35S-}R/-/-:.$ He stays in
Qinghai.
#<-$J-35S-}R/-/-:.$-$A-3J., He is not living /
does not live in
Qinghai.
3<-$J-}R-5S.-<-3A-.$:, She does not
like vegetables.
3<-$J-}R-5S.-<-.$:--$A-3J., She does not like
vegetables.
%:A-1-3?-_%?-:#R<-3A-{R<, My parents do
not drive (a
%:A-1-3?-_%?-:#R<-{R<-$A- My parents are not
driving / do not
car). 3J., drive a car.
2R.-/?-g->-3A-9, Horse meat is

not eaten in
2R.-/-g->-9-$A-3J., Horse meat is not
eaten in Tibet.
Tibet.
,%-!A-<-=$-3A-:(3?,, Wolf and sheep
are not
,%-$A-<-=$-:PAA$-$A-3J., Wolf and sheep are
in conflict (right
harmonious. now).
Exercise 17 Fill in Tibetan words that correspond to the English words in parentheses
and postpositions to express either regular or ongoing actions.
aRR2-3-!--2 A-<R, HR.-2.J-3R,

aRR2-3-#--2 [-3R-35S, HR.-2.J-3R, .R-8$-HR.-22-$A?-3A-<A$ HR?-(A-$9A$-______, (to do)
aRR2-3-!--2 %?-.%R?-=$?-$A-.0J-(-$9A$-______, .J?-/-HR?, (to look for)
aRR2-3-#--2 %?-&%-<-______, =?-o-3J.-/-%-?/-$A (do not do)
•150•
aR2-3-!-2 .J?-/-%J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-$%-)-:,%-$A-:IR, aR2-3-$8/-0-<A$?-$J?-.- ______, (to drink)
aR2-3-#-2 %-.-2R-:IR-3A-,2, >-*J-$9A$-.-______, (to come) %-#<-$J<-______, (to wait) <J.-S-.-%-
<______, (hungry)
aR2-3-!-2 .J?-/-%J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-HR:A->-*J-|$ HR:A-aR2-.R%-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
aR2-3-#-2 ?-o?-<-=R-o?-$A-,R$-/?-%-)J-29%-%-______, (to become) .$J-c/-<-@R%-$A?-29%-$A %?-3A->J?-
/, #<-$J?-%-______, (to help)
aR2-3-!-2 #<-$J:A-MA%-%-(A-$9A$-9J<, %?-#R-%R->J?-/-,%-,
aR2-3-#-2 MA%-%?-3A-S/-$A $9$?-@R%-$A?-3,R-$A o/-.-2R.-H-____, (to wear) #<-$J-3$R-?-=, %R-/$ #-|R-
;$
aR2-3-!-2 .J-;-35<-<J., .J%-?%-aR2-9-(J/-3R-$A-.$J-c/-$A-______2R.-H-$R/-3#/-3J., (among) #<-$J-.$J-
c/-24/-0R-$9A$-AJ-<J.,
aR2-3-#-2 24/-0R-3-<J., aR2-3-9R?-#<-3A-*/-/, #<-$J?-353?-353?-3-______, (to punish) #<-$J-aR2-
#%-_______;<-3<-<-:IR-$A-;R., (in) .J:A-nJ/-$A?- ____________, (who listen)
______, (who do not listen) #<-$J?->J?-/A-<J.,
aR2-3-!-2 #<-$J:A-aR2-OA.-.!:-3R-AJ-<J., ,A<-2+%-$A?-aR2-9-(J/-3R-______.$J-c/-9R-#-3IR$?-$A (in)

aR2-3-#-2 #<-$J?-3IR$?-3R->J.______, (do not speak) <J.-S-#R-.=-3R-<-3-<J., #<-$J?-aR2-OA.-.!:-3R-l-
3R->J.-______, (teach) <J.-S-#<-$J?-aR2-3-9R-#R3-$A-3A-:)$
aR2-3-!-2 (A-$9A$-$ aR2-3-9R?-aR2-.R%-+$-+$-;?-/-3A-:PA$-$A
aR2-3-#-2 #<-$J?-=?-L-3%-%-______, (to give) %:A-aR2-<R$?-9R-22-$A?-______, (to have no free
time) .R-.$R%-%J.-(-2R?-:63-\A%-=R-o?-$A-{R<-$A-\R$-2f/-$9A$-$-______, (to watch)
aR2-3-!-2 .J<-*/-/-/%-.R/-;R.-$A .-%-<-:IR-/-______, (to want)

aR2-3-#-2 HR?-.%R?-=$?-______, (to study) =R-o?-$A-{R<-$A-\R$-2f/-/-(A-$9A$-$-v-:.R.,
aR2-3-!-2 %-/3-;A/-/-<-.0J-36S.-#%-$A-__________, (in) (to stay) .-%-<-?/-$A .R-.$R%-?J3?-$;J%-$A-:IR,
aR2-3-#-2 MA-3%-%-$A?-%:A-.$J-c/-MA-.$:-$9A$-<J.-______, (to think) HR.-<-#R<-.$:-/-,%-,
aR2-3-!-2 .J?-/-.-%?-|$-3A-29R.-$A %-#R:C-,R$-$-8J-2?3-0?-.$:-:IR-/-,%-,
aR2-3-#-2 fR$-$+3, #<-$J-29:-5%-;R.-3#/-$9A$-<J., .J?-3A-5.-<%-5$?-<-;R.-$A
aR2-3-!-2 A-=, !-<J-;A/, HR:A-.$J-c/-%R-/$-$/-AJ-;A/,
aR2-3-#-2 3-<J., 3-<J., $/-%:A->-*J-.J-<J., #R-______ (to come), .-%-:IR, $8$-/?-,$
•151•
Cardinal number + This converts cardinal numbers into ordinals.
0 / 2 / 0RR
Cardinal Combined English Tibetan examples
number with / 0 2
$&A$ .%-0R first %-aR2-9:A-:.A:A-/%-%-,J%?-.%--0R<-;R%-,
$*A? $*A?-0 second 3<-$J:A-{<-:V?-A%-$*AA?-0-<J.,
28A 28A-2 fourth .-.?-5S.-28AA-2-<J.,
2./ 2./-0 seventh .?-5S.-2./--0:A-!J%-?-<2-:IR,
2o. 2o.-0 eighth A%-2o.-00-?-;A/,
2& 2&-2 tenth 5K?-0-2&-2-$A-*A/-%-2R.-<-:IR,
2&R-s 2&R-s-2 fifteenth 2%-<A3-2&RR-s--2:A-,R$-/?-%-3$R-;-:#R<,
2o-,3-0 2o-,3-0-2 hundredth aR2-3-2#R3?-0?-2o-;R., #<-$J-A%-2o--,3-0--2-<J.,
Note: nFor first, .%-0R replaces $&A$-0.oThe particle 0 is added to a cardinal number that ends with
a suffix. The particle 2 is added to cardinal numbers ending without a suffix as shown in the table.
pA% often appears in front of a ordinal number to express a sequential notion, e.g., A%-.%-0R; A%-
$*A?-0; A%-2&R-s-2, respectively meaning, number one, number two, and number fifteen.
Cardinal + 0RR / 2R This singles out or includes holistically, deriving a latent definite article.
Cardinal number With 0R / 2R English Tibetan example

$&A$ $&A$-0R the one HR.-$$&AA$-0R-#R., %J.-$?3--0R-:IR,
2./ 2./-0R the seven HR:A-aR2-3-2.//-0RR-?-?-;A/,
2o. 2o.-0R the eight wJ-3A$-:.A-2o.--0R-%:A-;A/, HR:A-3-<J.,
2& 2&-2R the ten |R<-3R-2&-2R-%<-LA/,
2o-,3-0 2o-,3-0-2R the one
hundred
;=-{R<-2-2o--,3-0--2R-.J-<A%-{-:23-3-:IR,
Note: nThe particle 0R is added as shown in the table to a cardinal number that ends with a suffix
and 2R is added to cardinal numbers that end with no suffix. oSuch a number is either inclusive or
exclusive depending on context, e.g., %J.-$?3-0R-:IR, We three go. If there are only three people, the
number is inclusive. However, if there are more than three, it excludes the remaining people, e.g., %-
:.$ HR.-$?3-0R-?R%-, I stay here and you three go!
•152•
This word can be translated anyone in negative sentences, e.g., HA3-/-MA-?--<-3J.-/?, Is
?- < +
negative there anyone at home? / 3J., HA3-/-?--<-3J., No. There is nobody at home.
Question Affirmative Negative
HR:A-HA3-/-?--?-;R., %:A-HA3-/-MA-3$R-$?3-;R., %:A-HA3-/-? / ?-<<-3J.,
.J-<A%-5S$?-,R$-$-?-;R%-;R., MA-3%-%-$9A$-;R%-;R., MA-?--<-;R%-3J.,
3R-5S$?-$-HR?-MA-?--?--:2R.-$A-;R., %?-%:A-aR2-3-$?3-0R-:2R.-$A-;R., %?-?--<-:2R.-$A-3J., HR.-3A/-.,
.R/-.$-:.A-??--<-3A->J?-/?, >J?, MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?->J?, ???-<--3A->J?, <J.-S-HR?->J?-;R.,
MA-:.A-$?3-0R:A-/%-/?-HR.-?<<-.$:, %-#R-$?3-0R<-.$:, %-?--<-3A-.$:,
:.A-/?-?--<-HR:A->-*J-3A/-/?, ;A/, #<-$J-%:A->-*J-;A/, 3A/, #R-(-2R:C-/%-/?-?--<-%:A->-*J-3A/,
&%-< + This connotes anything in negative sentences, e.g., HR:A-;A.-<-&%--<-3A-;R%-$A-/?, Don't

negative you remember anything? / %:A-;A.-<-&%--<-3A-;R%-$A No, I don't remember anything.
HR:A->-*J-.J<-&%--<-3J.-/?, ;R., #<-$J-/R$?-3R-;A/, 3J., #<-$J<-&%--<-3J.,
HR?-&%--<-3A-*R-/?, *R, %?-9-3-<J-*R-:.R., %?-&%--<-*R-3A-:.R.,
HR?-aR2-9-/-&&%--<-.R%-$A-3J.-/?, %?-.%R?-=$?-.R%-$A-;R., %?-&%--<-.R%-$A-3J.,
8A%-2-9R?-.-2<-&%--<-3A-=?-/?, #R-9R?-L-2-3%-%-=?-$A-;R., #R-9R?-&%--<-=?-$A-3J.,
HR?-(%-&%--<-3A-:,%-/?, %?-:,%-%-, :,%-$A-3J., (%-%?-&%--<-3A-:,%-,
HR:A-8A-=A-&%--<-3A-*/-$A-/?, .-(R$-$A =3-3-:IR-$R-$A #<-$J-&%-<-3A-*/-$A *$-$9/-.J,
This expresses even one or a little bit in negative statements or in questions, e.g., .0J-
$&A$-< + (-:.A-HR:A-5S%-#%-/-$&A$-<-3J.-/?, Isn't there even one copy of this book in your shop? /
negative
%:A-5S%-#%-/-.0J-(-.J-$&AA$-<-3J., No, there is no single copy of that book in my shop.
29:-2-.J-$*A?-!<-*-*R$-$&AA$-<-3J.-/?, #R-$*A?-!<-*-*R$-$*A?-;R., #R-$*A?-!<-*-*R$-$&AA$-<-3J.,
HR.-o-3A-%R->J?-$&AA$-<-3J.-/?, %-o-3A-%R->J?-3%-%-;R., %-o-3A-%R->J?-$&AA$-<-3J.,
HR.-KA-o=-/?-?/-$%-$&AA$-<-3J.-/?, %-?/-$%-;R., 3J., %-?/-$%-$&AA$-<-3J.,
5K-<A%-$A?-;A-$J-$&A$-<--:VA-$A-3J.-/?, #<-$J?-:VA-$A-;R., 3J., #<-$J?-;A-$J-$&AA$-<-:VA-$A-3J.,
HR.->-$&AA$-<-3A-.$:-/?, >-9R?-/-8A3, %->-.$:-$A %->-$&AA$-<-3A-.$:,
•153•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--s--2,,
A-3.R-$A-:VR$-0-$9A$
l-3R easy K$?-9R$-:5S-oR-=?-l-3R-3-<J.,
:L% to happen; to take place 2R.-/-:5S-2<-:I<-wR$-(J/-0R-:L%-$A-;R.,
(%-.? childhood (%-.?-$A-<R$?-0-2eJ.-3A-,2,
=$-mA shepherd =$-mA-<-<-mA-5%-3-mA-2R-<J.,
?-$/?-$A local %-?-$/?-$A-9-3-.$:-$A
<2 to close in; to become dark .-?-<2-$A-;R.,
#J<-<R alone c.-0R-~A%-3-eJ, /3-;A/-/-<-#J<-<R-<J.,
*A/-3-$+R% to kill time; to spend time *A/-3-3-$+R%-, =?-!-=?,
,-,R< a little bit; scattering $/?-5=-,-,R<-$9A$-%?->J?,
mR% county k-zR-/-mR%-28A-;R.,
mR%-,R$ county seat mR%-,R$-/?-#%-\-.!:-3R-<J.,
o=-/% domestic (country) o=-/%-$A-.%R?-0R-o-%?-(R$-$A
$?<-:LR< new arrival aR2-3-$?<-:LR<-:.A-?/-$R-$A
9-#% restaurant 9-#%-:.A-?R-3-<J., 2&:-.$-<-<J.,
3IR$?-3R fast; quick 8-;?-.J-[.-0-3IR$?-3R-<J.,
.!:-=?-MR% to suffer; to experience hardship aR2-3-3%-%-$A?-.!:-=?-MR%-$A-3J.,
5S%-o$-3#/ businessman; seller (R%-o$-3#/-.J-$%-2-3,R,
1/-5/ mutual; each other %J.-$*A?-1/-5/-/-:.%-(J,
$R-2h signal; communication 8A-3R-$9A$-$A?-$R-2h-3-2!/,
:UR. to fit; to obtain; to be lucky .-:UR.-?R%-, %?-L-2-$9A$-fJ.-,=,
$R-2h-:UR. to communicate well %?-.LA/-{.-$A?-$R-2h-3A-:UR.,
.$:-? hobby; something one likes %-=-.$:-?-&%-3J., )-$9A$-$A?-(R$
(<-2 rain .$/-#-2R.-/?-(<-3A-:22,
•154•
:22 to fall .J-<A%-?-h=-:22-$A-;R.,
(<-2-:22 to rain (<-2-:22, _%-$;$ %-?/-$A
:1J=-# growth; development K$?-9R$-:1J=-#-@R%-$A?-29%-,
#%-2-o$ to build a house #%-2-(A-$9A$->J.-o$ |R<-3R-3J.-/,
$%-v<-/-< anyway $%-v<-/-<, #%-2-:.A-o$-.$R?,
5K life c/-3R-:.A-5K-<A%-$A
$%-2R whole; entire #R$-$%-2R-(%-<J., (%-n=-:.A,
5K-$%-2R whole life; entire life 5K-$%-2R<-3<-$J-3R-n%-$9A$-;A/,
*J= to send; to escort; to transport (/-0-$A?-/.-0-(/-#%-/%-%-*J=,
aR2-9<-*J= to send to school .-=R-%:A-8A-=A-aR2-9<-*J=-$A-;R.,
8A%-=? agriculture 8A%-=?-<-K$?-=?-#-#-<J.,
.%R?-=$? physics .%R?-=$?-.R%-3#/-3%-%-;R.,
KA-o= foreign country KA-o=-$A-$/?-5=-#<-$J?-3%-%->J?,
SR/-0R warm /3-^-SR/-0R-<J., .-3J-+R$-2!.-$A-;R.,
5S/-0R fat (adj.) >-5S/-0R-3A/-/-3A-8A3,
9-o something to eat; food 9-o-<A$-/-.$:, =?-o-<A$-/-#$
*R-(-o$ to buy; to go shopping 3<-$J-*R-(-o$-oR<-.$:,
!A3 to squander 8A-=A-3-<2?-.J?-|R<-3R-!A3-$A-;R.,
$?R$ to save %-=-|R<-3R-$?R$-o-3J.,
.N$?-) butter tea %-.N$?-)<-3A-.$:,
#% to hate; to resent #R-MA-$8/-/-#%-$A
?J3?-#$ sad; depressed ?J3?-#$-/?-A-3-/-?R%-,
*% few; little #-=2-*%-/-29%-,
[.-0 brain %?-=$-$A-[.-0-3A-9,
[.-0-8/ low in IQ; stupid aR2-3-%/-0-.J-[.-0-<-8/-$A
?J3?-SR to be happy; free and easy 9-o-3%-/-?J3?-SR-$A
%< excitement; to get hot t$?-=J2-.-%<-;R., >-$$-.J:A-,R$-$-8R$
•155•
#-;$ sweet words; sweet-talk #-;$-%R-.$:-3-2>.,
*= to sleep %-*=-/-*=-3A-,2, =%?-/-=%?-3A-,2,
?. to wake up $*A.-3A-?.-/-(-:H$?-$A?-%R-O?,
$8? song $8?-$R-/A-<-3<-$J-%-$A-;R.,
$8?-$+R% to sing <A-3$R-/-MA-$9A$-$A?-$8?-$+R%-$A-;R.,
?-/$ chalk ?-/$-.$J-c/-$A-=$-/-3J.,
;<-3< up and down .$J-c/-$A?-?-/$-;<-3<-<-24=,
.-2 smoke; cigarette .-2-.LA%?-%-:,J/-:.$
.-2-:,J/ to smoke .-2-:,J/-/-$/R.-0-(J-9J<,
=?-#%? work unit =?-#%?-9R?-$9:-*A-3-|R-o$-$A-;R.,
$9$?-$8A body $9$?-$8A-2.J-/-?J3?-#3?-<-?%?,
2.J-,% healthy 2.J-,%-;A/-/-K$-0R-;A/,
?J3?-2.J to be care-free ?J3?-2.J, =?-2.J, :5S-2-*A.,
#-0< telephone %?-#-0<-$A-!J%-/?-#-2h-;?-3A->J?,
?-5B$? station ?-5B$?-eJ?-3-/?-%J.-$*A?-:22-.$R?,
~R. to feed (child) 8-;?-~R.-oR-%:A-=?-!-;A/,
%R->J? acquaintance; to know (someone) #R:C-%/-;-%:A-%R->J?-;A/,
,A-2.J public order ,A-2.J-Y%-3#/-$A?-1A$-=3-2lA-.$R?,
>-*J relative >-*J-5%-3-.J-<A%-;:-2-=R$-$A-;R.,
;/-<A% long time %?-3<-$J->J?-/?-;/-<A%-,
1%-2R body; figure 1%-2R-.<-/-=?-!R2?-o?,
&R3 big in circumference 2.-3J.-:.A-)J-&R3-<-)J-&R3-<J.,
,J%? time (frequency) HR?-fR$-$+3-.J-,J%?-.-=2-/A-;A/,
,J%?-}R/-3 last time ,J%?-}R/-3-%-3R-5S$?-$A-!J%-/-3J.,
fJ. to find %?-L-2-$?<-2-$9A$-fJ.-$A-;R.,
lR3-1A$-0 editor lR3-1A$-0-.J?-$&A$-<-3A->J?-$A
8R<-< meanwhile; at the same time %-9A-=A%-%-:IR, 8R<-<-o=-/%-%-:IR,
•156•
z$-+ even more; more .-{.-(-z$-+-3-2>.,
:$R<-:I%? delay :$R<-:I%?-3-LJ., <J3-3->R$
:VR$-0-5K-<A%-=-:LR<-2:A-:UA/-;A$-&A$
=$? Sir, Miss; Mr. (honorific) ~A%-PR$?-=$?, HR:A-{.-(-$A?-%-?J3?-#$
.-KA not long ago; recently .-KA-HR.-<A$-o-3J., $%-%-?R%-,
?/ to become bored; to feel lonely %-#J<-<R-8J-,$-$A?-?/-$A
,R$-.%-0R first time HR.-A-3.R<-,R$-.%-0R<-/3-;R%-,
KA-KR$? outside; other place KA-KR$?-/?-?J3?-(%-LR?,
m/ lie ;%-m/-<J., #<-$J?-2.J/-0-3A-2>.,
$*J/-*J relatives %-$*J/-*J-9R-<-@R%-$A?-3A-:SA?,
3,:-$&A$-$ altogether 3,:-$&A$-$-.$$-0-o$-3A-*/,
,A<-$A? generally ,A<-$A?-%?-(%-3%-%-3A-:,%-,
/R to get mad 5S%-2-.J-|R<-3R:C-.R/-/-/R-$A-;R.,
$8$-KR$? future $8$-KR$?-$-.J-3R-:.%-3-o$
$%-;A/-/-< in any case $%-;A/-/-<, >A-2R:A-]-3-|=,
3,<-$+$?-/ in conclusion 3,<-$+$?-/-#R:C-#R3-5B$-3A-:PA$-$A
.3A$?-;= goal .3A$?-;=-3-P2-/-%?-3A-$+R%-,
<R= to enjoy \-.L%?-%-<R=-/-?J3?-SR,
(. to get tired .-%-(.-$A *=-:.R.-$A
(-nJ/ condition; financial condition (-nJ/-3J.-/, *R-$+3-3-2>.,
9J.-=R%-=R% the condition of people jostling MA-5S$?-9J.-=R%-=R%-MA$-4A.-$A
{<-3 star (astral) /3-3#:-/-{<-3-3%-,
$%-?-$%-/ everywhere $%-?-$%-/-K$?-9R$-<J.,
$. to seethe; to boil (-.J3-$A-/%-/-zR$-zR$-$.-$A-;R.,
:< noise :<-3-o$ *R/, *R/, *R/,
.A-<A-<A clamoring :<-.A-<A-<A, %?-$&A$-<-3A-$R
•157•
@-/A all :.A-/?-%?-MA-@-/A-3A->J?,
#-;%? spacious; vast (land) C-?-#-;%?-.J:A-!J%-/-g-o$-:,J/,
!R.-,% T-shirt !R.-,%-:.A-%J?-%J?-&A$-;$-$A
.3<-eJ/ naked; nude %-.$R%-3R-.3<-eJ/-/-*=-$A-;R.,
3)J. to get tired of; to be bored with #R-<%-$A-c/-3R<-3)J.-;R.,
#-3)J. to get tired of (food) 9-3-.J-8A3-/-<-.-#-3)J.-$A
{< to send %?-o/-.-;A-$J-3A-{<,
353?-:)R$ to stop :VR$-0-.J?-=?-!-353?-:)R$-/-:.R.,
(%-<R$? childhood friend (%-<R$?-2eJ.-.!:-$A
UJ%-2 rosary / string of prayer beads =$-$-UJ%-2-9%?-, #-/?-3-EA-,R/-9J<,
!R/-! autumn !R/-!<-/3-^-2?A=-3R-<J.,
*J?-{< birthday 8-;?-$A-*J?-{<-<-%?-$&A$-<-3A-*R,
.$/-# winter .$/-#-$R/-o-SR/-0R-$R/-/-29%-,
3$R-/ to have a headache %-3$R-;3-3J-/,
PR= to be over / finished aR2-OA.-.-?R-3-PR=-$A-;R.,
$/?-3(R$-$%?-<A/-0R-(J<-3)=-{R<-:IR-2,
$/?-3(R$ holy place 2R.-/-$/?-3(R$-$%-3%-<J.,

$%?-<A/-0R-(J Mount Kailash $%?-<A/-0R-(J-{.-P$?-(J-$A
3)=-{R< pilgrimage %?-3(R.-gJ/-/-3)=-{R<-;?-$A-;R.,
?-3$R altitude <A-:.A-?-3$R-3?-28A-!R%-;A/,
3? meter 3?-<-:.R3-0-<A%-,%-3A-$&A$
:)A$-gJ/ universe :)A$-gJ/-:.A-(A-3R-$9A$-(J-A%-,
$/: ancient time $/:-/?-.-2<-=R-(A-3R-$9A$-:$R<-?R%-,
.-2< nowadays .-2<-%-:5S-2:A-!J%-/-.!:-#$-3J.,
/%-2!/-0 Buddhist 2R.-5%-3-/%-2!/-0-;A/,
35S/-/ for; with regard to %-35S/-/, .R/-.J-fR$-S-3A-(J,
•158•
;-3J. matchless; extremely good #R:C-A-1-MA-29%-;-3J.-$9A$-;A/,
*2?-3$R/ protector; spiritual leader *2?-3$R/-5%-.J-<A%-.$R/-0-/-3J.-$A
35S/-LJ. manifestation; symbol z$-2?3-35S/-LJ.-<-.3R.-0-3A-:PR,
2R/-0R Bon follower <J2-$R%-/-2R/-0R-<-3%-%-;R.,
2%-<A3 layer; story 3(R.-gJ/-.J<-2%-<A3-$?3-;R.,
2lJ$?-3 folded; storied #%-2-.$-2lJ$?-3-:.A-3,R,
YR=-$+R.-0-0R founder /%-2!/-$A-YR=-$+R.-0-0R-?-<J.,
{3-? continent :63-\A%-/-{3-?-(J/-0R-.-;R.,
:L% to originate k-(-3$R-=R$-/-:L%-$A-;R.,
5K-KA-3 next life 5K-KA-3-3->A-/-3J.,
5K-$&A$-=?-$&A$ the course of one's life 5K-$&A$-=?-$&A$-$A-*3?-MR%-%-=-3%-,
36.-0 deed ]-3-.J-36.-0-,-$A
$%?-{R< pilgrimage to snow mountains /-/A%-$%?-{R<-<-:IR-3#/-3%-,
$/3-35S Gnam mtsho Lake $/3-35S-9J<-/-$/?-3(R$-$9A$-<J.,
;=-P region; community HR.-;=-P-$%-/?-;R%-/?,
*-$%-^-2 full moon *-$%-^-2-5K?-2&R-s:A-.$R%-3R<-;R.,
w2-:I< exponential; double #J-5S%-$A-:2.-w2-:I<-<J.,
.?-5B$? season =R-$&A$-$-.?-5B$?-28A-;R.,
#J<-:IR walking alone #J<-:IR-3-LJ., *J/-#-(J,
IR? discussion .R-.$R%-HR.->R$-<-%J.-$*A?-!?-IR?-LJ.,
:#R<-( peripherals :U=-(?-:.A<-:#R<-(-3%-,
><-2 Sherpa ><-2-9J<-/-><-KR$?-$A-MA-9J<-/A-<J.,
\ to hire; remuneration \-24:-.3:-/-%-L-2-.J-3A-.$R?,
i3-0 form #R-=-(-=$?-i3-0-3%-,
(-/? in; regarding <A$-0:A-(-/?, #R-cR.->R?-<J.,
o-%? quality o-%?-3J.-/, P%?-!?-3A-1/,
]-/-3J. outstanding; super .$J-2-]-/-3J.-/R-$8/-.R/-12-oR-;A/,
•159•
% to cry %-o-35/-3J.-<-%-3A-:.R.,
2?R. to become delighted =J$?-*J?-,R2-/A-<, 3<-$J-2?R.-,=,
b ditch b-:.A-=?-3#/-%-3A/,
:$$? to be blocked %:A-{.-:$$?-$R-$A
(-=$? dress (style of clothing worn by somebody) HR:A-<R$?-0-(-=$?-24S$-$A
2R.-H Tibetan robe 2R.-H-2R.-$A-?-(-/?-:UR.-$A
)R-3R nun )R-3R-.J-.J%-3-;$-3-$9A$-;A/,
>-!$ certain; sure %-.R-5B$?-1-;:-2-:IR->-!$-;A/,
H$ to be able to carry %:A-8A-=A-$A?-.%R?-0R-.J-3A-H$
d=-( sweat d=-(-%:A-3$R-/-=%?-$A-;R.,
=%-#R$ valley =%-#R$-.J-/-<R%-:VR$-$*A?-!-;R.,
@/-/ beyond =%-#R%-:.A:A-@/-/-#R-3A-:IR,
#-<R$-$J< silently b/-3-#-<R$-$J<-:)2,
#-:R$ down; below #-:R$-/-=3-0-$9A$-3.%-%J-3.%-%J-,
.R-8$ in these days .R-8$-A-3-#3?-?%?-$A-3J.,
8A-2.J peace 8A-2.J-.%-:O$-lR.-3*3-0?-3A-;R%-,
#-lR. argument #-lR.-GA-$8$-/?-=$-lR.-<J.,
3R-5S$? party %-3R-5S$?-$-:IR-3A-2?3,
/-2R younger brother %:C-$R%-:R$-/-/-2R-<-1-2R-;R.,
%R-v mirror %R-v-:.A->J=-$A?-3-=?,
}/-/ before; in front of =$-$A-}/-/-($-0-#J%?-;R.,
=$-:) hand in hand LA?-0<-=$-:)-LR?,
}R-5S. vegetable }R-5S.-$A?-=?-1%-%-1/-9J<-$A-;R.,
=$-> mutton =$->-9R?-/-~A-3R-;A/,
?-o? geography %-?-o?-=-$+/-/?-3A-.$:,
=R-o? history =R-o?->J?-/-1/-,R$?-(J,
3$R-?A-=A with curly hair =R-2&R-s:A-!J%-#R-3$R-?A-=A-<J.,
•160•
#-|R-;$ good-looking LA?-0-.J-#-|R-)J-;$-<J.,
#-3A-*/ do not listen; to refuse #R-:IR-#-3A-*/,
#-3IR$? fast in speech #R-3R-#-3IR$?-$A %?-$&A$-<-3A-$R
.0J-36S.-#% library .0J-36S.-#%-/-.0J-(-v-3#/-3J.,
8J-2?3-0? sincerely #R-3R<-%-8J-2?3-0?-.$:-$A-;R.,
<%-5$? independence <%-5$?-9A/-/-1/-?-3%-,
!-<J joke !-<J-;?-/-:.$-<R$?-?J3?-*A.,
•161•
•162•
aR2-5/-S$-0,
2h-3R.,
Future Tense Form:

o-;A/ Future Tense Form: 9J<-$R-$A
Future Tense Form: o-<J. Future Tense: :IR
Future Tense Form: 9J<-$A-;R. Imminent Future Tense Form
Klu rol ɽāŘŬř, a summer festival in Gling Rgyal (Langjia ⌾ࡴ) Village, Reb gong
(Tongren ৠҕ) County, Rma lho, Mtsho sngon Province (2013).
Text One: future tense forms
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, LA?-0-(%-(%-8A$-$A-*J?-{<,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS A-<R, John HR.-$%-%-:IR,

KAA-\AA%-2 %-<R$?-0-$9A$-$A?-#R:A-8A-=A-$A-*J?-{<-<-:2R.-$R-$A 5S%-#%-$A-/%-%-=J$?-*J?-*R-$A-:IR,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS ??-:2R.-$R-$A ?%?-o?-3A/-/,
KAA-\AA%-2 <J., #R-<J., %?-=J$?-*J?-$9A$-*R-.$RR?-o-<JJ.,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS ?%?-o?-$A?-%-<-:2R.-$R-$A *J?-{<-$A-!R/-3R-.J%-3-2R.-/-YR=-3J., .-(A-$9A$-;?-/%-,
KAA-\AA%-2 HR.-:IRR-o--AJ-;A/, !R/-3R-$A-,R$-/-%R->J?-3J.-/, %-:.$-/-3A-:.R.-$A
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS %-<-:IR-lA?-;R., .J-3A/-.-?%?-o?-:5B$-0-9-o-<JJ., =J$?-*J?-(A-$9A$-*R-/%-,
KAA-\AA%-2 %?-|R<-3R-!J<-9J<-$AA-;RR., .J-;A/-/-8-;?-$A?-$%-:.R.-*R?-/-(R$-$A
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS ,A<-$A?-2R.-/?-|R<-3R-3A-!J<, %?-$R/-o-$9A$-*R-o-;AA/, %:A-c.-0R-$A-2?3-5=-<-.J-<J.,
KAA-\AA%-2 HR:A-c.-0R-<-:IRR-o??-9JJ<-$AA-;RR.-/?, %J.-$*A?-!-?J3?-3,/-$A
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS #<-$J?-:IRR-9JJ<-$A-;R., <J.-S-%?-2v?-/-#R-#R3-o-3--<J., %-3J.-/, #<-$J?-8-;?-$*R<-.$RR?-o-<JJ.,
KAA-\AA%-2 .J-<A%-%J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-=J$?-*J?-*R-$A-:IR, *J?-{<-$A-!R/-3R:C-,R$-/?-,A<-2+%-$A?-(A-$9A$-
=?-/A-<J.,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS PR%-HJ<-<-PR%-2h=-/-2R.-#-;?-$A?-*J?-{<-$A-!R/-3R-2#-$A-;R., <J.-S-2R.-$A-#J-2-/-.0J-.J-3R-3J., 1-
3-$*A?-!?-9-3-3%-%-{R=-/A-<J., 8-;?-$R/-o-<-lJ.-,.-$A-<A$?-*R, :P=-2-9R?-;A/-.-3A/-.-=J$?-
*J?-*R-3A-.$R?, ,A<-2+%-$A?-8-;?-$A-$R/-o-*R-3#/-3%-$A .J-3A/-.-+/-$R-hR$-$R-<-*R-$A-;R., (%-
:,%-3#/-9R?-(%-:,%-$A-;R.,
KAA-\AA%-2 .J?-/-:.A-o-$A-=$?-YR=-$9A$-AJ-;A/,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS <J., .J-o-$A-=$?-YR=-<J., .J-;A/-/-<, 8-;?-9R-!R/-3R<-.$:-$A-;R., %?-2v?-/-.<-YR=-:.A-Z-$A
KAA-\AA%-2 %R-3?-;-35<-<J., %:A-;:-/?-*J?-{<-$A-!R/-3R-$=-(J, %?-.-,J%?-<%-$A-*J?-{<-$A-!R/-3R:C-!J%-%-MA-
3%-%-:2R.-9JJ<-$A-;R., %?-<-9-3-<-(%-P-1A$-;?--o-;AA/, .-2R-%?-HR:A-c.-0R-<-:2R.-o??-9JJ<-$A-;R.,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS .J-29%-$A %J.-$*A?-!-KA-SR-/3-,$-o-;A/,
KAA-\AA%-2 .?-5S.-$?3-<-{<-3-28A-2&:A-!J%-,$-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
.!RR/-3(R$-35SS .J-.-=R?-(R$ :KA-$A-3-:)$
•164•
6.1 --Future tense form: o-;A/
Subject Complement Verb Positive form Negative form
%?- .LA/-{.- .%- o-;A/, o--3A/,
%J.-$*A?- z-?<- :IRR- o--;A/, o--3A/,
#R-28A-2R- 3*3-0?- :..$-- o--;A/, o--3A/,
Notes-1
1. o-;A/: This phrasal auxiliary is used with monosyllabic adjectives and verbs in FUT to
form an intentional future tense. nIt is mainly applied to refer to First Person and First
Person Plural, e.g., %?-:.A-/%?-!-:VA-o-;A/, (intentional) I will write this tomorrow. / %J.-
(:R-.R-.$R%-,$-o-;A/, (intentional) We will see each other tonight. oIt is used to ask
Second Person or Second Person Plural because when the answers are given, the
pronoun becomes either First Person or First Person Plural, e.g., HR.-/3-:IR-o-;A/, When
will you go? / %-?%-*A/-:IR-o-;A/, I will go tomorrow. Adverbs may be inserted between o-
;A/, e.g., %?-=?-!-.J-:R<-$A?-=?-o-$+/-/?-3A/, I will never do that work again.
2. o? is the contraction of o-;A/, e.g., %?-=?-o-;A/, = %?-=?-o?, %J.-5%-3-:IR-o-;A/, = %J.-
5%-3-:IR-o?, It is not used in questions.
Exercise 1 Use the correct future tense forms of the verbs in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., HR.-aR2-9<-/3- :IR-o- ;A/,
1. %-.R-5B$?-aR2-3-$9A$-________, (2&:) 5. %J.-(-2R?-KA-o=-/?-#%-2-______, (*R)

2. %J.-$*A?-!-!R/-,R$-$-________, (;R%) 6. %-<-%:A-29:-3A-9R-29:-#-______, (:6S3)
3. %-<-?%?-o?-1R=-3-HA3-/?____, (:.$) 7. %-aR2-#%-$A-/%-%-KA-SR<-_______, (:IR)
4. %J.-$?3-0R-.%R?-0R-.J-=J/-$A____, (:IR) 8. .R-.$R%-%?-.0J-(-__________, ([R$)
6.2 --Future tense form: o-<J.

#<-$J?- 5S%-=?- $*JJ<-
$8$-/?- :(3??- o-<J., o-3-<J.,
#R-$*A?-!-
•165•
#R-(:R- %:A-<R$?-.0:- */--
HR.-(:R $9$?- *JJ-
HR.-$*A?-!- #-|R-A-/-3-/- ;AA/
122-,22- o-<J., o-3-<J.,
HR?- .R/-.$-.J-
3<-$J- =J$?-*J?-:.A<- .$:--
$/-9R- o-MA- ;AA/-
Notes-2
1. o-<J.: This phrasal auxiliary is used to express conjecture in future tense, e.g., c/-3R-;R%-/,
%-.$:-o-<J., I would be happy if my wife comes. / %-/-o-<J., I will get sick. / %-(R$-o-<J., I
would be qualified. / HR.-/-o-<J., $R/-o-3-$R/-/, You will get sick if you do not put on
clothes.
2. ;A/ vs. o-<J.: The former is used to express one's intention while the latter is used to put
forward a guess, e.g., %-:IR-o-;A/, (intentional) I will go. / %-:IR-o-<J., I will go (conjectural
under given conditions).
Exercise 2 Fill in the correct future tense forms using the words in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., #R-aR2-9<-/3- :IR-o- <J.,
1. /3-^-)J-:H$?-$-/3-__________, (:IR) 5. #<-$J-.R-5B$?_____________, ($*J/-21A$)

2. ?%?-o?-_________________, (.$:) 6. HR.-(:R-%:A-<R$?-0-__________, (*/)
3. %:A-c.-0R-<-3PR/-/___________, (:2R.) 7. MA-$8/-0-9R?-=J$?-*J?-_______, (*R)
4. /%?-!-(<-2-______________, (:22) 8. #R-9R?-.$R%-)-.?-5S.-S$-$A-!J%-___,(:,%)
6.3 --Future tense forms in contrast
Conjectural structure vs. intentional structure

o--<J. o--;A/
#<-$J?-$*JJ/-1A$-;?--o-<JJ., He will get
married.
%-$*JJ/-21AA$-o-;AA/, I will get
married.
35S-3R-.$:--o-3--<J., Mtsho mo would
not be happy.
%J.-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-:IRR-o--3A/, We two will not
go to the school.
#R-9R-:.$--o-3--<J., :IR-o-<JJ., They will not stay,
but go.
%-<-(R?-:1$?-<R$?-0<-**/--o-3AA/, I and Chos
'phags will not
become friends.
•166•
8-;?-:.A-$9$?--3,RR-o-<J., This child will be
tall.
%?-\-.L%?-%-*/--o-3A/, I will not listen
to music.
:.A-(:R-aR2-3-;A/-o-<J., These will be
students.
%J.-(-2R-.-2R-*=--o-3A/, We will not
sleep now.
%J.-$*A?-!?-.0J-(-:.RR/-o-<J., We two will read
books.
.-/%?-%?-9-3-29:--o-;A/, I will eat food
this morning.
%J.-(-2R?-\R$-2f/-/-2v--o-3- We will not watch
a movie.
%?-=?-!-:.A-212-o-3A/, I will not do
this job.
<J.,
Note: The narrator guesses what might Note: The narrator decides what he will do.
happen.
Exercise 3 Write questions for the answers using appropriate future tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., Answer: #R-aR2-9<-:IR-o-<J., Question: #R-$%-%-:IR-o-<J.,

Answer Question
1. %?-=J$?-*J?-$9A$-<J3-3-*R-o-;A/, 1. _______________________
2. #<-$J-/%?-!-35S-}R/-/-:IR-o-<J., 2. _______________________
3. %J.-(-2R-.J-<A%-KA-SR<-r%-=A-lJ-o-;A/, 3. _______________________
4. %:A-@-3-$*A?-!-.R-5B$?-$A-.$/-#-;:-/?-:.$-o-<J., 4. _______________________
5. %-<-c.-3R<-?%-=R-8-;?-;R.-o-<J., 3<-$J?-8-;?-:.R.-$R-$A 5. _______________________
6. %?-.!R/-3(R$-$-$8$-/?-;A.-(J?-o-3-<J., #R?-m/-=2-?R%-, 6. _______________________
7. $8$-KR$?-%-:.A-/-;R.-o-3-<J., %?-L-2-3A-fJ.-$A 7. _______________________
8. %?-L-2-.J-=?-o-;A/, L-2-.J<-.?-5S.-3%-%-.$R?-o-<J., 8. _______________________
9. %-HA3-3-:IR-o-;A/, |R-/?-:H$?-$A 9. _______________________
10. 5K-$9%?-.-:IR-o-<J., #<-$J<-L-2-$=-(J/-$9A$-;R., 10. _______________________
6.4 --Imminent future tense form: 9J<-$A-;R. and 9J<-$R-$A

Subject Complement Verb Positive-- 9JJ<-$A-;R. Negative-- 9JJ<-$A-3J.
%- 5S%-#%-$A-/%-%- :IRR-
%J.-(-2R?- =?-!-:.A-.- =?--
9J<-$A-;R., 9J<-$A-3J.,
%-<-%:A-c/-3R-$A?- 9-3-8A3-0R-$9A$- {RR=-
3<-$J?- =J$?-*J?-$9A$- *RR-
•167•
Subject Complement Verb Positive-- 9J<-$R-$A Negative-- 9J<-$A-3J.-$A
t$?-L3?-$A?- $R/-o- :O.-
@-3-$*A?-!- !R/-3R<- 8$$?-
aR2-3-9R?- =?-L- :VAA- 9J<-$R-$A 9J<-$A-3J.-$A
%:A-%/-;-$A?- _%?-:#R<-$9A$- *RR-
:P=-2-9R?- $/?-5%-$9A$- :5SS=-
Notes-3
1. Verb in PRT + 9J<-$A-;R. structure expresses an imminent plan, e.g., A-1-HA3-3-,R/-.?, %-

.$R%-5S$?-$9A$-$A-,R$-$-:IR-9J<-$A-;R., When Father returns home, I am about to leave for a
party.
2. Verb in PRT + 9J<-$R-$A structure: nIt is the contraction of 9J<-$A-;R. + $A and is used to
report what is going to happen, e.g., @-3-$*A?-!-:IR-9J<-$R-$A From the statement, one can
infer the narrator knew what his parents were going to do and describes it in a reportive
tone. This structure, however, is not applied to refer to First Person and First Person
Plural pronouns because of the same rules applied to the reportive particle $A. oIn
negation, this contraction gives way to its original negative form …9J<-$A-3J.-$A. However, an
exception is made when the primary verb, rather than the structure, is denied. The two
examples are correct: #<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-:HJ<-9J<-$A-3J.-$AA #<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-3A-:HJ<-9J<-$R-$A (He
is not going to take the car.) An incorrect example is #<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-:HJ<-3A-9J<-$R-$A
3. o-;A/ (or its contraction form o?) and the imminent future tense form may appear in
juxtaposition in a statement, though either alone may suffice to convey future tense mood,
e.g.,%-:IR-9J<-$A-;R., = %-:IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R., I am going to leave. #R-1J-:.J2-9J<-$R-$A = #R-1J-:.J2-o-
;A/-9J<-$R-$A He is going to cry.
4. There are two ways to deny imminent future tense mood, either with the negative adverb 3A
or with 3J., with the former denying the primary verb and the negative E-v the future tense
form, e.g., #<-$J?->-5S/-0R-3A-9-9J<-$A-;R. / $R-$A (He is not going to eat fat meat.) / %?-=?-L-:VA-
9J<-$A-3J., (I am not going to do homework.)
•168•
Exercise 4 Write appropriate future tense forms in the blanks below.
.0J<-2eR., 3<-$J?-3PR/-0R-5%-3<-=J$?-*J?-*R-o?-9J<-$A-;R., #R-aR2-9<-:IR-9J<-$R-$A
1. %?-$*J/-!R/-$A-=J$?-*J?-$9A$__________, ( )
*R
2. *J?-{<-$A-.$R%-5S$?-HA3-/?-___________, (2#)
3. %-*J?-{<-$A-!R/-,R$-$-_______________, (8$?)
4. !R/-,R$-/?-5%-3-$A?-(%-_____________, (:,%)
5. ?%?-o?-$A?->-<-_________________, (:5S.)
6. %:A-c/-3R-$A?-=J$?-*J?-$R-(R.-$9A$-______, (!J<)
7. c/-3R-:IR-/, %-3A-:IR_______________, (9J<)
8. MA-$/-$A?-8A-3R-=-*J-&/-$9A$-___________, (:5S=)
Exercise 5 Tell what you are going to / not do using the given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., =R-?<-<-$R/-o-$?<-2-(-<J-*R, %?-=R-?<-<-$R/-o-$?<-2-(-<J-*R-o?-9J<-$A-;R.,
1. (<-$A-$8$-/?-=$-:5S ___________________________________________
2. $8$-KR$?-N%-$R-/?-:.$ ___________________________________________
3. .R-.$R%-aR2-.R%-;? ___________________________________________
4. HA3-/?-8-;?-$*R< ___________________________________________
5. #%-2-?R-3-$9A$-*R ___________________________________________
6. .R-5B$?-8A-=A-aR2-9<-*J= ___________________________________________
7. /%?-!-.?-5S.-2./-$A-!J%-=%? ___________________________________________
8. KA-SR<-/.-0-$9A$-$-v-$A-:IR ___________________________________________
Exercise 6 Talk about yourself and others in future tense mood.
.0J<-2eR., =?-L-:VA, %?-.R-.$R%-=?-L-:VA-5<-o-;A/, 2h-3R.-.R%-, 3<-$J?-.J-<A%-2h-3R.-.R%-o-<J.,

About others About yourself
1. aR2-5/-:.A-.!:__________________ 1. %-aR2-OA.-:.A<-8$? ________________
•169•
2. 35S-3R-.J-<A%-;R%___________________ 2. KA-SR<-%?-)-:,% __________________
3. .$J-c/-$A-8A-3R-$9$?-3,R____________ 3. %-P%-$A %-:IR____________________
4. %:A-2R.-{.-)J-.$:-;A/______________ 4. %J.-(-2R-<R$?-0-*/_________________
5. /%?-!-/3-^-,% _________________ 5. .R-.$R%-%J.-$*A?-!?-9-3-2{R=__________
6. A-3-$A-9-3-8A3__________________ 6. %?-c/-3R<-#-0<-$+R%_______________
7. aR2-PR$?-9R-2R.-<-:IR______________ 7. %?-$R/-o-$?<-2-$9A$-*R_____________
8. #R-$*A?-!-A->J-;-/?-3A/____________ 8. %?-.0J-(-:.A-<J3-3-:VA-5<____________
9. .0J-(-:.A-.J-<A%-.$R? ______________ 9. %J.-(-2R?-.$R%-5S$?-$+R%_____________
Exercise 7 Talk about what you are going to do or what will happen to you using the
given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., 9-3-3%-, .-/%?-9-3-3%-?R%-, .-%?-9-o-3A/, .J-3A/-%-#R$-0-/-o-<J.,
1. %-aR2-3<-*/, ______________________________________
2. %?-,-3$-:,J/, ______________________________________
3. %J.-(-2R-/, ______________________________________
4. %J.-$*A?-!?-\-.L%?-=J/, ______________________________________
5. %-3R-5S$?-$-:2R., ______________________________________
6. %?-3<-$J-!R/-,R$-$-:2R., ______________________________________
7. <J3-3-:IR, .J-3A/-%-:H$ ______________________________________
8. A-1-;R%-$A-;R., %J.-(-2R-$?R., ______________________________________
9. %-<-c/-3R-=R-=R/, ______________________________________
10. %-=R-$A?-:HJ<-$A-;R., %:A-{J.-0-|<, ______________________________________
Exercise 8 Fill in appropriate future tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., t$?-L3?-$A?-%-!R/-,R$-$-:2R.-$A-;R., <J.-S-%-#R3-$A-3J., %-:IR-o-3A/,
1. .J-<A%-/3-^-:H$?-$A %?-MJ-2|R%-___________________________________________,
2. #%-2-$A-/%-/-MA-3%-;R.-$A %:A-<R$?-.0:-MA-3%-/-.$:-$A-3J., %:A-<R$?-.0:-:.$_______________,
•170•
3. !%-9A-:.A-=$-l=-0-$?<-2-$9A$-.$R?-$A-;R., <J.-S-%-(R$_____________________________,
4. %:A-8A-=A-2R.-<-:IR, %J.-$*A?-!-#-,$-<A%-, .-%?-#R-o/-.-S/____________________________,
5. =$->-3J.-/-%:A-A-1-?J3?-3A-2.J, #<-$J?-KA-SR<-=$->-3%-%-$9A$-*R________________________,
6. .!R/-3(R$-*A.-$A?-3<-$J:A-L-2-=?-:.R.-$A-3J., 3<-$J?-L-2-?R-3-$9A$-:5S=-__________________,
7. %:A-c/-3R-^-$8$-3:C-/%-%-%-v-$A-;R%-____________, {2?-.J-,R/-/, .-%-<-*A.-______________,
8. %:A-A-&J-$A?-o/-.-1-;:-S/-$R-$A 3R-.R-5B$?-KA<-<-;R%-__________, <J.-S-8A-=A-$A?-;R%-___________,
9. 8A-3R-:.A:A-A-3-;$-3-I$?-&/-$9A$-;A/, 3<-$J-<-;$-3-$9A$-$-;R%-________________________,
10. %?-.$J-c/-$9A$-2&:-_______________, #<-$J-=?-LJ.-0-$9A$-2&:-_________________,
Exercise 9 Tell what you might foresee.
.0J<-2eR., ,%-vR$? / >-_R/-0 / }2 Prophecy: ,%-vR$?->-_R/-0-.J<-}2-o-<J.,
1. MA-%/-:.A / *J?-2-$8$-3 / MA-$9A$ ____________________________________
2. c.-0R-:.A / =?-1%-Z / 5K-,$-<A% ____________________________________
3. %J.-(-2R:C-:5S-2 / ,/-0-$A-!2?-$A? / )J-#$ ____________________________________

4. K$?-9R$-3%-;R. / C-?-*% / C-?-)J-24S$ ____________________________________
5. 2R.-3%-%-$A? / 2R.-{. / 2R.-$A-<A$-$/?-*3? / 3A->J?_______________________________
6. .R-5B$?-$/3-:)R / C-?-29% / Z-$A ____________________________________
7. <A/-(J/ / <A-/%-%-:IR / PR%-HJ<-<-=R2?-;R. ____________________________________

8. 5/-<A$-=$-l= / 2.J-2-&/-/-,R/ / )J-.< ____________________________________
Exercise 10 A naughty child promises a few things to his mother. Fill in appropriate
future tense forms.
A-3, HR.-%R-3-=%?, %-8-;?-.$:-$9A$-2&:___________, HR.-3A/-.-%->-*J-$&A$-<-3J., %?-;R.-;R.-HR.-!J< _____

______, A-3-=R-=R, $8$-/?-%?-.R/-.$-.J-<A$?-=?_________, HR?-?J3?-2.J-3R-LR?, .J%-KA/-(., %?-.-2-:,J/__
_________, (%-:,%-________, h%-<J?-;?___________, .J-3A/-.$R%-3R-%-HR:A-3*3-0?-:.$__
_________, Y%-%-M$-___________, A-3-HR.-5K-#$-<J., <J.-S-%?-HR.-*A.-$A-:)$-__________,
%?-KA/-(.-o-<-/R3-0-3%-%-:5S=-________, 8A%-=?-<-=?-__________, .J-;A/-/, HR.-vR$?-________,
P%-_________, .J-;?-/-HA3-5%-:.A-<%-3$R-<%-,R/-;R%-_______, A-3-HR.-<-)J-*A.-;A/-___________,
•171•
6.5 -- Question with future tense forms: 9J<-$A-;R., o-;A/ and o-<J.
Subject Adverb Verb (+ o?) 9J<-$A-;R. / 9J<-$R-$A
HR?- $8$-KR$?-(A-$9AA$- =?--o?- 9J<-$A-;R.,
29R-2-9R- .J-<A%-/3-- :IRR-o?- 9JJ<-$A-;R., / 9J<-$RR-$AA
MA- ?--?-- ;RR%-o-3AA/- 9JJ<-$A-;R., / 9J<-$RR-$AA
.0J-(- $%--$%- :5SS%-o--3A/- 9JJ<-$A-;R., / 9J<-$RR-$AA
1R=-3- ?%-=R-$%--%- :IRR-o??- 9JJ<-$A-;R., / 9J<-$RR-$AA
Subject Object /
Complement o??
Verb + 9JJ<-$A- AJJ ;R. Answer
3<-$J?- 8-;?- =J/-o?- 9JJ<-$A- =J/-o?-9J<-$A-3J.,

%- !R/-,R$-$- :2R.-o?- 9JJ<-$A- :2R.-o?-9J<-$R-$A
%?- =J$?-*J?-$9A$- *R-o?- 9JJ<-$A- AJ- ;R., *R-o?-9J<-$A-3J.-$A
3<-$J- !R/-,R$-$- :IR-o?- 9JJ<-$AA- :IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R. / $R-
$A
Subject Adverb + complement Verb / verb + o-;AA/
%?- /3-9-3- 2{RR=-o-;AA/,
%-<-%/-;- (AA-$9AA$-$-HA3-3- :IRR-o--;A/,
%J.-$*A?-!?- /3--o%-1R$-$- */--o--;A/,
%J.-(-2R- /3-9A-=A%-/?- :#RR<-o-;AA/,
Subject Adverb + complement Verb / verb + o-<JJ.
%- /3-5S%-2-$9A$-$- */--o-<JJ.,
#<-$J- (AA-$9AA$-$-MA-3-<2?- ;AA/-o-<JJ.,
%- ?%-=R-$%-/- ;RR.-o-<JJ.,
A-3-$A?- =J$?-*J?-(A-$9AA$- :.RR.-o-<JJ.,
•172•
Notes-4
The interrogative adverb AJ is put before ;R. to raise a question in imminent future tense mood,
e.g., HR?-.-2-:,J/-o?-9J<-$A-AJ-;R., Are you going to smoke? Other interrogative adverbs are
always put at the end of sentences, e.g., HR?-.-2-:,J/-o?-9J<-$A-;R.-<, Are you going to smoke?
Exercise 11 Complete the statements with various future tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., !-2 .-%?-.!:-$A-;R., |R<-3R-<-24=-3A-,2-$A

#-2 HR?-.J-3-9J<, %?-HR:A-.R3-KA<-<-!J<-o?-9J<-$A-;R.,
1. !-2, %?-.-2-$&R.-:.R., <J.-S-8J-,$-$A?-.!:-3R-<J.,
#-2, HR.-MA-~A%-<?-&/-$9A$-;A/, ____________________,
2. !-2, %:A-A-3-(/-$9A$-.$R?-$A <J.-S-%-5S%-<<-:IR-#R3-3J.-$A
#-2, %-5S%-<<-:IR-$A-;R., %?-(/-.J ____________________,
3. !-2, MA-(-3J.-.J-*A/-I%?-%-;R%-$A .-%-%R-3-$A?-?/-$A #R-.R-.$R%-3A-;R%-o-/,
#-2, MA-(-3J.-$9A$-<A$-3A-*/, ?J3?-2.J-3R-LR?, .R-.$R%-#R____________________,
4. !-2, .!<-;R=-/3-;A/-/-<-%?-:O.-$A-;R., =?-!-.!:-3R-5%-3-%?-=?-.$R?-$A
#-2, .J-3-9J<, $8$-/?-.!<-;R=-%?-:O., HR.-$8$-/?-=?-!-;R.____________________,
5. !-2, A-3, .R-8$-/3-^-:H$?-$A %-$8$-/?-aR2-9<-3A-:IR,
#-2, %:A-$&J?-U$ .J<-*R/-3J., %?-HR.-$R/-o-?R-3, SR/-0R_R _______, aR2-9<-HR.-:IR-.$R?_______,
6. !-2, 5K-2g/-<-.!R/-3(R$-$-:.$-?-3J.-$A ?-:.A<-(-o?-<-3J.-$A
#-2, {2?-,R$-$A?-#R-$*A?-!-%:A-HA3-/?-#R., %?-#%-2-$8/-0-$9A$-____________________,
7. !-2, 5K-<A%-%-;R%-o-3J., 1R=-3<-<A$-o-3J., :.A-$*A?-!-$%-/-;R.,
#-2, #R-$*A?-!-/%?-!-;R%__________, HR.-1R=-3<-.J-3R-$9A$-.%?-/,
8. !-2, .L<-#-:#R<-$A-:IR, 2R.-$A-?-(-.L<-#-SR/-0R-;A/-/A-<J.-9J<,
#-2, %-:IR-,2-_________, .?-5S.-3J.-/, .J?-3A-5., %-|R<-3R-<-3J.,
!-2, HR.-.?-5S.-;R.-/, |R<-3R-%?-HR.-.R3-3-$+R%-____________________,
9. !-2, 0R-=A/-/?-#%-\-.!:-$A L-2-:.A-3J.-/, %-#%-2:A-/%-/?-:2.-.$R?______________,
#-2, ?J3?-#<-3-;?, L-2-:.A->R<-/, #%-\-o=-#2-$A?-!J<____________________,
•173•
6.6 --Negative future tense form
Subject Complement Verb / verb + o? 9J<-$A-3J. / 9J<-$A-3J.-$A

,R.-0-$A?- $8$-KR$?-\-2- 2&:-o?- 9J<-$A-3J.,
#<-$J?- /%?-!-#R%-2R- :6$-o?- 9J<-$A-3J.-$A
:.A-$?3-0R- A-3.R<- :IR-o-3A/ 9JJ<-$A-;R.,
Subject Complement Verb + o-3AA/
%?- 9-3- 2{RR=-o-3AA/,
%- (A-$9A$-$-HA3-3- :IRR-o--3A/,
%?- o%-1R$-$- */--o--3AA/,
%J.-(-2R- .J-<A%-9A-=A%-/?- :#RR<-o-33A/,
Subject Complement Verb + o-33-<JJ.
%- /3-;A/-/-<-5S%-2-$9A$-$- */--o-33-<JJ.,
#<-$J- (A-$9A$-$-MA-3-<2?-$9A$- ;AA/-o-33-<JJ.,
%- 0R-=A/-/-?%-=R-(A-$9A$-$- ;RR.-o-33-<JJ.,
A-3-$A?- 8-;?-<A$?-$J<-(A-$9A$- !JJ<-o-3--<J.,
Notes-5
1. 3A/ structure is the negative form of o-;A/, e.g., #<-$J?-%:A-#<-**/-o-3A/, (This person is
resolute.) He will not listen to me. / %?-:$R-2<-;<-8-;?-o-3A/, I will not report to my boss.
2. 3-<J. structure is the negative form of o-<J. , e.g., %?-.R-.$R%-:$R-2<-;<-8-;?-o-3-<J., I will
not write a report to my boss tonight. (This person is probably too tired to write.) / #<-$J?-
#-*/-o-3-<J., He will not listen to me. (He probably does not usually listen to others.)
Exercise 12 Ask yes / no questions in future tense mood. Your partner answers. Then
raise another relevant question with the phrases in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., .L<-?-:.A-/?-$/?-%R (/3) SA-2, :.A-2-5%-.L<-?-:.A-/?-$/?-%R-o-AJ-<J., =/, %R-o-<J.,

SA-2, /3-%R-o?-9J<-$A-;R., =/, .R-5B$?-^-2-2./-0:A-/%-%-,
•174•
1. 8R<-=?-;?-$A-:IR, (8R<-=?-(A-$9A$)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
2. 9R$-=$-24S%-, ($%-/?)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
3. {.-<A$?-$9A$-.%-, ($%)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
4. =?-<R$?-3%-, ($%-/)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
5. =3-<R$?-$9A$-.$R?, (?)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
6. =?-!-.J-MA-$&A$-$A?-=?-,2, ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
7 *R-(-o$-$A-:IR, (?:A-3*3-0?)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
8. 8A%-=?-=?, ((A-$9A$->J.)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
9. o-35S:A-#<-:IR, (/3)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
•175•
10. >J?-L-$?<-2-.R%-:.R., ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
SA-2,___________________________, =/,__________________________,
6.7 --Future tense forms in clauses
Sub-clause Main clause

.?-5S.-;R.-/, %-;=-{R<-<-:IRR-o-;A/,
HR.-<-%-3A-:PA$-/, %J.-$*A?-!-29:-5%-:,RR<-o-<J.,
#<-$J-HA3-3-,R/-.?, 29:-3A-9R?-#<-$J-2#A$-o-<J.,
|R<-3R-$A?-:.%-/, %?-c/-3R<-.?-5S.-$9A$-*R-o-;A/,
8A-3R-=$-($?-/A-<, %-:.%-o$-;R.-o-3-<J.,
Notes-6
1. A sub-clause usually precedes a main clause.

2. Future tense structures are always put in main clauses.
Exercise 13 All statements are made based on a folktale. Read the excerpt and
complete each statement. Use future tense forms and the verbs in
parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., 5S%-:.A-2o$?-/, %-K$-0R<-;R%-o-<J., (5S%-o$)(;R%)

Cutting: .R/-:P2-=?-!<-3A-.$:, #R-3J.-0R-;A/, <J.-S-K$-0R-$9A$-;A/-/-:.R., *A/-3-$9A$-$-MA-~A%-eJ-&/-$9A$-$A?-#<-
$J<-/?-+J-$%-LA/, #<-$J?-/?-+J-$%-2R-*J$?-3,R/-0R-$9A$-$A-!J%-%-28$-/?-<%-$A?-$%-:.R.-S/,
1. %?-/?-+J-$%-%R-:.A-______, %?-MA-$9A$-_____, (:5S%) (\)

2. %:A-\-2-$A?-8A%-=?-______, %?-=?-!-=?-______, :1J=-+R$-(J->J.-=R/-o-<J., (=?) (.$R?)
3. :1J=-+R$-______, %-______, .J-/?-%?-______, (;R.) (:2$?) (*A.-o$)
4. |R<-3R-3%-%-______, ?-$/?-$A-8A-3R-A-+-$A?-;$-3-%?-______, (;R.) (=$-$-=R/)
5. c/-3R-$9A$-______, =?-!-)J-*%-%-______, .J-/?-%J.-$*A?-!-2-<-2-3R-______, (;R.) (:IR) (;R.)
6. :.A-5%-3-______, .-%-$%-*=-<-$%-=%?-______, (:6S3?) (;?-/-(R$)
7. c/-3R-HA3-/-______, 3<-$J?-9-3-8A3-0R-______, (;R.) (2{R=)
•176•
8. \-2-|R-/-______, =?-!-5%-3-______, (;R.) (=?)
9. 8-;?-$*A?-!-______, %-c.-0R-______, (=$-($?) ($*R<)
10. :5S-2-:.A-3R-$9A$-______, %-:.%-o$-$&A$-<-______, (;R.) (;R.)
6.8 --Future tense form of tendency: :IR
:IR
$R/-o-:.A-<A%-:IRR, The garment will be too long.
#<-$J-8-;?-.$:-$9A$-$-*/--:IRR, He will become a nice child.
%-<-.!R/-3(R$-.J-<A%-,$-:IR, I and Dkon mchog will meet today.
MA-vR$?-/-=-*J-3J.-:IRR, If hungry, one will lose ability.
:P=-2-9R-/%?-!-2.-:IR, The guests will leave tomorrow.
#%-2-.J-^-2-$*A?-$A-/%-%-:P2-:IRR, That house will be finished in two months.
Notes-7
:IR is put at the end of sentences to expresses a tendency in future tense mood, e.g., (<-22?-/-
(-=R$-,R/-:IR, A flood will come if it rains (a statement based on common sense). / 9-3-<=-2-9R?-
/-#R$-0-/-:IR, One will have stomach problems if he eats spoiled food.
Exercise 14 Tell what will happen under these conditions.
.0J<-2eR., %-<J3-3-?R%-/, .?-5S.-$?3-$A?-,R/-o-<J., / %?-(%-3%-%-:,%?-/, 3$R-/-:IR,
1. %?-2R.-;A$-o/-.-.%?-/, __________________________________________
2. %-T-5$-2&R?-/, __________________________________________
3. %?-;A-$J-:.A-3-2{<-/, __________________________________________
4. %?-$R/-o-SR/-0R-3-$R/-/, __________________________________________
5. %-_%?-:#R<-$A-eJ?-=?-/, __________________________________________
6. %?-_%?-:#R<-?R-3-$9A$-*R?-/,________________________________________
7. /%?-!-aR2-OA.-3J.-/, _________________________________________
8. .J-<A%-/3-^-Z-/, __________________________________________
•177•
Exercise 15 The program officer and the program participants have this dialogue.
Complete it with appropriate future tense forms and the words in
parentheses.
=?--$8A:A- .-,J%?-$A-$?R-.R%-:.A:A-,R$-/?, %J.-(-2R?-C-?-2.$-*R%-$A-{R<-(OA.)_________, $?R-.R%-%-

:,?-3A 8$?-3#/-9R-*A/-I%?-%-;R%-(.$R?) _________, 1=-(J<-MA-?3-&-$A?-3A-5.-(
8$?)_________, HR.-9R-2?3-:(<-(A-$9A$-;R.,
:VRR$-0-!--2 %?-2v?-/, C-?-2.$-*R%-3A/-., /.-<A$?-:$R$-2&R?-$A-{R<-.R%-:.R.-3#/-(3%)_________,
MA-{R<-$9A$-$A?-#R-(:R-<-$?R-.R%-:.A:A-/%-%-(8$?)_________ 9J<, .J:A-nJ/-$A?, 5S.-3J.-/,
8$?-3#/-)J-3%-%-(:IR)_________, %-<%-$A-,.-/?, 9-3-<-:.$-?-$A-:IR-|R-??-
(!J<)_________,
=?--$8A:A- 8$?-3#/-3%-/-*R/-(:L%) _________, .-,J%?-3A-2.-/, ,J%?-eJ?-3-#R-9R-]%?-/-(R$-$A /.-

:,?-3A <A$?-:$R$-2&R?-<-L-2-$=-(J/-$9A$-<J., C-:6$?-:.A?-?%-=R<-.J:A-,R$-/?-;%-$?R-.R%-$9A$-
(;?) _________, 9-3-$A-:IR-|R-C-:6$?-:.A?-(!J<)_________, :.$-?-$A-:IR-|R-$A-5=-
2-8$?-3#/-<%-$A?-!J<-.$R?, .J:A-:UR-3-C-:6$?-:.A?-(#-$?2-o$)_________,
:VRR$-0-#--2 8$?-3#/-5%-3-*J?-0-<J., ^-2-$8$-3:A-/%-%-(=-$-$+R%)_________, =$-mA-3J.-/-(=3-3-
:IR)________, .J-;A/-/, $?R-.R%-*A/-3-*A->:A-/%-%-(5<)_________?
=?--$8A:A- 1=-(J<-(5<)_________, %?-lA?-$9A$-o$ $9:-:#R<-$&A$-$-(aR2-OA.-;?)_________,
:,?-3A .J:A-$8$-/?-*A/-3-s-<%-<%-$A-*3?-MR%-(IR?-2#<-;?)_________, .J-/?-1=-(J<-*A/-3-S$-
$-C-?-29%-?-<-3A-29%-?<-(v-{R<-<-:IR)_________, *A/-3-*A->-$A?-(:.%)_________,
:VRR$-0-#--2 o-{.-<-KA-o=-$A-{.-(-$R-3#/-$&A$-<-3J., %?-2v?-/-($R-2h-:UR.)_________, .-(.!:)
_________,
=?--$8A:A- OA.-$8A:A-.0J-(-5%-3-2R.-;A$-$A-;A/, OA.-3#/-<-C-:6$?-:.A?-2R.-<A$?-(J.-=?-0-

:,?-3A (\)_________, .J:A-KR$?-/?-?J3?-#<-3-;?, .!:-%=-;R.-/, %J.-9R?-1/-5/-/-<R$?-;?-
,2-/A-<J.,
:VRR$-0-$--2 $?R-.R%-/3-(PR=)_________,
=?--$8A:A- aR2-o-5%-3-2a2?-/A-<, PR=-/-((R$)_________, <J.-S, $4S-2R<-:V?-2-,R/-.$R?, .J:A-nJ/-
:,,?--3A $A?, 5%-3-$A-:.R.-,R$-$-;R%-/, $?R-.R%-(PR=)_________, .J-(A-3R-<J.,
:VRR$-0-$--2 (R$-$A (R$-$A .J-3A/-$8/-0-.-&%-AJ-;R.,
•178•
=?--$8AA:A- $?R-.R%-5<-/A-<, C-:6$?-:.A?-.-2R-9R$-(/-$R-(R.-:$:-HA3-5%-?R-?R<-(!J<)_________,
:,?-3A $/%?-*A/-5K?-2-28A-2-$A-*A/-$?R-.R%-$A-(:$R-lR3)_________, .J-.?-.-%J.-(:R-,$-;R%-,
:VRR$-0-9R (R$-$A (R$-$A
Exercise 16 Complete the dialogue with appropriate future tense forms.
<RR$?--0 %?-#%-2-(J-$9A$-(*R)_________,
HRR. %R-3-$A?, .J-.R/-.$-(J-$9A$-<J., HR?-?-$%-/?-(*R)_________,
<RR$?--0 PR%-HJ<-$A-/%-;A/-/-(29%-)_________, PR%-HJ<-$A-<?-,$-<A%-/-<-3A-Z-$A OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, #J-2-
,$-*J-$9A$-/?-(*R) _________,
HRR. .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, #%-2-$A-$R%-.J-3R-$9A$-(.!:)____, .J-;A/-/-<-|R<-3R-3%-%-(.$R?)____,
<RR$?--0 .J-3A/-., %?-:(<-$8A-$8/-0-$9A$-<-:,J/-$A-;R., %-(29:-5%-2&:)_________,
HRR. A-=-=, HR?-8A-=A-(A-3R-$9A$-(:5S=) _________, HR.-.-2R-.$:-<R$?-$9A$-3J.-3R,
<RR$?--0 %-?%?-o?-<-($*J/-21A$)_________, #<-$J?-<J3-3-(21A$)_________, #<-$J?-PR%-HJ<-/?-
:.$-:.R.-$A-3J.,
HRR. ;-gJ/-:VJ=-;$-$A HR.-$*A?-!?-!R/-3R-(J-$9A$-(;?)_________,
<RR$?--0 9J<-$A-3J., #<-$J:A-@-3-<->-*J-5%-3-2.J-(J/-/-;R., ;R%-/-=3-,$-<A%-$A .J:A-nJ/-$A?-!R/-3R-(J-$9A$-
2?3-$A-3J.,
HRR. !R/-3R-3A-(J-/-<, %-HR?- (:2R.)_________, 29:-5%-;R.-/-<-<R$?-0-(.$R?)________,
<RR$?--0 HR.-.-=R?-:2R., HR.-.-2R-3$-<R$?-<-2&:-(.$R?)_________,
HRR. !R/-3R-$%-/?-(2>3)_________, HR.-$*A?-!-2R.-$A-=$?-$-(:IR)_________o-$A-=$?-$-
(:IR)_________,
<RR$?--0 =$?-YR=-$%-%-<-(:IR)_________, HA3-/?-!R/-3R-(%-(%-$9A$-2>3-________, A-<R-.J-3A/-.,

%-.-2R-$?%-2-$9A$-;R., HR?-$8/-/-(2>.)_________,
HRR. HR?-_R3-/->R., 3A-_R3-/-3-2>., HR?-2>.-/-3A-:.R.-/, %?-<->J?-/-3A-:.R.,
<RR$?--0 %-8-;?-;R.-$A .-$*J/-3-21A$?-/, %-%R-5-$A
HRR. %R-5-3A-.$R?, 8-;?-;R%-/-.R/-29%-$9A$-<J., 8A-=A-$9A$-(;A/)_________-8A-3R-$9A$-
(;A/)_________, HR?-2v?-/,
<RR$?--0 %?-(A->J.->J?-,2, :.R.-0-2>.-/, 8A-=A-:.R.-$A $%-;A/-/-<, ^-2-(-4B$-$A-$8$-/?-(>J?)

•179•
_________ ,
HR. 8-;?-$A-MA%-%-(A-$9A$-(:.R$)_________,
<R$?--0 8A-=A-;A/-/-/R<-2-2?3-$+/, 8A-3R-;A/-/, .JA.-.0=-.2%-3R-(:.R$)________, <J.-S-MA%-2eJ-/-,%-,
HR. $*J/-21A$?-/A-<, HR.-3-3,.-<?-aR2-9<-(;R%)_________, HR.-3J.-/, %-!R%-%-(;A/)
_________,
<R$?--0 =R-$&A$-$-l-2-/?-;R%-(,2)_________, HA3-/?-8-;?-$*R<(.$R?)_________, .J:A-$8$-/?-

(;R%)_________,
HR. HR.-<-c.-0R:A-3*3-0?-?-?- (:.$)_________, HR.-<%-$A->-*J-<-?%?-o?-$A->-*J-$A-3*3-0?-

(:.$)_________,
<R$?--0 .-KA/-(., %-?%?-o?-5%-$A-;A/-/A-<J., ?%?-o?-$A-c/-cR/-$*A?-$A-3*3-0?-:.$-(.$R?)

_________,
HR. .J?-/, +$-0R-<-+$-3R-$*A?-!?-HR.-(<R$?-;?)_________,

<R$?--0 %J.-$*A?-!?-^-2-2o.-0-$A-5K?-0-$?3-0-$A-*A/-/($*J/-21A$)_____, HR.-;R%-.$R?-/A-<J.,
HR. ;-%-.?-5S.-v<-<-,R/-/, <R$?-;?-.$R?-/, #-0<-,R%?,
Text Two: future tense and present tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-#-5K-2g/-IA-:(<-$8A-(%-(%-8A$
(-3-#J-2-/-%:A-29%-?-A-#-5K-2g/-;R., #<-$J-<-1R=-3-$*A?-!-29:-5%-<J., .-.JA.-!-$A-8A%-=?-5%-3-=?-5<-$A-

;R., ^-2-28A-2-,R/-/, 29:-2-$*A?-!-#R3-o-3-<J., o-35/-(A-$9A$-<J.-9J<-/, #R-$*A?-!-.L<-C-.$/-:2-2bR-$A-
:IR-.$R?-o-<J.,
.L<-C-.$/-:2-(/-C-$9A$-$-$R-$A-;R., .J-?-3$R-3,R-?-<-2_/-(J-?-/-*J-$A-;R., (/-C-:.A-/?-2-(J, *R-3#/-3%-/R-

$A?, bR-3#/-9R?-#J-$4%-3,R/-0R-=R/-$A-;R., A-#-5K-2g/-5%-$A-;R%-|R-.L<-C-.$/-:2:A-#-/-;R.-9J<-/-(R$
.J-<A%-A-#-5K-2g/-<-#R:C-:IR-<R$?-{R<-$9A$-*R-(-o$-$A-:IR-o-<J., $4S-2R->-<-}R-*R-o-<J., ,A<-2+%-$A?, =R-I%?-%-

.L<-C-*A/-3-28A-2&-2bR-.$R?-/A-<J., .J?-3A-5., .L<-C-2bR-?-?-!R%-=%-!R%-;A/-/R-$A?, 9-o-*R-?-3J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-
:2-bR-3#/-9R?-9-3-:HJ<-.$R?, A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-KJ-<-$R-<J-*R-o-3A/-9J<, .J-9R-#R-<%-$J<-;R.-9J<,
A-#-5K-2g/-<-1R=-3-$*A?-!-8A%-2-;A/, #R-$*A?-!-8A%-=?-$A-,R$-/-/3-;A/-<-#R3-$A-3J., /3-=%?-/-?-<2-/, HA3-

•180•
=?-<-8A%-=?-+$-+$-;A/, .J:A-,R$-$ |R<-3R-:5S=-oR-A-#-5K-2g/-$A-:$/-#<-;A/, #<-$J-PR%-(R$-$-<-:IR-$A-;R.,
1R=-3-o/-w/-$A?-HA3-=?-<-8A%-=?-=?-3#/-;A/, <J.-S-.R-5B$?-3<-$J-<-.L<-C-2bR-$A-:IR-o?-9J<-$R-$A #R-$*A?-!-
8-;?-$*A?-;R., $&A$-aR2-(%-<-$&A$-.3:-:VA%-/-;R., .-8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-:IR-$A-;R.,
A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-3%-%-$9A$-$-:.%-o$-$A-;R., "%?-#J<-<R?-.L<-C-2bR?-/, =$-:22-(J-$9A$-;R.-o-3-<J., %?-c/-

3R-<-:HA.-o-;A/, .J-;A/-/, =$-:22-|R<-3R-OA-$&A$-<-!R%-s-;R.-o-<J., 8-;?-$*A?-!-KA/-(.-:HA.-*/-o-3-<J.,"
#<-$J?-.L<-C-3J.-/, :5S-2-.!:-o-<J.-:.R.-$A-;R., :R, %?-2eJ.-$R-$A #<-$J:A-%/-;-$9A$-#R-9R:C-3*3-0?-;R.,
%/-;-29:-5%-2&:-.?, A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-.-2R-#%-2-$9A$-=?-.$R?, #<-$J?-:#R<-2:A-/%-/?-,<-,2-o-3-<J.-
:.R.-$R-$A <J.-S-#<-$J-#J-2:A-/%-/?-MA-(-nJ/-&/-$9A$-<J.,
.L<-C-(A-3R-$9A$-29%-/-<, #R-5%-%-35S/-/, 8A%-=?-$4S-2R-;A/-$A-;R., 29%-/-%/-/, 9-3-$A-;R%-#%?-<-HA3-5%-$A-
#J/-?-8A%-=?-<J., %?-2v?-/, #R-5%-:5S-2-*A.-$A :5S-2-.!:-/, 29:-3A-9R-/-5-;R.-.?-;A/-o-<J., (/-;R/-3,R,
$/.-:$$-:.A<-,$-/, #<-$J:A-=$-0-|R<-3R<-,R$?-$A-;R.,
6.9 --Various tenses in contrast
Present tense: verb in PRT

Example Use
A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-8A%-=?-=?--$A-;R., nregular actions
(R?-35S-$A?-2R.-;A$-<-.0=-w/-$A?-o-;A$-.RR%-, ocurrent time
.0=-w/-$A?-o-;A$-AJ-.R%-, 3A-.R%-,
(R?-35S-$A?-2R.-;A$-.RR%-$A-AJ-;R.,
.0=-w/-/-Z%-3R-AJ-;RR.,
Present continuous tense: Verb in PRT + $AA-;RR.

Example Use
A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-8A%-=?-=?--$A-;R., n current ongoing action
(R?-35S-$A?-2R.-;A$-<-.0=-w/-$A?-o-;A$-.RR%-$AA-;RR., o previous ongoing action
.0=-w/-$A?-o-;A$-.R%-$$A-AJ-;R., .R%-$AA-;RR.,
(R?-35S-$A?-2R.-;A$-.RR%-$A-AJ-;R., .R%-$AA-3JJ.,
•181•
Conjectural future tense: verb in FUT + o-<JJ.
Example Use
A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-.L<-C-2bR-o-<J., nlikelihood
#<-$J:A-%/-;<-#%-2-$9A$-.$R?-o-<J., oconjectural
#<-$J:A-8-;?-$*A?-.L<-C-2bR-$A-:IR-o-3-<J.,
#R-5%-$A?-2.-o-AJ-<J., #R-5%-$A?-2.-o-<J.,
?-:.%-o$-(J-o-<J., A-#-5K-2g/-:.%-o$-(J-o-<J.,
Intentional future tense: verb in FUT + o--;A/

Example Use
A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-.L<-C-2bRR-o?? / o--;A/, ndecisive
%?-.0J-(-:.RR/-o? / o--3A/, ointentional
8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-:IRR-o??, .L<-C-2bR-$A-:IRR-o--
3AA/,
%-<-%:A-c/-3R-$A?-<-.L<-C-2bRR-o--;A/,
Imminent future tense: verb in FUT + 9JJ<-$A-;R.

Example Use
A-&J-1R=-3?-.L<-C-2bR-$A-:IR-o?--9J<-$AA-;RR., nplan
$/3-%R-<22-o??-9J<-$A-;R., oinclination
8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-:IRR-9J<-$$A-;R.,
?-??-*R-(-o$-$A-:IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R.,
Future tense of tendency: :IR

Example Use
8-;?-3-$&/-/-==.-:IRR, nprediction
2R.-;A$-3-2!R=-/-2eJJ.-:IR, otendency
%/-2>.-/-c.-0R-#$--:IR,
.?-5S.-2./-$A-!J%-*A-3-/2--:IR,
•182•
Exercise 17 Write the appropriate tense forms of the verbs, adjectives, and future
tense auxiliaries in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., A-#-5K-2g/-$A?-.L<-C-bR-9J<-$A-;R.,
1. ^-2-28A-2-,R/-/A-<, A-#-5K-2g/(#R3)_______________________________________,
2. .L<-C-bR-$A-:IR-/, #<-$J?-*R-(-(o$)_______________________________________,
3. KJ-<-$R-<J-;:-/-;R.-/, #<-$J?-(*R)__________________________________________,
4. c.-0R-:IR-/, c/-3R-1R=-3-<-(:IR)__________________________________________,
5. #R-$*A?-!?-2bR?-/, ;R%-:22-(A-3R-$9A$-(;R.)___________________________________,
6. C-l-(J/-.J-3J.-/, #R-5%-$A?-(.!:)__________________________________________,
7. #R-5%-(-nJ/-Z-$A :5S-2-.!:-3R-(;A/)_________________________________________,
8. .L<-C-2bR?-/, #R-5%-$A-;R%-|R-((J)__________________________________________,
9. .-$A-<?, 8-;?-$*A?-!-.L<-C-2bR-$A-(:IR)_____________________________________,
10. :5S-2-.!:-/, 29:-3A-9R-/-.?-(;A/)_________________________________________,
Exercise 18 Deny the underlined words. Pay attention to various tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., A-#-5K-2g/-8A-=A-$9A$-<J., 8A-3R-$9A$-;A/-o-3-<J.,
1. ;=-{R<-2-9R-9A-=A%-/?-;R%-o-<J., z-?-/?______________________________________,
2. %J.-$*A?-!<-8-;?-$&A$-;R.-o-;A/, 8-;?-$*A?-__________________________________,
3. =R-S$-$A-8A-3R-:.A-.!:-3R-<J., 3<-$J:A-%/-;-_____________________________________,
4. %?-.0J-(-v-$A-;R., <J.-S-{=-29%-$A?-________________________________________,
5. #R-^-2-28A-2:A-/%-%-:IR-o-<J., ^-2-s-2:A-/%-____________________________________,
6. %?-.R-.$R%-@2-2{R=-o-;A/, $R-<J-2&:_________________________________________,
7. {=-29%-$A?-$R/-o-?R-3-*R-/A-<J., HR?_________________________________________,
8. 8A%-2-9R-#R3-o-<J., <J.-S-:VR$-0-9R-__________________________________________,
9. %?-0J-&A/-/-:IR-9J<-$A-;R., <J.-S-3<-$J?__ _____________________________________,
10. MA-#-;?-$A?-.0J-(-v-$A-;R., #-;?-$A?-________________________________________,
11. z-3R-.$:-;R.-/, 3<-$J:A-.P-;-.$:__________________________________________,
•183•
12. 3<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-$?<-2-*R-/, %?-____________________________________________,
Exercise 19 Ask and answer with the words in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., 8A-=A-:.A-?R$-<-#J-2-/?-<J., (8A%-2)

Question: #<-$J-8A%-2-$9A$-;A/-o-AJ-<J., Answer: ;A/-o-<J., #<-$J-2v?-/-8A%-2-$9A$-;A/-o-<J.,
1. A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A?-*A.-0R-=?-/-2?3-$A-;R., (.2?-$4%-%-:#R<-$A-:IR)
Q: _____________________________, A:_____________________________,
2. %?-L-2-$?<-2-$9A$-fJ.-/A-<, _%?-:#R<-?R-3-$9A$-*R-o?, (#%-2-?R-3-$9A$-*R)

Q: _____________________________, A:_____________________________,
3. 8-;?-fJ.-/A-<, A-1-$A?-$*R$-o?-9J<-$R-$A (A-3-$A?-$*R$)

Q: _____________________________, A:_____________________________,
4. 1R=-3-$A?-$8$-/?-lA?-<A$-.R%-o-<J., (.%R?-=$?-.R%)
Q: _____________________________, A:_____________________________,
5. *A-3-24/-/, 3J-+R$-fA.-:IR, (lA->A%-5%-3-fA.)

Q: _____________________________, A:_____________________________,
6. %J.-(-2R-<A-3$R<-:$R-$A-:IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R., ((<-n=-$A-:IR)
Q: _____________________________, A:_____________________________,
6.10 --Prospective present tense form
Future tense mood in PRT

Verb Tibetan English Note
PRT
v .R-.$R%-%?-lJ.-3R<-3A-v, I will not watch the
performance tonight.
nSuch a statement is in present
tense but expressed as a prospect.
:VA HR?->R., %?-:VAA, You say, I will write.
oThis pattern conveys an imminent
action.
:IR %-::IRR, 3<-$J-3A-:IR-/-<, I will go though she
will not.
pIt could be treated as either simple
<R$?-;? %?-#R<-<R$?--;?, I will help him.
present tense or future tense,
depending on the context.
*/ HR?-\--=R%?, %?-*/, You sing a song! I
will listen.
#?-=J/ #<-$J?-#?--3A-=J/, He will not promise.
•184•
Notes-8
Statements in prospective present tense form might express future tense mood in certain
contexts. In this case, an imminent action is expected, e.g., HR?-.J-=?, %?-:.A-=?, You do that
and I do this. It might be HR?-.J-=?, %?-:.A-=?-o-;A/,
6.11 --Future tense forms
Future Type Example Question Answer

tense
9J<-$A-;R. planning %-<-A-3-$*A?-!?-9-3-2{RR=-9J<- 2{R=-9J<-$A-AJ-;R., 3J.,
$AA-;RR., 2{R=-9J<-$A-3J.,
9J<-$R-$A reportive ?%?-o?-35S-$A?-l=--.R%-;?--o?-- l=-.R%-;?-o?-9J<-$A-AJ- ;R.-$A
9JJ<-$R-$A ;RR.-$A 9JJ<-$A-;R.-$AA
o-;A/ decisive;
intentional
%-:IRR-o--;A/, HR.-:IRR-o--AJ-;A/, 3A/,
%-:IRR-o--3A/,
o-<J. conjectural;
tendency
A-3-<A$-/, (R?-3R-35S-%--o-<JJ., (R?-3R-35S-%--o-AJJ-<JJ., 3-<J.,
%--o-3--<J.,
:IR tendency *A-3-24/-/-3J-+R$-ffA.-:IR, 3J-+R$-ffA.-AJ-:IRR, 3A-:IR,
fAA.-3A-:IR,
Exercise 20 Fill in the blanks with the appropriate future tense forms and your own
words.
.0J<-2eR., %-*J?-2-$8$-3<-8A-3R-$9A$-;A/-o-<J., %-8A-3R-$9A$-;A/-:.R.,
1. %J.-$*A?-!-{-:23-3-3)=-{R<-<-_______, HR.- _______:IR,

2. %?-@-8J/-3-;?-/, aR2-3-.$:-2R-.J:A-$8$-$-(R.- _______,
3. .-,J%?-$A-*J?-{<-<, ?%?-o?-$A?-:P=-2-3%-%-$9A$-:2R._______,
4. %J.-(:R-&%-3-:$R<-<-:IR-.$R?-o-<J., .J-3A/-.-:KA_____, .$R%-3R<-:KA-/-2.J-:)$?-;A/-_______,
5. %?-%:A-$R/-0-_______, HR?-<%-$A-$R/-o-O?, .J-;A/-/-<J3-3-:O.-5<-_______,
6. %-KA<-<-,R/-/A-<, %?-HR.-lA?-<A$-$A-=?-L-!J<_______,
7. HR?-2R.-;A$-$A-3-:R%?-0-.-2R->J?-$A-3J., $9:-:#R<-$8$-3<-.-2R-3-:R%?-2-:OA._______,
•185•
8. A-1, 2.J-3R, %-:)<-3/-/-,R/-/A-<-HA3-3-#-0<-_______,
9. /.-0-HR.-:S-3-$9A$-$A?->-9-3A-*/, .J-3A/-.-/.-)J-#$-;A/-_______,
10. /.-0, >-3J.-/, %?-9-3-9-/-3A-:.R., (/-0, $%-;A/-/-<, %?-HR.->-9-$A-:)$-_______,
Exercise 21 Fill in the blanks with the negative forms of the underlined words.
.0J<-2eR., \-.L%?-~/-3R-:.A<-3A-5%-3-.$:-o-<J.,
First person:
Second person: 3A-5%-3-.$:-o-3-<J., %:A-A-1-\-.L%?-%-3A-.$:,
1. %J.-$*A?-!?-#%-2-?R-3-$9A$-*R-o-;A/, %J.-$*A?-!?-#%-2-fA%-2-$9A$-_____________,
2. #<-$J?-|R<-3R-#-;?-2!R=-o-<J., #<-$J?-|R<-3R-5%-3-_____________,
3. %?-3PR/-:2R.-;?-o?-9J<-$A-;R., <J.-S-%:A-c/-3R-$A?-3PR/-:2R.-;?_____________,
4. 1R=-3-$A?-.R/-P2-/, %-.$:, <J.-S-3<-$J:A-c.-0R-{R<-=R$-.J-_____________,
5. :P=-2-9R-;R%-/, 9-3-%?-2{R=, HR?-_____________, %?-.J->J?-/A-<J.,
6. ?%-*A/-HR?-%:A-.$:-<R$?-<A$-o-<J., <J.-S-%:A-@-3-$A?-_____________, #<-$J-MA-]R-:22-$9A$-;A/,
7. 5K-$9%?-$A?-L-2-5%-3-.J-<A%-=?-9J<-$R-$A <J.-S, #R:C-=?-<R$?-$A?-_____________,
Exercise 22 Write present tense forms, future tense forms, and other necessary words
in the blanks.
1. aR2-3-!-2, #-l%-.J-<A%-%-22-$A?-#R3-______, HR.-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,

aR2-3-#-2, %-.J-3R-3-<J., #R3-____, /%?-!-@-3-$*A?-!-1-;:-2-:IR_____, .J-;A/-/-%-z$-+-#R3___,
2. A-1, 1R=-3, HR?-(A-$9A$-;?-______, HR?-=?-L-:VA-______/?,
2-1R=-3, A-1, %-vR$?-$A vR$?-/-%?-=?-L-:VA-,2-______,
3. 3PR/-0R, 9-3-(A-$9A$-9-o-;R., (%-:,%-o-AJ-;R., %-3A/-.-<R$?-0-3%-%-;R%______,
K$-2.J, 5%-3-;R., HR.-9R-(A-$9A$-.$R?-/, %?-5%-3-<J3-3-:HJ<-;R%-, {-3PR/-HR?-(A-$9A$-29:- _____,
4. =?-2.$ HR.-%:A-]R<-:22-______, HR.-1=-(J<-.$R?-______,
=?-!-2, %-^-2-$&A$-$-\-24:-(A-3R-$9A$-!J<-______, PR%-HJ<-/?-:PR-|R-(J-$A %-:.$-?-<-:.A-/?-,$-<A%-
$A .J:A-nJ/-$A?-:IR-|R-)J-(J-;A/-______,
5. c.-0R, .J-<A%-%?-=?-!-5%-3-=?-5<-______, HR?-8-;?-$*A?-!-<-HR.-<%-$A-.%R?-0R-5%-3-.R-.3-LR?,
/%?-!-%J.-(-2R-;=-{R<-<-:IR-______,
•186•
c/-3R, <J.-S, %?-/%?-!-:IR-___, /%?-!-8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-:IR-.$R?- _____, $/%?-*A/-?R%-/-
___(R$
6. /.-0, %:A-/.-S$-______, (/-0, %:A-$%-2-.R-8$-@R%-$A?-*A.-$A %->A______, (/-0-=R-=R,

(/-0, .J-HR.-<%-$A-=$-/-;R.____, (/-0:A-#-=-*/-/-S$-o-<J., HR?-.-2R-9-3-$3-&/-9R?-/, HR.-<J3-3-
>A-____,
7. 5S%-2, }R-:.A-<A$?-$J-$?<-2-;A/, .-<J3-3-24S%?-5<-______, HR?-*R-/, %?-$R%-2.J-3R-!J<,
*R-3#/, 5S.-.!<-o-3-$%-%-|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/, $R%-:PA$-/, %?-o-3-*A->-,3-0-______,
Exercise 23 Read each statement and then make questions with the words in
parentheses. Your partner answers. Pay attention to tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., 3<-$J?-8A%-#J-/-8A%-=?-=?-$A-;R., ($%-/)

SA-2, 3<-$J?-$%-/-8A%-#J-/-8A%-=?-=?-$A-;R., =/, <J2-$R%-/-8A%-#J-$9A$-/,
1. t$?-L3?-.J-<A%-?/-$R-$A #<-$J?-=?-o-:5S=-$R-$A ((A-$9A$-$)

SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
2. :VR$-.0:-:.A-z-?<-:IR-2?3-$A-;R., #<-$J?-/%?-!-=3-<R$?-$9A$-:5S=-o-<J., (?)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
3. %?-:(<-$8A-8A2-3R-$9A$-29R-$A-;R., %-o=-/%-%-:IR-o?, KA-o=-<-:IR-o?, ($%-$%-%)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
4. L3?-0-<-%-_%?-:#R<-$A-!J%-/-:IR-$A-;R., :.A->J.-?R%-/-%J.-$*A?-!-.?-5S.-v<-<-,R/-o-3-<J., ((A->J.)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
5. .-%:A-3$R-/-$R-$A 3.:-.$R%-$A-<R$?-0-9R-<-3$R-/-$A-;R.-o-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
6. 3<-$J?-:.A<-3A-:IR, $/-/-3A-:IR, :.A-3A-=?, $/-3A-=?-9J<, ((A-(A)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
7. #<-$J-5S%-#%-%-:IR-o-<J., 3<-$J-.$:-*J.-$9A$-3-*R?-/, :UR.-o-3-<J., ((A-$9A$)
SA-2, ___________________________, =/, ___________________________,
•187•
Subjective Subjective statements are made with various subjective markers, in the sense of
markers prediction.
Various Preceding Example English Notes

markers suffix
$ $ .J-3-;?, A-3-0$-$ Don’t do that! Mother nAll statements
might get frightened. are in simple
% % VR-:.A?-:.%-%-, The food suffices. present tense
mood, although
/ / A-1-$A?-8-;?-$A-3$R-3/R/-/, (My) Father would be they suggest
able to control the something might
children. happen.
2 2 #<-$J?-#-o2-#J2?-2, He is independent
financially. oOne makes
such comments
3 3 l3-0-8A3-3, Rtsam pa is tasty.
based on his
knowledge.
: Vowel lA?-<A$-.!:-:, Mathematics is difficult.
< < C-?-:.A-/?-K$?-#-.<-<, Animals flourish on this

grassland.
The two adverbial phrases both express conjecture, but with slightly different
/A-<J. vs. o-<J. connotations. The former makes a guess with the speaker's view revealed,
while the latter is purely reflective of an usual tendency in future tense,
without revealing the speaker's view.
/AA-<JJ. o--<J.
Tibetan Note Tibetan Note
HR.-3-d3, #<-$J-,R/-/A-<JJ., The speaker's HR.-3-d3, #<-$J-,R/-o--<J., What might happen is
view is expressed according to
Don't be impatient! He will revealed. Don't be impatient! He the tendency.
come. will come.
(%-:,%?-/-3$R-/-/AA-<JJ., The speaker (%-:,%?-/-3$R-/-o--<J., A result is foreseen as a
reveals matter of fact.
One will get a headache common One would get a
from drinking. sense. headache from drinking
$+3-:.A-$R-/-A-3-#$$-/AA-<JJ., The speaker $+3-:.A-$R-/-A-3-#$$-o--<J., A tendency is foreseen
probably given the nature of the
(My) Mother would be sad knows his Mother will be sad to news.
to hear this news. mother well. hear this news.
^-2-2./-0-)J-SR-;A/-/A-<JJ., The speaker ^-2-2./-0-)J-SR-;A/-o--<J., It is a foreseeable
thinks this tendency.
It will get warmer in July. given the It will get warmer in
perennial July.
weather.
•188•
2v?--/ / vR?-/ The former is used to express in someone's opinion and the latter is used to
compare. Ladon case markers are not vocalized in both cases.
In comparison In one's opinion

Tibetan English Tibetan English
$R/-o-:.A-$/-/-vR?-/-Z-$A
Compared to the
other one, this
%?-2v?--/, $R/-o-:.A-Z-$A In my opinion,
this garment is
garment is better. good.
#<-$J-%-=-vR?-/-<-=R-(J,
He is even older than
me.
%?-2v?--/, #<-$J-=R-@R%-$A?-(J,
I think he is
very old.
YR$-($?-:.A-$8/-0-9R<- This animal is
physically bigger,
.R-.3-0-$A?-2v?--/, YR$-($?- The manager
thinks this
vR?-/-<R-(J-$A compared to the
others.
:.A-<R-(J-$A animal is very
big.
.0J-(-$/-/-vR?-/-:.A?- This book, compared
to the other one, is
:.R/-3#/-9R?-2v?--/, .0J-(- The readers
think this book
;A.-:UR$-$A more appealing. .J?-;A.-:UR$-$A is appealing.
<J It means each, some, and (to) expect. It is dealt with as each and some below.
Each Some
MA-3$R-<J<->-o-3-$%- Each person gets a half
kilo of meat.
%-9R$-=$-<J-;R., <J.-S- I have some
livestock, but not
,J3?, 3%-%-3J., many.
,/-<J<-(/-<A=-2-<J-2!J/, Each time, take one

pill!
/-/A%-.R-5B$?-%-?-$8/-0- I traveled to some
places in recent
<J-?R%-%-, years.
|3-$&A$-<J:A-/%-/-$R.- There are three

containers in each box.
:P=-2-$A?-(%-<J-:,%- The guest wants to
drink some alcohol.
$?3-<J-;R., :.R.-$A-;R.,
#J-2-<J<-z-#%-<J-;R., Each village has a
temple.
%?-.J-<A%-=J$?-*J?-<J-*R?- I purchased some
presents today.
?R%-,
This word has other functions: n $&A$-<J-$&A$-<J, (one by one): (/-0-$A?-MA-
Notes
$&A$-<J-$&A$-<J->R$-9J<, o$*A?-<J-$*A?-<J, (in a group of two; two for each):
#%-2-:.A:A-/%-%-MA-$*A?-<J-$*A?-<J-:IR-.$R?, p$&A$-<J-$*A?-<J, (a few): %?-MA-
$&A$-<J-$*A?-<J-<A$-?R%-,
•189•
8A3-oR-8A3,
oR is put between duplicated monosyllabic adjectives or between duplicated verbs.
Statements with such phrases are made with reservation.
Between duplicated monosyllabic Between duplicated verbs

adjectives
#<-$J-3,RR-oRR-3,RR, <J.-S-
He is not nimble,
although he is tall.
%?-=?--oR-=?-2+%-, <J.- Although I did it, he
was not satisfied.
3*J/-:$$-3J., S-#<-$J-;A.-5B3-3J.,
?-(-:.A-2_/--(J-oR-(J, <J.- This place is wet but
not suitable for
3.%-.$R%-$/3-22?-oRR- Although it rained
last night, the field is
S-8A%-?<-3A-*/-$A farming. 22?-,=, <J.-S-8A%-?-.- still dry.
2R-{3-0R-<J.,
8A-3R-:.A-;$--oR-;$ ;A/-/- This girl is not my type
although she is
%?-$R/-o-:.A-29RR-oRR-299R, I will tailor this
garment, but it will
<-%:A-]R<-3A-:22-$A beautiful. <J.-S-;$-o-3-<J., not look good.
MA-:.A-K$$-oRR-K$$ <J.-S- This person is rich but

also stingy.
#<-$J?-2R.-;A$-.RR%-oR-.R%- He will study Tibetan
but he will find it
?J<-$-<-(J, o-<J., <J.-S-#<-$J?-.!:- difficult.
o-<J.,
d-3R%-$A-{J-.-<A%-oRR-<AA%-$A Camels have a long
neck, but it is not long
%-<-K$-0R-;A/-::.RR.-oR-:.R.- I want to be rich but I
do not pursue it.
<J.-S-$/3-3#:-$A-{<-3- enough to reach the $A <J.-S-=$-=J/-;?-$A-
stars in the sky.
3A-=R/, 3J.,
# If put before S-be, it describes a noun clause, with the connotation of the English word seem.
If put before an adjective complement, it generates an infinitive clause subject.
Seem Infinitive case

#<-$J-*A.-0R-;A/-#-<J., He seems happy. L-2-:.A-=?-#-l-3R-;A/, It is easy to do this
job.
;=-{R<-2-:.A-2R.-<-:IR- It seems that this .LA/-;A$-aR2-#-.!:-$A English is difficult to
tourist goes to Tibet. study.
#--<J.,
MA-:.A-2g/-0R-$9A$-;A/-#- This person seems 2>.-#-l, =?-#-.!:, It is easy to say, but
reliable. difficult to keep one’s
<J., word.
HR.-?%?-o?-;A/-#-<J., You seem to be Sang

rgyas (I think you are
o-;A$-:VA-#-.!:-3R-<J., It is difficult to write
Chinese.
AJ-;A/, Sangs rgyas). Right?
•190•
$% Its combination with verbs gives phrasal adjectives, signifying an extreme.
As a question word As phrasal adjective

Which person do you
HR.-MA-$%--%-.$:, :.A-:R- MA-:.A?-L-2-$%--=?--$%-- This person is
like? This one or that successful at
/-$/, one? :P2-<J., whatever he does.
0R-=A/-/?-HR?-$%-$%-<A$- What do you want to

see in Berlin?
9R$-.J-$%--:IRR-:.AA-:IRR-3J., That animal roams
everywhere.
:.R.-$A
HR.-$%--%-3-:IR, %-<J3-3- Do not go anywhere! I
will come soon.
K$-0R-.J<-o-$%--;R.-$%-- The rich man has
everything.
;R%-, 3J.-<J.,
$%--,R.-0-.R/-:P2-<J., Which is Spyod pa don
'grub?
8A-3R-:.A-;$-$%--;R.-$%-- This girl is as
beautiful as one can
3J.-<J., imagine.
(A Its combination with verbs derives phrasal adjectives.
As question word As phrasal adjective

HR.-(A-.$R?, (%-.!<-:R-What do you need?
Spirits or beer?
#R-(A-:.RR.-(A-=?--;A/, He does whatever he
wants to do.
7-(%-,
.J-<A%-HR?-(A-=?-/?, What did you do
today?
aR2-3-:.A-<A$-0-(A-;R.-(A- This student is as
intelligent as one can
3J.-<J., imagine.
HR.-13-?R%-/, HR?-(A- What will you think if

you lose?
#R<-(A-2>.--:.AA-2>.--3J., He talks off the top of
his head.
:.R.,
(A-9J<, %?-3-$R-,=, What? I did not hear. HR.-=-(A-;A/-:.AA-;A/-3J., You are so confused.
•191•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--S$$-0,,
LA?-0-(%-(%-8A$-$A-*J?-{<,
*J?-{< birthday %:A-*J?-{<-^-2-.$-2-$A-5K?-2-2o.-0-;A/,
:2R. to call; to invite .J-<A%-:.A-2-5%-$A?-:P=-2-:2R.-$A-;R.,
5S%-#% shop .0=-:LR<-o?-/-5S%-#%-)J-3%-<J.,
=J$?-*J? present; gift %:A-c/-3R-*J?-{<-$A-=J$?-*J?-.$:-$A-3J.,
!R/-3R feast; party !R/-3R->R3-<-(J-/-:IR-|R-<-(J,
YR= way; custom 2R.-/-{.-(-%/-0-:.A-3R-2>.-YR=-3J.,
%R->J? acquaintance %R->J?-3%-/-29%-,
:IR-lA? to plan to go #<-$J<-%-:2R.-lA?-3J.-/, %-=-:IR-lA?-<-3J.,
:5B$-0-9 to become unhappy / angry #<-$J-L-2-3-P2-/-:5B$-0-9-$A-;R.,
$%-:.R. at one’s will; whatever wanted 8A-=A-:.A?-|R<-3R-$A?-.%R?-2R-$%-:.R.-*R-$A
,A<-$A? generally; generally speaking ,A<-$A?-HA3-5%-:.A-/R$?-3R-$9A$-;A/,
2?3-5= view; opinion HR?-<%-$A-2?3-5=->R.-S,
?J3?-3,/ to have mutual affinity 29:-^-$*A?-!-?J3?-3,/-$A 29:-*A.-<J.,
#R3 to have free time =?-!-2-9R-#R3-/, =?-2.$-.$:-$A-3J.,
$*R< to take care of 8-;?-$*R<-oR-=?-.!:-3R-;A/-o-3-<J.,
3*3-0? together %-<-=?-<R$?-3*3-0?-=R-S$-:$R<-?R%-,
PR%-HJ< city PR%-HJ<-/-,A<-2+%-$A?-MA-3%-,
PR%-2h= town PR%-2h=-/-MA-3%-:.-:6B-(J,
#-;? some =$-#-;?->J.-29%-, #-;?-3A-29%-,
!R/-3R-2# to have a party; to celebrate ^-1R$?-)J-3,R<-?R%-/R-$A?, %?-!R/-3R-2#,
1=-(J< almost; nearly 0$?-0-2./-$A?-2R.-H-$9A$-1=-(J<-;R%-,
.-2R still =R-2&-$A-aR2-3-.-2R-=R-<A3-.%-2R-<J.,
•192•
lJ.-,. toy 8-;?-9R:C-lJ.-,.-$R%-)J-.!:-)J-.!:-<J.,
:P=-2 traveler; guest :P=-2-3%-%-;R%-/-%-353?-353?-3-?/-$A
*R-3#/ buyer *R-3#/-$A?-.%R?-$R%-3,R-$A-:.R.-$A-;R.,
+/-$R cake *J?-{<-$A-*A/-/-+/-$R-o/-.-*R,
(%-:,%-3#/ drinker (alcohol) (%-:,%-3#/-9R?-<%-<%-2_$-$R-$A
=$?-YR= custom =$?-YR=-fA%-2-*3?-.!:,
.<-YR= trend; tendency 8A-2.J-3*3-$/?-.-2<-$A-.<-YR=-<J.,
;-35< interesting; surprising <%-L%-#3?-8J-,$-$A?-;-35<-<J.,
P-1A$-;? to prepare %?-P-1A$-3-;?-/-o$?-3A-:UR.,
/3 when; time HR?-=?-!-:.A-/3-:P2-o-<J.,
.?-5S. time; hour .?-5S.-.$-2-$A-!J%-%-\R$-2f/-!R/-o?,
{<-3 minute; coin .J?-?%-3:R-<-{<-3-$A?-?-o-3A-(R.,
:KA to be late 9-3-9R?-5<-?R%-, HR.-;R%-:KA-?R%-,
; yes #-/?-;-;-;, =$-/-$&A$-<-3J.,
:SA to ask; to say hello %-.J-<A%-/.-0-$9A$-:SA-$A-:IR,
:6S3 to get together $9:-0-?%?-%-aR2-PR$?-5S-:6S3-$A-;R.,
=J/ to take; to pick up c.-0R-:.A-aR2-9<-5-2R-=J/-$A-:IR-$A-;R.,
A-/-3-/ exactly the same; identical 35K-3-:.A-$*A?-!-2v?-/-A-/-3-/-<J.,
.R/-.$ thing; issue; business .R/-.$-.J-S/-/-#<-$J-8J.-$A-;R.,
?-2R/ seed ?-2R/-3A-Z-/-=R-+R$-*J-o-3-<J.,
$/?-5% a place to stay overnight %%-2R-$9A$-$/?-5%-3J.-<-Y%-/-*=-;R.,
:5S. to broil >-:5S.-/, :IR-|R-5%-3-%?-$+R%-,
$R-(R. to be useful; to be of help 8A-=A-(%-(%-:.A-3A-.$R?, #<-$J?-$R-3A-(R.,
=-*J-&/ capable; able .J-2-5%-$A-8-;?-5%-3-=-*J-&/-+$-+$-<J.,
:5S= to look for =?->R<-3A-$-$%-3%-$A?-L-2-$?<-2-:5S=,
~R. to feed 8-;?-~R.-/-A-3-$A-/-3-<2-;A/,
)J-#$ to become worse /.-0-:.A-=?-0R-)J-#$-<J.,
•193•
)J-24S$ to become worse / uglier .0=-:LR<-$A-$/?-22-)J-24S$-)J-24S$-<J.,
=R2? to get used to KA-o=-$A-9-3<-.-%-=R2?-;R.,
2&: to act as; to make >A%-t$?-$-2&:-3A-,2,
$*J/-*J relative (by marriage) $*J/-*J-$9A$-aR2-9-$A-/%-/?-3,<-KA/,
/R3-0 things; property /R3-0-3%-/-#R-3$R-E-/%-%-3A->R%-,
<%-3$R-<%-,R/ independence <%-3$R-<%-,R/-3-;R%-/, $8/-$A?-*R2-3A-,2,
.-2-$&R. to stop smoking .-2-$&R.-/-3/:-3-2R<, (R.-?J3?-;R.-.$R?,
(-3J. unfamiliar MA-(-3J.-$A-#-=-o$-3A-*/,
{2?-,R$-$A? temporarily {2?-,R$-$A?-MA-/R$?-3R-.J?-<-.!:-$A-;R.,
(-o? familiarity (-o?-3J.-/, <R$?-0-;A/-/-<-|R<-3R-3-2*A,
#%-\ rent #%-\-.J-3R-$9A$-3,R-?R%-,
o%-1R$ radio broadcast o%-1R$-$A-/%-/?-$?<-:I<-<-*/-$A-;R.,
3-<2? degenerated; derailed 8-;?-3-<2?-.J-?-5%-$A-<J.,
8R<-=? side work; part-time job 8A%-2-9R?-8R<-=?-3-=?-/-#-3A-?R?,
#A$? to scold MA-%/-0<-3-2#A$?-/-3$R<->R<-:IR,
3J.-0R poor OA3?-,R$-/?-3J.-0R-<-;R.-0R-:S-3*3-;A/-9J<,
K$-0R rich K$-0R-3J.-0R<-:I<-oR-*A/-8$-$A-.R/-.$-<J.,
~A%-eJ-&/ kind; compassionate MA-~A%-eJ-&/-#-=?-.$J
+J bag (made of yak hair) .R-5B$?-IR-+J-S$-&-=R%?-,=,
\ to hire MA-\-o-#J-2:A-/%-/-;R., C-,%-/-3J.,
\-2 servant \-2-:.A-%R-3-~A%-3-eJ, <%-.2%-<-3J.,
:2. profit :2.-3J.-/-#J-2-$%-/?-;R%-,
:2$? to get contaminated; to get rich }R/-(.-$A-3%-2R-.-:2$?-;R.-$A
*A.-o$ to have a happy life 5K-:.A-/?-*A.-o$ 5K-KA-3<-/R3-0-:HJ<-3A-,2,
=$-($? to grow up %-#J-2-/?-=$-($?-.?-\R$-3J.-,=,
:.%-o$ concern; to think over :.%-3-o$ .J?-$R-3A-(R.,
k$-?J-2+% to have a blackout \R$-\R-o$-$-k$-?J-2+%-,=,
•194•
T-5$ naughty 8-;?-T-5$-;A/-/-]R-<A$-cR.-9J<,
eJ?-=? to be left behind; to be backward $8/-$A-eJ?-=?-/-HR.-<%-$A-%R-5-<J.,
2.$-*R% management C-?-2.$-*R%-;?-3#/-%:A-/-2R-;A/,
$?R-.R% training $?R-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-%?-$&A$-<-3->J?-,=,
2?3-:(< opinion 2?3-:(<-:.R/-/-*/-3#/-;R.-.$R?,
:$R$-2&R? prevention (of sickness) /.-<A$?-:$R$-2&R?-%:A-3$R<-8-,=,
5S.-3J. endless; without control 5S.-3J.-<-2!R=-/-|R<-3R-$A?-(A-$9A$->J.-:.%-,
:UR-3 remaining |R<-3R-:UR-3-5%-3-]-3-$9A$-$-1=-?R%-,
=3-3-:IR to get on the right track ?J3?-29%-/-=?-=3-3-:IR-9J<,
2. to satisfy; to suffice MA-$?3-3-(%-o-3-$%-$A?-3A-2.,
5=-2 a half {=-;A/-/-2$R?-/-(R$ MA-5=-2<-$+R%-3A-,2,
#-$?2 add; subsidy :5S-2-$A-#-$?2-2-|R<-3R-?3-&-&%-3-<J.,
*3?-MR% experience *3?-MR%-;R.-/-;R/-+/-<J.,
$R-2h understanding o-2R.-$*A?-!?-1/-5/-/-$R-2h-3A-:UR.,
OA.-$8A teaching subject .J-<A%-OA.-$8A-.0=-:LR<-$A-{R<-<J.,
:(<-$8A-:,J/ to plan :(<-$8A-:,J/-/-L-2-=J$?-:P2-;R%-,
29:-5%-2&: to have a family %:A-8A-=A-29:-5%-2&:-</-?R%-,
gJ/-:VJ=-;$ to be auspicious HR.-<-,$-?R%-, .-gJ/-:VJ=-;$-$A
2$-<R$? bridesmaid 2$-<R$?-8A-3R-;$-3-$9A$-;A/-3A-.$R?,
$?%-2 secret #<-$J-#-8J-$*A?-3J., $?%-2-$&A$-<-3J.,
_R3 to trust; to believe %?-MA-=2-n=-.J<-3A-_R3-$A
%R-5 to be shamed ` %R-5-/, KA/-(.-L-2-.J-3R-3-=?,
3-3,.-<? incessantly; continuously :$R-2-$A?-;%-3-3,.-<?-2>.-,=,
!R%-% empty ]R-!R%-%-, :(<-$8A-!R%-%, L-2-(A->J.-12-o?,
l-2-/? entirely %-9-3-:.A<-l-2-/?-3A-.$:-$A
KA/-(. from now on "@-3-$*A?-! KA/-(.-%-T-5$-3A-2&:,"
+$-0R father-in-law +$-0R-$A?-3/:-3<-@R%-$A?-$&J?,
•195•
+$-3R mother-in-law +$-3R-:.A:A-a.-/?-3/:-3-#$-9J<,
A-#-5K-2g/-IA-:(<-$8A-(%-(%-8A$
29%-? good friend 29%-?-3%-/-%/-$9A$-3-<J.,

bR to dig ?-~A-?-/?-PR-3-3-bR-9J<,
?-3$R elevation ?-3$R-3,R-?-/?-3$R-$9J<-$A
2_/-(J wet 2R.-$A-?-(-,A<-2+%-$A?-2_/-3A-(J,
/?-2 ability; effect 8A-=A-.J-/?-2-8J-,$-$A?-(J-$A
=R/ to be able to get #R?-(%-2-3A$-$A?-3A-3,R%-, (J-2R-=$-$-3A-=R/,
#-/-;R. to depend on HA3-5%-ZA=-2R-#<-$J:A-#-/-;R.,
*R-(-o$ to shop $9:-3)$-$-%-o/-.-*R-(-o$-$A-:IR,
?-!R% empty place ?-!R%-%-2R:-!R%-3-:1J/,
=%-!R% empty valley =%-!R%-.J-/-,%-!A-3%-%-:5S$-$A-;R.,
KJ flour KJ-<-:V?-$A-$%-29%-,
/3-=%? for the day to break; to dawn .L<-!-.?-5S.-S$-$A-!J%-/3-=%?-$A-;R.,
?-<2 it gets dark ?-<2-/-%:A-A-&J-|R<-:IR-3A-,2,
:$/-#< task; responsibility :$/-#<-(J-/-.2%-(-<-(J-.$R?,
PR%-(R$ ritual performed for a fee .J%-?%-PR%-(R$-$-?R%-/-|R<-3R-<$-,2,
o/-w/-$A? usually; daily basis o/-w/-$A?-HA3-/?-:.$-3#/-%-3A/,
.3:-:VA% middle school .3:-:VA%-/?-#<-$J-aR2-3-.$:-$9A$-3A/,
#J<-<R? alone HR.-#J<-<R?-.%R?-2R-.J-3A-H$
=$-:22 income =$-:22-3J.-/-HR.-$8/-$A-$;R$-0R-<J.,
%/-; brother %:A-%/-;-$A?-:UA/-;A$-$+/-/?-3A-:VA,
:#R<-2 samsara :#R<-2-/-#$-3A-MR%-3#/-?-;R.,
,< to survive %-:#R<-2-=?-,<-/-3A-:.R.,
(-nJ/-&/ affluent; well-off MA-(-nJ/-&/-#-eJ-.<-$A
29%-/-%/-/ no matter bad or good; anyway 29%-/-%/-/, %?-3-b%-:.A-*R-o?,
•196•
#J/-? something one depends on #J/-?-$9A$-3J.-/, MA-$*R3-(%-$A?-.!:,
(/-;R/ expense for medical treatment (/-;R/-hR$-$R-3,R/-0R-$/3-<J.,
$/.-:$$ key point; critical point .R/-nJ/-:.A-,$-$&R.-/, $/.-:$$-#R-<J.,
,R$? to be short of; to stumble over :5S-2-$A-,R$-/?-#<-$J-|R<-3R<-,R$?-$A-3J.,
$*R$ to beat 8-;?-9R<-$*R$-/-/$-*J?-<J.-9J<-$A
.%R?-=$? physics lA?-<A$-3A->J?-/-.%R?-=$?-<-.!:-o-<J.,
24/ strict; fierce; strong *A-3-24/-/-3J-+R$-fA.-:IR,
fA. to wither SR.-#%-/%-$A-3J-+R$-fA.-a,
lA->A% plant lA->A%-$A-KR$?-/?-%?-&%-3A->J?,
#?-=J/ to promise; to admit to <%-*R/-<%-$A?-#?-=J/-3#/-*%-,
l=-.R% sports l=-.R%-;?-/-=?-#3?-?%?,
*J?-2-$8$-3 next life %-*J?-2-$8$-3<-$%-/-;R.-/%-,
2.J-:)$? safe; safety _%?-:#R<-2{R<-/-2.J-:)$?-$4S-2R-;A/,
3-:R%?-2 future 3-:R%?-2-/%?-!-<J., ?%-=R-<-<J.,
]R-:22 cute; lovely o-3A-:.A-MA-]R-:22-$9A$-<J.,
{-3PR/ guest {-3PR/-9R, HR.-9R-2.J-3R,
.R-.3 ` management .R-.3-;?-3#/-$A?-o-5%-3-*<-$?R$-;?,
/.-S$ to recover from sickness /.-S$-/-|R<-3R-&%-%-2lA-$A-3J.,
.R-8$ recently; lately .R-8$-(2-YA.-$A-3#:-.2$?-)J-#$-<J.,
=R-=R please A-3-=R-=R, HR?-%-3-$*R$
$3-&/ oily; with oil #R$-0-3A-2.J-/-9-3-$3-&/-3-9,
$R%-:PA$ to agree on a price *R-3#/-<-5S%-2-$*A?-!-$R%-:PA$-?R%-,
8A2-3R detailed .R/-.$-8A2-3R->J.-3-2>., <$?-3R->J.->R.,
.$:-*J. something that appeals to someone MA-.$:-*J.-<-=J$?-*J?-l-(J/-;A/-3A-.$R?,
:UR. to fit; to be precise; to one's liking .-:UR.-?R%-, %-<-HR:A-_%?-:#R<-<-:.$-o?,
•197•
•198•
aR2-5/-2./-0,
2h-3R.,
Simple Past Tense Negative Past Tense Forms

Past Tense With Auxiliary Verbs Interrogative Past Tense Forms
Auxiliary Verbs ,=, ?R%, and 2+% /? in Past Tense Sentences
Thang kha known as Dgu thang (Nine-Thang kha-in-one), short biography of the
Buddha, Reb gong County, Rma lho Prefecture, Mtsho sngon Province (2011).
Text One: past tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, ,%-!R%-o=-0R,
,%-!R%-o=-0R-2R.-MA-5%-3-$A?-$4B-?-$9A$-;A/, 1361=R<-$4%-$A-8A%-HA3-$9A$-/?-*J?, #<-$J?-
5K-$%-2R<-?J3?-&/-/-.$J-.R/-3%-%-=?, t$?-93-:6$?-0/-;?, z-3R-^R?-$<-$?<-$+R.-;?,
:.A-9R-#<-$J:A-36.-eJ?-(J-$9A$-$-2lA-$A-;R.,
,%-!R%-o=-0R-=R-(%-.?-/?-<A$-0-iR, @-3-$*A?-!?-#R-.$R/-0:A-/%-%-;R/-+/-aR2-$A-2*=, #<-

$J?-2R.-;A$-<-o-$<-$A-{.-<A$?-.%?, A-3-$A-<J-2-v<-<, L%-#A%?-.$R/-0-$A-aR2-.0R/-*A-3-?J%-$J:A-=R$?-/?-9-2-
2&R?, #<-$J?-o-$<-<-2=-;=-/?-=R-2&R-2o.-$A-<A%-%-(R?-3%-%-aR2-.R%-;?, ,%-!R%-o=-2R-$%-?-$%-%-:IR-3#/-
$9A$-;A/, ,J%?-$&A$-$-$*/-0-%/-0-$9A$-$-,$-?R%-9J<, |R<-3R-3J.-/R-$A?, $*/-0-.J?-#R-(-/%-/?-2*<-2+%-/A-
<J., ,%-!R%-o=-2R-$A?, "=-#-/?-)$-0-<-(-#-/?-$*/-0-"9J<-/R-%R-3-$A?-2.J/-$A-:.R., ?J3?-&/-,3?-&.-<-:5S-
2:A-/%-/-.!:-#$-$&A$-:S-;R.-o-<J.-:.R.-/R-$A?, #<-$J?-93-0-:6$?-oR:A-.3-2&:-28$
,%-!R%-o=-0R-#<-$J:A-aR2-3-9R?-!R%-0R-;:-<-.2?-$4%-#3?-/?-t$?-93-3%-%-:6$?-0/-;?, .0J<-28$-/, z-?-

*A.->R.-$A-93-0-<-;<-=%-*-3$R-P-#-$A-t$?-93, 93-0-$8$-3-2R-,%-!R%-o=-2R-$A-93-0-$8$-3-2R-;A/, 5K-$%-2R:C-
/%-%-, #<-$J?-.2?-$4%-#3?-$?3-/?-2#R3?-0?-t$?-93-s-2&-%-2o., >A%-93-S$-&-,3-0, :.-#%-<-$4$-
=$-#%-2o-<-*A-> 3(R.-gJ/-2o-<-2&-$*A?-2lJ%?, .J?-3A-5.-2R.-$A-z-3R:C-^R?-$<-<-$$?<-$+R.-36., 93-0-5%-3-
29R-.LA2?-$A-,R$-/?-.J%-93-;A/, =R-%R-2o-U$-.-3-$A-<A%-%-(<-(-$A?-3-:)A$?, 2R.-$A-:PA3-:P=-$A-,.-<-.-<%-
;A/-/-<-.$J-35/-:.R/-$A-;R., .J%-?%-;A/-/-<, 2R.-uR%?-$A-=%-#$-:IR-3A-2.J-?-/, ,%-!R%-o=-2R-$A-t$?-93-.-2R-
2J.-,R.-;?-$A-;R.,
#<-$J:A-93-0-<A$?-$A?-2R.-3A:A-:5S-2-)J-2.J<-2+%-, MA-5K-$%-%R-?J3?-&/-,3?-&.-$A-.R/-.-.$J-2-212?-/R-$A?, 2R.-
3A:A-HA3-5%-/-#<-$J:A-{-:S-.J%-?%-<-<A$-o-;R.,
7.1 --Simple past tense
Subject Complement Verb in PAT Verb in PRT Verb in FUT

%- z-?<- ?R%-, :IR, :IRR-o--;A/,
8A-3R-.J?- \-.L%?- ]%?, =J/, =JJ/-o-<JJ.,
#R-$*A?-!- A-<-/?- / /-3*3-0?- 2#., :.$ :..$--o-<JJ.,
%- (R?-:1$?-$- .$:-?R%-, .$:, .$:--o-<JJ.,
•200•
Notes-1
1. Many verbs are irregular in tense form, thus irregular tense forms must be
memorized.
2. Many verbs do not change in tense form. In this case, auxiliaries are applied to
clarify various tenses.
7.2 --Some common verbs that are flexible in tense form
Present tense Past tense Future tense Imperative English

:IR ?R% :IR ?R% to go
{< 2{< 2{< {< to send

:#< #< :#< #< to carry (on back)
{R< 2{R< 2{R< {R< to turn; to drive (a
car)
$R/ $R/ $R/ #R/ to put on
*= *= *= *R= to sleep
*/ */ */ *R/ to listen
.R% .%? .% .R%? to study
Exercise 1 Find proper Tibetan verbs listed in the table above and write them in the
correct tense forms in the blanks below.
.0J<-2eR., HR.-aR2-9<-/3-?R%-, (to go) %-aR2-9<-.?-5S.-2./-$A-!J%-?R%- ,
1. SA-2, HR?-_%?-:#R<_______(to drive), =/, %?-_%?-:#R<-=R-$*A?-$A-}R/-/-___________,

2. SA-2,_________________(to carry), =/, .!R/-3(R$-$A?-.%R?-2R-tA-3R-.J-____________,
3. SA-2,_________________(to send), =/, A-3<-%?-=J$?-*J?-$?J<-$A-i-=%-$9A$-______,
4. SA-2,________________(to put on), =/, 3.%-.$R%-%:A-Z%-3R-$A?-!R-$A-$R/-o-$9A$______,
5. SA-2, HR?-?-<-3*3-0?-_____(to study), =/, %?-8A-=A-:.A-$*A?-!-$A-3*3-0?-___________,
6. SA-2,________________(to listen), =/, :.A-/?-MA-5%-3-$A?-2R.-\-_______________,
7. SA-2,_________________(to sleep), =/, 3<-$J-.?-5S.-.$-2-$A-!J%-/?-_____________,
•201•
7.3 --Some common verbs that do not change in tense form
Present Past tense Future tense Future tense English

.$: .$: .$: .$: to like; to be interested
:#R< :#R< :#R< :#R< to rotate; to turn
<A$ <A$ <A$ <A$ to see
:.R. :.R. :.R. :.R. to want; to desire
.$R? .$R? .$R? .$R? to be required
$9J< $9J< $9J< $9J< to have a sharp pain
<J$ <J$ <J$ <J$ to earn; to touch
:1< :1< :1< :1< to fly
Notes-2
1. Many verbs do not change in terms of tense form. To express past tense, such past tense
indicative auxiliaries are often applied as: ,=, ?R%, 2+%, and L%.
#<-$J:A-3$R-$9J<-,=, He had a sharp pain in his head.
%:A-3$R-$9J<-2+%-, I had a sharp pain in my head.
%:A-3$R-$9J<-?R%-, I had a sharp pain in my head.
2. Spontaneous verbs do not change in tense form. To convey past tense, the auxiliaries
listed above are used, e.g., #$-3-%:A-=$-/?->R<-,=, The bag slipped out my hand. / _%?-
:#R<-$A-:#R<-=R-:#R<-2+%-, The car's wheels turned.
3. Auxiliaries still can be added, though a statement is already clear in tense form.
(R?-35S-$A?-=?-L-VA? (2+%-), Chos mtsho already did her homework.
aR2-3-:.A?-\R$-2f/-/-2v?(,=), This student watched the movie.
4. A monosyllabic adjective complement needs an auxiliary to clarify the past tense, e.g., #-
l%-$A-9-3-@R%-$A?-8A3-?R%-, Yesterday's foods were really tasty.
5. %: This reportive particle is used after a transitive verb in past tense form. or after past
tense indicative auxiliaries such as ?R% and2+% to express a reportive mood when subject
First Person and First Person Plural are agentive, e.g., .J-<A%-KA-SR<-%J.-9R?-r%-=A-lJ?-2+%-%-,
To ask Second Person and Second Person Plural, one uses it as well, since the subject
becomes First Person in answer.
•202•
Exercise 2 Make past tense statements using the given words.
.0J<-2eR., 8A-3R -- ,$ %-8A-3R-.J<-.-&A-,$-?R%-, 3<-$J-aR2-#%-$A-/%-%-:IR-$A-;R.-$A

/-/A% / 3J-+R$ / *J n_____________________________________
With changeable
tense form
#R%-2R / :6$? o_____________________________________

L-2 / 12 p_____________________________________
3.%-.$R% / \-=J/ q_____________________________________
aR2-OA. / */ n_____________________________________
unchangeable
tense form
v.-3R / <A$ o_____________________________________

With
/.-0 / / p_____________________________________
L-2 / :P2 q_____________________________________
#R%-=R / z% n_____________________________________
Spontaneous
*A-3 / >< o_____________________________________

verbs
( / 28< p_____________________________________
:#R<-=R / :#R< q_____________________________________
Exercise 3 Use a dictionary to find the past tense forms of the verbs and write them
in parentheses. Use auxiliaries if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., ,%-!R%-o=-2R-$%-/?-*J? (*J) ,%-!R%-o=-2R-8A%-2-$9A$-$A-HA3-/?-*J?,

1. #<-$J?-(A-$9A$-=?-/-_______________(:.R.) =/, #<-$J?-________________,
2. ,%-!R%-o=-2R-.$R/-0:A-/%-%-_______(*J=)____, =/, #<-$J-_________________,
3. aR2-.0R/-*A-3-?J%-$J-#<-$J:A-.$J-c/-/-(*/)______, =/, #<-$J:A-.$J-c/-/-__________,
4. #<-$J-=R-2&R-2o.-<-$%-/?-____________(#R.), =/, #<-$J-_________________,
5. ?-?-$A?-#<-$J:A-3*3-0?-t$?-93-_______(=?), =/, #<-$J:A-________________,
6. 93-0-$%-#<-$J?-3,:-3)$-:6$?-0/-_____(LJ.), =/, #<-$J?-________________,
7. t$?-93-3A/-., #<-$J?-.-2R-(A-$9A$-______(lR3), =/, #<-$J?-________________,
8. #R-?-(-$%-$%-%-___________________(:PR), =/, #<-$J-_________________,
9. #<-$J?-3(R.-gJ/-2#R3?-0?-.-__________(lJ%), =/, #<-$J?-________________,
10. #<-$J?-3A-5K-$%-2R<-?-?-$A-.R/-/-.$J-.R/-_____12), =/, #<-$J?-________________,
•203•
Text Two: past tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, \A%-o=-[-<R=-IA-=R-o?-,%-,%-,
\A%-o=-#J-2-$A-1-3J?-;%-3J?-9R-=R-s-2o-S$-2o-$A-}R/-/-.J%-?%-$A-($?-?<-,R/, ,R/-
/?-?-cR.-kR-8A%-%-2+<, :5S-gJ/-/-2&R?, #J-2:A-/%-/-MA-..-0-&/-A-=-*J?-9J<-3#/-
$9A$-;R., #R-?-cR.-$9A$-$A-!J%-/?-$8A-($?-?R%-, ?-cR.-.J-#J-2-$A-<?-,A-=J-$*A?-
;?-3?-;A/, A-=-*J?-$A?-?-.J-kR-8A%-%-+<-:.R.-?R%-, ?-8A%-%-(-$A?-3-:.%-/R-$A?,
=R-.-3%-%-=R-=J$?-3-,R2, {2?-.J<-[-#R%-=%-%-/-(-3A$-$9A$-;R., (-3A$-.J-[-$A?-29%-;R.-9J<, (-3A$-.J-\A%-o=-#J-
2-/?-=3-,$-,A-=J-$?3-28A-$9A$-;A/, ?-3$R-A-=-*J?-$A-?-cR.-<-vR?-/-3,R, $8$-/?, A-=-*J?-$A?-8A%-2-l-
:6$?-;?, (-3A$-.J-<-?-cR.-$A-2<-/?-(-b-$9A$-:,J/, 8A%-%-(-2+%-, =R-$8$-3:A-/%-%-, #R<-=R-=J$?-(J/-0R-,R2-
?R%-/A-<J., SA/-=/-3)=-oR:A-(J.-<, #<-$J?-(-3A$-$A-l-/?-[-<A$?-$-:V-<-9-3-<A$?-$8/-0-3(R., [-3%-%-.$:-
?R%-;?, (-3A$-$A-/%-/?-:)<-;R%-/A-<J., VR-$-3-$-(R$?-lJ?-?R%-, .J:A-KA-*A/, A-=-*J?-<-<R$?-0-(-4B$-KA<-??R%-,
.J%-,R$ #R-(-2R?-2?%-3(R.-;?, [-<A$?-2R?, [-9R-&%-3-:$R<-<-(-/%-/?-::)<-;R%-, 82?-VR-3%-%-lJ?, <J.-S-A-=-
*J?-3A/-., MA-$8/-0-<A$?-$A?-[-$A-82?-VR-3-<A$-9J<,
A-=-*J?-$A?-82?-VR-=.-3R-;?, <%-$A-<R$?-0-9R<-2!/, $8$-/?-A-=-*J?-=R-I%?-%-(-3A$-;R.-?<-?R%-, =R-$8$-

3:A-/%-%-=R-=J$?-;R%-(J.-[-<-[-3R-.$:-$A-2&$ eJ?-/?-?-cR.-aR$-3#/-)J-3%-%-?R%-, .J:A-nJ/-$A?, (-b-)J-3%-%-2bR-
.$R?-?R%-, (-b-bR-3#/-9R-<-#$-S$-$-2$R?, <-#$-<J-<J-$A?-<%-{=-2bR?-/A-<J., $8$-/?-<-#$-S$-0R-$A-MA-i3?-
$A?-A-=-*J?-$A-=?-YR=-o.-:6B/-;?-/A-<J., $8$-/?-\A%-o=-#J-2-$A-MA-5%-3-(-3A$-$A-:I3-/?-=R-<J-<J<-lJ.-3R<-
8$?-/A-<J., =?-YR=-:.A-.?-(J/-$9A$-$-=R$-?R%-, <-#$-S$-0R-/%-$A-$&A$-$A?-.?-(J/-l-:6$?-$A-:$/-#<, <-#$-
$8/-0-9R-lJ.-3R-lJ?-9J<,
=R-3%-%-$A-$8$-/?, ?-$/?-$A-$8A-2.$-9R-<-(R-$-:.A<-.$:-?R%-9J<, $8A-2.$-(-2R-$A?-3$R-/$-MA-$A-3*3-0?-.?-

(J/-:.A<-<R=-:.R.-?R%-, /%-|R?-?, $8A-2.$-$4S-2R-A-MJ?-z-<A-.$:-?R%-, #J-MA-5%-3-(R-$-:.A<-8$?-$A-2&$ .J->J.-
.?-(J/-:.A-#J-2-;R%?-$A-lJ.-3R-$9A$-$-*/-?R%-, .J%-?%-/%?-!-(R-$-:.A<-[-<R=-:2R.-$A-;R., [-<R=-=R-I%?-%-@R<-^-
S$-0:A-5K?-2-21$A-*A/-/-:$R-lR3-$A-;R., 5K?-2-23$A-*A/-/-3)$-2#-$A-;R., .?-(J/-:.A-.-2<-A-=-*J?-<-#<-$J:A-
<R$?-0-(-2R:C-o.-0-9R-+$-+$-$-$+R$?-$A-3J.,
•204•
7.4 --Past tense with auxiliaries
Subject Complement Verb with Notes

auxiliary
(R?-*R%- aR2-9-:.A:A-aR2-3-$9A$- ;AA/-,=, Someone reports as a witness. Without ,=, the
tense is unclear.
3%-5S$?-9R- *A.-0R<- ;RR.-,=, Someone reports about what he has known.
Without ,=, the tense is unclear.
,= #R-$*A?-!- 3*3-0?- 2..-,= Someone reports as a witness.
(R?-35S-$A?- @-3-$*A?-!<-#-0<- 2+%--,=, Although the verb is in PAT, ,= is still added to
convey reportive mood.
#<-$J?- =3-/?-|R<-3R-$9A$- fJJ.-,=, Without ,=, the tense is unclear because the
%J.-$*A?-!- o-$<-<- .$:--,=, verb does not change in tense form.
A-3-$A?- 9-3- 2{{R=-2+%--, Someone reports if his mother cooked or not.
%?- ;A-$J-5%-3 2+%--2+%-, In this sentence, the first 2+% is the past tense
form of $+R%, which means send.
:P=-2-9R- .-&A- ,RR/-2+%-, Someone reports the guests' arrival.
2+% \R$-2f/-.J- 3.%-.$R%- 2!!/--2+%-, Someone tells when the movie was shown.
%J.-$*A?- .0J-(-;R%?-eR$?- 2[$?--2+%-, Nominative First Person or First Person Plural
!?- uses % to render a reportive mood.
%?- 8-;?-.J<-9-3- LAA/-2+%-%--, First Person reports if he fed the child.
8-;?- .?-,R$-$-HA3-3- ,RR/-?R%-,
K$?-9R$-9R .R-5B$?- #--.$-?RR%-, The statements put forward in general past
/.-0- ^-2-$*A?-$A-$8$-/?- S$--?R%-,
?R% %?- tense mood are neither explanatory nor
8A-3R-.J-}R/-(.- <AA$-?R%-,
reportive.
MA-c/-0-.J- .J-<A%- 3JJ.-?R%-,
MA-5%-3- !R/-,R$-/?-*A.-0R- */--?R%-,
Notes-3
1. ,= is used as a particle, denoting the narrator as the witness of the action, to refer to all
nominative pronouns. It, however, has a complex relationship with the nominative First
Person and First Person Plural. Here are key points of how it should and should not be used
to describe these two pronouns. It may not refer to nominative First Person and First
Person Plural when the main verb is proactive and describes the action itself only.
•205•
Incorrect Correct Correct Notes
%?-2R.-;A$-.%%?-,=, %?-2R.-;A$-.%?-?R%-, %?-2R.-;A$-.%?-2+%-, First Person-proactive
%-*=--,=, %-*=-?R%-, %-*=-2+%-, First Person-proactive
%J.-(-2R-?R%-,=, %J.-(-2R-2.-?R%-, %J.-(-2R-2.-?R%, First Person-proactive
%J.-$*A?-1J-2+2?--,=, %J.-$*A?-1J-2+2?-?R%-, %J.-$*A?-1J-2+2?-, First Person-proactive
2. ,= may refer to nominative First Person when First Person subjects are on the receiving end
of a charge. In this case, the main verb reflects no effort from the subject, i.e., the pronouns
are not agentive, e.g.,
#-l%-%-/-,=, I was sick yesterday. / $+3-%/-0-$R-/A-<, %J.-$?3-0R-0$-,=,
We (three) were terrified when we heard the bad news. / %->-8.-,=, I became thinner.
3. ,= may refer to nominative First Person when the main verb expresses a result of proactive
action rather than the proactive action itself. It thus could be inferred that a primary verb
(i.e., causative or proactive) is latent and so the causative conjunction /? may be inserted
between the two verbs, e.g., %?-2v?-/?-<A$-,=, I looked and saw. / %J.-9R-?R%-/?-,R/-,=, We
went and arrived.
Incorrect Reason Correct Reason

%?-=?-L-VA?-,=, %?-=?-L-VA?-/?-5<-,=, Writing leads to
completion.
nThe action
%J.-(-2R?-9-3-9R?-,=, is direct and %J.-(-2R?-9-3-9R?-/?-2o$??-,=, One feels full after
eating.
active.
%J.-$*A?-!?-v.-3R<-2v?-- %J.-$*A?-!?-v.-3R<-2v?-/?- One tried to look at
oThe action and saw.
,=, is carried out <AA$-,=,
by First
%-<-A-3-3*3-0?-2#..- Person. %-<-A-3-3*3-0?-2#.-/?-:PAA$- Being in harmony is
the result of staying
,=, ,=, together.
Exercise 4 Write an answer or a question for each blank based on the foregoing text.
Use auxiliaries if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., SA-2, A-=-*J?-$%-%-__________(:IR) =/, A-=-*J?-(-3A$-$9A$-$A-:I3-3-?R%-,
1. SA-2, A-=-*J?-$%-/?-$8A-($?, =/, A-=-*J?-_____________________,

2. SA-2, ________________________, =/, #R-9R?-kR-8A%-24=-/?-fJ.-/A-<J.,
3. SA-2, (A-$9A$-#R-9R:C-:5S-gJ/-/-*/-?R%-, =/, __________________________,
4. SA-2,A-=-*J?-__________________, =/, #<-$J-MA-..-0-&/-$9A$-<J.,
5. SA-2, (A-$9A$-$-#<-$J?-(-b-2bR?-/A-<J., =/, __________________________,
•206•
6. SA-2, ________________________, =/, [-<A$?-VR-$-3-$-5S$?-lJ?-?R%-,
7. SA-2, (A-$9A$-$A-I%?-!-)J-3%-%-?R%-, =/, __________________________,
7.5 --Use of the be verb and E-v in past tense
;AA/ / 3AA/ Notes
#<-$J-=R-$*A?-$AA-}RR/-/-aR2-3-3A/ / ;A/, nO-be does not change in tense form.

oTo indicate past tense, a temporal concept is
#R%-2R-:.A-/-/AA%-:.A-3R-$9A$-3A/ / ;A/,
mentioned or a past tense indicative auxiliary is applied.
.%R?-2R-:.A-}R/-(.-#<-$J:A-3A/ / ;A/,
<JJ. / 3--<J. Notes
#<-$J-=R-$*A?-$AA-}RR/-/-aR2-3-<J. / 3-<JJ., nS-be does not change in tense form.

oA concrete time is specified to indicate past tense.
#R%-2R-:.A-/-/AA%-:.A-3R-$9A$-<JJ. / 3-<JJ.,
pS-be is rarely followed by auxiliaries.
.%R?-2R-:.A-}R/-(.-#<-$J:A-<J. / 3-<JJ.,
;RR. / 3JJ. Notes
.--&A-.0J-(-:.A-&R$-4K:A-!J%-/-;;R. / 3JJ., nE-v and its negative form do not have past tense forms.
oAuxiliary verbs may be added to express the past tense.
=RR-$??3--$A-}R/-/--%-:)<-3/-/-;R. / 3JJ.,
.JJ%-3-%-=-|R<-3R-:.A-3R-;R.-?RR% / 3JJ.-?R%-,
Exercise 5 Read each statement and raise a question with the phrases in
parentheses. Your partner answers.
.0J<-2eR., ,%-!R%-o=-2R-MA-I$?-&/-$9A$-;A/, ((A-$9A$-$)

SA-2, ,%-!R%-o=-0R-(A-$9A$-$-MA-(J-$9A$-;A/,
=/, #<-$J?-t$?-93-:6$?-0/-;?, z-3R-^R?-$<-$?<-$+R.-;?,
1. ,%-!R%-o=-2R-?-(-$8/-/-2*=-2+%-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,
2. #<-$J?-.%R?-0R-3%-%-$?<-$+R.-;?-/A-<J., ((A-(A)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

3. #<-$J-?-(-$8/-0-/?-=R-2&R-2o.-<-2#.-2+%-/A-<J., (?-(-$%-/?)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

•207•
4. #<-$J?-t$?-=3-29R-oR:A-.3-2&R?-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,
5. #<-$J<-.J%-,R$-$A-<?-t$?-93-=?-<R$?-3%-%-;R., (?-?)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

6. ;<-=%-*-3$R-P-#-$A-93-0-<-#<-$J:A-=?-/A-<J., (93-0-(A-$9A$)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

7. #<-$J?-3(R.-gJ/-<-3%-%-2lJ%?-/A-<J., (3(R.-gJ/-3A/-.-(A-(A)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

8. #<-$J?-93-0-9R-$/:-$9A$-$-=?-/A-<J., (=R-(A-3R-$9A$-$A-}R/)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

9. 2R.-/-#<-$J:A-93-0-.-2R-2J.-,R.-$+R%-$A-;R., (?-(-(A-3R-$9A$-/)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,

10. 2R.-3A:A-HA3-5%-/-#<-$J:A-{-:S-.-2R-!R/-o-;R., ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2, _________________________, =/, _______________________,
Text Three: past tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-#-t$?-:23-o=-z-?-PR%-HJ<-/,
.J-<A%-A-#-t$?-:23-o=-z-?-PR%-HJ<-/-;R., #<-$J?-$?<-:I<-#%-$9A$-$-PR%-HJ<-$A-:5S-
2-$A-{R<-:VA-.$R?,
z-?-PR%-HJ<-3A-(J, <J.-S-MA-(-3J.-$9A$-;<-3<-<-:IR-3A->J?, #<-$J-.J%-,R$-$/?-5=-:SA-?-

$9A$-$-?R%-, #<-$J-PR%-HJ<-$A-?-O-$9A$-<-=$-.J2-$9A$-.$R?-?R%-, #<-$J-)-#%-$9A$-$A-
/%-%-?R%-, .J-/?-#R?-=$-.J2-.J<-22v?, ?-O-$9A$-$-<-2v?, ":.A-/?-(A-$9A$-Z-/%-," #<-$J-$%-%-:IR-o-<J.,
z-?-$A-MA-$9A$-$A?-0R-+-=-Z-9J<, A-#-t$?-:23-o=-0R-+-=:A-lJ<-:$R?, PR%-HJ<-ZA=-2R<-2v?, #<-$J?-$4$-=$-

#%-<-?J-<-<-:V?-%%?, 0R-+-=-$A-3./-$A-,%-(J/-<A$-,=, .J-/?-#<-$J?-?J-<-.$R/-0<-v-{R<-<-2.-,=, .J:A-$8$-
/?-#R-<A-3$R<-:$R?, 0<-3%-%-2o2-?R%-, $8$-/?-#<-$J-vR$?-?R%-, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-#<-$J-9-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-%-?R%-,
.J:A-/%-/-3R$-3R$-<, }R-5S., >-24S?-3, ,$-0-;R.-$A 9-3-9R-@R%-$A?-8A3-?R%-,
•208•
3,:-3)$-#<-$J-b%-$?3-:#R<-=R-$9A$-$-2#., PR%-HJ<-$A-.GA=-<-?R%-, .J-/?-#%-2-;$-0R-3%-%-<<A$-,=, 5S%-#%-
3%-0R-;R., #<-$J?-5S%-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-/?-t$?-/$-$R%-(J/-$9A$-*R?-,=, #<-$J-2R.-uR%?-$A-gJ/-36S.-#%-%-AJ-?R%-,
#<-$J-@R%-$A?-(.-?R%-9J<, #<-$J-3PR/-#%-/%-%-=R$-?R%-, #<-$J?-gJ/-36S.-#%-%-$8$-/?-:IR-o-;A/-9J<,
Exercise 6 Put the letter in the table that corresponds to the 1 2 3 4 5 6
numbered sentence.
D
1. A-#-t$?-:23-o=-?-O-$9A$-3#R-?R%-, a. #<-$J-0R-+-=:A-[.-=-2.-2+%-,=,
2. #<-$J-vR$?-2+%-,=, b. #<-$J-9-3-9-?-$9A$-$-2.-?R%-,
3. #<-$J?-PR%-HJ<-ZA=-2R<-v-:.R.-?R%-, c. #<-$J-.$R/-0:A-/%-%-v-{R<-<-2.-,=,
4. #<-$J<-lR3-;A$-:VA-,.-$9A$-*R-2?3?-,=, d. #<-$J-$/?-5=-:SA-?-$9A$-$-2.-,=,
5. #<-$J?-9-2-<-YR=-o/-$A-#%-2-<A$-:.R.-,=, e. #<-$J-.%R?-$R%-3,R-?-$9A$-$-?R%-/A-<J.,
6. #<-$J-(.-2+%-,=, f. #<-$J-KA<-<-3PR/-#%-%-=R$-?R%-/A-<J.,
Exercise 7 Put appropriate tense forms of the verbs in parentheses and, if the verb is
not changeable in tense form, auxiliaries.
.0J<-2eR., ?-cR.-.J-\A%-o=-#J-2-$A-:5S-gJ/-/-I<-?R%-, (:I<)
1. \A%-o=-#J-2-$A-1-3J?-;%-3J?-<A$?-$J<-?-cR.-$9A$-__________, (;R.)
2. MA-..-0-&/-.J:A-MA%-%-A-=-*J?-__________, (9J<)
3. A-=-*J?-?-cR.-.J:A-!J%-/?-__________, ($8A-($?)
4. A-=-*J?-$A?-(-3A$-$9A$-<-?-cR.-.J-$*A?-$A-2<-<-b-$9A$-__________, (bR)
5. b-.J:A-/%-/?-#<-$J?-8A%-%-__________, ((-$+R%)
6. [-<-[-3R-<A$?-$J-#R%-3$R-/?- VR-$-5S$?-__________, (lJ)
7. A-=-*J?-$A?-<%-$A-=3-<R$?-9R-lJ.-3R-__________, (!R/)
8. eJ?-/?-?-cR.-aR$-3#/-)J-3%-/?-)J-3%-%-__________, (:IR)
9. A-=-*J?-<-#<-$J:A-<R$?-0-(-2R:C-=?-YR=-.J-.?-(J/-$9A$-$-__________, (*/)
10. #J-2-$A-$8A-2.$-<-__________, (.$:) #R-<-.?-(J/-$A-/%-%-__________, ( 8$?)
•209•
Exercise 8 Select a verb in the frame and write it in its correct tense form and, if
necessay, auxiliaries.
.0J<-2eR., %-(%-.?-=$-mA<-*/-?R%-,
1. #-l%-%?-@-3-$*A?-!-___________, .J-<A%-%-#R-$*A?-!<-v-$A-3A-:IR,
:IR, :)R$ .$:, 2?R.,
2. .-/%?-.3-2A-&R$-4K:A-!J%-%-___________, .-,%-/-($-;R.,
;A/, :VA, <A$ :.R/,
3. ,J%?-}R/-3-%-#<-$J:A-3*3-0?-___________, .-,J%?-<-:IR-o-;A/, =J/, 9, $;R<,
4. A-&J-___________, .J-<A%-%-.$:-g$?-!J<-o-;A/-9J<,
5. A-#-(%-n=-.J:A-=$-$-(%-.3-2A-$%-;R%-,=, #<-$J-___________,
6. #R-.J%-3-MA-=.-0-$9A$-___________, <J.-S-.J%-?%-MA-.$:-$9A$-$-*/-;R.,
7. 5S%-2-$A-=$-/?-:.A-___________, /%?-!-KA<-<-!J<-.$R?,
8. %:A-%/-;-$A?-9-3-3%-%-___________, .-#R-1R-/-$A-;R.,
9. aR2-9-PR=-/A-<, t$?-L3?-$A?-=?-L-5%-3-___________,
10. %?-.0J-(-.J-___________, :R<-$A?-3A-v,
7.6 --Negative past tense forms
Affirmative Negative Notes

\A%-o=-$A-$/:-MA-$A?-kR-8A%-24=- \A%-o=-$A-$/:-MA-$A?-kR- 3--24=, 3
n is put before the
main verb or be verb.
/A-<J., 8A%- 24=--/A-3-<JJ.,
3
o is put either
A-#-t$?-L3?-$A-9-3-8A3-?R%-, A-#-t$?-L3?-$A-9-3- 8AA3-3-?RR% / 3--8A3, before monosyllabic
adjectives or before
the auxiliary.
A-=-*J?-?-cR.-$9A$-$A-!J%-/?- A-=-*J?-?-cR.-$9A$-$A- $8AA-3--($?, 3 is put before the
$8A-($?, !J%-/?- $8AA-($?--/AA-3--<J., main / be verb.
(-b-)J-3%-%-bR-.$RR?-?R%-, (-b-)J-3%-%-bR- 3--.$R?, 3

n is put before the
verb that does not
.$RR?-3-?RR%-,
change in tense form.
5K-$9%?-$A?-\-.L%?-%-*/-,=, 5K-$9%?-$A?-\-.L%?-%- 3--*/,, 3
o is put before
3--*/-,=,, auxiliaries.
.?-(J/-:.A-#J-2-;R%?-$A-.?-(J/-/- .?-(J/-:.A-#J-2-;R%?-$A- */--3-?RR%-, 3 is put before verbs

that have no past
*/-?R%-, .?-(J/-/ 3--*/,
tense form.
•210•
Notes-4
1. 3A/- has no past tense form. The tense must be understood in context.
2. 3-<J. does not tell the tense. The tense must be understood in context.
3. The negative adverb 3 denies in the past tense mood, e.g.,<A-3-3,R-/R-$A?, #<-$J-3-:$R?, He
did not climb the mountain because it was not high.
Exercise 9 Deny the italics in past tense mood.
.0J<-2eR., #-l%-%-=?-!<-:IR-.$R?-,=, %:A-%/-;-:IR-3-.$R?-,=,
1. A-=-*J?-$A?-?-cR.-.J%-,R$-2aR$?-/A-<J., #<-$J:A-}R/-/-MA-$8/-0-$A?-?-cR.-.J-__________,
2. #<-$J?-?-.J-kR-8A%-%-2+<-:.R.-/A-<J., #<-$J?-?-.J-#%-2:A-$8A-3-__________,
3. (-3A$-.J-\A%-o=-#J-2-$A-<?-,A-=J-2./-2o.-$9A$__________, ,A-=J-$?3-28A-$9A$-;A/,
4. =R-.%-2R:C-/%-%-#<-$J-=R-=J$?-__________, =R-$*A?-2-$A-/%-%-=R-=J$?-,R2-?R%-/A-<J.,
5. (-3A$-$A-/%-/?-[-:)<-;R%-, =$-<-G-3-:)<-__________,
6. A-=-*J?-$A?-lJ.-3R-5%-3-<A$-?R%-, <J.-S-MA-$8/-0-<A$?-$J?-__________,
7. ?-cR.-aR$-3#/-)J-3%-%-?R%-/A-<J., )J-*%-%-__________,
8. [-<R=-$A-/%-%-#J-MA-#J<-<R-__________, ?-$/?-$A-$8A-2.$-<-8$?-?R%-,
9. [-#R%-/%-/-(-3A$-$9A$-;R., m-(-(J-$9A$-__________,
10. (-b-$A-/%-/?-8A%-%-(-S%?-/A-<J., 2+%-(-__________,
11. [-9R-<A-/%-/?__________, (-3A$-$A-/%-/?-,R/,
12. $8$-/?-#J-MA-@-/A-[-<R=-lJ?-/A-<J., #J-MA-#-;?-__________,
13. .J%-?%-(R-$-:.A:A-MA%-%-[-<R=-9J<-$A-;R., .J%-3-__________,
14. \A%-o=-#J-2-.J%-3-<-:VR$-#J-__________, .J%-?%-<-.-2R-<R%-#J-;A/,
Exercise 10 Describe your experiences of learning Tibetan using the past tense forms
of the verbs in parentheses and, if necessary, auxiliaries.
.0J<-2eR., =R-$?3-$A-}R/-/, %?-2R.-{.-3-.%?, /-/A%-.-%?-A-3.R-2-$9A$-$A-=R$?-/?-2R.-{.-.%?, (.R%)
1. %-%:A-2R.-;A$-$A-.$J-c/-/-/-/A%-______________, (,$)
2. %?-2R.-;A$-,J%?-,R$-3-2R.-/?-______________, (aR2)
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3. %-2R.-<-3-?R%-$R%-, 2R.-;A$-_______________, (2!R=)
4. .$J-c/-$A-A3-{.-%?-}R/-(.-22-$A?-_________, ($R)
5. %?-2R.-{.-2R.-/?-_____________________, (.R%)
6. .J%-,R$-%?-2R.-{.-.!:-3R-<J.-______________, (:.R.)
7. 2R.-$A-KR$?-/?-%?-}R/-(.-3%-%-_____________, (>J?)
8. 2R.-<-3-?R%-$R%-, %?-$;$-________________, (<A$)
9. %-2R.-<-?R%-/A-<, :5S-2-*A.-0R-_______________, (;R%)
10. %?-2R.-/?-(%-.?-$A-<R$?-0-9R-______________, (S/)
Notes-5
#<-$J?-=?-L-VA?-VA?-2+%-, He did his

1. Verbs in PAT are repeated to emphasize, e.g.,
homework (for a long time). / 8-;?-A-3<-2|$?-2|$?-,=, The child waited for his
mother (for a long time).
2. Monosyllabic adjectives are repeated in past tense mood to emphasize, e.g.,#-l%-/3-^-SR-SR-
,=, The weather was (very) warm yesterday. / ^-2-}R/-3-$A-/%-%-3<-$J-#$-#$-,=, She was
(very) sad last month.
3. The table contents below deal with cause-effect conjunctions. Such conjunctions are put
between the primary verb and the secondary verb or between adjectives. The various
conjunctions are distributed, as shown below, with respect to the suffix of the syllable
they follow.
Verb + causative conj. Adjective+ causative conj. Notes

#R-9R?-8A%-29%-0R-24=--/?-fJ., 3<-$J-#$-#$-;?--/.-L%-2+%-, nVarious causative
conjunctions include the
3-EA-:#R<-=R-2{R<-<<?-:#R<-2+%-, ?-{3-3?-C-3-*J?, ones in bold.
oAll causative
%J.-(-2R-?R%-?R%-;?-,R/-,=, (-*%-;?-9R$-$A-#-.$-,=, conjunctions can be
replaced with/? .
*A-3-><-<?--/3-^-SR-,=, /3-^-SR-SR-;?-=R-+R$-{3-,=, pNormally, what appears
before the conjunction
(<-22?-;?-?-_R/-?R%-, 3<-$J-*A.-<?->-2o$?-,=, explains what follows.
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Exercise 11 Tell if you did or did not do the things listed below. Explain in detail.
.0J<-2eR., L-2-$?<-2-$9A$-24=,
Example: ^-2-}R/-3-%?-L-2-$?<-2-24=-<?-fJ.-,=, $9:-:#R<-$8$-3:A-/%-%-%?-L-2-.J-=?-o-;A/,
1. ;=-{R<-<-:IR, 8. .!:-=?-3%-%-MR%-,
2. .0J-(-3%-%-$9A$-$-[R$ 9. }R/-(.-%?-:R-)-:,%?,
3. $R/-o-$R%-(J/-/-.$:, 10. 2R.-$A-^R?-$<-<A$
4. $+3-o.-:.A-$R 11. =?-l=-.R%-2h<-;?,
5. 8-;?-$*R<, 12. .0J-(-$9A$-:VA
6. 2R.-/?-*A.-0R-;R%-, 13. ,-3$-3%-%-:,J/,
7. =R-$?3-$A-}R/-/-aR2-9-:.A<-;R%-, 14. (%-4B$-$J-$9A$-=R%?-,R.-;?,
7.7 --Questions with verbs in PAT
Subject Complement / Question words Verb Notes

HR.- #--l%-(AA-$9AA$-$- ;RR%-, At the end of such
questions, auxiliaries
29R-2-9R?- .--KA-(AA-$9AA$- =?, may be added.
$/3-P- A-3J-<A-#<-.?-5S.-.- :11<--?R%-,

MA-/R$?-3R-.J<- |R<-3R-(A-3RR-$9AA$- ;RR.,
HR:A-A-&J- 2R.-<-/3- ?RR%-/?,
???- L-2-:.A-5%-3- =?--/A-<J.,
Subject Complement Interrogative Verb Interrogative Note

choice one choice two
HR.- #--l%-aR2-#%-/%-% ;RR%-, nWithout the
interrogative
29R-2-9R?- .--KA-#%-2-:.A- AJ- =?, /?, adverb, the
sentences are
$/3-P- A-3J-<A-#<- statements.
:11<,
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Subject Complement Interrogative Verb Interrogative Note
choice one choice two
MA-/R$?-3R-.J<- |R<-3R- ;RR., oInterrogative
choices one and
HR:A-A-&J- 2R.-<- AJ- ?RR%-, /?, two are
alternative.
.!R/-3(R$-$A?- L-2-:.A-5%-3- =?,
Subject Complement Interrogative Auxiliary verbs Note
HR.- #-l%-!R/-,R$-/?-2?R.- ,= / ?RR%-, AJ is put between
the main verb and
t$?-L3?- .R/-.$-P2- ,= / ?RR%-,
the auxiliaries, or
$A?-
between the
#-l%-/3-^- SR- AJ- ,= / ?RR%-, monosyllabic
3<-$J- %:A-=J$?-*J?-<-.$:- ,= / ?RR%-, adjective and the

auxiliaries.
HR?- L-2-5%-3-=?-5<- ,= / ?RR%-,
(<-2-(J-$9A$- 3.%-.$R%-22?- ,= / ?RR%-,
Exercise 12 Ask a question about each statement and then answer. Refer to the text
Uncle Snying lcags rgyal in Lhasa above.
.0J<-2eR., A-#-t$?-L3?-o=-$A?-PR%-HJ<-$A-:5S-2-$A-{R<-:VA-.$R?-?R%-,
SA-2, A-#-t$?-L3?-o=-$A?-(A-$9A$-:VA-.$R?-?R%-, =/, PR%-HJ<-$A-:5S-2-$A-{R<-:VA-.$R?-?R%-,
1. A-#-~A%-t$?-o=-9A-=A%-PR%-HJ<-/-;R.-,=,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
2. z-?-PR%-HJ<-(J-$9A$-3A/-,=,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
3. A-#-~A%-t$?-o=-z-?-/?-:IR-3->J?,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
4. #<-$J<-z-?-PR%-HJ<-$A-?-O-$9A$-.$R?-,=,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
5. #<-$J?-=$-.J2-$9A$-<-*R-.$R?-?R%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
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6. #<-$J?-z-?-/?-(A-$9A$-Z-3A-Z->J?-?R%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
7. A-#-t$?-L3?-o=-IA?-PR%-HJ<-ZA=-2R-<A$-,=,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

8. #<-$J?-.$R/-0-/%-/?-0<-3%-%-2o2-?R%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

9. *A/-3-.J<-#<-$J?-9-3-$&A$-<-3-9R?,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

10. 9-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-/?-9-3-9R-8A3-3-?R%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

11. PR%-HJ<-$A-.GA=-/?-#<-$J?-#%-2-;$-0R-3%-%-<A$-?R%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

12. #<-$J-PR%-HJ<-$A-.GA=-<-b%-,%-%-2.-?R%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

13. #<-$J?-t$?-/$-$R%-(J/-$9A$-*R?-2+%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

14. #<-$J-@R%-$A?-(.-2+%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

15. #<-$J-3PR/-#%-/%-%-2.-,=,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,

16. 2R.-uR%?-gJ/-36S.-#%-$A-/%-/?-#<-$J?-v.-3R-3%-%-<A$-2+%-,
SA-2, ______________________________, =/, ______________________,
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Exercise 13 Ask questions with the phrases in parentheses that the corresponding
statement answer.
.0J<-2eR., 5S%-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-/?-t$?-/$-$9A$-*R?, ($%-/?) SA-2, $%-/?-t$?-/$-$9A$-*R?,
1. (-3J.-/R-$A?, ?-cR.-$A-,R$-/?-=R-.-3%-%-=R-=J$?-3-;R%-, ((A-$9A$-$)

SA-2, ____________________________________________,
2. A-=-*J?-MA-..-0-&/, MA-#$-<?-&/-$9A$-<J., ((A-3R-$9A$)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
3. 8A%-2-l-:6$?-;?-<?-(-b-$9A$-2bR?-?R%-, (?)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
4. $8$-/?-#<-$J?-8A%-%-(-2+%-;?-=R-=J$?-,R2-?R%-, ((A-$9A$->J.)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
5. A-=-*J?-$A?-(-3A$-$9A$-$A-#-/?-[-3%-%-<A$-?R%-, ($%-/?)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
6. #<-$J?-[-9R-.$:-(J.-(-3A$-$A-#-/?-:V-<-9-3-$A-<A$?-$8/-0-3(R.-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
7. A-=-*J?-$A?-<%-$A-<R$?-0R-(-4B$-OA.-<?-KA<-<-(-3A$-$A-#<-?R%-/A-<J., (?-?)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
8. (-3A$-$A-/%-/?-[-<-[-3R-:)<-;R%-, ((A-$9A$)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
9. (-b-bR-3#/-9R-<-#$-S$-$-2$R?-,=, ((A-3R-$9A$-$)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
10. .?-(J/-l-:6$?-$A-L-2-#J-2-$&A$-$A?-#<-/A-<J., (.)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
11. =?-YR=-.J-<A3-28A/-.?-(J/-$9A$-$-*/-?R%-, ((A-$9A$)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
12. [-<R=-$/:-$A-<?-A-=-*J?-$A-o.-0-9R-#J<-<R-3-$+R$?, (?)
SA-2, ____________________________________________,
•216•
Exercise 14 Imagine that you have done the things listed below. Your partner asks
questions with the words in parentheses and you answer.
.0J<-2eR., %?-}R/-(.-8A%-=?-=?, ((A-$9A$-$)

Question: HR?-(A-$9A$-$-8A%-=?-=?-/?, Answer: %-aR2-9<-:PR-3-,2, =?-o-=$-$-3-;R%-,
1. %-}R/-(.-2R.-<-?R%-, (/3) Q:________________ A:_________________,
2. %?-=R-(-4B$-$-o-;A$-.%?-%-, ($%-/?) Q:________________ A:_________________,
3. %?-5B$-36S.-$9A$-*R?, (|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-$) Q:________________ A:_________________,
4. %-/-/A%-KA-o=-<-?R%-/?, (?-?) Q:________________ A:_________________,
5. %?-=J$?-*J?-.$:-$9A$-*R?-2+%-%-, (?-=) Q:________________ A:_________________,
6. %?-3.%-.$R%-(%-;-4B$-:,%?-?R%-, (o-3-.) Q:________________ A:_________________,
7. %?-2R.-;A$-;-4B$-.%?-2+%?-%-, ((A-3R-$9A$)Q:________________ A:_________________,
8. %-3,R-:VA%-/?-3,<-KA/-?R%-%-, (/3-$9A$-$)Q:________________ A:_________________,
9. %?-/-/A%-L-2-=?-/A-;A/, ((A-$9A$-$) Q:________________ A:_________________,
10. %?-@-3-$*A?-!-S/-,=, ((A-3R-$9A$) Q:________________ A:_________________,
Exercise 15 Complete the dialogue between a nomad and a city dweller. Use the past
tense forms of the verbs in parentheses and, if necessary, auxiliaries.
PRR%-3A %-:VR$-/?-_____, (*J) <J.-S-=R-*A->-$A-}R/-/-%-PR%-HJ<-<-____/A-;A/, (;R%) HR.-$%-/?-*J?,

:VRR$-0 :VR$-?-lJ-#R$-/?, <J.-S-%:A-@-3-$*A?-!-lJ-#R$-?-$/?-$A-MA-3A/, %-3-*J?-$R%-#R-$*A?-!-<R%-/?-
______, ($/?-%R<)
PRR%-3A (A-$9A$-$-lJ-#R$-$-______/A-<J., ($/?-%R<)

:VRR$-0 s-2o.-$A-{2?-2, <R%-?-/?-:5S-2-.!:-3R-______, (*/) #R-$*A?-!-______/A-<J., (1R-2-3A-o$)
;A/-/-<, %:A-A-3-lJ-#R$-/->-*J-____/A-<J., (;R.) #R-$*A?-!->-*J-9R-_____/A-<J., (#J/)
PRR%-3A <R%-?-/?-:5S-2-(A-$9A$-$-.!:-3R<-*/-?R%-/A-<J.,
:VRR$-0 o=-#2-;R%?-/?-:$=-2*R.-=%?, 8A%-=?-13-#-_____<R%-2-9R-9-o-_____, (:L%)(3J.)
PRR%-3A #R-$*A?-!-lJ-#R$-/?-=R-(A-3R-$9A$-$______, (:.$)
:VRR$-0 =R-28A-2&-z$-$9A$-:$R<-?R%-, .-%-<-=R-?R-.$<-______, (:2.) HR:A-HA3-3A-9R-$%-/-;R.,
PRR%-3A %-<-%:A-c/-3R, 8-;?-9R-:.A-/-;R., .J%-3-8-;?-9R-#J-2:A-/%-/?-aR2-9<-______/A-<J., (:PR) 2R.-
•217•
{.-<-:R?-3R-$9A$-______, (2>.) <J.-S-….-PR%-HJ<-/?-L-2-=?-/?-=R-*A->-:$R<-,=, 1-;:-$A-i3-
0-9R-<-1=-(J<-______ (2eJ.)
:VRR$-0 HR:A-c/-cR/-$*A?-!-PR%-HJ<-/?-3A-?/-$A-/?,
PR%-3A c/-cR/-$*A?-!-=R-.-3%-$A-}R/-/-______, (3J.) .->=-/-%:A-%/-;-$9A$-<-YA%-3R-$9A$-;R.,
:VRR$-0 %?-2v?-/, HR.-aR2-9<-______, (:PA3) .J:A-nJ/-$A?-:.A-/?-L-2-______, (fJ.)
PR%-3A ;A/,- %:A-MA%-Z%-5%-3-$A?-%-aR2-9<-____/A-<J., (*J=) #R-9R-3J.-o-/, %-<-:.A-/-;R.-,2-/A-3-<J.,
:VRR$-0 %?-2v?-/, :.A-/-<-*A.-3J.-$A 8-;?-9R-2R.-$A-?-/?-=$-($?-/-<J.,
PR%-3A ;:-/?-%:A-=$-/?-5%-3-______, (:(R<) :.A-/?-%?-#%-2-______, (*R) __________,
($8A-($?) .-?-$8/-/-:IR-?-3J.,
:VRR$-0 ~A%-eJ, …
Text Four: past tense and present tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, :5S-2:A-,.-GA-#-2h-,J%?->A$
,RR.-0--.R/-:PP2 HR.-}R/-(.-:.A<-AJ-;RR%-,
2.JJ-(JJ/-z-3RR ;R%-%-, KA-SR<-%-:.A-/?-)-:,%-oR<-.$:, HR.-.<-lJ-3.R-/?-<J.-0,
,RR.-0--.R/-:PP2 3A/, %-d-2-?-(-/?-;R%-, }R/-(.-$?<-:$R.-0-$9A$-;A/, %?-.0J-(-3%-%-VA?-2+%-,
2.JJ-(JJ/-z-3RR :R, .J-3R-9J<, HR.-.-2R-L-2-$8/-0-3%-%-;R.-o-<J.-0,
,RR.-0--.R/-:PP2 ;R.-;R.-;R., %-/3-;A/-/-<-#R3-$A-3J.,
2.JJ-(JJ/-z-3RR .J-9J<-/-%-<-#R3-0-3J.-$A %-<-@R%-$A?-@<-0R-;A/-;,
,RR.-0--.R/-:PP2 .J%-3-HR:A-=?-!-(A-$9A$-;A/,
2.JJ-(JJ/-z-3RR %-5S%-2-$9A$-;A/, &-=$-24SS%?, %:A-1-3-$*A?-!?-$4S.-/?-o/-3#R:C-5S%-#%-$9A$-KJ?-?R%-, 5S%-
#%-(%-/-<, %-3%-%-=?-o-;RR.-$A .J%-?%-5S%-#%-5%-3-(J-$A
,RR.-0--.R/-:PP2 .J-3A-Z-$A-/?, .%R?-0R-5%-3-#-3=-$&A$-/?-*R-,22-$A
2.JJ-(JJ/-z-3RR 3-<J., <J.-S-.J%-3-5S%-#%-9R-(%-$A *R-3#/-9R-%R->J?-+$-+$-<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-.?-5S.-3%-%-#-2h-;?-
/-(R$ *R-3#/-<-5S%-2-$*A?-!-:VJ=-:SA?-(J-$A .J%-?%-.J-3R-3-<J.,
,RR.-0--.R/-:PP2 .J?-/-}R/-(.-5%-3-29%-/A-AJ-<J.,
2.JJ-(JJ/-z-3RR 3-<J., <J.-S-MA-5%-3-.?-5S.-z$-+-;R.-,,=, .J%-?%-<-Z-$A .%R?-2R-5%-3-*R-,2-$A v.-3R-5%-3-<A$-
•218•
:IR-$A #-l%-%-.-2R-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-?R%-, HR.-d-2-$A-?-(-$%-$A-;A/,
,R.-0-.R/-:P2 %-d-2-$A-b-#R$-/?-;A/,
2.JJ-(J/-z-3R :R, .J-9J<, b-#R$-?-(-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/, &A$->R.-S,
Exercise 16 Identify the tense at the end of each statement, then convert past tense
statements into the present tense or vice versa.
.0J<-2eR., #R%-2R-:.A-(-/%-/?-*J?, :.?-0, Converted: #R%-2R-:.A-(-/%-/-*J-$A-;R.,

Tense mood Tense - converted
1. %-KA-SR<-:.A-/?-:.$-oR<-.$:,________ 1. ____________________________,
2. %?-.0J-(-3%-%-:VA,________ 2. ____________________________,
3. }R/-(.-.0J-(-VA?-/-=?-5K$?-3A-(J, _______ 3. ____________________________,
4. /-/A%-.R-5B$?-$-%-#R3-$A-3J., ________ 4. ____________________________,
5. %?-(%-<-,-3$-:5S%-$A-;R., ________ 5. ____________________________,
6. @-3-$*A?-!?-29R-9-$9A$-3-KJ?, ________ 6. ____________________________,
7. %?-\R$-2f/-/-v-3-,2, ________ 7. ____________________________,
8. HR.-?-(<-:.A<-AJ-;R%-, ________ 8. ____________________________,
9. .J%-?%-:5S-2-.!:-3R-<J., ________ 9. ____________________________,
10. %-$4S.-/?-=R-(-4B$-$-2#., _______ 10. ___________________________,
Exercise 17 Talk about what you did and what you do now with your partners.
.0J<-2eR., :.?--0, %-}R/-(.-@-3-$*A?-$A-3*3-0?-0R-=A/-/?-2#., aR2-9<-<-.J-/?-?R%-, 0R-=A/-/?-2#R3?-0?-=R-

2&-$?3-:$R<-?R%-, 2004=R<-3,R-:VA%-/?-3,<-KA/-/A-<, aR2-9-(J/-3R-:PA3?, aR2-9-(J/-3R:A-/%-/?-aR2-
.R%-$A-,R$-/?-.!:-=?-3-M%?, o/-.-#R3-0-3J.-/-<, %?-o/-.-aR2-.R%-+$-+$-;?-/A-;A/, |R-#-<-353?-
353?-3-?R%-/A-;A/,
.--v-2,, .-2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-;R., .R%-3#/-%-3A/-.-.-2R-MA-$8/-0-$?3-;R., %J.-(-2R-(J.-=?-3A-$&A$ $&A$-

$A?-<A-3R-.R%-$A-;R., $&A$-#%-2-=?-3#/-$9A$-;A/, %-<-$8/-0-.J-$*A?-!-aR2-3-%R-3-3A/, |R<-(.-L%-/,
%?-9-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-/-8R<-=?-;?-$A-;R., ,A<-$A?-:5S-2-*A.-0R-<J.,
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3RR It is put at the end of a sentence to refute, with a latent tag question.
Statement English Statement with 3R English
.J%-?%-$/?-5=-.J-3R-3-<J., Nowadays, the

situation is not like
.J%-?%-$/?-5=-.J-3R-<J.-3R, Nowadays, the
situation is so. Isn't it?
that.
.%R?-0R-:.A-o-%?-.$-$A This thing is of
good quality.
.%R?-0R-:.A-o-%?-3A-.$-$A-3R, This thing is not of
good quality. Is it?
8-;?-:.A-IA3-0R-<J., This child is
intelligent.
8-;?-:.A-IA3-0R-3-<J.-3R, This child is not
intelligent. Is he?
:P=-2-9R-2.-,=, The guest left. :P=-2-9R-2.-3-,=-3R, The guests did not
leave, right?
/ It has various grammatical functions. This table's contents reveal its functions in forming
conditional and infinitive cases.
Conditional case Note Quasi-Infinitive case Note

.$J-=?-2*%?--/-$8/-$A?-2!<, conditional .$J-=?-*RR%-/-;<-?J3?-.$R?, purposive
One will get respect if he does Motivation is required to engage
things for others. in philanthropical work.
.R/-.$-%R-3-2>.--/-$8/-IA?-;A.-(J?, conditional $>RR2-$+3?-/-<A$-0-(J-$9A$-3A-.$R?, purposive
People will trust you if you tell It doesn't take much intelligence
the truth. to lie.
<J3-3-?R%-/-<J3-3-,R/-o-<J., conditional HR.-z-?<-:IRR-/-_%?-:#R<-<-#R., method
One will arrive earlier if (he) Take the bus if you go to Lhasa!
walks faster.
9-3-$3-0R-9R?-/-$*A.-;R%-%-, under /.-0-S$-/-:.RR.-/-?J3?-$;J%-.$R?, method
One will get sleepy if he eats fat certain The patient must be mentally
food. conditions relaxed in order to recover.
.0J-(-$A-!J%-%-/-$J-/R$-$J-VA?-/-3A-(R$ conditional 2R.-{.-aR2-/-2R.-{.-$A-#R<-;$-;R.-/-Z, purposive
It is not allowed to scribble in the It is good to have an ideal Tibetan
book. environment to study Tibetan.
$8/-/-%/-2&RR?-/-i3-(A/-:#R<-9J<, conditional MA-$8/-/--%/--2&:-/--i3-(A/-/-3-.R$?, method
One allegedly gets retribution for Do not hesitate about retribution
maltreatment done to others. if (one) wants to harm others.
.!R/-3(R$-?R%-/-:IR$?, in what %:A-#-=J/-/-,R$-3<-HR?-.-2-(R., method
Dkon mchog walks fast. You have to stop smoking if you
listen to me.
aR2-3-:.A-.J.-lR3-VA?-/-3A-29%-, in what :11<--/-$/3-P-(J-2R-9R-2.J-:)$?-;A/, conditional
This student does not write Big planes are safe if one wants to
essays well. fly.
•220•
<? vs. 0 They are put at the end of a sentence to raise a question or to offer a suggestion.
With <? English With 0 English
.-KA<-<-:PR-<?, Shall we go back

now?
%?-:.A-=?-0, I do this. (What do
you think about it?)
.-=?-!-=?-<?, Shall we start to
work now?
.%R?-0R-:.A<-:)R$-0, Put the things here.
Is it OK?
HR?-%-#$-$-3-{=-<?, Please do not
trouble me. OK?
/.-0-:.A-S$-o-<J.-0, This patient will
recover, won't he?
.-(%-3A-:,%-<?, Shall we stop
drinking?
(/-0-:.A-MA-.$:-$9A$-;A/-0, This doctor is a good
person. Isn't he?
%-3A-:IR-<?, HR.-$*A?-?R%-, I stay and you two
go. How is that?
(%-:.A?-%-29A-o-<J.-0, I will get drunk with
this liquor, won't I?
;R% and :IR are used as particles to convey future tense mood while 2+%
;R% / :IR vs. 2+% / ?R%
and ?R% are used to convey past tense mood.
;RR% / :IRR 2+% / ?RR%

=?-!-3-=?-/-:$R- The boss will scold
(you) if the work is
(<-22?-2+%-, /3-^-:H$-:IR, It rained. It will
get cold.
2-$A?-2#A$-:IR, not done.
;A-$J-%?-:VA-;R%-, I will write the letter

but cannot send it.
v.-3R-<A$-?R%-, %?-:R<-$A?-v-3A-;R%-, I have seen the
performance and
<J.-S-%?-{<-3A-,2, will not see it
again.
%?-HR:A-{.-(-.J- I will remember your
words.
#<-$J?-?J3?-o-2&A%?-2+%--, .R/- He tried to
understand and
?J3?-3-:6B/-;R%-, .$-.J-3R-;A.-<-:6B/-3A-;R%-, will not bear a
grudge.
MA-,-(.-.J?-#-+-$R- The hopeless man
wouldn't take the
MA-%/-.J<-#-+-;?-2+%--, <J.-S-#<- The bad guy was
advised but he
3A-:IR, advice. $J?-#-=J/-3A-;R%-, wouldn't listen.
.$J-c/-:.A-aR2-OA.- This teacher would

not miss the class.
lA?-<A$-$A-.$J-c/-aR2-OA.-<-(.-?R%-, The math teacher
was absent from
<-(.-3A-:IRR, the class.
•221•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--2./--0,,
,%-!R%-o=-0R,
9J<-/R so-called HR:A-$R/-o-?R-3-9J<-/R-:.A-;A/-/?,

8A%-HA3 peasant household 8A%-HA3-5%-3-#-,R<-<-($?-;R.,
$4B respect %?-MA-8A-.=-$4B-:.R.,
;A-<%-LJ. to admire MA-I$?-&/-$/-/-;A-<%-LJ.-3#/-3%-,
5K-$%-2R whole life %?-5K-$%-2R<-*A.-+$-+$-2o2-?R%-,
3A-.3%? the mass; people 3A-.3%?-$A-:5S-2-)J-.$:-)J-.$:-<J.,
t$?-93 metal bridge t$?-93-3J.-/-=%-2-:.A-2c=-3A-,2,
:6$?-0/ construction :6$?-0/-$A-,R$-$-!R2?->$?-:2=-.$R?,
^R?-$< play %-YR=-o/-$A-^R?-$<-<-v-:.R.-3A-(J,
$?<-$+R. creation; invention $?<-$+R.-3J.-/-}R/-,R/-/-3A-;R%-,
36.-eJ? contribution MA-36.-eJ?-&/-/-%R-?R-2!R.-.$R?,
<A$-0-iR intelligent; sharp #R-<A$-0-iR, <J.-S-=J-=R-(J,
,J%?-$9A$-$ one time 2R.-#3?-,J%?-$9A$-$-o-35S-;A/-9J<,
!2?-$A? due to; because of (3-0-$A-!2?-$A?-%-aR2-9<-:IR-3-,2,
;R/-+/-aR2 to learn ;R/-+/-aR2-/-2lR/-:P?-2*J.-.$R?,
{.-<A$? languages ;R-<R2-/-{.-<A$?-3%-%->J?-3#/-3%-,
aR2-.0R/ saint; professor aR2-.0R/-$A?-$8%-=$?-.!:-3R-$9A$-2>.-2+%-,
=R$?-/? nearby; next to 8A-=A-:.A-.-=-,$-$A-2<-A-3-$A-=R$?-/?-2#.,
$%-?-$%-% everywhere wR3-0R-9J<-/-$%-?-$%-%-:IR-3#/-$9A$-;A/,
3*/-0 boatman 3*/-0-5%-3-$A?-*-:6B/-$A-3J.,
2*< to discard; to ignore <R$?-0-.!:-=?-;R.-.?-2*<-3A-*/,
.3-2&:-28$ to take a vow %?-KA/-(.-(%-3A-:,%-oR:A-.3-2&:-28$-;R.,
.0J<-28$-/ for example %-/3-^-SR/-0R<-.$:, .0J<-28$-/-#-l%-$A-/3-^,
•222•
P-# wharf .J-<A%-P-#-/-:P=-2-9J.-=R%-=R%-,
A-+-$A? the most aR2-3-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R-.J-<A%-,R/-3J.,
$8$-3 the next =R-$8$-3:A-/%-%-aR2-OA.-(J-$9A$-3J.,
:.-#% temple; meeting hall :.-#%-$A-/%-/-c/-0-9R?-PR?-;?-$A-;R.,
$4$-=$-#% temple $4$-=$-#%-A-+-$A?-MA%-&/-.2?-/-;R.,
29R-.LA2? shape (of architecture) 29R-.LA2?-3A-:S-/-<-#%-2-$*A?-!-]R-:22-<J.,
.J%-93 suspension bridge %-.J%-93-$A-,R$-/?-3$R-;-:#R<-$A
:)A$? to be damaged; to be ruined .J%-3-.$R/-fA%-.J-1=-(J<-:)A$?-;R.,
.?-<2? century .?-<2?-:.A:A-/%-:I<-wR$-(A-3R-$9A$-;R.-/%-,
=R-<2? decade of a century #R-=R-<2?-2o.-&-2:A-/%-KA-o=-/?-2#.,
:PA3-:P= traffic; transportation :PA3-:P=-3A-2.J-/-.0=-:LR<-:1J=-3A-2.J,
.$J-35/-:.R/ to benefit; to contribute $8/-.R/-.-.$J-35/-:.R/-/-;<-?J3?-<J.,
,. with regard to; regarding lA?-<A$-$A-,.-/?-%-.$J-c/-4-;-$9A$-3A/,
1/-0 benefit 1/-0-3J.-/, ?%?-o?-$A?-#$-=$-$-3A-=J/,
1/-0-2+R/ to benefit #J-.0R/-$A?-#J-2:A-.R/-/-1/-0-$%-;R.-2+R/,
2J.-,R.-;? to use; to make use of .R/-.$-12-/-$R-{2?-2J.-,R.-;?-.$R?,
3-I<-?J3?-&/ sentient beings 3-I<-?J3?-&/-/-~A%-eJ-:6B/-.$R?,
.R/-. for; for the sake of %/-;-$A-.R/-/-?%?-o?-?J3?-5K$?-$A-;R.,
.$J-?J3? good-will; mercy .$J-?J3?-29%-/-$8/-$A?-2lA-/A-<J.,
{-:S picture {-:S-.J-0E-(J/-<A/-0R-(J-$A-<J.,
!R/ to show HR:A-lA?-<A$-$A-{<-:V?-%-!R/-<,
\A%-o=-[-<R=-IA-=R-o?-,%-,%-,
1-3J? ancestor 1-3J?-;%-3J?-$A-<A%-%-#J-2-$A-3,:-{R<-/$?-<J.,
kR-8A% crop field C-?-kR-8A%-%-2+<-/-*J/-#-(J,
fJ. to find 8-;?-:.A?-.J-<A%-$?J<-$A-i-=%-$9A$-fJ.-?R%-,
?-cR. wild land 8A%-?-=R-.-3%-%-?-cR.-<-=?-?R%-,
•223•
]R<-22? to be to one's liking 3<-$J?-2>.-/R-%:A-]R<-22?,
:5S-gJ/ life resources |R<-3R-2o-2R-:.A-^-2-:.A:A-:5S-gJ/-<J.,
..-0-&/ faithful; pious MA-..-0-&/-5%-3-9-2-3A/,
$8A-($? to settle down; to be located \A%-o=-=R-S$-2o-$A-}R/-/-?-:.A-/?-$8A-($?,
;?-3? or so; about *A/-3-S$-;?-3?-=-=?-!-:.A-:P2-o-<J.,
2+< to convert; to turn into ;A$-lR3-:.A-#<-$J?-2R.-;A$-$-2+<,
=R-=J$? good harvest =R-=J$?-3-;R%-/-3-$J-,R/-o-<J.,
(-3A$ spring; well (-3A$-3J.-/-#R%-2R-:.A-{3-o-<J.,
29% to grab *J/-gR$-0-$A?-b/-3-29%-2+%-,
(-b ditch (-b-:.A:A-/%-/-(-8R%-$A?-3J.,
(-2+% to irrigate HR?-vR?, (-2+%-/-=R-+R$-Z-/R-#R-,$-<J.,
SA/-=/-3)= to feel grateful SA/-$9R-9J<-/-SA/-=/-3)=-oR-<J.,
3(R. to offer .$R/-0-$A-/%-/?-.3<-3A-3(R.,
$-3-$-5S$? various 5S%-#%-:.A:A-/%-/-.%R?-2R-$-3-$-5S$?-<J.,
&%-3-:$R<-< shortly &%-3-:$R<-<-#<-$J-*=-2+%-,
82?-VR dance 82?-VR-o$-3#/-.J-8A-3R-;$-3-$9A$-<J.,
=.-3R-;? to mimic HJ:-.J?-{.-(-=.-3R-;?-:$R-lR3-$A-;R.,
?-cR.-aR$ to cultivate wild lands ?-cR.-aR$-3#/-\A%-o-#J-2-$A-#J-3A-<J.,
<-#$ group <-#$-2o.-0-$A-MA-.J-<A%-=?-!<-;R%-3A-.$R?,
<%-{= one's own portion <%-$A-=?-{=-3-P2-/-\-24:-!J<-$A-3J.,
=?-YR= behavior; tradition $8A-2.$-$-.3<-3(R.-;?-oR-YR=-3A-Z,
;%-$A?-;%-$A? gradually 5.-0-3J-=-;%-$A?-;%-$A?-=R2?-?R%-,
=R$ to become; to return 8A-=A-;-<2?-2R-MA-%/-0-$9A$-$-=R$-?R%-,
$8A-2.$ mountain deities $8A-2.$-$A-z-#%-9R-,A<-2+%-$A?-3A-(J,
3$R-/$-MA human being 3$R-/$-MA-^-2-$A-!J%-/-3J.,
(R-$ ritual; rite (R?-=$?-$A-(R-$-3%-%-$9A$-%?-3-<A$
z-2 spirit medium z-2-$8A-2.$-$A-35S/-LJ.-$9A$-AJ-;A/,
•224•
.J->J. so; in that way HR?-9-3-.J->J.-3-9, .=-3R->J.-9R,
.J%-?%-/%?-! recently; lately .J%-?%-/%?-!-#<-$J-22-$A?-#R3-$A-3J.,
3)$-2# to end .-!R/-=?-3)$-2#-=-#.-;R.,
.-&A shortly before; a moment ago .-&A-HR?-(A-$9A$-=2-2+%-, %?-3-$R-,=,
;R%?-mR$? entire; whole aR2-3-;R%?-mR$?-2R.-+$-+$-;A/,
A-#-t$?-:23-o=-PR%-HJ<-8A$-/,
$?<-:I<-#% news agency $?<-:I<-#%-/?-=?-!-tA,
$/?-5= situation; news $/?-5=-3A->J?-/-@R=-o$-3-;?,
8R<-< while; meantime 8R<-<-%?-.-2R-2R.-;A$-<-.R%-o-;A/,
:PA$ to be congenial; to be OK %-<-#%-2-$&A$-$A-:.$-<R$?-3A-:PA$
,%-(J/ plaza; square ,%-(J/-:.A-/-MA-$-3-$-5S$?-<A$-o-;R.,
:$R? to become contaminated (3-0-aR2-3-3%-%-$9A$-$-:$R?-;R.,
vR$? to be hungry #R-vR$?-vR$?-{R3-{R3-/?, 3,:-3)$-2o=-?R%,
3R$-3R$ dumpling 3R$-3R$-$-%-A-+-$A?-.$:,
}R-5S. vegetable }R-5S.-9R?-/-=?-1%-2.J-9J<-$A-;R.,
>-24S?-3 cooked meat >-24S?-3-.$R?-/%->-2YJ$?-3-.$R?,
,$-0 noodle ,$-0-A-3.R-/?-$4S-2R-:,J/-,$-<J.,
b%-$?3-:#R<-=R tricycle b%-$?3-:#R<-=R-9J<-/-MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-3A->J?,
2!<-<? in queue; standing in line #%-2-3,R/-0R-PR%-HJ<-/-2!<-<?-;R.,
gJ/-36S.-#% museum gJ/-36S.-#%-:.A-/?-,$-3A-<A%,
(. to get tired; to be broken %-(.-$A %J.-5S?-9-3-9R?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
3#R to be required; to be needed ^-2-2./-0:A-/%-%-2R.-/?-$R/-o-3,$-0R-3A-3#R,
.3-2A bottle HR?-(%-.3-2A-$%-*R?, %?-9-3-*R,

(%-n= alcoholic (%-n=-HR., =$-/?-c/-3R-<->R<-o-<J.,
=.-0 degenerated; spoiled (%-n=-.J-MA-=.-0-A-K-3-$9A$-;A/,
1R-/ to have a stomachache 3.%-.$R%-9-3-3%-?R%-, .-%-1R-/-$A-;R.,
•225•
$/:-MA ancient people $/:-MA-9R?-.J%-?%-$A-.R/-.$-3A->J?,
#J<-<R alone c.-0R-:.A-~A%-3-eJ, #R-#J<-<R-2#.-;R.,
(-S%? to channel water /$?-/%-%-(-S%?, #R%-=R-}R/-0R<-*/-,=,
{3 dry C-{3, (-{3, .-K$?-9R$-{3-$A-;R.,
.!:-=? difficult work #R-.!:-=?-<A$-/-#$ 9?-8A3-0R-<A$-/-.$:,
lR3 article; essay #<-$J:A-lR3-.J-.J-<A%-5$?-0<-$A-!J%-%-:$R.-o-<J.,
=R%?-,R.-;? to enjoy; to consume o-;R.-/-=R%?-,R.-;?-.$R?, 5K-KA-3-:HJ<-3A-,2,
$+R$? to belong to %-l-:6$?-$%-%-<-3A-$+R$?,
5B$-36S. dictionary 2R.-{.-.R%-/-5B$-36S.-A-m-$9A$-.$R?,
;-4B$ a lot of >-o-3-2&-,3-0-;-4B$-<J., .J-3R-$9A$-3A-.$R?,
3,R-:VA% senior middle school 3,R-:VA%-/?-3,<-KA/-/-aR2-9-(J/-3R<-:IR,
<R% valley; agricultural area <R%-/-9R$-=$-<A$-o-*%-,
$/?-%R< to move; to migrate .J-2-5%-=R-$&A$-$-,J%?-$&A$-$-$/?-%R<-$A-;R.,
:$=-2*R.-=%? to have a campaign =R-S$-&-$A-}R/-/?-N%-$R-/?-=?-:$=-3%-%-=%?,
:R?-3R-$9A$ decent 8A-3R-$/-MA-:R?-3R-$9A$-<J., $8/-?J3?-(J-$A
:5S-2:A-,.-GA-#-2h-,J%?->A$
$?<-:$R.-0 reporter; journalist $?<-:$R.-0-$9A$-$A?-%:A-=R-o?-,%-,%-$9A$-VA?,
@<-0R active c.-0R-=R-2./-&-&/-0R-i3-<A$-@R%-$A?-@<-0R-<J.,
#-3 location; principle 8A-=A-.J<-#-3-3J., .J:A-#-3-*/,
:VJ=-:SA?-(J to have much social contact %-<-aR2-3-9R-1/-5/-/-:VJ=-:SA?-(J,R
,-3$ tobacco ,-3$-$A?-=?-<-$/R.-9J<, 3-:,J/-/-<2-;A/-o-<J.,
2#R3?-0? in total :.A-/-2#R3?-0?-|R<-?3-&-;R., .-2R-3A-:.%-$A
aR2-9-(J/-3R university 2R.-$A-.$R/-3-.J%-3-aR2-9-(J/-3R-<-<J.,
:PA3? to make a journey; to travel %-o=-#2-3%-%-:PA3?-?R%-, .R/-.$-3%-%-$R-?R%-,
(J.-=? the major (of study) %:A-(J.-=?-2R.-$A-=R-o?-8A2-:)$-;A/,
|R<-(. short of money; debit 5S%-#%-:.A?-|R<-(.-3A-:)R$
•226•
aR2-5/-2o.-0,
2h-3R.,
Positive Imperative $A in Infinitive Case

Negative Imperative o in Infinitive Case
Past Tense with Auxiliaries oR in Infinitive Clauses
Suggestion Particles Modals
/ in Infinitive Case
Tibetan newlyweds, Madison, Wisconsin, the USA (2007, Roger Dunkelberger).

Text One: imperative tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, ?%?-o?-GA-#%-!R/,
?%?--o? 35S-3R, %?-HR.-;.-$9A$-$-3-<A$-,=, .R-.$R%-HR:A-c.-0R-<-HR.-$*A?-!-%J.-5%-%->R$-0,
35SS-3RR (R$-$A <J.-S-%:A-c.-0R-;R%-,2-o-3-<J., .R-.$R%-#<-$J<-.$R%-5S$?-$9A$-;R.-9J<,
?%?--o? HR:A-c.-0R-/3-;A/-/-<-#R3-$A-3J., .R-.$R%-%?-#%-!R/-;?-o-;A/, #<-$J-3-;R%-/-3A-(R$ HR?-#<-$J<-.-#-
0<-,RR%?, #<-$J-;A/-.-3A/-.-;R%-.$R?,
35SS-3RR .J-(R$-$A <J.-S-HR.-$*A?-!?-(%-3-:,,%--, (%-:,%?-/-%-%J?-%J?-$A?-?/-$A
?%?--o? ;-;-;, %?-HR:A-#-=J/, HR.-$*A?-!:A-8A-=A-1/-5S$?-<-HA.->R$-<?,
35SS-3RR #<-$J-HA.-;R%-, <J.-S-HR?-9-3-3%-%--P--1A$-3--;?, #%-!R/-/-=J$?-*J?-(A-$9A$-*R-o?,
?%?--o? =J$?-*J?-&%-<-3-*R, =J$?-*J?-HJ<-;R%-/-%-3A-.$:, HR.-$*A?-!-,R/-2+%-/-%-.$:-/A-;A/,
35SS-3RR HR:A-#%-$?<-$%-/-;R., HR?-%-&A$->R.-S,
?%?--o? #%-$?<-HR.-$*A?-!-:.$-?-/?-,$-3A-<A%-, 35S-}R/-3A-<A$?-aR2-9-(J/-3R-$A-o-|R<-,R/-/A-<, ><-KR$?-
$-*R$?, *R$?-.J-/?-%J.-5%-%-=3-,$-3?-s-2&-:S-:S-$9A$-;A/, $;?-KR$?-$A-#%-2lJ$?-28A-,R$-
&/-.J:A-/%-/-;R.,
35SS-3RR %J.-(:R-.?-5S.-.:A-!J%-,R/-/-Z-$A .?-5S.-S$-0-$A-}R/-/-,R/-o-3-<J.,
?%?--o? .?-5S.-2./-0-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
35SS-3RR (R$-$A %J.-$*A?-!-.?-,R$-$-,R/-$A-:)$ HR.-$%-%-<-3-:IR, ;R%-3A->J?-/, %?-HR.-#-0<-$+R%-;,
?%?--o? ;-.J?-/-.J-LR?, 2.J-3R,
8.1 --Positive imperative
Examples Use Notes

HR?-\--.L%?-=RR%?, A request is made in a
neutral tone, without
HR.-$*A?-!-%J.-5%-%->R$ trying to be polite or
direct suggestion demanding.
c.-0R-<-#-0<-,RR%?,
aR2-OA.-<-*R/,
•228•
Examples Use Notes
HR?-$/:-$+3-$9A$->R.-S, This form is more polite
than the one above.
HR.-$*A?-!-%J.-5%-%->R$-S,
polite request
HR:A-c.-0R<-#-0<-$9A$-,R%?--S,
aR2-OA.-<-*R/-S,
HR?-A-3<-;A-$J-$9A$-UA?-0 / <?,
HR.-5S%-#%-/%-%-?R%-0 / <?,
polite suggestion One politely suggests.
HR?-%-(%-.3-2A-$%-*R?-0 / <?,
$R/-o-:.A-O?-0 / <?,
Notes-1
1. The imperative form of a verb is used to express positive imperatives. Below is a list of verbs
in various tense forms.
Present tense Past tense Future tense Imperative English

tense
*/ */ */ *R/ to listen
=? =? =? =? to do
2>. 2>. 2>. >R. to speak
9 9R? 29: 9R to eat
2. Some particles are put after the imperative form of a verb to create a polite suggestion.
Statement without With alternative English Notes

particles particles
HR?-,-3$-2$-(-$9A$-*R?, Please (you) buy a
package of cigarettes!
Without the
particles, each
HR?-?A=-+R$-,R$?, Please (you) pick the statement sounds
0 / <? fruit! direct and
mandatory.
HR.-$?3-0R-?R%-, Please (you three) go!
%:A-$+3-2>.-<-*R/, Please listen to my

speech.
•229•
3. More particles such as S and < are utilized to make polite imperative statements as well, e.g.,
HR?-*R/-S, 8-;?-1J-:.J2?-$A-;R.-#-<J., Listen! It seems that the child is crying. HR?-vR?-<, 8-;?-
vR$?-$A-;R.-/-,%-, You check! The child might be hungry. The distribution of such particles
depends on the suffix of the syllable they follow as shown below.
Particles Preceding Example English

sound
< $ 8-;?-=-3-$*R$-<, Don't beat the child!
S . :2-.J-?R.-S, Kill the insect!
< % :.A-/?-{%?-<, Hide here!
S / \-.L%?-%-*R/-S, Listen to the music!
S 2 (-/%-%-D-#-,R2?-S, Put salt in the water!
S 3 #-.A$-3-#R3-S, Don't tie (the container)

closed!
< : <A.-0-3-:(:-<, Don't gnaw the bone!
S < _%-g-:.A-%<-S, Make the wind-horse fly!
S = 8A-=A-~R=-S, Put the boy in bed!
Exercise 1 Make imperative statements with Tibetan words corresponding to the

English in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., %J.-5%-%->R$ %?-#%-!R/-;?-o?,
1. !R/-,R$-$-HR.-5%-$A-29:-MA-5%-3-_______, (to come)
2. !R/-,R$-/?-_______, (%-3-:,%-, (to have a good time)
3. 9-3-HR?- _______, %?-=?-!-=?-;, (to buy)
4. HR?-#<-$J-_______, #<-$J-;A/-.-3A/-.-;R%-.$R?, (to make a phone call)
5. &-=$-5%-3-&R$-4K:A-!J%-%-_______, .-:,%-;, (to put)
6. !R/-,R$-/?-5%-3-2R.-<J., 2R.-{.-#J<-<R-_______, (to speak)
7. HR.-(:R-.?-5S.-2./-0:A-!J%-.?-,R$-$_______, (to make sure that you arrive)
8. ;R%-3A->J?-/, |R-#-/?-_______, %-=J/-$A-;R%-, (to wait)
•230•
Exercise 2 Make imperative statements and suggestions with various particles and
the correct tense forms of Tibetan words that correspond to the English
verbs.
.0J<-2eR., A-3, /%?-)-{R=-<, %-vR$?-$R-$A
1. HR.-;R%-,2-/, 5K?-2-28A-$A-*A/-/-!R/-,R$-$-_______, (to come)
2. %:A-#%-2-$?<-2-P2-?R%-, HR?-%-&-=$-%R________, (to help to move)
3. 9-3-#J<-3-:.A-$*A?-!-%?-3A-H$-$A :.A-HR?-_______, (to carry)
4. HR:A-c.-0R-.-2R-3-,R/-,=, HR?-#R-_____________, (to call)
5. ?%?-o?-:.A<-;R%->J?-$A-3J., HR?-|R-/?-________, (to look)
6. %?-(%-:,%-/-3A-:.R., HR?-#R-9R:C-3*3-0?-_______, (to drink)
7. %-.J-3R-3A-2.J-$A HR?-%-(/-0-$9A$-$-___________, (to show)
8. .?-5S.-2&-2-,R/-2+%-, .-!R/-3R_____________, (to end)
Exercise 3 Below is a recipe for making Tibetan steamed dumplings. Connect the
verbs with their imperative forms and then complete the recipe with the
imperative forms.
.0J<-2eR., 9-3-:.A-8A3-$A :.A-(A-$9A$->J.-$;R-.$R?-/A-<J.,

>-#-$A-/%-%-}R-,R2?, }R-5S?-/A-<, D-#-$+=, .J:A-/%-%-4S%-<->-2YJ$?-3-1R%?,
w$ $4S2? $.= {R=

,R2? #-o$ ,?
$R
YR? :)$ ,3?
:.J2 ($?
$R? :)R$
2&: #-oR2?
$42? :,
#J2?
2+3 $.R=
#J2 (R? {R= 8R$
YJ ]$?
•231•
Recipe KJ-$A-/%-%-(-*%-*%-$9A$-_______, KJ-<-(-$*A?-4?-/?-______, 2$R?-5<-/A-<, {3?->-=J2-
3R-$9A$-_______, 4S%-<-{3?->-$42?-3-3*3-0?-________, .J:A-/%-%-(-*%-*%-]$?, D-#-<-$;J<-3-
________, .J-5%-3-3*3-0?-______,.J-/?-KJ-:R<-$A?-{<-3-$%-.R-$9A$-$-$R?, KJ-=R$-=R$-(%-(%-
_____, .J:A-$8$-/?-=J2-3R<_______, .J:A-!J%-%-$R%-$A->-4S%-2YJ?-3-.J-________, #_______, :.A:A-
MA%-%-3R$-3R$-<-5S.-3-9J<-$A-;R., 5S.-3-9R-$9J2-3-$9A$-$A-!J%-%-________, a-%-$9A$-$A-/%-%-(-________,

(-:#R=-/A-<-$9J2-3-a-%-$A-/%-%-________, 5S.-3-/%-/?-{<-3-2&-,3-0-$.-$A-________, &%-3A-:$R<-<,
2R.-$A-9?-1.-$9A$-_%?-0-,-=A-=A-,R/-:IR,
8.2 --Negative imperative
Examples Use Notes

Negative imperative
HR?-\-.L%?--3-=J/, %-$*A.-3A-,2, The negative adverb 3 is used
with verbs in PRT to instruct
HR.-$*A?-!-%J.-5%-3-;R%-, %-#R3-$A-3J.,
instruction or order or to order.
c.-0R-<-#-0<--3-$+RR%-,
MA-%/-$A-#<-3-*/,
HR?-$/:-$+3-3-2>.--S, This particle is put at the end
of a negative imperative
HR.-$*A?-!-%J.-5%-%-3-;R%-S, polite request with sentence.
HR:A-c.-0R-#-0<--3-$+RR%-S, particles
MA-%/-$A-#-3-*/--S,
HR?-A-3<-;A-$J-$9A$-33-:VAA-0 / <?, The particles 0 and <? are
put at the end of a negative
HR.-5S%-#%-/%-%-33-:PRR-0 / <?,
suggestion with particles imperative to politely suggest.
HR?-%-(%-:.A-3-*R-0 / <?,
$R/-o-:.A-.-,J%?-3-2N-0 / <?,
-Self-suggestion
Examples Use Notes
0 and <?
HR.-#R., %-:IR-0 / <?, Imperative forms are not
suggestion (with applied to First Person and
%J.-(:R-Y%-%-:IR-0 / <?, %-/%-/?-?/-$A an expectation First Person Plural. 0 or <? is
=?-!-.J-<A%-3A-=?, /%?-!-=?-00 / <?, for
confirmation) used to make a self-
%?-$R/-o-:.A-$R/-00 / <?, .J-<A%-/3-^-SR-$A suggestion.
•232•
%-:IR-;, HR.-#R., This particle is used to make a
self-suggestion expecting no
%?-(-=J/-;, HR.-$?3-0R?-.%R?-0R-*J=, self-suggestion
(with no agreement from others.
%J.-$*A?-!-:IR-;, 3A/-.-:KA-o-<J., expectation for
confirmation)
%J.-5%-3-:.A-/?-:.$-o-3A/-;, HR?-?J3?-2.J-3R-LR?,
Exercise 4 Fill in the blanks with appropriate words given below and negative
adverbs. Have the dialogue with your partner. You may use one word
multiple times.
>R.-S, /-$A }R/-/, #-$.R%?, ,%?, $?=-2R, :,%-, LJ., 9, /, :,%-,

(//-0 A-<R, HR.-2.J-$A-3J.-9J<, AJ-2.J/, 3A-S$-$A 3-,2, .$R?-o-3-<J., 9R?-?R%-, !J/, ,R%?, v-0,
/.--0 :R, (/-0, %:A-#R$-0-________, *A/-3-$?3-28A-$9A$-:$R<-,=, <J.-S-/.-:.A-________, 5K?-0-
2o.-0-$A-*A/-/-%-,$-<A%-$9A$-$-:IR-.$R?,
(//-0 .-2R-*A/-3-(-4B$-;R.-$A %?-&A$-________, /-YR=-%-&A$-________,
/.--0 %-/3-;A/-/-<-*$-o-;R%-$A .J:A-8R<-<-353?-353?-3-#R$-0-$9J<-$A /-2+%-________, $R3-0-%R-oR-<-
.!:-3R-<J.,
(//-0 .R-8$-HR?-9-3-(A-$9A$-9-$A-;R., ?-(-$%-$%-%-?R%-,
/.--0 %-*A/-3-$?3-$A-________?-,$-<A%-$9A$-/?-,R/-/?, =3-#-/?-*A/-3-$?3-:$R<-,=, :.A-/?-%?-
?A=-+R$-<-9-3-$-3-$-5S$?-9R?, 9-3-3-tA$?-/A-AJ-<J., (/-0,
(//-0 OA$?-OA$?-3J., HR?-________,
/.--0 A…
(//-0 %?-2v?-/, o-nJ/-________<J., =3-#-/?-HR?-#$-M%?, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-=?-9%?-9.-?R%-/A-<J., .J:A-
,R$-$-HR?-9-3-3%-%-________, 9-3-:)-3-,2-$9A$ .-HR.-#R$-5-<-;R.-$A
/.--0 .-(A-$9A$-;?-.$R?-$A %-(/-#%-%-:.$-AJ-.$R?,
(//-0 (/-#%-%-:.$-________, %?-HR.-(/-(-4B$-!J<, (/-:.A-5-(/-;A/, ,/-$&A$-$-<A=-2-$*A?-<J-
________, 2!.-<?-*A/-3-28A<-________, :.A-#R$-(/-$9A$-;A/, !J/-YR=-$&A$-<-$&A$-;A/,
/.--0 .J-3A/-/-$8/-0-(A-$9A$-;R., A-#-(/-0,
(//-0 HR?-#-:6B-.$R?-o-<J., (%-________, =?-5K$?-________, $3-9?-________, (-3%-%-
________, .J-;?-/-$9:-:#R<-$&A$-$A-/%-%-HR.-S$-:IR,
/.--0 (/-#%-%-:.$-3A-.$R?-/, .J-.-l-3R-<J.,
•233•
(/-0 $8$-/?-5-)J-3,R<-?R%-/, %-#-0<-________, /.-:)R$-3A-*/,
/.--0 ;-;-;, (/-0, 2!:-SA/-(J-,=,
Exercise 5 Complete the travel plan with appropriate tense forms of Tibetan words
that correspond to the English verbs in parentheses, various particles,
and your own words and phrases.
<R$?-0-$*A?-2<-IA-#-2h,
<RR$?--0-!--2 %J.-$*A?-!-$/%?-*A/-=/-NA$-$-______, %-8R%-$A?-?R%-3-MR%-, (go)
<RR$?--0-#--2 (R$-$A 3J-:#R<-<-_______, (will take)
<RR$?--0-!--2 3J-:#R<-<-:.$ $/3-P-$A-1J:R-$R%-.!:-$A .J?-3A-5., =/-NA$-,$-<-3A-<A%-,
<RR$?--0-#--2 0-?J-%?-*R, =3-VR-9R-HR?-_______, (to buy)
<RR$?--0-!--2 (R$-$A (A-(A-*R-o-;A/,
<RR$?--0-#--2 $R-<J-<-(, 9-3-24S?-3-_______, (to buy) .J:A-@/-(.-/?-+$-?J-$9A$
<RR$?--0-!--2 <J., .-%-#R3-$A-3J., KA-SR:A-.?-5S.-$*A?-0-$A-$8$-/?-*R-$A-:IR, %J.-$*A?-3*3-$A?-_______,
(to go)
<RR$?--0-#--2 .J-<A%-KA-SR-%-<-3A-#R3, %?-.-2R-3J-:#R<-$A-0-?J-<-*R-.$R?, %?-#-0<-2+%-;?-o-35/-:SA, .$R%-3R-
%?-HR.-o-35/-$?=-2R->J.-2>.,
<RR$?--0-!--2 (R$-$A .J?-/-.R-.$R%-_______, (to talk)
0-?J-:5S%-3#/-.%-<R$?-0-#-2,
0--?JJ-:5SS%-3#/ 2J, .R/-.$-(A-$9A$-;R.-/?, HR.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 =/-NA$-$-3J-:#R<-/%?-!-___________________,
0--?JJ-:5SS%-3#/ KA-SR:A-.?-5S.-28A-<-s-$*A?-!-$A-!J%-/-,J%?-$&A$-<J-;R.-$A, HR.-$%-.$R?,
<RR$?--0-#--2 .?-5S.-28A-2-$A-.J, =3-#-/?-__________, (to stop)
0--?JJ-:5SS%-3#/ =3-#-/?-3A-:.$ #-,$-$-:IR-$A-;R., 1<-5<-$*A?-!-$A-0-?J-AJ-.$R?,
<RR$?--0-#--2 1<-5<-$*A?-!-.$R?, MA-$*A?-:IR-$A-;R., ____________________,
0--?JJ-:5SS%-3#/ 2#R3?-0?-|R<-3R-2o-<-2&-,3-0-<J.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 |R<-3R-:IR-#-LA/-/-_________,
0--?JJ-:5SS%-3#/ (R$-/A-<J., %?-0-?J-$*A?-HR.-$*A?-!<-:)R$
•234•
Text Two: past tense, auxiliaries, and infinitive cases
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-0-\-2-P$?-&/-8A$-=-2&<-:SA-L?-0,
$?<-- HR?-.R-5B$?-\-.L%?-$A-VCD-$9A$-1=-2+%--,=, .-2<-VCD-:.A-2R.-3A-<-o-3A-$*A?-!:A-/%-/-o$-(J-$A
:$R.-0 :.A-(A->J.-P2-/A-;A/,
\--2 :.A-%-3,R-:VA%-/-;R.-.?-$A-.R/-.$-$9A$-<J., .J-.?-%-\-.L%?-=J/-ooR<-@R%-$A?-.$:, <%-$A?-\-.L%?-
$A-,A/-,$-$9A$-:2=-:.R.-?R%-, {2?-.J<-2R.-$A-\-.L%?-%-:5<-=R%?-:L%-:$R-lR3-$A-;R., :1J=-#-
:.A?-%-=-2$-($?-(J-$9A$-28$-,=, .J?-3A-5., @-3-$*A?-!-<-<R$?-0-3%-%-$A?-%?-,A/-,$-$9A$-
:2=-oR<-;<-$+R$-2o2-,=, 2R.-$A-\-3-I$?-&/-1R=-3-$A?-,A/-,$-$9A$-1=-/R?-3A-5., \-.L%?-$A-
:1J=-KR$?-$?<-2-$9A$-<-$+.-?R%-, :IR-KR$?-$?<-2-.J?-%-<%-$A-]R-|R-KJ?, MA$-o-)J-(J<-2+%-,=,
.<-YR=-:.A:A-/%-%-8$?-:.R.-/R-$A?, %-<%-$A?-<%-$A-\-.L%?-$A-<-#$-$9A$-24$?-/A-;A/, =R-(-4B$-$A-
$8$-/?, ,A-5S$?-$A-!J%-/?-%:A-\-.L%?-%-*/-3#/-(J-$9A$-L%-?R%-, .J-/?-%?-\-5B$-<-.L%?-5%-3-
<%-$A?-lR3-:.R.-,=, 2f/-:UA/-$A-!J%-/?-<%-$A-\-.L%?-%-.$:-3#/-9R<-,$-o-/-2?3?, /-/A%-$A-=R-
?<-.$R%-5S$?-$A-!J%-<%-$A-:.R.-0-:.A-P2-?R%-, .J:A-:UR<-<%-$A-}R/-(.-$A-\-.L%?-5%-3-KR$?-2#?-;?-
2+%-, .R-5B$?--VCD-:.A-1..-/A-;A/,
$?<-- HR?-VCD-:.A-(A-$9A$->J.-1..-/?,
:$R.-0
\--2 %R-3?-2>.-/, %?-}R/-(.-VCD-$9A$-1=-3-MR%-, .R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-$-:.%-o$-3-,2--$9A$ \-.L%?-
$A-<-#$-$9A$-l-:6$?-;?-oR-.!:-3R-<J., 2R.-MA-;%-;A/, \-.L%?-%-;%-3#?-3#/-fJ.-oR-z$-+-.!:-$A
,A/-,$-$9A$-1.-oR-.J-3R-.!:-3R-3-<J., <J.-S-VCD-$9A$-:2=-oR-8R%-$A?-3A-$&A$-$A 1-12-,., $9$?-
2f/-=J/-,.-5%-3-.$R?-$A .J?-3A-5.-v-3R-2-<-!J$?-2-5%-3-.$R?-$A .J?-3A-5.-|R<-3R-$A?-:.%-oR, .?-
,R$-$-::P2-oR-<-l-3R-3-<J., <J.-S-VCD-:.A-:2=-oR<-,A-5S$?-$A-!J%-/?-o2-*R<-;?-,=, $&A$-/?-|R<-3R-
$A-,R$-/?, $*A?-/?-=?-!-=?-oR:A-,R$-/?, 5%-3-3IR$?-;%-3IR$?, Z-;%-Z-oR-%J.-5%-3-$A-:.R.-0-
<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-?-?-!J$?-2-$A-!J%-%-:2.-oR-,$-$A?-$&R.-oR, :#R<-;$-$-&$-$-2&:-oR, /%-|R?-?-
!J$?-2-H.-0<-2-$9A$-=?-oR<-^-2-(-4B$-:$R<-,=, .R/-.$-:.A-%:A-5K-,R$-$A-.R/-.$-$=-(J/-$9A$-;A/-/R-
$A?, %-!J$?-2:A-!J%-%-(A->J.-:2.-/%-, *3?-:I<-(A-3R-$9A$-:6B/-/%-, :SA-5B$-:.A-<A$?-$/-<A$?-$-
%?-:.%-3%-%-2o2-/?, .R/-.$-(J-(%-5%-3-=?-#-.!:-3R-<J., ;A/-/-<, %J.-(-2R?-212?-/R?-3A-5.-
P2-;%-P22-,=,
•235•
$?<-- HR.-.-2R-VCD-==?--oR:A-:(<-$8A-AJ-;R.,
:$RR.-0
\-2 =R?-;R., %?-.J%-,R$-,A/-,$-1=-/R-=R-2&-,3-0-$A-}R/-$A-.R/-.$-$9A$-<J., {2?-.J<-%-8A-=A-=R-*%-$9A$-
<J., %?-2v?-/, :.A:A-KR$?-/?-%:A-MA-5K-.-?R-3-:$R-2l3?-/A-<J., .-2R-<-%-=R-(%-$A-9J<-/-(R$-(R$-<J.,
.J%-3-%:A-{.-?%?-3R-;A/-/-<, >$?-3A-(J, :P$?-<-(%-$A =R-)J-(J<-?R%-/, {.-.-2R-)J-29%-%-;R%-/A-<J.,
$%-v<-/-<, .-{2?-%?-<%-$A?-=?-:.R.-/R-=?-$A-;R., .J-@R%-$A?-$=-(J/-<J.,
$?<-- HR.-KA<-<-:VR$-?-:IR-lA?-AJ-;R.,
:$RR.-0
\--2 %-:IR-:.R.-$A:.%-8AA2-3R-2o2-/, :VR$-?-/?-%?-L-2-=?-,2-o-3-<J., 9A-=A%-/?-%-5K-$%-%R<-:.$-3A-
2?3-$A <J.-S-.-{2?-%:A-L-2<-9A-=A%-$A?-1/-$A %-KA<-:IR-/, *%-/-<-=R-*A->-$A-eJ?-/?-;A/-o-<J.,
$?<-- VCD-$8$-3-/3-:2=-,2-o-<J., HR?-2v?-/,
:$RR.-0
\--2 $8$-$A-^-2-2&-$*A?-0-$A-/%-%-,2-o-<J.-0,
$?<-- .-$A-<?-=R-s-$A-eJ?-/?, =R-,R%-,R%-$A-{2?-2-HR.-$%-/-;R.-o-<J.,
:$RR.-0
\--2 .J-.-2>.--oR-.!:-3R-<J., .J-.?-%-=R-?3-&-<J., }R/-$A-^-2-$?3-$A-/%-%-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-L%%-2+%-, =R-
s-$A-/%-%-(A-3R-$9A$-:L%-oR-.->>J?-#-.!:-$A %:A-<J-2-;A/-/, =R-s-2R-$A-/%-%, }R/-(.-v<-<, =?-S%-oR-
$=-(J/-<J., L-2-$-#-3%-%-3A-:), $-$&A$-+/-+A$-$A?-12-:.R.-$A .J?-3A-5.-MA$-o-<-]R-o-*J.-oR-%:A-
:.R.-0-<J., .J:A-@/-(.-/?, 29:-5%-2&:-oR:A-<J-2-;R., OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, {2?-.J<-%-8-;?-$&A$-
$*A?-$9A$-<-;R.-o-<J.,
8.3 --Infinitive case: …

/ :.R.
Subject Infinitive case Verb English
%?- ,A/-,$-$9A$-:2=-/- :..R.-$AA-;R., I want to produce a tape.
\-2-.J?- \-5B$-<-.L%?-<%-$A?-lR3-/- :.RR.-$A-;R., The singer wants to compose lyrics and

a melody by himself.
#<-$J?- L-2-$-$&A$-+/-+A$-$A?-12-/ :.RR.-$A-;R., He wants to do one thing single-
mindedly.
8-;?-.J? #R-=R-(J-/- :.RR.-$R-$A The child wants to be older.
•236•
Notes-2
… /-:.R.: The first syllable expresses a hypothetical notion if, which leads to a conditional
clause, the second syllable being the main verb, which means want. This structure is used to
express It is desired if something happened or was so. Such expressions, in English, are put
forward as infinitive want to do / to be, with an infinitive verb rendering to do and, with an
infinitive monosyllabic adjective to be. Since the clause is hypothetical, the infinitive verb and
the infinitive adjective are treated in past tense notion, e.g.,#R-z-?<-?R%-/-:.R.-,=, He wanted
to go to Lhasa. / #R-z-?<-?R%-/-:.R.-$A-;R., He wants to go to Lhasa. / #R-3R-;$-/-:.R.-$A-;R., She
wants to be attractive.
Exercise 6 Write Tibetan equivalents and infinitive cases in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., *A/-$%-|R-/-MA-3%-$A %-?R%-/-3A-:.R., (do not want to go)

1. %?-<A-?$?-#%-____________, (do not want to see)
2. v.-3R-3A-Z-$A 3-5<-$R%-%-, v.-3R-2-9R-_________________, (want to leave)
3. .?-5S.-,R/-2+%-,=, <J.-S-.$J-c/-$A?-.-2R-3-3,.-<?-____________, (want to talk)
4. 8-;?-.J?-(-/%-/?-____________, (want to swim)
5. %?-?J3?-&/-$9A$-$-____________, (do not want to harm)
6. %?-_%?-:#R<-____________, (want to drive)
7. aR2-9-PR=-/A-<, HR?-9-3-(A-$9A$-____________, (want to eat)
8. \-2-$A?-<J3-3-29:-5%-____________, (want to have a family)
8.4 --Infinitive case marker: $A
HR.- .?-5S.-2./-$A-!J%-,R/-$A- ($?, Please make sure to arrive on time.
%- .0J-(-$9A$-*R-$A- :IR-o-;A/, I will (go and) buy a book.
HR.- 8-;?-$*RR<-$A- ?R%-, You go and take care of the child.
HR.-$*A?-!- .R-8$-aR2-9:A-/%-%-2R.-;A$-.RR%-$A- ?R%-/?, Did you both go to school these days to

study Tibetan?
Notes-3
1. $A is used to alter an infinitive case so as to state a purpose, e.g., %-A-3<-v-$A-;R%-, I came to

visit my mother. / #R-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-:IR, He is going to watch a movie. Such verbs follow $A
•237•
to derive purposive infinitive case: :IR; ?R%; ;R%; >R$; :)$; ($?; ,R/
2. The negative adverb denies the primary verb in this infinitive case, e.g., %-2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-3-
?R%-, o-;A$-.R%-$A-?R%-, I did not go to study Tibetan but Chinese.
Exercise 7 A young man has high expectations for the coming year. Complete the
statements with the given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., .-2 / $&R., .-2-:,J/-/, =?-#3?-3A-2.J-$A %?-.-2-2&.-/-:.R.,

=?-l= / .R%-, %-5S/-0R<-*/-;R., %-=?-l=-.R%-$A-:IR-o-;A/,
1. >-5S/-0R-9… <J.-S-%?-*%-*%-… ______________________________________,
2. #%-2-$?<-2-$9A$-*R… |R<-3R-3%-%-:5S= ______________________________________,

3. 29:-5%-$9A$-;R. … 8A-3R-.$:-$9A$… ______________________________________,
4. \R$-[.-2!R=-!%?->J? … .J:A-{R<-$A-$?R-.R%-$9A$-=J/… _______________________________,
5. KA-o=-<-M$… <J.-S-|R<-3R-3J.-/… ______________________________________,
6. <R$?-0-5%-3-:.A-/-;R.….J-;A/-/-%-?/… ______________________________________,
7. L-2-*%-…<J.-S-\-24:-3,R... ______________________________________,
8. =$-<R$?-$9A$-<-;R.…;R.-/-%-#R3... ______________________________________,
9. :.A-5%-3-12…..J-;A/-/-%-*A.… ______________________________________,
Exercise 8 Check the boxes indicating what the boy will possibly do if he listens to his
mother.
A--3 HR.-:.A-/?-3-:.$ 2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-?R%-, 2R.-;A$-.R%-$A-:IR,

8AA-=AA A-3, %-(.-$A %-lJ.-3R-lJ-$A-?R%-/-AJ-(R$ 9-3-*R,
A--3 3A-(R$ %-9-3-*R-$A-:IR, HR.-$%-%-<-3-:IR, PR$?-0R-$9A$-$-,$
8AA-=AA .J?-/, %?-\R$-[.-$A-!J%-/?-L-2-=?-/-AJ-(R$ \R$-[.-$A-,R$-/?-L-2-=?,
A--3 .J-<-3A-(R$ /%?-!-$A-aR2-OA.-<-P-1A$-LR?, _%?-:#R<-$+R%-$A-:IR,
8AA-=AA /%?-!-aR2-OA.-3J., /%?-!-%-_%?-:#R<-$+R%-$A-:IR-o?, lJ.-3R-lJ-$A-:IR-o-<J.,
A--3 aR2-.R%-3A-;?-/, <%-$A-#%-2-2&:-.$-;?-$A-?R%-, /%?-!-$A-aR2-OA.-=-P-1A$-;?-.$R?,
8AA-=AA lJ-$A-3A-:)$-/, %-$%-%-<-3A-:IR, &%-<-3A-=?, =?-o-3%-%-!J<-o-3-<J.,
A--3 aR2-.R%-3A-;?-/, %?-HR.-=?-o-3%-%-$9A$-!J<, $%-%-<-3A-:IR, &%-<-3A-=?,
•238•
8.5 --Infinitive case marker: o
%-=- .0J-(-[R$-o- ;R., I have books to read.
$;$- :)<-3/-/-<A$-o- 3J. There are no yaks in Germany to see.
8A-=A-.J<- v-o-&%- 3J. The boy has nothing to expect.
%-=- L-2-=?--o-3%-%- ;R., I have much (work) to do.
Notes-4
1. Verb + o + ;R. / 3J. structure: This forms an infinitive case, e.g., #R<-.-2R-!R2?->$?-%R3-
o-;R., He still has more energy to expend. / N%-$R<-:.A->J.-.-2R-:1J=-o?-?-:IR-o-;R., China
has still more (potential) to develop in this way. / %-=-L-2-=?-o-3%-%-3J., I have not much
to do. / #<-$J:A-$8$-/-.R/-.$-$&A$-:UR<-$&A$->J.-:L%-o-;R., Many problems came, one on
the heels of another. o is used to form an infinitive clause, e.g., !%-9A?-#J-$4%-9-o-,A-$A-:IR-
KR$?-<J., It is normal for companies to make profit.
2. Verbs in PRT and o are combined to derive quasi-noun phrases, e.g., =?-o, v-o, %R3-o,
mR$?-o, etc. These nouns can be translated, respectively, as something to do, something to
watch, desire to be met, something to be ended. Their core meaning is derived from the
stem verbs, e.g., $R/-o-$A?-_%-3A-#R$-/-3A-*R/, It is fine if the garment is not windproof.
Exercise 9 Complete the dialogue with infinitive cases.
(RR?-35S /%?-!-HR?-_________________________,
3$RR/-0R-*A. %?-<-3A->J?-$A o/-.-\R$-2f/-/-2v?-/-:.R., <J.-S-/%?-!-(A-$9A$-=?-/%-,
(RR?-35S HR.-l=-.R%-____________, \-.L%?-=J/-____________, %?-\R$-2f/-/-v-/-3A-:.R.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. %-l=-.R%-$A-3A-:IR, \-.L%?-=J/-3A->J?, ;A/-/-<-*/-______________,
(RR?-35S .J?-/, :R-$*A?-!-\-.L%?-:P/-=J/-$A-3R-5S$?-$9A$-$-:IR-<?,
3$RR/-0R-*A. .J-(R$-$A <J.-S-,R$-3<-L-2-3%-%-$9A$-______________, HR?-%-<R$?-;?-AJ-,2,
(RR?-35S =R?-,2, /%?-!-}-3R?-%-<R$?-;?-____________, %J.-$*A?-!-\-.L%?-%-*/-________,
3$RR/-0R-*A. :R-$*A?-!-/%?-!-/3-,$-o?,
(RR?-35S }-3R?-.?-5S.-.$-2-$A-!J%-,$-/-(A-3R-<J.,
3$RR/-0R-*A. (R$-$A
•239•
8.6 --Infinitive clause: oR
Infinitive clause Complement English
subject
L-2-:.A-:P2-oR .!:-3R-;A/-o-<J., To finish this work would be difficult.
2>.--oR- l-3R-<J., To talk (about something) is easy.
=?-oR l-3R-3-<J., But to do (something) is difficult.
$+3-29%-:.A-$R-oR- ;A.-<-3-><, (Someone) did not expect to hear the

good news.
Subject Infinitive clause English

complement
%:A-=?-!- 8-;?-:.A-$*RR<-oR-;A/, My work is to take care of this child.
:(<-$8A- /%?-!-=3-3-=%?-oR-;A/, The plan is to get on the way tomorrow.
%?- .?-5S.-2./-0-$A-!J%-:IRR-oR-;?, I decide to leave at 7 o'clock.
(%-:.A- $/%?-*A/-!R/-,R$-/?-:,%-oR-;A/, This liquor is to be drunk at the feast

the day after tomorrow.
Notes-5
oR vs. : They have subtly different grammatical functions: n

o oR is the contraction of o-2R, in
which 2R is a definite article, and thus it designates something more specific while o does not,
e.g.,.J-<A%-=?-!-%?-=?-.$R?-oR-#<-$J:A-w2-$?3-<J., (The) work I need to do today is three times
what he does. / .$R/-0-/?-=?-oR-=?-$/3-3-2&R=-o-<J., (What) one does in a monastery is to put
his fate in the hands of the sky (deity). o, however, does not specify. .0J-(-:.R/-o-.R-.$R%-$A-=?-
L-;A/, To read books is the homework tonight. ooR is used in a clause adjective with a latent
definite article, e.g., $/3-P-:.A-.?-5S.-2./-0-$A-!J%-:1<-oR-<J., This plane is (the one that) will
take off at 7 o'clock. In this statement, :1<-oR denotes the one that is yet to fly. poR signifies a
what-included noun clause depending on the context, e.g., .?-5S.-2./-$A-!J%-:1<-oR-$/3-P-:.A-
<J., What is to take off at seven o'clock is this plane. qo is sometimes conveniently
oR
pronounced as . This makes the differences mentioned above somewhat confusing, e.g., #<-
$J:A-=?-!-9-3-{R=-oR-(o) ;A/, His job is to cook. / %?-(%-3A-:,%-oR-(o) %:A-c/-3R-$A-(R/-0-<J., (I) Not
to drink is my wife's wish. / #<-$J:A-L-2-8-;?-9R-$*R<-oR- (o) <J., His job is to take care of
children.
•240•
Exercise 10 Check what the teacher says.
}-3R?-=%?-oR-8J-,$-.!:-$A .-/%?-%-.?-5S.-S$-0-$A-!J%-=%?, %?-=?-oR-2R.-

;A$- OA.- oR- ;A/, .?- 5S.- 2o.- $A- <?- 2&- ,3-0- $A- 2<- <, %?- A3- {.- OA., .J:A-
$8$-/?-%?-OA.-oR-.J%-<2?-2R.-;A$-;A/, aR2-3-28A-*/-$A-,R/-2+%-, <J.-S-%?-
.J-<A%-aR2-OA.-;?-/-$+A%-/?-3A-:.R.-$A <J.-S-%:A-:$/-#<-aR2-OA.-;?-oR-<J., .-
%?-aR2-OA.-;?-5<-?R%-, <J.-S-/%?-!-$A-aR2-OA.-<-.-2R-P-1A$-;?-3J., .-%-9-3-
29:-$A-?R%-/-:.R., |R<-:#R<-$A-?R%-/-:.R., %-KA<-<-HA3-3-:PR-(R$-o-/,
#<-$J-*=-?:A-/%-/?-=%?-/-:.R.-$A-3J., #R3-oR-#<-$J:A-:.R.-0-<J.,
9-3-9-/-:.R.-$R-$A #<-$J?-.J%-<2?-2R.-;A$-<-OA.-,=,
#<-$J?-aR2-OA.-<-P-1A$-;?-;R., =?-o-3J.-/, #<-$J?-\R$-2f/-/-2v-o-<J.,
aR2-3-28A-,R/-,=, #<-$J-.-/%?-.?-5S.-2o.-<-5=-2-$A-!J%-=%?,
#<-$J-.J-<A%-.$:-$A-3J.,
8.7 --
oR< vs. oR:A
oR:A English oR< English
%?-L-2-.J-=?--oR:A-#?-=J/, I promise to do
that work.
%-L-2-.J-=?--oR<-.$:, I like to do
that work.
#<-$J?-:IRR-oR:A-:(<-$8A-:,J/- He made the
plan to leave.
<R$?-0-9R?-%?-,A/-,$-:2=-oR<- My friends
encouraged
2+%-, ;<-$+R$-2o2, me to produce
a tape.
%?-.-2-$&RR.-oR:A-,$-2&.-2+%-%-, I made the
decision to give
#R-,R/-oR<-%?-<J-2-;?-$A I expect him to
arrive.
up smoking.
#<-$J?-.LA/-;A$-.R%-oR:A-5S.-v- He tried to
study English.
#<-$J-.LA/-;A$-.R%-oR<-]R-l-2g/- He is resolute
to study
;?, $A English.
Notes-6
1. oR<: This is oR and Ladon variant < combined, with the Ladon variant indicating at what,
with what, on what, for what, etc., e.g., %-\-.L%?-%-*/-oR<-.$:, I like to listen to music. /
%-#<-$J-<-3*3-0?-:.$-oR<-?/-$A I get tired of staying together with him. / #R-.%R?-0R-$?<-2-
aR2-oR<-%R2?-0-(J, He is brave to learn new things. / #<-$J-lA$-<A$-.R%-oR<-<A$-0-8/, He is not
talented to learn mathematics. / 2R.-{.-)J-Z-;R%-oR<-HR.-2lR/-0-(J-.$R?, You must work hard
to improve your Tibetan.
•241•
2. oR:A: This is oR plus genitive case marker and it, as an infinitive case, modifies nouns, e.g.,
%?-5S$?-:.-:$R-lR3-oR:A-$+3-2>., I made the speech to start the meeting. / %?-aR2-9<-:IR-
oR:A-:(<-$8A-:,J/, I made the plan about going to school. It is often pronounced oR-$A.
Exercise 11 Put infinitive cases we have learned in the blanks below.
.0J<-2eR., A-1-$A?-=?-oR-(%-:,%-oR, =2-o$-oR-<J., 8A-=A-%-5-oR<-#<-$J?-&%-%-2?3-$A-3J.,

1. 3<-$J-=?-!-:$R-lR3-_________.$:, <J.-S-3)$-2#-_________3A-.$:,
2. %-lA?-<A$-$A-o$?-3R.- _________0$-$A
3. HR.-:<-o$-_________3-3R, 8-;?-?.-/-HR?-(A-$9A$-;?-o-;A/,
4. (<-n=-_________??-HR.-2)=-/?,
5. *J/-gR$-0-$A-:$/-#<-/$-*J?-0-:6B/-_________;A/,
6. #R-8A-3R-.J-3R-$9A$-$-.$:-_________%:A-;A.-=-<-3-><,
7. HR.-.R-.$R%-:.A-/?-:.$-_______,$-(R.-;A/-/, 3J-:#R<-$A-eJ?-=?-_______?J3?-#<-3-;?,
8. #R-9R-5%-3-.?-5S.-v<-<-aR2-9:A-/%-%-,R/-_________<J-2-3-:6B/,
9. =?-,2-3A/-,$-(R.-3A/-/, L-2-.J-=?-_________#?-=J/-3-;?,
10. #<-$J?-o$?-:UR.-_________<J-2-3-:6B/,
11. :(<-$8A-$?<-2-3-29R?-$R%-, L-2-$A-3$R-}-5%-3-:.%-o$_________@R%-$A?-$=-(J,
12. 3<-$J?-%J.-(:R-#%-2-/%-/?- :2.-_________<J-2-8?-,=,
13. :$R-2-%-<-,$-_________:,.-,=,
14. %?-(%-3A-:,%-_________?J3?-,$-2&.-2+%-,
8.8 --Infinitive case oR and conditional / in contrast

Infinitive case Conditional
t$?-g<-8R/-oR-l-3R-<J., It's easy to ride a bicycle. t$?-g<-8R/-/-*J/-#-3J., There is no risk if
one bikes.
.0J-(-:.RR/-oR<-2lR/-0- Diligence is required to
read books (to study).
.0J-(-:.RR/-/-2lR/-0-.$R?,
Diligence is
required to study.
.$R?,
$9$?-(J-oR-(-nJ/-$9A$- It's a requirement to be
physically big.
$9$?-(J-/-(-nJ/-29%-%- It's an advantage if
one is tall.
<J., $9A$-<J.,
|R<-3R-2!RR=-oR-3IR$?-$A The money is spent
quickly.
|R<-3R-2!RR=-/-3IR$?-$A Money is
exhausted quickly.
•242•
Exercise 12 Complete the statements with infinitive cases.
.0J<-2eR., :.A-/?-<?-HA3-3-b%-,%-%-:IR______________, :.A-/?-<?-HA3-3-b%-,%-%-:IR-oR-l-3R-<J.,
1. .J%-?%-.LA/-;A$->J?-________________, 5. 2R.-;A$-:VA-oR-l-$A <J.-S-/%-.R/-$R________,

2. 2R.-{.-$A-,-~.-=-=-:.R/_____________, 6. =?-l=-0-=?-!R2?-(J-_______________,
3. .%R?-0R-:.A-:IR$___________________, 7. ?J3?-#3?-?%?-__________________,
4. L-2-=?-/-\R$-[.-$9A$-;R.-___________, 8. :5S-2-*A.-0R-;R%-___________________,
Exercise 13 Ask a question that the second person's statement answers.
!--2 ________________________, #--2 %J.-9R:C-o=-#2-/?-o-{.->J?-oR-@R%-$A?-$=-(J,

!--2 ________________________, #--2 2R.-{.-2>.-/-%-/R<-:($-:L%-oR<-3A-0$-$A
!--2 ________________________, #--2 %J.-9R:C-o=-#2-/?-o-{.-3A->J?-/-L-2-fJ.-oR-.!:-3R-<J.,
!--2 ________________________, #--2 :.A-/?-_%?-:#R<-/%-/?-{J-<$?-:(A%-oR-;A/-.-3A/-.-3A/,
!--2 ________________________, #--2 \R$-[.-*R-oR-l-3R-<J., <J.-S-2!R=-oR-.!:-3R-<J.,
!--2 ________________________, #--2 %-2R.-/?-:.$-oR<-.$:-$A %?-2v?-/, ?-:.A-*A.-0R-<J.,
Exercise 14 Fill in appropriate infinitive cases and conditional . /
.0J<-2eR., %-=R/-+/-/-?R%-/-:.R.-$A-;R.,
1. .J%-,R$-%?-.3$-3A-$9A$-2&:-______:.%-2o2, <J.-S-.3$-$A-/%-%-8$?-______=R-*J<-s-$A-3/-;A/-
.$R?, %-=R-*J<-2./-/-2.-;R.,
2. %-L-2-=?-$A-3A-:)$- ______<-aR2-9-/%-%-*J=-______$*A?-!-%:A-A-1-$A-2!R.-0-;A/,
3. P-fA%-%-:.A-3R-$9A$-$-:.$- ______-%-8J-,$-$A?-0$-$A
4. 5K-<A%-$A?-#R-:IR-______;A/-.-3A/-.-;A/-9J<,
5. /%?-3R<-}-?J?-=%?-______%-=R2?-;R.-$A <J.-S-.-/%?-=?-*=-?-/%-%-:L<-,=,
6. %-8A-3R-$/-/-#-2h-;?-______2?3-0-3J.-$A HR?-3<-$J<-#-2h-;?-______AJ-:.R.,
7. 1R=-3-2>.-______Z-$A <J.-S-%-*/-______?/-$A
8. HR.-<-<J3-3-,$-______%?-<J-2-2&:-$A-;R., %-#J<-<-?-(-3J.-:.A-/?-?/-$A
•243•
9. .3$-3A-9R<-1<-cR=-LJ.______2!:-22?-2+%-, <J.-S-2!:-.%-=J/-;?-3#/-3J.-$A
10. HR?-.$R%-I%?-%-2f/-:UA/-/-v-______%-3A-:,., <J.-S-%:A-v-5=-.%-=J/-;?-______HR.-<%-:$=-;A/-
3A/-$A-L-2-$9A$-<J.,
11. 5K-2g/, "#-l%-%?-HR.-;A-$J-$=-(J/-$9A$-LA/-/, HR?-;A-$J-.J-=3-/?-{<-______3-2eJ.-0," 35S-3R, "%-
4$?-#%-$A-/%-%-?R%-%-, <J.-S-%:A-=$-/-|R<-3R-s-+$-+$-;R., ;A-$J-2{<______|R<-3R-$A?-3-:.%-,=,"

12. 5K-2g/, "HR:A-aR2-OA.-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.," 35S-3R, "-aR2-OA.-<-/%-.R/-3J.-9J<, <J.-S-%-aR2-OA.-<-:IR-______
?J3?-*A?-:$=-3A/, %-aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/?-<R$?-0-3%-%-,$-,2-$A"
8.9 --Tibetan versions of modals
Modals English Use

equivalents
It expresses capability, not probability. n #<-$J?-=$-:5SS-,2, He can
,2 can
could herd sheep. / t$?-:.A-:H$?-3R<-*/-,2, This metal can get cold. oIt is
not used to express permission. #R-:IR-,2 means He is able to go.
It expresses a requirement. n .-:KA-;R., %-:IRR-.$RR?, It is late now. I
should go. oIt is not as strong as must in English. To get the strong
should tone of must, adverbs such as ;A/-.-3A/-. are added. L-2-:.A-%?-.J-<A%-;A/-
.$R? must
need .-3A/-.-=?-.$R?, I must do this job today. This word alone means need
(together with a Ladon case variant). %<<-|R<-3R-*A->-,3-0-.$R?, I need
twenty yuan.
It expresses a tendency. n?A=-+R$-|R-/?-28$-/-<=--:IR, The fruits would
:IR would become rotten if kept outside. o%-.-3-?R%-/, #<-$J-:5B$-0-8J-$A?-9-:IR,
He would get very angry if I do not go now.
It signifies suitability or feasibility based on certain given reasons,

such as regulations, common sense, expected results, and the like.
*/ may n t$?-5-3R-:.A<-<J$-3A-*/, This hot metal may not be touched. o8-;?-

should (%-(%-<A$?-(-#<-:IR-3A-*/, Young children should not go to the
riverbank. pHR.-AR%-*J$?-.J:A-!J%-/?-:.$-=R?-*/, HR.-:P=-2-<J., Of
course, you may sit that chair. You are the guest.
•244•
Phrases with the function of modals
Auxiliary and English Use
adverb equivalent
/-…(R$ may
One authorizes, in contrast to */. .J-<A%-HR.-lJ-$A-?R%-//-(R$
Today, you can go play. (It's OK if you go play.)
/-…,% might
It expresses likelihood. %-.-=R<-1-;:-2-:IR-/-,%-, This year, I
might go home. (It's likely that I go home this year.)
It expresses likelihood or possibility. %-.R-.$R%-;:-2-3A-;R%-/-
/…OA$?-OA$?-3J. may; might OA$?-OA$?-3J., I may not come home tonight. (It's likely
that I do not come back home tonight.)
It is used in double-negative statements, denoting one has
3A / 3…!-3J. no choice but no choice but … :,2-:O$-$A-/%-/?-MA-3A->A-/ 3->A-!-3J.-<J., It is
impossible that nobody dies in a battle.
Adverb English Use

equivalents
It is used either as an adjective or as an adverb to express must.
;A/-.-3A/-. must
n =?-!-:.A-.-=?-oR-;A/-.-3A/-.-<J., This work must be done now. (It is
a must to do this job now.) o.J-<A%-=?-!-:.A-;A/-.-3A/-.-=?-.$R?, This
work must be done today.
It expresses either no choice but or resolution. n A-1-$A?-%-;A/-$&A$-
;A/-$&A$- no choice but; 3A/-$&A$-(/-0-2&:-.$R?-9J<, (My) father said I have no choice but to
3A/-$&A$ resolute be a doctor. o%?-.0J-(-:.A-.-=R-;A/-$&A$-3A/-$&A$-:VA-5<-$A-:)$-o-;A/, I
must finish this book this year.
Text Three: modal, infinitive cases, past tense, and auxiliaries
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, #J-.0R/-8A$-$A-$+3-2>.,
=R-s-2&-$A-$8$-/?, #J-2-$8/-0-<-,A-5S$?-,A-;<-o?-:IR-$A-;R.-.?, %J.-(-2R:C-#J-2-.-2R-$/?-5=-#$-3R-$9A$-/-

;R.-$A .J:A-o-35/-(A-$9A$-;A/-o-<J., %?-=R-.-3%-%-:.%-2o2, $/.-.R/-3%-%-;R.-$A ,$-$&R.-;?-oR:A-2?3-0-;R.-
/, MA-3%-%-$A?-&A$-;A/-YR=-<-&A$-3A/-YR=-2>.-$A <J.-S-%J.-(-2R-%R-3?-.R/-.$-52?-(J/-$9A$-$-,$-;R.-/R-??->J?-
,2, =R-?3-&-;/-$A-#J-MA-$9A$-;A/-/, }R/-(.-.J%-?%-$A-(-#-$/-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-/R-$?=-2R-;A/-/A-<J., %-(%-.?, I3-
0-5%-3-#R%-2R-<, uR/->A%-<, 35K<-3-<, %%-+$-+$-;A/, <J.-S-?-(-<-#R%-2R-5%-3-|J<-<-LA/-$A-<?, #J-2-:.A?-<%-$A-
/?-0-5%-3-2+R/-/?-(-#-$A-;R.-;R.-5%-3-l-mR$?-;?-2+%-, .J%-3-$A-/J:-$?A%-.$:-2R-.J%-?%-$A-I3-0<-*/-,=, .-
KA<-a<-$?R-;?-o-/, %:A-<A%-%-<A$-$%-/?-,2, %:A-2:A-<A%-%-}R/-(.-$A-.J-3R-$9A$-<A$-oR-.!:-3R-<J., %J?-%J?-~A%-/-$A
•245•
<J.-S-.R/-:.A-#J<-<R-3-<J.,
1-3J?-;%-3J?-$A-<A%-%-, #J-2-:.A-<R%-3-:VR$-$A-?-(-<J., :VR$-/?-(<-(-:6S3-oR, <R%-/?-(-b-3A-{3-oR-%J.-5%-3-$A-

YR$-$-,$-;R., :VR$-$A-(<-(-:6S3-oR-%J.-(-2R:C-.2%-/-3J., <J.-S-.J%-?%-(-b-{3-$A-;R.-/R-%J.-5%-$A-i3-(A/-<J., o-
35/-#J-3A-5%-3-$A?->J?-.$R?-$A =R-2&-#-*A->:A-<A%-%-=%-!R.-$A-/$?-5<-$&R.-;?, <A-:.2?-$A-uR/->A%-(-3<-2+?-
,=, <A-{J.-<-<A-3$R-$A-#R%-2R->A%-(<-=%?-2+%-,=, C-<-lA->A%-5%-3-$9/-/-VJ$?-,=, .J%-3-$A-$;%-?-$3-0R-,A-
,J<-<-2+%-,=, <A-!J%-$A-(-3$R-3J.-/, <A->R.-$A-(-o/-$%-/?-;R%-,2-o-<J., .J%-?%-8A%-%-(-3A-:.%-$A I3-0-$A-#R%-2R-
5%-3-3J.-/R-$A?, :2.->A%-%-#%-2-2>A$-.$R?-$A :.A-5%-3-,/-v?-<J., .-%-9R?-(A-$9A$-;?-o-;A/,
c.-0R-=-=-$A?-2>.-/, "#J-.0R/-HR?-#-%/-3-2>., $/?-5=-#$-/-,%-<, #J-2-9R-$/?-5=-.J-3R-$9A$-$A-#-/-3J.,

%:A-<A%-%-:5S-2-)J-*A.-<-)J-*A.-<J., ($-:)A$-.J-3R-$9A$-;R%-AJ-,2,"9J<, MA->J?-o-&/-$A?-:.%-oR2?, <%-#J<-<R-2?3-
o-/%-, 3A-<2?-eJ?-3-<-2?3-o-;A/, 3A-<2?-eJ?-3-2?3-/, :-9R?-5%-3-5<-$&R.-oR:A-#$-=?-:.A-5%-3-353?-
:)R$-.$R?-$A 8A%-%-$+R%-(-<, 3$R-/$-MA<-:,%-(-.$R?-/, (-$A-3$R-#%?-Y%-.$R?-/A-<J.,
.J%-3-:$R-lR3-.?, i3-(A/-:.A-3R-$9A$-:#R<-oR-?:A-;A.-=-<-3-S/, $8$-/?-3)$-:V?-(A-3R-$9A$-;R%-oR-2>.-.!:-

$A <J.-S-)J-#$-;A/-oR-#R-,$-<J., OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, #J-2-;R%?-$A-($-:)A$-$-,$-;R%-o-<J., .J-<A%-:.A-/?-%?-%/-
:.%-2o2-/?, 1A$-=3-:$:-29R-oR:A-PR?-:$R-:.R/, 3$R-?J-2h-&/-$A-=R-=R/, *J?-$?<-2-$?<-3R-5%-3-$A?-PR?-LR?,
1. KA/-(.-I3-0-/?, C-:,-3A-(R$ #R%-2R-2&.-/-3A-(R$

2. <A-3$R-<-<A->R.-/?-#R%-2R-<-uR/->A%-, CA->A%-$A-<A$?-$+/-/?-2+?-3A-(R$ .J:A-@/-(.-/?-9R<-<-<-!-<J-=$-$-:6B/
-3A-*/,
3. HAA3-5%-29:-3$R-s-&/-$A?-=R-I%?-%-I3-0-<-<A-:.2?-/?-#R%-2R-?3-&-;A/-/-3A/-.-:6$?-.$R?,
4. |R-9R$-<-:VR$-?-$A-K$?-9R$-KA/-(.-?-(-:.A-$*A?-!-/?-22-$A?-:5S-3A-(R$
8.10 --,2
Tibetan English Notes
/.-0-:IRR-,22-$A The patient can walk now.
nindicates ability
N%-$R:C-|R<-3R-KA-o=-/?-2!RR=-3A-,2, Chinese yuan cannot be used
abroad. ooften pronounced ,A$
%?-2v?-/, #<-$J?-L-2-fJ.-,22-o-- In my opinion, he can find a
job.
<JJ.,
•246•
Notes-7
1. 3A is put before ,2 to deny present tense.

2. 3 is put before ,2 to deny past tense.
Exercise 15 Write appropriate modals in the blanks based on the content.
.0J<-2eR., %?-.0J-(-:.R/-,2, <J.-S-%:A-/-2R-$A?-:.R/-3A-,2,
1. %?-$/3-P-{R<______, <J.-S-_%?-:#R<-{R<-oR-l-3R-<J.,
2. %?-\R$-[.-2!R=-______, @-3-$*A?-!?-2!R=-3A-(R$-9J<,
3. %-=?-o-3%-%-$9A$-;R., |R<-:IR______,
4. #<-$J?-o-{.->J?-/-<, MA-3%-%-$A-/%-/?-2>.______, #<-$J-%R2?-0-(%-$A
5. L-2-.J-.!:-3R-<J., <J.-S-MA-5%-3-$A?-=?-/-12______,
6. 8A-=A-.J-=.-0-$9A$-<J., @-3-$*A?-!-#<-$J<-#J/-______,
7. MA-.J-:)R/-0R-$9A$-<J., L-2-5%-3-=?-______,
8. {.-3$R-.3:-3R-;A/-/, c/-3R-=R-=R/-.J?-$R-______,
9. *J?-0-3$R-!R%-.J, #-/?-3A->J?-.$->J?, =$-/?-$&A$-<-=?______,
10. .R-5B$?-=R-=J$?-;R%-______, $/3-:)R-3J.-/,
Exercise 16 Your partner reads and you check what the boy cannot do.
8AA-=AA %-lJ-$A-/3-:IR-,2, ________lJ-$A-:IR-,2,

A--1 =$-$A-=?-!-=?-5<-/A-<, ________#<-$J-aR2-9<-:IR-3A-,2,
8AA-=AA .J?-/, %?-=?-!-<J3-3-=?-;, }-?J?-=?-5<-/, %-lJ-$A-:IR-,2-/A-<J., ________#<-$J?-2f/-:UA/-/-v-,2,

A--1 HR.-lJ-$A-:IR-,2-/A-3-<J., /%?-!-}-?J?-HR.-aR2-9<-:IR-3A-.$R?-/?, ________=$-$A-=?-!-5<-,2-o-<J.,
________#<-$J-.$R%-3R-}-?J?-*=-
8AA-=AA .J?-/, 2f/-:UA/-/-2v-o-;A/, A-1, ,2-o-<J.,
A--1 .R-.$R%-, \R$-3J.-$A .J:A-nJ/-$A?-HR?-2f/-:UA/-/-<-v-,2-o-3-<J.,
8AA-=AA #$-,$-<J.-S?, .R-.$R%-$&A$-<-=?-,2-o-3-<J., =$-$A-=?-!-:.A-3A/-.,
A--1 HR?-?J3?-3-#$ !-&-<A$?-$J-<-HR?-:O.-.$R?-o-<J., A-3-3J.->=-/?,
8AA-=AA A-1, HR.-.-A-1-24/-0R-hR$-$R-<J.,
•247•
8.11 -- .$R?
HR?-.-2-$&RR.-.$RR?-$A You should stop smoking. nAdvice is offered.
ocan be treated as should

8-;?-$A?-#$-MR%-.$RR?-$A Children should experience a
hard life.
pneed
L-2-:.A-.J-<A%-=?--.$RR?, This job should be done
today.
HR.-;A/-.-3A/-.-;R%-.$RR?, You must come.
Notes-8
1. If a statement ends with an auxiliary, one may deny the auxiliary instead of the primary
*J/-gR$-0-$A?-b/-3-:6B/-.$R?-3-?R%-, The police did not need to arrest the thief.
verb, e.g.,
2. */ express suitability while .$R? expresses a requirement, e.g., (/-.J-24/-$A :,%-3A-*/,
The drug is powerful, (one) should not take it. / HR?-(/-:,%-3A-.$R?, HR.-/-$A-3J., You don't
need to take the medicine since you are not ill.
Exercise 17 Put ,2, .$R?, and */ in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., L-2-:.A-<-=?-3A-,2-/, .R-.$R%-HR?-.$R%-)-:,%-3A-.$R?,

1. 8A%-2, "%J.-5%-$A-#R%-2R-3A-*J-$A %?-(A-$9A$-;?-______o-<J.," ]R-:.R/-3#/, "#R%-2R-o?-3A-______/, (-
3%-%-$+R%-_____/A-<J.,"
2. :P=-2, "%-]-V%-%-:IR-$A-;R., <J.-S-%-_%?-:#R<-3J.-/-,R/-______," =3-0, "HR.-mR%-,R$-$-:IR-
______/, .J-/-_%?- :#R<-3%-%-;R.,"
3. 8A-=A, "HR.-3J.-/, %-:.$-______o-3-<J., HR.-3J.-/, %?-(A-$9A$-;?-o?," 8A-3R, "HR.-3J.-/, %?-<-.!:-
o-<J., %-3J.-.?, 8A-3R-$8/-0<-#-$.%?-______,"
4. A-3, "8A-3R, HR.-:.$-3A-______, #%-2-/%-%-&$-$-LR?," 8A-3R, "%-?/-$A #%-2-A-1-$A?-2&:-.$-29R-/A-
<J., %?-29R-______/A-3-<J.,"
5. (/-0, "HR.-#R$-/?-/-/, 9-3-$3-0R-9-3A-___," /.-0, "%?-9-3-$3-3J.-9-___$A .-%?-(A-$9A$-9-/%-,"
6. 3)=-2, "A-=$?, A-3-/-,=, $?R/-AJ____$A" ]-3, "?J3?-#<-;?-3A-__, 3<-$J-.-2R-=3-3-(?-3J.,"
7. #J-.0R/, "#R%-2R-$&R.-__," #J-3A, "#R%-2R-3-$&R., .J?-/-(-3-$%-/?-;R%-o?, 9-3-(A-$9A$->J.-$;R-__o?,"
8. 5S%-2, "%:A-:.A-$R%-3A-.!:, .!:-/, HR?-*R-______," *R-3#/, "HR:A-:.A-*R-3A-.$R?-/, $>$-.$R?-/A-AJ-<J.,
%?-*R-______<%-3A-*R,"
•248•
Exercise 18 Check if you agree. Write your reason on the right using the Tibetan
words that correspond to English modals.
.0J<-2eR., ?-2&.-Y%-.$R?, 3-2Y%?-/-#J-3A-$A?-#-?R?-o-3-<J., ¥

o-35/, ?-2&.->R<-/-=R-+R$-3A-*J, =R-+R$-3A-Z-/-9-o-3J.,
2?3--5= o--35/
1. #J-2-$8/-0-;<-o?-;R%-$A-;R.-.?, #J-2-:.A-<-;<-o?-;R%-.$R?-$A___
1. ___________________
2. .J%-3-$A-/J:-$?A%-KA<-<-a<-$?R-;?-.$R?-$A _____
2. __________________
3. :2.->A%-%-.-#%-2-2>A$?-/-Z-$A _____
3. __________________
4. MA-5%-3-$A?-MA-<2?-eJ?-3-2?3-.$R?-/A-<J., _____
4. __________________
5. 3$R-/$-MA<-:,%-(-.$R?-/, (-$A-3$R-#%?-Y%-.$R?-/A-<J., ____
5. __________________
6. $/?-5=-#$-3R-.J<-#J-2-;R%?-$A?-:.%-o$-.$R?-$A _____
6. __________________
7. KA/-(.-I3-0-/?-C-3A-:,-oR:A-<, #R%-2R-3A-$&R.-oR:A-1A$-=3-.$R?-$A ___
7. __________________
8. <A-3$R-<-<A->R.-/?-.J%-KA/-(.-!-<J-=$-$-3A-:6B/-oR:A-1A$-=3-.$R?-$A ___
8. __________________
9. 29:-5%-$9A$-;A/-/, #R%-2R-?3-&-=R-<J-<J<-:6$?-.$R?-$A _____
9. __________________
10. ;%-3A/-., MA-.<-3-$9A$-;A/-/, =R-<J<-#R%-2R-2&R-s-:6$?-.$R?-$A ___
10. __________________
11. K$?-9R$-?-:.A-$*A?-/?-3A-:5S-oR:A-1A$-=3-29R-.$R?,_____
11. __________________
Exercise 19 Read each statement and then ask a question with the phrases in
parentheses. Your partner answers.
.0J<-2eR., #J-MA-$A?-#R%-2R-$&R.-.$R?-?R%-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)

(A-$9A$-$-#R%-2R-$&R.-.$R?-2+%-/A-<J., #R%-2R-3-2&.-/-#J-MA-9R<-(-3-3J.-:IR,
1. #J-2-:.A?-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-,$-$&R.-;?-.$R?-$A ($%-$A-,R$-/?)
Q: _____________________________ A: ___________________________
2. }R/-(.-$A-(-#->J?-.$R?-/-#J-MA-$9A$-=R-?3-&-;A/-.$R?-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
Q: _____________________________ A: ___________________________
3. <R%-/?-(-b-$A-/%-/-(-;R.-.$R?-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
Q: _____________________________ A: ___________________________
4. #J-3A-9R-$A?-uR/->A%-:,-.$R?-,=, ($%-/?)
Q:_____________________________ A: ___________________________
5. <A-{J.-<-<A-3$R-$A-#R%-2R-5%-3-=%?-2+%-,=, ((A-$9A$-$A-.R/-/)
•249•
Q: ____________________________ A: ___________________________
6. =-=-$A?-2v?-/, $/?-5=-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-#$ ?J3?-#<-;?-3A-.$R?, (?-?-$A?)
Q: ____________________________ A: ___________________________
7. #J-.0R/-$A?-(-$A-3$R-#%?-=-?R$?-Y%-.$R?-:.R.-$A-;R., ($%-$%)
Q: ____________________________ A: ___________________________
8. P3-0-/?->A%-:,-(R$-/A-3-<J., (/3-$9A$-$)
Q: ____________________________ A: ___________________________
9. HAA3-5%-$A?-MA-P%?-v<-<-#R%-2R-:6$?-.$R?-/A-<J., ((A-$9A$-$)
Q: ____________________________ A: ___________________________
8.12 -- ;A/-.-3A/-. / ;A/-$&A$-3A/-$&A$ / %J?-0<-.….$R?

HR?-;;A/-.-3A/-.-.-2-$&RR.-.$RR?-$A You must stop smoking.
n.$R? gives an order.
8-;?-$A?-;A/-$&AA$-3A/-$*AA?-#$-MR%- Children must experience o.$R?, together with
hardship.
adverbial phrases,
.$RR?-$A
means have to or
L-2-:.A-;A/-.-3A/-.-.J-<A%-=?--.$RR?, This job must be done today (in
any case). must.
HR.-;A/-$&AA$-3A/-$*AA?-;R%-.$RR?, In any case, you must come.
Notes-9
1. .$R?, together with the adverbial phrases mentioned above, expresses must or have to,
e.g.,HR?-.-2-;A/-.-3A/-.-$&R.-.$R?, You must stop smoking. In a negative statement, it does
not suggest something is prohibited but something is not required, e.g., HR?-2R.-;A$-;A/-
$&A$-3A/-$&A$-.R%-3A-.$R?, You do not have to study Tibetan.
2. */ is used to express suitability or feasibility, e.g., HR.-.-:IR-*/, You may go now (under
certain conditions). / :.A-/?-.-2-:,J/-3A-*/, One may not smoke here (probably according
to regulations).
•250•
Exercise 20 What should be done if you see these signs. Use phrases: ;A/-.-3A/-. / ;A/-
$&A$-3A/-$&A$ / %J?-0<-.….$R?, (R$, and */.
1. HR?-:.A-<A$-/, __________________________________________,
2. g$?-:.A-<A$-/, _________________________________________,
3. g$?-:.A<-,$-/A-<,________________________________________,
4. \R$-<A$?-:.A-<A$-/, _______________________________________,
5. =3-,R$-/?-*J/-#-(J, _______________________________________,
6. =3-/-MA-;R.-/-,%-, ________________________________________,
7. %J.-5%-/-8-;?-;R., ________________________________________,
8. 3J-:#R<-$9A$-;R%-$A-;R., _____________________________________,
Exercise 21 Describe what you need to / must do each week.
.0J<-2eR., $8%-12-#%-/?-L-2-=?, %?-;A/-/-3A/-.-$8%-12-#%-$A-/%-/?-L-2-=?-.$R?,
1. o-H-$R/, ______________________, 6. :$R-2<-#-;$-2>.,_________________,

2. $8%-12-#%-%-.?-,R$-$-,R/,___________, 7. \R$-[.-2!R=,____________________,
3. $9:-*A-3-$A-*A/, __________________, 8. =?-(.-L%-/,____________________,
4. $9:-%J/-0-$A-*A/, _________________, 9. 5%-3-$A?-.LA/-{.-2>.,_____________,
5. /-2+%-/, ;<-8-;?,________________, 10. $8%-12-#%-/?-{.-3$R-.3:,__________,
Exercise 22 A couple tells their daughter what she should / should not / must / must
not do. Write .$R?, 3A-.$R?, ;A/-.-3A/-., ;A/-$&A$-3A/-$&A$, */, /-(R$ and ,2 in the
blanks.
8AA-3R A-1, HJ.-$*A?-!-?R%-/A-<, %-aR2-9<-_________,

A--1 aR2-9<-:IR-3A-.$R?, <J.-S-HR?-HA3-=?-3%-%-=?-_________,
8AA-3RR <J.-S, .$J-c/-$A?-aR2-9<-_________-;R%-_________9J<, HR?-.$J-c/-/-;<-8-;?-_______,
A--1 .J-L?-_______, %-;<-8-;?-$A-:IR, .J-3A/-.-HR.-.L<-C-2bR-$A-<-:IR-_________,
8AA-3RR %-3A-:IR, /-/A%-<-%-?R%-%-, .R-5B$?-%:A-M%-%R-?R%-_________,
•251•
A-1 #<-$J-=R-(%-$A :IR-_______, HR.-<-3A-:IR-/-3A-:IR, <J.-S, HR?-MA%-2R<-2.$-*R%-A-m-;?-
________,
8A-3R .J-3A/-.-%?-(A-$9A$-=?_________, 9R$-=$-<-%?-:5S-.$R?-/A-AJ-<J.,

A-1 9R$-=$-HR?-:5S_________, K$?-9R$-:5S-oR-%?-HR:A-A-#<-2&R=-;R.,
8A-3R .2?-/?-;/-<A%-%-$9A$-$-3-:.$ HR.-$*A?-!-_________<J3-3-KA<-<-;R%-_________,
A-1 .2?-/?-%J.-$*A?-!?-$/?-3%-%-$9A$-$-3)=-_______, <J.-S-%J.-$*A?-$%-3IR$?-$A?-KA<-<-;R%-,
A-3 :R, .J?-3A-5., *A/-.!<-HA3-/?-MA-#R., .$R%-3R<-|R-2g/-0R-;?-_________,
8A-3R ;, A-3, HR?-?J3?-2.J-3R-LR?,
Exercise 23 Tell what the villagers should / should not do based on the preceding text.
.0J<-2eR., #J-3A-9R?-lA->A%-Y%-*R%-;?-.$R?, .J-3A/-lA->A%-)J-*%-;A/-o-<J.,
1. #J-3A-9R?-IR?-;?________, #R-9R-:#R<-;$-$A-$/.-.R/-(J-$9A$-$-,$-;R.-$A
2. #J-3A-<A$?-$A?-#R%-2R-:6$?________, .J-3A/-$8$-/?-#R-9R<-:2.->A%-<-;R.-o-3-<J.,
3. <A-:.2?-$A-uR/->A%-$&R.________, #R<-;$-)J-29%-%-$+R%-/,
4. :,%-(-$A-$/.-.R/-,$-$&R.-;?-/, C-:VJ$-________,
5. <%-#J<-<R-3A-2?3-/, #R%-2R-$&R.-________9J<,
6. 8A%-%-(-$+R%-/, 3$R-/$-MA-$A?-(-:,%-/, (-$A-3$R-#%?-$&R.- ________, Y%-________,
7. #R%-2R-:6$?-________oR, #J-3A-5%-3-$A?-1=-(J<->J?-;R.-$A
8. lA->A%-Y%-________/, K$?-9R$-?-(-$8/-0-/?-:5S-.$R?-/A-<J.,
8.13 -- …
/ ,%; */; /…(R$
/…,%
%-?-(-:.A<-@R%-$A?-.$:-$A HR.-<-.$:-/-,%--, I like this place very much. You
may like it as well.
The phrase
expresses
%?-2R.-{.-3A->J?, MA-$/-$A?->J?-/-,%--, I don't know Tibetan. That likelihood and
person might know. possibility.
5S%-<-/?-/-$-:.A<-|R<-3R-S$-.$R?-/-,%--, This pen may costs six yuan in
the market.
•252•
*/
#%-2-:.A:A-/%-/?-.-2-:,J/-3A-*/, It is not OK to smoke in this
room.
It expresses,
without
o=-#2-:.A:A-1A$-OA3?-v<-/, c/-3R-$*A?- According to the laws of this mandatory tone,
country, it is not OK to have two feasibility in the
=J/-3A-*/, wives. respect of, say,
regulations, rules,
natural laws, etc.
(3-0-L%-/, :H$-$A-:)$-3A-*/, If (one) contracted a cold, one
should not get cold.
/…(R$
HR.-.R-.$R%-|R<-lJ-$A-?R%-/-(R$ You are allowed to play outside. It expresses
permission.
%:A-|R<-3R-HR?-2!R=-/-3A-(R$ You are not allowed to spend my
money.
$?%-$+3-:.A-$8/-/-2>.-/-3A-(R$ It is not allowed to tell this secret
to other people.
Notes-10
1. /…,%: What appears before / is a clause. The second syllalbe, which means likely, as the
complement, modifies the clause subject, e.g., #R-\R$-2f/-#%-%-:IR-/-,%-, There are two
ways to put it in English: It is likely that he goes to the cinema. He might go to the
cinema. To deny, a negative adverb is put in the clause subject, e.g., #R-\R$-2f/-#%-%-3A-:IR-
/-,%-, It is likely that he does not go to the cinema.
2. /…(R$: What precedes / is a conditional clause. The second syllable means to be OK, to
be allowed, etc., and, as the predicative verb, modifies the conditional clause. Since
something is assumed to have happened in the clause, the verb in the clause, if there is
one, is in PAT. e.g., HR.-?R%-(/) 3A-(R$ HR.-?R%-(/) (R$ It is OK that you go. Or, You may go.
3. */ and (R$: Both could be used as modal verbs in addition to being used as predicative
verbs as in No. 2 above, e.g., .0J-(-$A-!J%-%-/-$J-/R$-$J-:VA-3A-*/, One should not scribble in
one's book; HR?-.0J-(:A-!J%-%-/-$J-/R$-$J-:VA-3A-(R$ You must not scribble in the book.
Exercise 24 Tell what can be done and what might happen.
.0J<-2eR., |R-/-$/3-:22-$A-;R., HR.-:H$-/-,%-,
1. c.-0R, (R?-35S, %?-#$-3-3A-fJ.-$A #$-3-$%-/-;R.-:.$-HR?-AJ->J?,

c/-3R, %?-3A->J?, <J.-S-8A-=A-$A?-_________, <J.-S-.?-5S.-:KA-$A HR:A-#$-3-$A-.R/-/-?J3?-#<-3-;?,
.-HR.-?R%-, .J-3A/-HR.-=?-!-$A-$8$-$-=?__________,
2. #J-.0R/, CA->A%-:,-oR-353?-3-28$-/, :5S-2-.-2R-)J-#$-$-:IR__________,
•253•
c.-0R-8A$ )J-#$-$-3A-:IR-__________, %?-5K-$%-2R<->A%-(-]%?, <J.-S-:5S-2-)J-*A.-<J.,
3. (R?-:1$?, 8A-3R-:.A-(-;R.-(-;R.-$9A$-<J., %?-3<-$J-}R/-(.-<A$-;R.__________,
4. !-2, $9:-3)$-:.A<-35S-}R/-0R<-:IR ___, HR.-C-,%-/?-.$R%-3-$&A$-<J-$*A?-<J-:.$-/-AJ-:.R.,
#-2, :.$-=R?-:.R., <J.-S-%-1=-(J<-:IR-______, %:A-c/-3R-o=-/%-/?-KA<-<-.J-<A%-;R%____,
5. ;=-{R<-2, ?-(-:.A-/?-.%R?-0R-$R%-.!:-$A HR.-9R?-=J$?-*J?-$&A$-<-*R__________,
$J->/-0, :.A-/?-$R%-2.J-__________, ?-(-$8/-0-/?-.%R?-$R%-@R%-$A?-3,R,
6. bR-3#/, .R-5B$?-%?-:2-:5S%-________, /-/A%-$R%-2.-,=, .R-5B$?-<-$R%-:2.-________,
*R-3#/, .J-2>.-.!:-3R-<J., $R%-:22-:IR-__________,
Exercise 25 Make the sentences complete using /-(R$ and /-*/. Read the cutting first.
.0J<-2eR., |R-/-$/3-:22-$A-;R., HR.-|R<-:IR-3A-*/, 9-3-3A-9-/, lJ-$A-?R%-/-3A-(R$ Cutting: *A/-3-$9A$-$ .R/-

:P2-5%-$A-K$?-9R$-z?-<<-}-
1. A-3-c/-3R, %-:.A-/?-:.$-________, K$?-9R$-5%-3-|R-#-/-;R.-$A ?J?-,R/-?R%-, A-3-c/-3R-<-3<-
(R?-1R/, A-3, ?%?-o?-?R%-________, #<-$J?-K$?-9R$-:5S-,2-/A-<J., $J:A-8A-3R, 3$-0-.R/-:P2-<-5-
2. ?%?-o?, %-:IR-____%?-=?-L-<-VA?-3J., /%?-!-.$J-c/-$A?-%-2#A$-o-<J., 2R-(-2R?-#-2h-:.A-;?-/A-<J.,
$%-v<-/-<, A-3-c/-3R-.$:-
(R?-1R/, 8A-=A, HR.-:IR-________, .$J-c/-$A?-HR.-3A-2#A$
$A-3J.,
3. ?%?-o?, A-1, A-3-$A?-%-K$?-9R$-:5S-$A-?R%-9J<,
.R/-:P2, 8A-=A, HR?-K$?-9R$-:5S?_____, .J-8R%-$A?-HR:A-=?-!-3-<J., HR?-;A/-.-3A/-.-=?-L-:VA-.$R?,
4. A-3-c/-3R, ?%?-o?-$A?-#R-:IR-______9J<, .R/-:P2-$A?-?%?-o?-:IR-______9J<, .J?-/-%-:IR, =R-
c?-/-=?-!-)J-3%-<J.,
(R?-1R/, A-3, HR?-.J-9J<-AJ-________, .R/-:P2-$A?-HR.-=?-!-!J<-:.R.-/A-3-<J., K$?-9R$-$A-2^-#<-
$J-?R%-________/A-<J.,
5. A-3-c/-3R, MA-c?-/-#-z$-<J., =?-!-3-=?-/-________,
.R/-:P2, A-3, HR?-.J-3-9J<, K$?-:5S-$A-%-?R%-______, %?-HR.-#$-$-3A-$+R., .-HR.-=R-(J-$A K$?-
9R$-:5S-$A-:IR-3A-_______,
6. ?%?-o?, %-:IR-________/, A-3-c/-3R-<-:IR-________, %-=R-(%-$A K$?-9R$-:5S-</-3-<J., 3<-
$J-=R-(J-$A K$?-9R$-:5S-</-3-<J.,
7. .R/-:P2, ?%?-o?-2.J/-$A KA/-(.-HR.-$*A?-!-K$?-9R$-:5S-$A-:IR-________, :.A-(R?-1R/-<-%J.-$*A?-
•254•
!:A-=?-!-;A/,
(R?-1R/, A-3, HR?-v-5=-.J-3R-:6B/-________, .R/-:P2-2?R.-o-3-<J.,
8. A-3-c/-3R, :.A-3A-_______, $/-3A-_______, MA-c?-/, 8J-,$-$A?-.!:-3R-<J., .-%?-=?-<-3A-H$-$A
8.14 -- …/ OA$?-OA$?-3J.
/…OAA$?--OA$?-3JJ.
.R-8$-#<-$J-2R.-/-;R.-/-OAA$?--OA$?-3JJ., He may be in Tibet these
days.
This phrasal complement
L-2-:.A-/%?-!-:P2-/-OA$?-OAA$?--3J., This job may well be describes the clause before , /

finished tomorrow. signifying possibility or
8-;?-:.A-$9$?-(J-/-OAA$?--OA$?-3JJ., This child may get
physically large.
likelihood.
Notes-11
1. /-…OA$?-OA$?-3J.: OA$?-OA$?-3J. is a negative phrasal adjective, which means likely,

possible, etc. It is usually used, as the predicative complement, to modify what the clause
expresses. Negative adverbs are put in the clause, e.g., #<-$J-3A-;R%-/-OA$?-OA$?-3J., (It is
possible that he would not come.) He might not come.
2. /…,% and /…OA$?-OA$?-3J.: They are alternative.
Exercise 26 Make a question for each statement using .$R?, ,2, /-(R$, */, OA$?-OA$?-3J.,
/-,%, ;A/-.-3A/-., ;A/-$&A$-3A/-$*A?, etc.
.0J<-2eR., %?-HR?-,-3$-:,J/-353?-28$-/-:.R.-$A HR?-,-3$-:,J/-353?-28$-/-AJ-(R$

Without modals With modals
1. HR:A-=$-$A-9-3-.J-8A3-3.R$-(J-$A %?-<-9R?-/-:.R.-$A 1. __________________________
2. /3-3#:-/?-3J-+R$-2!., 2. __________________________
3. \R$-2f/-/-v-/-.J%-,R$-0-?J-.$R?-/A-<J., 3. __________________________
4. ,R.-#%-, ,R.-#%-, %?-$&A/->R<-$R-$A 4. __________________________
5. /%?-!-%-!R/-3R-$9A$-$-:IR-.$R?, 5. __________________________
6. (%-3%-%-:,%?-/-HR:A-=?-1%-%-$/R.-/A-<J., 6. __________________________
7. (/-0-$A?-8-;?-$A?-9?-3%<-3R-?R?-/-3A-Z-9J<, 7. ___________________________
•255•
8. /.-0-(/-0<-!R/-oR-L-2-$=-(J/-<J., (/-#%-%-OA., 8. __________________________
9. $/3-%R-<2-,=, 5-k$?-<-(J-$A $/3-:22-#-<J., 9. __________________________
10. <R$?-0-5%-3-;<-3<-<-2.-,=, %-#J<-<R-;A/-o-<J., 10. _________________________
11. ;=-{R<-2-9R, #%-2-.J-z-#%-$9A$-<J., /%-%-3-:IR, 11. __________________________
12. .R-.$R%-A-1-HA3-/-;R., (%-:,%?-/-#<-$J?->J?-:IR, 12. __________________________
13. /%?-!-aR2-9-/-o$?-$=-(J/-$9A$-;R., %?-(.-$A-3A-:)$ 13. __________________________
14. #<-$J?-;R%-9J<, <J.-S-#<-$J<-3,:-$&A$-$-_R3-3#/-3J., 14. __________________________
Exercise 27 Complete the statements about what can, might, should, and must be
done. Use infinitive cases and negative adverbs if necessary. Leave blank if
they are already complete.
.0J<-2eR., Positive: %?-8-;?-;A/-/-3A/-.-$*R<-.$R?, Negative: %?-=?-!-.J-3R-=?-oR-;A/-.-3A/-.-3A/,

Positive statement Negative statement
1. %-.R-5B$?-$A-<?-aR2-9-/%-%-:IR-_________, <J.-S-%-=R-2./-$A-!J%-aR2-9-/%-%-:IR-___________,
2. MA-c/-0-;R%-/-;<-<-_____=%?-_______, MA-=R-(%-;R%-/-;<-<-=%?__________________,
3. V$-#-.3:-?-/?-HR.-:.$-___________, ?-(-*J/-#-(J-?-/?-HR.-:.$_________________,
4. 2R.-/?-=$->-3%-%-9-______________, <J.-S, 1$->-<-;->-3%-%-9_________________,
5. .$J-c/-.J-,-3$-:,J/-___________.$:-$A #<-$J?-,-3$-:,J/-/, aR2-3-9R-/%-/?-:.$-_______,
6. .R/-.$-:.A-IR?-;?-__________.?-5S.-;R., .R/-.$-:.A-<J2-$&A$-$-,$-$&R.-_____3IR$?_____,
7. =R-2&R-2o.-;/-$A-MA-.<-3-$A?-(%-:,%-_____, <J.-S-=R-2&R-2o.-3/-$A-=R-(%-<A$?-$A?-__________,
8. <%-$A-3-{.-aR2-______________l-3R-<J., <J.-S, {.-<A$?-$8/-0-aR2_____l-3R-;A/_______,
9. .J-<A%-/3-^-;$-$A $/3-P-:1<-__#R-,$-<J., #-l%-/3-^-3A-Z-$A $/3-P-3%-%-$9A$-:1<-_______,
10. %J.-$*A?-!-.R-.$R%-$A-!R/-,R$-$-:IR______, %J.-$*A?-!-#-l%-$A-!R/-,R$-$-_______________,
11. .-.?-5S.-:KA-$A %J.-$*A?-!-;:-2-:IR_____, .-2R-.?-5S.-}-$A %J.-$*A?-!-;:-2-:IR__________,
12. %:A-A-3-;A/-.-3A/-.-(/-0<-!R/-_____o-<J., %?-2v?-/, 3<-$J-!R/-______________o-3-<J.,
Exercise 28 Put in appropriate adverbial phrases, modals, and auxiliaries in the
match-making dialogue. Use infinitive cases if necessary.
8AA-=AA:A-A--1 %J.-5%-$A-8A-=A-<-HR.-5%-$A-8A-3R-$*A?-!-3,/-;R.-$A .J-HR?-<->J?-/A-<J., %-.J-<A%-HJ.-$A-8A-3R-3/:-3<-
•256•
ȝŬĻ--$A-;R%-/A-;A/,
8A-3R:C-A-1 HR.-5%-<-%J.-5%-$*A?-!-1/-5/-/-(-o?-;R., <J.-S-%?-.-.-.-:,.-$A-9J<-________.!:-3R-<J.,
%?-c/-3R-<-&A$-:SA-.$R?-o-<J.,
8A-=A:A-A-1 HJ.-$A-8A-3R-%:A-MA$-:R$-/?-=$-($?-/A-<J., %?-3<-$J-<%-$A-8A-3R<-2lA?-_____, HR?-.J:A-,R$-/?-
?J3?-#<-;?-3A-_____,
8A-3R:C-A-1 .J-.-=R?-;A/, >$-0R-.$:-2R, <J.-S, 3-(.-$*A?-!-3J.-/, %-#J<-<R?-,$-$&R.-_________, .J?-3A-
5.->-*J-$8/-0-<A$?-$J<-<-2>.-_________o-<J.,
8A-=A:A-A-1 .J?-/-%-/%?-!-KA<-<-;R%-/-AJ-_________,
8A-3R:C-A-1 (R$-$A /%?-!-KA-SR->R$ .J-.?-%J.-5%-$A-MA-5%-3-;R., >-*J-(-<J-<-;R.-______,
KA-*A/-$A-KA-SR,
8AA-3RR:C-A--1 8A-3R-:,.-$A %J.-@-3-$*A?-!-=R?-:,., HR.-5%-:$=-v?-;$-$A .J:A-,R$-$ %J.-(:R-5%-3-29%-?-<J.,
8AA-=AA:A-A--1 .J?-/-.J-<A%-(%-?-2o2-_________, (R$-/, %?-$*J/-g$?-$A-(%-:HJ<-;R%-$A-:)$
8AA-3RR:C-A--1 _________, *A/-3-(-4B$-$A-/%-%-$*J/-(%-].-/-<J., .J-.?-#J-MA-5%-3-#J-2-/%-/-;R.-o-<J.,
8AA-=AA:A-A--1 .R-5B$?-=R-/%-%-$*J/-1A$-;?-/, HR?-2v?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,

8AA-3RR:C-A--1 =R-/%-%-$*J/-1A$-;?-_________, .R-5B$?-c/-3R-$A-A-3-3-=R-, ?%-=R-$A-=R-!R.-<-;?-/-AJ-_____,
8AA-=AA:A-A--1 (R$-$A (R$-$A A-<R, 29%-?, =R-!R.-<-8A-3R-;A/-.-3A/-.-*J=-;R%-_______, .J-.-%:A-<J-2-#J<-<R-;A/,
8AA-3RR:C-A--1 (R$-$A .J-%?-V%-#<-2o2-/A-;A/,
8.15 --Use of :)$
Example Past tense Present tense Notes
8-;?-5%-3-aR2-9<-:IR-$A- nImplies someone gets / let
something be done.
8A-=A-=R-(%-.J-,-3$-:,J/-$A- 2&$ :)$ oConnotes someone is
asked, made, allowed, or let
/.-0-.J-(/-#%-%-:.$-$A- to do something.
Positive Negative
Example Notes
imperative imperative
\-.L%?-$A-1-(J-$A- Let is the closest English
equivalent.
aR2-3-9R-\R$-[.-o/-.-2!R=-$A-
($?, 3-:)$
A-1-(%-o/-.-:,%-$A-
9-3-8A3-0R-.J-=.-$A-
•257•
Exercise 29 Translate the English statements into oral Amdo. Use :)$, 2&$, and ($?.
English Tibetan
1. They made me do it. 1. __________________________
2. I wasn't allowed to go. 2. _________________________
3. They didn't allow anyone to go there. 3. _________________________
4. Mother, please ask Father to let me go! 4. _________________________
5. You are not allowed to smoke here. 5. _________________________
6. Will they allow us to do it? 6. _________________________
7. I was allowed to take a trip. 7. _________________________
8. Who let them come in? 8. _________________________
9. He found it difficult to make him understand. 9. _________________________
Exercise 30 Make each statement complete using :)$, */, or /-(R$.
1. :)<-3/-/?-N%-$R:C->R$-|R<-2!R=___________,
2. 2R.-/?-MA%-YA%-$A-2<-/?-1R-3R-$A-.R/-.$-2>._____,
3. MA-.$:-$9A$-2&:-/, MA-$8/-/-#R$-$/$-2&:-___,
4. aR2-9-/?-8-;?-9R-;R/-+/-.R%-_____________,
5. ?J3?-&/-$?R.-________, i3-(A/-:#R<-/A-<J.,
6. 29R-9-/%-/?-9-3-9-$A-____, <J.-S-#-2h-;?-___,
7. c/-3R-:.A<-/-5-(J-$9A$-1R$-;R., ;:-/?-:)R$-____,
8. 2R.-$A-?-(-/?->-2YJ$-_____, .J-:6K3-o-$9A$-<J.,
9. 9->$-/?-8A-3R-$9A$-8$-:.$-;?-$A-:)$-______,
10. $8/-/-:$R3-;$-$+R%-_________________,
11. $?%-$+3-:.A-2>.-_____, .J-3A/-($-|R-;R%-o-<J.,
•258•
:PRR and ;RR% They are often combined with verbs as morphemes.
as auxiliaries
Word list Tibetan English

:HJ<-:IR :HJ<- HR:A-$R/-o-%?-:HJ<-:IRR, <J.-S-%?-/%?-!-:HJJ<-;R%-, I take your garment
but will bring it back
;R% tomorrow.
2.-:IR 2.-;R% :P=-2-9R-?%-*A/-2..-:IRR, _%?-:#R<-.?-,R$-$-2..-;RR%-/, If the bus comes on

time, the guests will
depart tomorrow.
VR?-?R% VR?-;R% /-/A%-8A-3R-:.A-$/?-<-VR?- .R-5B$?-3<-$J-KA<-<-VR?-;R%-, This girl eloped last
year but escaped back
?RR%-, home this year.
:1<-:IR :1<-;R% %-.J-<A%-0J-&A/-/-:1<<-:IR, <J.-S-$9:-:#R<-$8$-3-:1<-- Today, I fly to Beijing

but will fly back next
;RR%-, week.
:IR expresses outwards and ;R% inwards and, combined with:HJ<, for example, :HJ<-:IR
Notes and :HJ<-;R%, respectively, meaning take and bring.
:))$ with spontaneous This table shows how :)$ with spontaneous verbs is different from
and / or active verbs its use with active verbs.
With spontaneous English With active verbs English

verbs
%?-_%-:#R<-:#RR<-$A-2&$ I let the fan run. %?-:#R<-=R-2{R<-$A-2&$ I had (someone)
rotate the wheel.
8A%-/%-/?-C-*JJ-$A-:)$ Weeds are allowed to
grow in the field.
8A%-/%-/?-?A=-#R%-:6$$?- (People) are not
allowed to plant fruit
$A-3A-:)$ trees in the field.
$?<-2-9R-%<--=%?-$A-3- Don't let the young $?<-2-9R<-%<-w.-$A-3- Don’t let (someone)

guys get excited. stimulate the young
:)$ :)$ guys.
#%-2:A-/%-%-*A-3-><-$A- Let the sun shine into
the house!
3J-+R$-$A-!J%-%-*A-3-:$RR$-$A-
Ask someone to block
the sunlight from
($?, ($?, shining on the
flowers.
nWith spontaneous verbs, it indicates something is allowed or not
allowed to keep its way.
Notes
oWith active verbs, it indicates someone allows or doesn't allow another
person to do something.
•259•
o Its grammatical functions are further dealt with: infinitive case indicative and future tense
indicative.
With ;R. With ;A/ / <J.

.JA.-!-8A%-2-9R<-=?--o- The farmers have
much to do in the
HR.-:IR-:.R.-/-<, %-:IR-o--3A/, I will not go even
if you want to go.
3%-%-;R., spring.
.-2R-=3-<A%-%-:IRR-o--;R., There is still quite a

distance to go.
2v?-/-$/3-:22-o--<J., It seems that it
will rain.
#<-$J:A-$+3-3-*/--o-;R., His speech has
something to listen
%:A-{J.-0-/-$A %-/-o--<J., There is a pain in
my back. I think I
to. will get sick.
.J-<A%-#J-2:A-/%-/-v.-3R-v- There is a
performance in the
%J.-(-2R-2R.-<-:IR-o--;A/, We will go to
Tibet.
o-;R., village to enjoy.
… o--;R. o + indefinite article + be verb

%-=-.R/-.$-$?3-2>.-o-- I have three points to
mention.
.%R?-2R-:.A-2!R=-o-$9AA$-<J., This thing is
something to be
;RR., used.
9-3-9-o-<-:)R$-o--3J.-$A There is not enough

food to eat and to
=?-!-:.A-<J3-3-=?-o-$9AA$- This work is one
that should be
save (keep some). ;AA/, done quickly.
2<-.J-/-HR.-=-#$-o--3J., In that moment, you

do not have anything
:.A-5%-3-:5S%-o--+$-+$--;A/, They (all) need to
be sold.
to feel bad about.
/% vs. $9AA$ /% is used as an exclamation and $9A$ is used as a reportive particle in past tense
mood.
/% $9AA$
8A-3R-:.A-VA?-/-3IR$?-$A-/%--, How fast the
girl writes!
8A-3R-.J?-5%-3-VA?-2+%-$9AA$ The girl has written all.
(reportive)
HA3-5%-:.A-*A.-0R-<J.-/%--, Wow, this
family is so
HA3-5%-.J-.J%-3-3J.-0R-;A/-$9AA$ That family was poor
before. (reportive)
happy!
?-(-:.A-*A.-0R-<J.-/%--, Wow, this
place is so
?-(-.J-*A.-0R-;A/-$9AA$ That place was a good
place. (reportive)
enjoyable!
N%-$R-/-MA-3%-$A-/%--, There are so
many people
#J-2-.J-MA-.0%-(J-$9AA$ That village had a huge
(amount) of man-
in China! power. (reportive)
•260•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--2o.--0,
?%?-o?-GA-#%-!R/,
;/-$9A$-$ for a long time :P=-2-9R-;/-$9A$-$-3-,R/-,=,
#%-!R/ house-warming party #%-!R/-;?-/-:IR-|R-(J,
%J?-%J?-$A? really ?-(-:.A-%J?-%J?-$A?-(J,
#-=J/ to listen to ,%-!A-$A?-=$-$A-#-3A-=J/,
*R$? to turn; to disturb %J.-5%-%-:IR-/-$;R/-/-*R$?-.$R?,
:S-:S about; or so; similar %-=-aR2-3-?3-&-:S-:S-$9A$-;R.,
#%-2lJ$? building #%-2lJ$?-:.A<-2%-<A3-$?3-;R.,
28A-,R$-&/ four-storied #%-2-28A-,R$-&/-.J-/-/A%-=?,
&-=$ things &-=$-3%-/-#%-2-:#R2?-)J-(%-;A/,
|R-# entrance 5S%-#%-$A-|R-#-/-MA-3%-%-2><-;R.,
%R< to move; to migrate ?%-=R<-%-?-$8/-$9A$-$-%R<-o?,
H$ to be able to carry / to take g-$A-#=-2R%-2?-3A-H$
4? to mix %?-KJ-4?, A-3-$A?-}R-5S.-2N?,
$R to knead :.3-$R-3#/-9R-o-+$-+$-<J.,
{3?-> yak meat 2R.-/?-{3?->-:5S%-3#/-#-3(J-;A/,
$42?-3 minced >-$42?-3-o-3-$%-$A?-:.%-o-<J.,
]$? to pour; to mould {-:.A-9%?-$A?-]$?,
D-# salt MA-=-=-$A?-D-3J.-/-)-3A-:,%-,
$;J<-3 prickly ash $;J<-3-%?-o/-.-2!R=-$A-;R.,
=R$-=R$ round; ball HR:A-=$-$A-.%R?-2R-=R$-=R$-.J-(A-$9A$-;A/,
4S% onion 4S%-2R.-$A-9-3-5%-3-$A-/%-%-2!R=,
$9J2-3 steamer $9J2-3-3J.-/-3R$-3R$-:5S.-3A-,2,
:#R= to get boiled (-2{R=-/?-:#R=-,=,
•261•
$. to seethe (-$.-$A-;R.-.?-.J3-3-<J$-3A-*/,
9?-1. nutritious food :P=-2-$=-(J/-/-9?-1.-2{R=,
_%?-! steam (-:#R=-/-_%?-!-:K<-/A-<J.,
,-=A-=A steaming 9-3-5-3R-#J<-3-$%-%R-_%?-!-,-=-=,
?A=-+R$ fruit ?A=-+R$-9R?-/-=?-0R-2.J,
tA$? to be able to digest %?-9R?-9R?-/?-#R$-/-t$?-$A-3J.,
=?-YR physical strength / stamina C-29%-$A 9R$-$-=?-YR-:22-$A-;R.,
9. to be consumed; to wear out =?-!-2-9R-=?-9%?-9.-$A-;R.,
.J:A-[.-= in addition; on top of |R<-3R-*A-> .J:A-[.-=-$?J<-:.A-!J<,
:) to grab %:A-=$-0-3-:), %-3A-2.J-$A
#R$-5 fever in chest #R$-5-o?-/-#-{R3-/A-<J.,
5-(/ medicine for high fever 5-(/-o/-.-2!J/-o-$9A$-3A/,
,/-$&A$ a meal; a dose (/-,/-$&A$-:,%-oR-2eJ.-?R%-,
2!.-<? continuously; consecutively %?-2!.-<?-.?-5S.-$?3-3-.0J-(-2v?,
2!J/-YR= use (of medicine) (/-0, (/-:.A-2!J/-YR=-%->R.-0,
#-:6B-(J to avoid certain food; picky (food) 8-;?-:.A-#-:6B-(J, :.A-3A-9-$/-3A-9,
=3-VR provision; food prepared for a trip =3-<A%-,%-%-=3-VR-29%-/-Z,
$R-<J bread $R-<J-9-oR<-%-3A-.$:,
@/-(.-/? other than; since .J-<A%-@/-(.-/?-HR.-%J.-$*A?-1-2-3A/,
#-,$-$ directly 8A-=A, #-,$-$-aR2-9<-?R%-,
1<-5< back and forth 1<-5<-<-:1<-/-$/3-P-$R%-3A-.!:,
:IR-# when (someone) departs %-:IR-#<-?J3?-@R%-$A?-#$
2R.-0-\-2-P$?-&/-8A$-=-2&<-:SA-L?-0,
1. to issue; to get published /-/A%-lR3-0-0R-:.A?-.0J-(-$9A$-1.-?R%-,

o$-(J popular .0J-(-.J-o$-(J-/-VA?-24S$-o-3-<J.,
\J% to talk; to mention .R/-nJ/-.J-3-\J%-, 3<-$J-;%-#$-o-<J.,
•262•
,A/-,$ tape ,A/-,$-:.A:A-/%-/-\-$-5S$?-;R.,
:5<-=R%? development; growth ?-:.A-/-.0=-:LR<-:5<-=R%?-:L%,
2$-($? impression 3#?-0-.J?-%-=-2$-($?-92-3R-$9A$-28$
;<-$+R$ encouragement MA-29%-%-;<-$+R$-o$-.$R?,
:1J=-# trend; tendency <%-.2%-2lA-/R-.J%-?%-$A-:1J=-#-<J.,
]R-|R mind; intelligence ]R-|R-;%?-/-.R/-.$-:P2,
MA$-o horizon (in one's view) MA$-o-3J.-/-#R$-o-(%-,
.J:A-:UR< thereafter .J%-,R$-#<-$J-%R-OR$-,=, .J:A-:UR<-%R-z%-,=,
KR$?-2#? collection .0J-(-:.A-lR3-;A$-KR$?-2#?-$9A$-<J.,
3#? to be versed; to be skillful 8A-=A-3$R-!R%-8A-3R<-3#?,
!J$?-2 stage; platform !J$?-2-!J%-%-:2.-oR-l-3R-3-<J.,
o2-*R< support o2-*R<-3J.-/, 3J.-0R-9R?-.!:-$R-$A
&$-$-;? to put in order; to make neat 5$?-!-3J.-/-<-&$-$-2&:-.$R?,
H.-0<-2 special; unique hR-:.A-H.-0<-2-$9A$-3-<J., <%-$:A-<J.,
*3?-:I< deportment; bearing HR?-$<-3#/-.J:A-*3?-:I<-<-vR?-<,
=R-*% young .J%-?%-=R-*%-3%-%-$9A$-P2-o$?-<J.,
.-?R-3 just now %?-9-3-.-?R-3-9R?-2+%-,
?%?-3R clear; good (physically) /.-0-.J-<A%-=?-#3?-?%?-3R-<J.,
=R-,R%-,R% prime of life =R-,R%-,R%-$A-{2?-2-.R/-(J/-12-.$R?,
<J-2 hope; wish #<-$J-MA-<J-2-(J-:6B/-3#/-$9A$-3A/,
=?-S% to be lucky #<-$J-.0R/-$R-?-$A-,R$-/?-=?-S%-$A-;R.,
+/-+A$-$A? seriously; earnestly L-2-+/-+A$-$A?-212?-/-:P2-;R%-,
\-5B$ lyrics \-5B$-:.A-:VA-3#/-2R.-$9A$-3-<J.,
.L%? tone; melody \-5B$-<-.L%?-$*A?-!-@R%-$A?-Z,
5S/-0R fat >-5S/-0R-3%-%-3-9,
M$ to wander; to roam ^-2-$8$-3:A-/%-%-o=-/%-%-M$-$A-:IR,
:1< to fly :1<-,2-3#/-5%-3-:.2-($?-3-<J.,
•263•
$/%?-*A/ the day after tomorrow $/%?-*A/-%-=?-#%?-%-3A-:IR,
|R<-:#R< to get out; to wander outside %:A-8A-=A-.J-<A%-.?-5S.-$?3-3-|R<-:#R<,
]R-l-2g/ to be resolute aR2-3-:.A-2R.-{.-.R%-oR<-]R-l-2g/,
:<-o$ to make noise :<-o$-/-|R<-?R%-, :.A-/?-o$-3A-(R$
o$?-3R. to take an exam o$?-3R.-oR:A-*A/-3-,R/-2+%-,
2)= to teach #<-$J?-=R-28A-2&-$A-<A%-2R.-;A$-2)=,
*J/-gR$-0 police *J/-gR$-0-9R-MA-%/-+$-+$-<J.,
/$-*J? crime /$-*J?-3J.-/-:)A$?-.R/-3J.,
;A.-<->< to remember 3<-$J-<A$-/-%:A-A-&J-;A.-<-><-$A
A-5$? stubbornness MA-A-5$?-&/-hR$-$R-#R-<J.,
:IR$ to lift up MA-!R2?-&/-:.A?-o-3-?3-2o-:IR$-,2,
/R<-:($ mistake /R<-:($-L%-/-;R-2Y%-LJ.-oR-$=-(J,
.3$-3A soldier .3$-3A-9R-=R-(%-n%-n%-<J.,
2!R.-0 idea; arrangement MA-2!R.-0-<-1$-$-$-.$R?-9J<,
2!:-22? to give an order 2!:-22?-/A-<, .3$-9R-3./-/-3(R%?,
.%-=J/ to accept $/-o-:.A-KR$?-$&A$-$A?-.%-=J/-3-;?,
*A?-:$= contradiction; dichotomy %-?J3?-*A?-:$=-<J., :IR-/%-3A-:IR,
#J-.0R/-8A$-$A-$+3-2>.,
;<-o? development ;<-o?-;R%-.$R?-/-aR2-$?R-$=-(J,
#$-3R bad; miserable :VR$-0-3%-0R-:5S-$/?-#$-3R-<J.,
52?-(J/ serious $%?-*R/-$A-$/R.-0-@R%-$A?-52?-(J/-<J.,
;/ more than; further than .J:A-;/-/-3-:IR, V$-#-<J.,
I3-0 river floor #R%-2R-3J.-,=, I3-0-/-hR-3A/-.-3J.,
uR/->A% shrubs uR/->A%-o?-/, ?-(-2&.-3A-:(R<,
35K<-3 thorn; thorny shrubs 35K<-3-24$?-/-9R$-=$-/%-%-3A-;R%-,
%% grassy land %%-/?-2#.-/-$%-2-*A.-0R-<J.,
•264•
|J< private o=-#2-:.A-/?-o-/R<-5%-3-|J<-<J.,
l-mR$? extermination /-/A%-$A-=R-+R$-.R-5B$?-l-mR$?-;?-?R%-,
/J:-$?A% grassy marshland /J:-$?A%-/-=-$-$/3-wA%-?-wA%-,
<A%-% during; in one's life %:A-<A%-%-%?-_%?-:#R<-$9A$-*R-AJ-,2,
(<-( rainfall (<-(-3R.-/-C-<-=R-+R$-;R%-o-<J.,
:6S3 to be rich; to be plentiful .J-2-5%-%-MA-o-$*A?-!-:6S3,
.2%-/-3J. not to be in one's control HA3-5%-$A-.R/-(J/-%:A-.2%-/-3J.,
i3-(A/ retribution =?-%/-/-i3-(A/-:#R<-/A-<J.,
5<-$&R. eradication; extermination .P-2R-5%-3-$8$-/?-5<-$&R.-L?-2+%-,
<A-:.2? bottom of a mountain <A-:.2?-/-(-2R-$*A?-:SJ?-;R.,
<A-{J. center of a mountain <A-{J.-/-<A-?$?-3%-%-o-$A-;R.,
VJ$? to cut; to raze 8A%-2-9R?-*A/-3-s-=R-+R$-VJ$?,
$;%-? blessing place $;%-?-/?-K$?-#-.<,
$3-GA$-?J shiny; oily ?-(-:.A-$3-GA$-?J, K$?-9R$-$-Z-o-<J.,
,A-,J< naked; bare <A-;R%?-mR$?-,A-,J<-<J., C-2-$A?-3J.,
3$R-#%? origin #-2>.-%/-0-:.A:A-3$R-#%?-$%-<J.,
<A->R. lower part of a mountain <A->R.-/-(-2R-$9A$->%->%->%-,
2>A$ to destroy #%-2-:.A-&%-3-:$R<-<-2>A$-o-<J.,
,/-v? bad omen 1R-<R$-P$?-/-,/-v?-;A/-9J<,
#-%/ bad speech; bad talk #-%/-3-2>., #-,R$-$-:PR-/-,%-,
($-:)A$ catastrophe ($-:)A$-$A-/%-/?-MA-3%-%->A-?R%-,
3A-<2? generation 3A-<2?-$?3-3-=R-(A-3R-$9A$-;R.,
3$R-?J-2h-&/ grey-haired 3$R-?J-2h-&/-$A-MA<-2.$-*R%-;?-.$R?,
$?<-3R young girl $?<-2-$?<-3R-9R-(-(-<J.,
9R<-< sickle =R-+R$-:VJ$-/-9R<-<-=$-(-$4S-2R-<J.,
!-<J ax ;R/-+/-$A-!-<J?-kR%?-2-$A-#R%-2R-$&R.,
%R2?-0-(% cowardly ,A<-2+%-$A?-8A-3R-9R-%R2?-0-(%-,
•265•
:)R/-,%-&/ capable MA-:)R/-,%-&/-]R-<A$-cR.,
{.-3$R pitch (of sound); volume {.-3$R-3-3,R, 8-;?-$*A.-;R.,
$/3-:)R precipitation :)<-3/-$/3-:)R-@R%-$A?-(J,
*J to grow; to be born hR-$?J%-/?-#R%-2R-<J3-3-3A-*J,
]R-:.R/-3#/ consultant ]R-:.R/-3#/-$A?-<%-3$R-<-,R/-$A-3J.,
*%-3,:-< at least #<-$J-*%-3,:-<-=R-?3-&-;R.-o-<J.,
;<-8 report .R/-.$-3J.-/-;<-8-(A-$9A$-;?-o?,
2.$-*R% management #J-=?-$*J<-/-2.$-*R%-$=-(J,
A-m good MA-P2-o$?-.J-8J-/?-MA-A-m-$9A$-<J.,
2&R= to entrust with =?-!-:.A-A-1-$A?-%-=-2&R=-?R%-,
$%-3IR$?-&A-3IR$? as fast as possible $%-3IR$?-&A-3IR$?-$A?-?R%-/-3A-:KA,
#$-3 bag #$-3-$A-/%-/-.%R?-2R-$%-3%-;R.,
(-;R. familiar MA-:.A-2v?-/-(-;R.-(-;R.-&A$-<J.,
$R%-2. to increase in price /-/A%-$?J<-<-$R%-2.-2+%-,
$R%-($ to decrease in price #%-2-$R%-($-/, *R-3#/-;R.-#R-,$-;A/,
#-z$ over; excessive; more than needed :.A-2-5%-%-=$-?3-2o-#-z$-;R.,
#$-$-$+R. to cause trouble A-1-=R-=R, HR?-%-#$-$-3-$+R.,
KA/-(. henceforth .J-3-9J<, KA/-(.-3<-$J-.$R?-.?-;R.,
2?R. to be delighted; to be pleased A-3-<A$-/A-<-1/-5S$?-2?R.-?R%-,
8A3-3.R$-(J to look tasty #R%-3$R:C-?A=-+R$-8A3-3.R$-(J,
,R.-#% bathroom PR%-HJ<-/?-,R.-#%-fJ.-.!:,
$/3-%R-<2 to become downcast 2!.-<?-*A/-3-$?3-3-$/3-%R-<2-,=,
5-k$?-(J humid 5-k$?-(J-/, %-0J-&A/-/-3A-:IR,
3,:-$&A$-$ entirely HR?-3<-$J-3,:-$&A$-$-%/-$A-3-9J<,
3-{. mother language <%-$A-3-{.-2eJ.-/-%R-5-;A/-9J<,
1$-> pork 1$->-.J%-?%-$R%-:2.-$A-;R.,
;-> fish 2R.-3A-c/-0-9R?-;->-3A-9,
•266•
>$-0R intimate friend #<-$J-%:A-,A-5S$?-fA%-2-$A->$-0R-<J.,
3-(. mother and daughter 3-(.-$*A?-!-.J-<A%-OR3-3-2.-,=,
:$=-v? the way people behave HA3-5%-:.A:A-:$=-v?-;$-$A-/%-,
$*J/-g$?-2o2 to become betrothed %-<-1R=-3-$*A?-$-$*J/-g$?-2o2-;R.,
=R-!R. the first half of a year .-=R:C-=R-!R.-<-%:A-#J-5S%-3-Z-,=,
V%-#<-2o2 to guarantee; to promise %?-L-2-:.A-=?-oR-V%-#<-2o2-;R.,
#R$-/$ ill-intention #R$-/$-3-;?, #<-$J-<-~A%-3-eJ,
:$R3-;$ stepping over one's head $8/-/-:$R3-;$-2+%-/-3A-<%-,
($-|R accident ($-|R-L%-/-<-MA-$&A$-<->A-3J.,
•267•
•268•
aR2-5/-.$-2,
2h-3R.,
Classifiers *%; *%-*%-$9A$; 4B?-4-$9A$

3%; 3%-%; 3%-%-$9A$ (-<J; (-4B$; =-=; $9A$; &%
.J-3R; .J-3R-$9A$ Adverb: too
Monks, Bla brang Monastery, Bsang chu County (Xiahe ໣⊇), Gan lho (Gannan ⫬फ)
Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu ⫬㙗 Province (2011).
Text One: classifiers, quantitative adjectives, and pronouns
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-0:A-29:-2+%-,
2R.-MA-$A?-,A-2+%-$A?-9-3-(A-$9A$-9-/%-, 2R.-$A-?-o-(J-/R-$A?, ?-(-<J-<J-29:-2+%-$A-,R$-/?-@R%-$A?-3A-$&A$-/-,%-,

A-3.R-?-(-/?-KJ-<, l3-0, >-<, 3<-<, :R-3-=-?R$?-<J., }R-29:-3#/-@R%-$A?-*%-$A /%-|R?-?-:VR$-/, /?-2R.-
;R%?-$A-9-3-$4S-2R-$9A$-<J., 29:-2+%-$A-$-#-:.A-<A$?-2R.-MA-$A?-=R-%R-!R%-U$-(-<J-$A-<A%-%-=R%?-,R.-;?-/A-<J.,
<J.-S-.J%-?%-=-=-$A?-2R.-$A-YR=-o/-$A-9-3-3A-Z-9J<, =-=-$A?-2R.-$A-9-3-$A-;/-/-9-3-$8/-3J.-9J<-$A-;R., v-5=-:.A-

$*A?-!-.3A$?-$8A-$&A$-<J., 2R.-$A-29:-2+%-%-2&.-;R.-3J.->J?-:.R.-$A-;R.,
9-3-2&.-&/-9-oR-@R%-$A?-$=-(J/-<J., =?-#3?-$A-2.J-#$-<-MA-5K-$A-<A%-,%-%-,$-;R., 2R.-$A-29:-2+%-$A-/%-/?-

$%-%-2&.-;R.-/%-, 3,:-$&A$-$-:.A-2&.-&/-<J., $/-2&.-&/-3-<J.-9J<-3A-*/, $&A$-/?, 9-3-$-#-$&A$-$A-/%-
/-9-3-$A-2&.-5%-3-3J., <J.-S, MA-$A-=?-#3?-3-2&.-$-#-3%-%-$9A$-.$R?, $*A?-/?, 9-3-2&.-29%-%/-<-#R<-
;$-$-,$-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-#-9?-#J2-</-oR-<-$-:6S3?-oR-$=-(J/-<J.,
MA:A-=?-9%?-,R/-?-$4S-2R-KJ-<-12-3, /?-hR$ :V?, ,$-0-=-?R$?-<J., 9-3-:.A-<A$?-9-3-{R<-#$-.%-0R-/%-%-

$+R$?-$A-;R., :.A:A-,R$-/?-2v?-/, 2R.-$A-9-3-$A-/%-/?, $R-<J, /%-|R?-?-l3-0-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R-<J., l3-0-$A-/%-
/-12-3-<-;R.-/R-$A?, 9-3-$8/-0<-vR?-/-vR$?-$?R.-(J, O$-/%-$A-!-<-;%-5.-:53?-0R-$9A$-/?-:6B/-,2, 9-3-
:.A-<A$?-o/-.-3%-%-9-.$R?-9J<, }R-5S.-<-?A=-+R$-3%-%-9-.$R?-, :.A-<A$?-9-3-{R<-#$-$*A?-0-$A-/%-%-$+R$?-$A-
;R., 9-3-:.A-<A$?-~A%-/.-<-0/-/., O$-5.-3,R/-0R-}R/-:$R$-;?-oR<-1/, .J?-3A-5., =R-S$-&-;/-$A-MA-c/-0R-9R<-
35S/-/, MA$-3A-8<-oR<-1/-,R$?-(J, .J-3R-;A/-/-<, 2R.-$A-/%-/-}R-9-3#/-&%-3J., > Y/-3, :R-3, |R-%-, 8R, K<-<-
9-3-{R<-#$-28A-2-<-s-2-$A-/%-%-$+R$?-$A-;R., .J:A-8R<-<-*A/-I%?-%-(-3%-%-:,%-.$R?-9J<-$A-;R., {R<-#$-28A-2-
$A-/%-$A->-<, :R-3, 8R, K<-<, |R-%-3%-%-9R?-/-3A-Z-9J<-$A-;R., :.A-(-2R:A-/%-$A-m?-cholesterol ~A%-%-3A-Z-9J<,
=?-!J%-/-m?-:.A-*%-*%-$9A$-;R.-/-=?-#3?-3-1/-9J<, <J.-S-3%-?R%-/-~A%-$A-#$-;A/,
<J.-S-v-5=-:.A-MA-5S$?-(J-?-<-?-3$R-.3:-?, =?-!-29R-9-/?-=?-.$R?-?-/?-;R%-/A-<J., 2R.-$A-:VR$-0-<-8A%-2-9R<-

35S/-/-.J-3R-$9A$-AJ-;A/, ?-3$R-3,R-?, ?-(-:H$?-?, =?-!-3%-?-/?-=?-9%?-z$-+-o?-.$R?-$A
$R?-29%-2R-.L<-$?3-(<-$A?-9$ MA-29%-2R-S$-&-=R-$A?-,2-9J<-<, MA-c?-/, 29:-2+%-$A-,R$-/?-<%-5S.-z$-+-

,A$-.$R?-/A-<J., 9-3-)J-*%-%-$+R%-oR-$=-(J, .J-3A/-.-=?-0R-)J-uA.-*/-:IR, m?-!:J-9J<-/R-.J-z$-+-.$R?-/A-<J., :R-3-<,
•270•
K<-<-<-8R-.J:A-:L%-#%?-$4S-2R-<J.,
%?-2v?-/, .-2<-$A-,A-$A-v-5=-:.A-2R.-/?-@R%-$A?-3A-:UR.-$A $3-9?-$3-(-3J.-/, =?-!-tA-3R-2R.-$A-#R<-;$-24/-

0R-:.A-/?-H$-o-3-<J., ;A/-/-<, }R-<-?A=-+R$-$A-<A$?-3%-%-9R?-/-(R$-(R$-<J., PR%-HJ<-$A-2R.-<A$?-$J<-35S/-/, $%-
=R2?-<-$%-:.R.-3A/-/, #-:6B-<J-;?-/-29%-o-<J.,
9.1 --Classifiers
By container By measurement By whole piece Others

(%-.3--2A-$% >-,AA-o-$&A$ >-=J2-3R-$9A$ $?%-$+3-$9A$
(-t$?--9R-$% $;A?-o-3-.R 5S.-.!<-3$R-+--$?3 &-=$-$9A$
?A=-+R$-t$?--NAA/-28A $?J<-Z%-S$ =R-+R$-~J-3-$9A$ $4%-2R-$9A$
KJ-#$$-3--$&A$ !-<-#J3-2-$% >A%-==J2-3R-$*A? $/?-5=-$*A?
:R-3-.!<--;R=-$&A$ =$-2=-.R?-$*A? 8A-=A-MA-3$RR-$*A? L-2-$9A$
K$?-9R$-z?--<-$% <?-;$--$&A$ 9-3-,//-$&A$ $R3-0-$%
(/->R$-|3-$% =R-:#RR<-3-$&A$ 9R$-H--2./ HA3-5%-$9A$
)-2$--(-$*A? <A%-5.-3,RR-$% t$?-=J2-$&A$ 5S%-#%-$9A$
Notes-1
1. Measure words follow nouns, e.g., %?-/$-(-.3-2A-$%-*R?, I bought a bottle of ink. They are
often not used for the sake of convenience.
2. To measure by container, amount, etc., numerical words $% and .R are used, respectively,
equivalent to one and two, e.g., (%-.3-2A-.R-$A?-:.%-, Two bottles of liquor will suffice. /
.%R?-0R-.J-{<-3-$%-$A?-3A-#$ One yuan is not enough to buy that stuff.
Exercise 1 Write measure words and numerical adjectives in the blanks. Refer to the
list of measure words above and on the next page.
.0J<-2eR., 3<-$J?-=$->-o-3-.R-*R?-,=,
1. 8A-=A, A-3, .R-.$R%->-24S.-;, >-o-3-(A-3R-$9A$-*R-o?,

A-3, .R-.$R%-%J.-$*A?-!-3A/-.-3J., >__________3A-.$R?,
2. 8A-=A, A-3, HR.-5S/-0R<-*/-;R.-$A .-HR?-9-3-__________9-.$R?,
•271•
A-3, 2.J/-$A %?-<-.J-:.R.-$A-;R., %?-=?->-__________8.-$A-:)$-o-;A/,
3. 8A-=A, :P=-2-$A?-,$-0-__________3-9R?, %?-2v?-/, (R$-o-3-<J.,
A-3, 8R%-$A?-#R-m-&/-$9A$-3A/, <J.-S-#-:6B-(J, //-3-;?,
4. 8A-=A, A-3, 8A%-#-/-MA-__________, #R-9R-?-?-<J.,
A-3, :.A-/?-%?-<-3A-<A$-$A #R-9R-?-?-;A/-o-/%-,
5. 8A-=A, A-3-$A-/%-$/?-$A-{2?-2, 9-3-__________9-AJ-*/,
A-3, ,A<-2+%-$A?-/%-$/?-$A-*A/-/-9-3-3A-9,
6. 8A-=A, A-3-HR:A-l3-0-$A-/%-%-!-<-(A-3R-$9A$-.$R?,
A-3, !-<-__________$*A?-.$R?,
7. 8A-=A, A-3, .J-<A%-%-PR%-%-:IR, )-(A-3R-$9A$-*R-o?,
A-3, )-__________*R?-/-(R$-o-<J.,
8. 8A-=A, 9R$-__________<-{R<-:.A-/?-3-<J., <J.-S-%J.-9R:C-C-?-/-;R.-$A
A-3, MA-$8/-0-$A?-=R-$&A$-$-:.A-/-C-?-\?-;R., ^-2-$8$-3:A-/%-%-:IR-o-<J.,
9.2 --3%; 3%-%; 3%-%-$9A$; .J-3R; .J-3R-$9A$
3%--%; 3%-%--$9A$; .J-3R; .J-3R-$9A$

%?-9-3-3%--%-$9AA$-9R?-2+%-, I had a lot of food. 3%-%-$9A$ and 3%-%

both mean a lot of
Affirmative #<-$J<-o/-.-:.R.-0-3%--%-;R., He is always demanding.
aR2-3-.J-<A$-0-.J-3RR-$9AA$-iR, That student is so clever.
$?3-P%?-!-3%-%-$9A$-3A/, Three is not a big number. .J-3R-$9A$ means so

much, much, or like
Negative #<-$J-<A$-0-.J-3RR-$9AA$-3A-iR, He is not so clever.
that
%?-|R<-3R-3%--%-=$-$-3A-:6B/, I do not take much cash.
HR.-aR2-3-.J-3R-3%--%-$9AA$-;R.-/?, Do you have so many

students?
.J-3R means so
many, much, or
Question z-?-/-3)=-2-.J-3R-3%--%-AJ-;R., Are there many pilgrims in
Lhasa? like that
5S$?-,R$-/?-HR?-3%-%-$9A$-AJ-=2, Did you talk a lot at the
meeting?
•272•
Notes-2
1. .J-3R-$9A$ means so, like that, so much, and so-so, e.g., %-.0J-(-.J-3R-$9A$-3J., I do not have a
book like that. / %-<A$-0-.J-3R-$9A$-3J., I do not have so much brain power. / %->-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-
.$:, I don't like meat very much. / \R$-2f/-.J-3R-$9A$-<J., The film is so-so.
2. .J-3R and .J-3R-$9A$ are alternative.
Exercise 2 Put 3%-%, 3%-%-$9A$, .J-3R, and .J-3R-$9A$ in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J-,$-0-.J-3R-$9A$-.$:, <J.-S-#<-$J:A-ZA%-3R-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-.$:,

First half--positive Second half--negative
1. aR2-3-:.A-aR2-.R%-%-________.$:, 1. <J.-S-#<-$J:A-/-3R____________________,
2. A-3J-<A-#-o=-#2________K$-0R-<J., 2. .J:A-MA-P%?-_______________________,
3. 0J-&A/-/-MA-________3%-, 3. <J.-S-#J-2-:.A-/_____________________,
4. #-l%-/3-3#:-/-3A/________;R.-$A 4. ;A/-/-<-(<-_______________________,
5. C-,%-/-.L<-#-3J-+R$________;R.-$A 5. <J.-S-.$/-#_______________________,
6. 2R.-$A?->-________9-$A-;R., 6. #R-9R?-}R-5S._______________________,
7. (-________:,%?-/-1/-,R$?-(J-9J<, 7. (%-__________________:,%?-/-3A-Z-9J<,
8. 8-;?-<-MA-c/-0-<A$?-$A?-:R-3-_:,%-.$R?, 8. <J.-S-c/-0-<A$?-$A?-(%_________:,%-3A-*/,
9. HR?-*A/-I%?-%-(-________:,%-$A-;R., 9. %?-(_____________________:,%-$A-3J.,
10. #<-$J-MA-=?-&/-<J., 2?R.-/3?-___(J-$A 10. <J.-S-MA-5%-3-=?-&/-_____________3-<J.,
11. ,J%?-}R/-3-HR?-$+3-_______2>.-,=, 11. .J-<A%-5S$?-,R$-/?-______________3-2>.,
9.3 --*%-*%-$9A$; 4B?-4-$9A$

*%%-*%%-$9AA$
(R?-:1$?-$A?-|R<-3R-*%--*%--$9A$-2!R=, Chos 'phags spends
little money.
It means a few, a
little, or small
PR%-HJ<-:.A-/-MA-*%%-*%%-$9AA$-;R., This city has a small amount. It is used to
Amount;
population. modify something
quantity
countable in number
N%-$R-/-;J->:A-(R?-=$?-0-*%%-*%%-$9AA$-;R., There are a few
Christians in China. and measurable by
portion and degree.
•273•
4B?-4-$9AA$
%?-9-3-44B?-4-$9AA$-9R?, I ate a little food. 4B?-4-$9A$ means a
little bit or small,
Size;
portion;
8A-=A-$/-4B?-4-$9AA$-<J., That boy is small. referring to something
degree measurable by size,
%-?-:.A-/?-4B?-4-$9AA$-*A.-$A I am a little bit happy in
this place.
degree, period of time,
or portion.
Notes-3
1. *%-*%-$9A$ modifies amount and number, e.g., #<-$J?-$/.-.R/-.J<-:.%-*%-*%-$9A$-2o2-,=,

He thought about the problem a little bit. / 9-2-.J?-8=-:.J2?-*%-*%-$9A$-2o2-2+%-, The
monk made a small donation.
2. 4B?-4-$9A$ modifies size, portion, and degree, e.g., #<-$J?-%->-4B?-4-$9A$-LA/-,=, He gave
me a small piece of meat. / 5S-2-:.A-4B?-4-$9A$-<J., This tribe is small. / /.-0-4B?-4-$9A$-)J-
.$:-<J., The patient is a bit better.
3. 4B?-4-2R means the small one, 2R indicating a latent definite article, e.g., 8-;?-4B?-4-2R<-;A-$-
(J-$9A$-;R.-$A The small child has a big appetite.
4. *% is often used as a complement, e.g., .-=R<-z-?-/-;=-{R<-2-3A-*%-, The tourists in Lhasa
are not few this year.
Exercise 3 Complete the statements with *%, *%-*%-$9A$, and 4B?-4-$9A$.
.0J<-2eR., %?-9-3-*%-*%-$9A$-9, 3<-$J?-4B?-4-$9A$-<-3A-9-9J<,
1. ȝŬŌā ____________
3- $A?-=?-L-VA?-3J., 1. ȝŬŌā3-=?-L-VA?-3J.-3#/-____________,
2. #<-$J-9-3-____________$A?-3A-o$ 2. ;A/-/-<-A-3-$A?-9-3-___________P-1A$-;?-;R.-$A
3. #R-5%-/-HA3-MA-____________, 3. %J.-5%-%-<-HA3-MA-____________;R.,
4. |R<-3R-_________$A?-.%R?-0R-(%-(%-.J-3A-#$ 4. .%R?-0R-____________$R%-.!:-3R-<J.,
5. .!R/-3(R$ |R-/?_______2.J-:)$?-3-<J., 5. |R-/?-____________?J3?-(%-LR?,
6. HR.-_____________________-|$?, 6. %-{<-3-____________$A-/%-%-,R/-/,
7. =R-$%-%R-$/3-:)R-____________, 7. !R/-!-=R-+R$-____________=J/-.$R?-o-<J.,
8. #R-=R-__________________<J., 8. <J.-S-#R-#-=R-____________3-<J.,
9. 3.%-.$R%-(%-__________$9A$-:,%?-%-, 9. <J.-S-.J-<A%-3$R-+-____________AJ-/,
10. %?-D-#-____________<-9-3A-*/-9J<, 10. <J.-S-c/-3R-$A?-D-#-_______-<-3J.-/-9-3-3A-8A3-9J<,

•274•
9.4 -- (-<J; (-4B$; =-=; $9A$; &%; #-;?
(-<J; (-4B$; =-=; $9AA$; &%; #-;?
%-{.-(-2>.-o-(-<J-;R., I've something to say. na number that

is at least more
(-<J 5S$?-,R$-$-MA-(-<J-3-;R%-,=, Some people did not come to than two
the meeting. osome or a
couple of
#<-$J?-,-~.-(-<J-.%?, He learned some vocabulary.
:VR$-HA3-.J<-g-<-(-4BB$-;R., The nomad household has

several horses as well.
several
(-4B$ =$-(-4B$-3.%-.$R%-z?-<<-3-;R%-, Several sheep did not come

to the yard last night.
%-?A=-+R$-3%-%-3A-.$R?, (-4BB$-$A?-(R$ I don't need a lot of fruit;
several are enough.
2R.-==-=-$A?-}R-22-$A?-3A-9, Some Tibetans do not eat nsome
vegetables at all. oOne singles
o=-#2-=-=-.-2R-<-@R%-$A?-3J.-0R-<J., Some countries are still very out something
=-= poor. from the
Some herder households majority.
<-=-=-.-2R-35K<-$?<-<-2$<-3J.-$A have not yet moved to the
new camp.
#-l%-.J-<A%-#<-$J-:P=-2-$9AA$-;R., He has a guest these days. an indefinite
article
$9A$ 8A%-2-$9A$-8A%-#-$9A$-/-;R., A farmer is in a field.
MA-#-%/-.J-?J3?-/?-MA-.$:-$9AA$-<J., The bad-mouthed person is a

kind person.
.R-8$-HR?-&%-AJ-=?, Did you do anything nanything
recently? oused in
HA3-5%-.J-3J.-0R-&%-3J.-$9A$-<J., That family is poor and has questions,
&% nothing. negative
statements, and
?J3?-3-5K$?, &%-3-=?, /.-S$-:IR, Do not be concerned and
don't do anything! The negative
sickness will be overcome. imperatives
3J-+R$-#-;?-2!.-;R., #-;?-2!.-3J., Some flowers are in blossom
and some are not.
some or the half
#-;? #J-2-$A-#-;?-?R$-0R-+$-+$-;A/, Half the village is

Mongolian.
?A=-+R$-#-;?-9, #-;?-:)R$ Eat some fruit and keep
some.
Notes-4
1. (-<J vs. =-=:n(-<J means several and it does not specify something, e.g., $/3-P-(-<J-2<-$%-
/-;R., Some airplanes are in the sky. o=-= means some, singling out the rest, e.g., #J-2-
:.A:A-/%-/?-HA3-5%-=-=-o-<J., Some households in this village are Chinese. It implies that
most households are not Chinese.
•275•
2. &%: nIt generally refers to inanimate things, signifying any in questions and anything in
both negative statements and negative imperatives, e.g., %?-,$-<A%-$A-=$-H-.J-<A$-$A HR?-&%-
AJ-<A$ I can see the distant flock of sheep. Can you see any? / 3A-<A$-$A %?-&%-3A-<A$-$A No, I
don't see anything. / 9-3-$A-/%-%-&%-3-:.J2?, Do not put anything in the food! oIt is
occasionally used to express much and many, e.g., %-0J-&A/-/?-=R-&%-%-3-2#., I didn't live
in Beijing for many years. / #<-$J-!-<-&%-3A-.$:, He does not like sugar very much.
Exercise 4 Write (-<J, (-4B$, =-=, $9A$, and &% in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J?-\-~/-3R-$9A$-=J/-o?-9J<-$A-;R., -*/-|R-;R.-$A-($?,
1. :P=-2-3%-/, >-o-3-$%-$A?-3A-(R$ >-o-3-___________________*R-.$R?-o-<J.,

2. %-$/:-m?-________________________________;R., %?-5%-3-:5S%-o-;A/,
3. A-1-$A?-.R-.$R%-3R$-3R$-2&:-9J<, .J?-/-4S%-_______________________<-.$R?-o-<J.,
4. MA-____________________9-3-$3-&/-/-.$:-$A-;R., <J.-S-$3-9?-=?-#3?-3-3A-Z-9J<-$A-;R.,
5. %?-aR2-PR$?-3%-%-3PR/-/-2R?-;R., %?-=$-___________________________2>:-:.R.-$A
6. HR?-D-#-9-3A-*/-9J<, %?-9-3-$A-/%-%-D-#-_____________________________2+2?-3J.,
7. %-,A<-$A?-9-3-$A-<A$?-5%-3-.$:, <J.-S, :.A-/?-9-3-___________________8A3-0R-3-<J.,
8. *A/-3-__________________________________$-%?-.LA/-;A$-L%-(2-0-$9A$->J?-o-<J.,
9. MA-5%-3-.J-3R-%/-0-$%-/?-;A/, ______________________________________;A/-/-<,
10. .R-5B$?-%-z-?<-3A-:IR, <J.-S-/-/A%-%-,J%?-3-_______________________________?R%-%-,
Exercise 5 Write measure words in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., (/-0-$A?-2v?-/, /.-0-:.A?-9-3-*%-*%-9-.$R?, =?-l=-3%-%-.R%-.$R?,

First half--positive Second half--negative
1. >-________-$A?-(R$-/A-<J., 1. 3%-/-<-=$->->-#R$-________3A-.$R?,
2. .R-8$-%->-________,R$?-;R.-$A 2. %?-9-3-________-3-9R?-/-<,
3. 8-;?-:.A?-.J-<A%-$R3-0-________%R?-2+%-, 3. ^-2-}R/-3-/%-%-#<-$J-________=%?-<-3A-,2,
4. =R-:#R<-$&A$-$A-/%-%-%?-.R/-.$-____P2-,=, 4. %?-=R-I%?-%-________3A-:P2,
5. $R/-o-________#<-$J?-<-$&A$-*R?-,=, 5. <J.-S-%?-3.R$-________]R<-3A-:22,
•276•
6. 9-3-$A-/%-D-#-________/-Z-9J<, 6. 9-3-$A-/%-/-D-#-________/-3A-Z-9J<,
7. %?-(%-________*R?-2+%-%-, 7. <J.-S-c/-3R-$A?-%-(%-________<-:,%-$A-3A-:)$
8. MA-.J-$A?-{.-(-________2>.-,=, 8. o/-.-#<-$J?-{.-(-________3A-2>.,
9. :6B/-9-(J-2R:C-/%-/-aR2-3-________, 9. <J.-S-aR2-3-aR2-#%-/________3J.,
10. .%R?-0R-o-%?-________8/-$A-9J<, 10. %?-2v?-/-________3-<J.,
11. 2R.-<-:IR-/-|R<-3R-________$9A$-.$R?, 11. ________3A-.$R?, |R<-3R-!R%-$*A?-$A?-(R$-o-<J.,
12. %?-#-l%-.J-<A%-8A-=A-________S/-$A 12. <J.-S, #<-$J?-%-________S/-$A-3J.,
13. #%-2-________$A-/%-%-MA-5%-3->R%-, 13. >R%-o-3-<J., #%-%-______$A-/%-%-5%-3->R%-o-3-<J.,
14. MA-3%-$A .-2R-.!<-;R=-_______.$R?-o-<J., 14. %?-:,%-o-3A/, $*A?-$A?-(R$ .!<-;R=-__3A-.$R?-$A
15. /.-0-:.A?-(/-________:,%-.$R?-$A 15. <J.-S, ,J%?-$&A$-$-<A=-2-________:,%-3A-*/,
16. (/-0-$/-________24/-$A 16. %J.-$*A?-!-=?-.2%-Z-$A (/-0-24/-0R-____,J3?-3J.,
17. MA-.J-5%-3-$A-/%-/?-________%?-%R->J?, 17. <J.-S-#<-$J?-________%R->J?-$A-3J.,
Exercise 6 A religious activity is going to be held on behalf of an old man. Complete

the dialogue between him and a man from his clan with measure words.
HAA3-#-; HR?-%-:5S=-$A-;R.-9J<, .J-<A%-*R-(-o$-o-_______AJ-;R.,

HAA3-2.$ %?-MA-_______3%$?-2+%-, <J.-S-HA3-#-;-$&A$-<-=$-$-3A-(.-$A .-o$-3#/-HR.-3A/-/-3J.-$A
HAA3-#-; .J<-*R/-3J.-$A HR?-(A-(A-*R-oR, (A-3R-$9A$-*R-oR->R.-S, %?-5%-3-*R,
HAA3-2.$ /%?-!-#J-2-;R%?-%-.$R%-)-w.-.$R?-/A-<J., .%R?-0R-_______.-2R-.$R?-$A-;R., > 3<, :V?, l3-
0, :R-3, ), !-<-hR-$A?-3A-:.%-$A .J-3A/-.-D-#-<-.$R?-$A
HAA3-#-; =$->-_______.$-#-l%-*R?-2+%-%-, .J?-=R?-:.%-, HR?-3->J?-/A-3A/-/,
HAA3-2.$ AR, .J-%?-3->J?, :V?-___________;A/-.-3A/-.-.$R?-$A #$-3-$&A$-$-|R<-3R-2o-.$R?-o-AJ-<J.,
HAA3-#-; #$-3-$&A$-$-|R<-3R-_______AJ-.$R?, %?-2v?-/, |R<-3R-2./-&-$A?-(R$-o-<J.,
HAA3-2.$ 3<-5%-3-5<-,=, ______________-<-=?-3J., :P=-2-9R-;R%-/, 3<-_______.$R?-o-<J.,
HAA3-#-; .-KA-%?->A%-3<-3%-%-$9A$-<A$-$ $R%-<-______________2.J-$A 3<-$A-.R.-<->A%-3<-*R?-/-AJ-(R$
HAA3-2.$ >A%-3<-3-*R, .J%-3-%?-<->A%-3<-_______*R?, 3<-<-3A-.R-$A $?R/-.$J-5K-$&A$-$-,J%?-$&A$-<J., .-
,J%?-$R%-%-______________3-v,
HAA3-#-; (R$-$A :R-3-.-2R-$R.-$?3-;R.-$A .J-;A/-/-<, :R-3-*R-o?,
•277•
HA3-2.$ .J-$A?-:.%-o-3-<J., %?-2v?-/, /%?-!-)-:,%-3#/-_______;R.-/A-<J., #J-2-$A-MA-$A-,R$-$ %:A->-
*J-1=-(J<-S$-&-2./-&-;R%-o-<J., :R-3-|3-$&A$-$A-/%-/-:R-3-_______*A->-;R.-o-AJ-<J.,
HA3-#-; |3-_______-$A-/%-/-:R-3-_______-3J., @-=3-o-3-2&-,3-0-;R., :R-3-_______$A-/%-%-(-<-
2o2-;R.-$A
HA3-2.$ .J?-/-HR?-vR?, (A-3R-$9A$-.$R?-/-_______*R?, .J:A-@/-(.-/?-!-<-hR-2$-,3-_______.$R?-$A
2$-,3-2&-,3-0-(A-3R-<J.,
HA3-#-; .J?-:.%-o-3-<J., $/%?-*A/-.-2R-9-2-5%-3-:.R/-$A-;R%-o-<J., .J-.?-<-!-<-_______.$R?-/A-<J.,
HA3-2.$ (R$-$A .J-3A/-.-$8/-0-*R-o-AJ-;R.,
HA3-#-; .J-<A%_______LR?, $8$-/?-*R-o-L%-/, %-:R<-$A?-?R%-/-(R$-$A
HA3-2.$ .-HR.-:R-2o=-<J., MA-$R-(R.-HR.-#J<-<R-<J., HA3-#-;-$8/-0-5%-3-VR?-?R%-#-<J., ;%-HR.-:IR-.$R?-,=,
9.5 --,=; ?R%; ;R.; and S$? with monosyllabic adjectives
,=; ?R%; ;R.; S$?

Example Tibetan English Notes
.-/%?-/%?-)-3%--,=, %-3A-2.J-$A The breakfast was too much ncombined

this morning. I'm not well. with
The alcohol I had last night monosyllabic
3%-,= 3.%-.$R%-(%-:,%?-/R-3%-,=, %-3$R-/-$A was too much. I have a adjectives to
headache. express too
much
#<-$J-3%--,=, #A?-9-o-<J., He is too much. He himself
will be the victim of being so. oA be verb
is not needed
|R<-3R-?3-&-*%%-,=, &-=$-#$-o-3-<J., Thirty yuan is too little to buy
the things. with
Three containers are too few. monosyllabic
*%-,= $R.-$?3-*%%-,=, $R.-28A-.$R?-$A Four containers are needed. adjective.
%-$*A.-/R-*%%-,=, .-2R-$*A.-;R%-$A The nap I took is too short.
I'm still sleepy.
aR2-3-3%--?R%-, aR2-#%-$A-/%-%-3A->R%-, Too many students! The
classroom cannot contain
ncombined
with
them. monosyllabic
%?-(-:,%?-/R-3%--?R%-, $&A/->R<-$A-;R., I drank too much water. I adjectives to
cannot control my urine. express too
3%-?R% much;oA be
8A-=A-.J<-8-;?-3%--?R%-, #<-$J?-.!:-$A-;R., The man has too many
children; he has a difficult verb is not
life. needed.
•278•
,=; ?R%; ;R.; S$?
>-o-3-$%-*%%-?RR%-, :.%-o-3-<J., A half-kilo of meat is too little
to be enough.
*%-?R% <R$?-0-2o-*%%-?RR%-, .P-2R-$&A$-3%-?R%-,

One hundred friends are too
few; one enemy is too many.
=$-<R$?-*%%-?RR%-, .-(A-$9A$-;?-/%-, The assistants are too few.
What shall we do?
$R/-o-.J-;$-$A <J.-S-(J-;RR., The garment is nice but too
big.
combined
with
l3-0-$A-/%-/-3<-3%--;R., There is too much butter in the monosyllabic
(J-;R. rtsam pa. adjectives to
express too
3IR$?-5.-:.A-.3:--;R., .?-,R$-$-,R/-o-3- The speed is too slow. (One)
would not arrive on time.
<J.,
>-o-3-$%-*%%-S$?, o-3-$?3-3%--S$?, A half-kilo of meat is too little ntoo
and 1.5 kilos is too much. oA be verb
S$? MA-%-o=-((J-S$?-/-=.-:IR, One becomes degenerate if he is not
is too arrogant. needed.
9-3-3%--S$?-/--1R-3A-2.J, Too much food upsets one's
stomach.
Notes-5
1. S$?: It is commonly used in standard written Tibetan.

2. ?R%, ,=, and ;R., combined with monosyllabic adjectives. Each expresses too (much) in
complements.
As complement English In clause adjective English
:V?-.J-3R-$9A$-3%--,=, That much rice :V?-3%--,=-/R-5S%?, Sell the
is too much. excess rice!
.%R?-2R-.J-tA-?RR%-, %?-3A-H$ It's too heavy. I
cannot carry it.
.%R?-2R-tA-?RR%-/R-:.A-/?-:)R$ Keep the
(too) heavy
stuff here!
Exercise 7 Write 3%-?R%, *%-,=, .J-3R-$9A$, 4B?-4-$9A$, .J-3R, 3%-%, (%-?R%, *%-*%, and Tibetan
versions of too much in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 8A-3R-.J-=R-(%-?R%-, $;R-{R=-LJ.-,2-o-3-<J.,
1. !-2, HR.-|R<-3R-?3-&-AJ-;R., %?-&-=$-:.A-*R?-/-:.R.,

#-2, _________3%-%-$9A$-3J., <J.-S-|R<-3R-*A->-l-s-;R.,
!-2, .J-3R-$9A$-_________, *A->-l-s-$A?-&-=$-:.A-3A-#$
2. !-2, #%-2-:.A-_________, :P=-2-9R->R%-o-3-<J.,
•279•
#-2, :P=-2-_________AJ-;R.,
3. !-2, \R$-2f/-:.A-_________, 2v?-<-3A-5<-$A
#-2, _________3A-<A%-$A .-2R-.?-5S.-$&A$-+$-+$-:$R<-$9A$
4. !-2, =?-L-3%-%-$9A$-:VA-o-;R., %-?/-$A
#-2, _________3%-%-$9A$-3J., lR3-$9A$-<-#-{R%-(-4B$-3A/-.-:VA-3A-.$R?,
!-2, _________%-35S/-/-_________,
5. !-2, ?-(-:.A-/?-%-;/_________2#.-2+%-, .-%-?-(-$8/-0-<-_________:IR-3A-:.R.,
#-2, HR.-:.A-/?-=R-2./-:$R<-?R%-, =R-:$R<-/R-8J-,$-$A?-_________,
6. !-2, %:A-^-1R$?-_________, 3$R-,R/-o-3-<J.,
#-2, ^-1R$?_________, HR?-|R<-3R-$?R$-:)R$-3%-%-;?-;R.-9J<,
7. !-2, %J.-(-2R-9-3-_________,J3?-;R., .J?-:.%-o-3-<J.,
#-2, %?-2v?-/-<-_________$A?-:.%-o-3-<J.,
8. !-2, HR?-*A.-0R-3-2>., =?-!-:.A-_________l-3R-$9A$-3-<J.,
#-2, 2.J/-$A 2.J/-$A =?-!-.J-HR.-35S/-/-_________,
Exercise 8 Put ?R%, ,=, ;R., and monosyllabic adjectives in the blanks to express too.
.0J<-2eR., .R-5B$?-$/3-:)R-*%-?R%-, =R-+R$-$-1/-o-3-<J.,
1. (-9R-.R-_______, *%-3,:-<-9R-s-.$R?-o-<J., 7. .J-<A%-:P=-2-_______, %J.-5%-/-*=-?-3J.-$A

2. .$J-c/-_______, aR2-3-9R-*$-$A-;R., 8. 2R.-{.-.%?-/-=R-$?3-____, .J:A-<A%-%-&%-
3. %-:.$-?-;:-2-,$-____, :P=-2-o/-3A-(.-$A >J?-o-3-<J.,

4. 8- ;?- :.A- ?J3?- _____ , #R-#J<-<R-*=-3A-,$-9J<, 9. |R-/?-5-#$-_______, /%-/?-#R.,
5. .?-5S.-28A-_____, aR2-3-9R?-=?-!-5<-$A-3J., 10. %-#R3-0-_______, .-(A-$9A$-=?-/%-,
6. %-uA.-5.-_______, %?-9-3-3%-%-9-.$R?-9J<,
•280•
Exercise 9 Complete the dialogue with measure words and Tibetan versions of too.
8A-3R-<-A-1-$*A?-GA-#-2h,
8AA-3RR A-1, HR:A-$/?-5=-5%-3-%?->J?-;R., HR:A-H$-5.- _______9J<, =?-0R-5S-______9J<, .J-3A/-.-$&A/-
$A-/%-/-!-<-<-:SJ?-$A
A--1 _______;A/-/, %?-9-3-$%-$%-%-#-:6B-.$R?-/A-<J.,
8AA-3RR >-_______9-.$R?-/A-<J., 5B=-$+/-/?-9-3A-*/, D-#-<-_______9-.$R?-9J<,
A--1 .J-;A/-/, *A/-3-:HR=-o-3-<J., %?-}R/-(.-v<-<->-_______9R?-/-S$-/A-<J., <J.-S-D-#-_____9-o-;A/,
8AA-3RR .J-3A-(R$ A-1, KA/-(., A-3-<-%J.-$*A?-!?-HR.->-<-KJ-$A-<A$?-______9-$A-3A-:)$ .J?-3A-5., }R-<-?A=-
+R$-______9-.$R?,
A--1 .J-:)A$?-(J_______, %?-2.-o-3-<J.,
8AA-3RR (/-0-$A?-2>.-/, HR?-.-2R-.R%-2h<-_______;?-.$R?-9J<, HR:A-=?-0R-<-…
A--1 .J<-*R/-3J., .-%-=R-S$-&-<J., :.$-#R3-_______3J.,
8AA-3RR _______-3-9J<, A-1, .-HR.-#-$;R<-?-3J., /%?-!-$A-<?, 5%-3-%:A-=$-/-;R.,
A--1 8A-3R-=R-=R, %?-…
8A-3R-<-A-3-$*A?-$A-#-2h,
8AA-3RR A-3, >-_______<-}R-3%-%-9R?-/-Z-9J<-$A-;R., HR?-<-A-1-}R-_______9-$A-($?,
A--3 HR.-:.A-<%-$A?-:.R.-:.R.-2>.-<?, <J.-S-A-1->-n%-n%-9-oR<-.$:-$A
8AA-3RR (/-0-$A?-2>.-/, A-1-$A?->-9R?-/R-_____, >-*%-*%-9-.$R?-$A-9J<, .J?-3A-5., D-#-9R?-/R-<____9J<,
A--3 .-#<-$J-=R-(J-$A /3-5S.-_______3J.-$A #<-$J-(A-3R-$9A$-.$R?-/, _______#<-$J-9-$A-($?,
8AA-3RR #<-$J-=R-_______3A-(J, .-2R-=R-S$-&-<J., (/-0-$A-#-3-*/-/, #<-$J-5K-,$-,%-o-<J.,
A--3 .-%?-(A-$9A$-;?-o?, 9-3-$A-/%-/->-_______3J.-/-9-#-3A-*/-$A D-#-_______3J.-/, #<-$J?-9-3-(-
<J.-9J<-$A #<-$J?-}R-_______3A-9,
8AA-3RR A-3, .J?-/-/%?-!-$A-<?, %?-#<-$J-9-3-2{R=, 8R$?-)-#<-$J-:R-3-_______, 3<-_______ $R-<J-<-
_______9-$A-:)$
A--3 /%?-)-$R-<J-_______9-$A-3-:)$ /?-KJ-<-l3-0-Z-$A-9J<-$A-;R.,
8AA-3RR .J-(R$-$A $%-)-9-3-3%-%-$9A$-3A-.$R?, <J.-S-#<-$J?-_______3-9R?-3-:,%?-/-*/-o-3-<J., ?A=-+R$-<-
}R-+$-+$-9R?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
•281•
A-3 Z-oR-Z-$A <J.-S-#<-$J?-9-#-3A-*/, %?-2v?-/, #<-$J?->-_______9-*/-o-<J.,
8A-3R %?-9-3-5%-3-$A-/%-%-D-#-_________:.J2?, D-#-_______/, 3A-Z-?-3%-, .0J<-28$-/-3#=-3-$A-
#<-2R-)J-(J-<-O$->$?-)J-3,R<-:IR-/A-<J.,
A-3 .$R%-)-@2-.!<-;R=-.R-<-8R-_______(A-3R-<J.,
8A-3R .J-3R-$9A$_______, %?-2v?-/, @2-.!<-;R=-$%-<, 8R_______, .J-3A/-., ?A=-+R$-9R?-/-Z-/A-<J.,
A-3 :(<-$8A-Z-$A <J.-S-#<-$J?-#<-*/-/A-3-<J., .-@2-#R=-,=,
8A-3R %?-&A$-v-<, AA/, 8A3-oR-3A-8A3-$A D-#-<->-_______3J.-/, <J.-S-A-1-#<-$J<-1/-o-<J.,
•282•
5< vs. ;$ They are put after primary verbs, the former as a secondary verb and the latter as
an adverb, to express a consequence.
5< ;$
.J-<A%-$A-L-2-5%-3-=?- All the tasks for #<-$J?-L-2-$&A$-<-=?- He doesn't complete a
today have been single task completely.
5<--?R%-, completely done. ;$-3A-;?,
8A%-2-9R?-=R-+R$-.-2R- The farmers have L-2-5%-3-=?-/?-12-;$- Please get every job
not yet finished the completely done!
VJ$?-5<-3J., harvest. LR?,
\R$-2f/-.-!R/-5<-$A- The movie is about #-l%-A-3-8J-,$-$A?-.$:- (My) mother was
to end. absolutely happy
;R., ;$-<J., yesterday.
#<-$J:A-/%-3A-9R->A-5<- His close relatives

have all died.
A-1-$A?-%:A-/-2R<-_R3-;$- (My) father completely
trusts my younger
?R%-, <J., brother.
.J-<A%-$A-L-2-.J-<A%-=?- Today's job must .R/-.$-5%-3-*A/-3-$&A$-$- All the work cannot be

be completed today. finished in one day.
5<-.$R?, =?-;$-3A-;R%-,
$9AA$ In addition to its function as an indefinite article, this word is used to make reportive
statements in past tense mood and, with numerical or temporal words, to put forward a
period of time.
As reportive marker With temporal words

aR2-3-9R?-aR2-5/- The students studied
the seventh text.
%?-.J<-*A/-3-s-$9AA$-$-2v?-I have read it for
about five days.
2./-0-2a2?-$9AA$ 2+%-,
KR$?-$*A?-!-IR?- The two sides did not
reach an agreement.
=R-S$-$9AA$-$-%:A-8A-=A-z-?-/?- My son will stay in
Lhasa for six years.
3,/-3-;R%-$9AA$ :.$-o-<J.,
3J-:#R<-.?-,R$-$-3- The train did not
arrive on time.
lJ.-3R-:.A-*A/-3-2./-$9AA$-$- This performance
will be on show for a
,R/-$9AA$ ;R.-o-<J., week.
$8$-/?-29:-2- The couple finally .!R/-3(R$-$-8-;?-2./-$9A$- Dkon mchog,

divorced. already with about
$*A?-!-,R<-?R%-$9A$ ;R., .-2R-<-;R.-/-:.R.-$A-;R., seven children, still
wants to have more.
.0J-(-.J-.0J-36S.-#%-/- The book was not in
the library to borrow.
#%-2-:.A<-2%-<A3-s-$9AA$-;R., This building has
five stories.
$;R<-o-3J.-?R%-$9A$
•283•
2>.--/ It expresses according to or with respect to.
According to With respect to

(/-0-$A?-2>.--/, Meat shouldn't be
eaten a lot, according
3-$J-.J-2>.--/, .J%-?%-$A-Thinking about the
famine, life is good today.
>-3%-%-9-3A-*/, to the doctor. :5S-2-*A.-/A-<J.,
3$R-=R$-2>.--/-?- Mgo log is allegedly
high (in elevation).
;=-KR$?-.J-2>.--/, .J-%R-3- That region is a paradise
if it is mentioned.
3$R-3,R, $A?-2.J-2-&/-;A/,
.L<-C-2>.--/-$R%- Caterpillar fungus, it
is said, is expensive.
aR2-$?R-2>..-/, #<-$J-8J- As far as education is
concerned, he has made a
(J, ,$-$A?-2!:-SA/-(J, huge contribution.
3<-$J:A-MA%-0R-2>.-- Her brother is said to

be very handsome.
*R/-2>.--/, MA-*R/-3J.- Regarding shortcomings,
no one is perfect.
/-1R-|R-Z, $9A$-;R.-o-3-<J.,
2>.--$A-< This phrase is equivalent to based on one's statement or according to.
Tibetan English
$/3-$>A?-}R/-2h-$A?-2>.--$A-<, ?%-*A/-(<-2-:22-o-<J., According to the weather forecast,
it will rain tomorrow.
3#?-2-:.A-$A?-2>.--$A-<, :63-\A%-$A-.0=-:LR<-*3?-*J?-$A-#-/- The world economy is on the edge
of decline, according to this
;R., scholar.
:$R-2-$A?-2>.--$A-<, ^-2-$8$-3-^-1R$?-$+R.-o-<J., People will get a raise according to

the boss.
A-&J-$A?-2>.--$A-<, 3<-$J:A-8A-=A-=3-3-:IR-$A-3J., My sister said that her son is not
on the right track.
1%-$+3-$A-/%-/?-2>.--$A-<, $J-?<-.0:-2R-$9A$-<J., Gesar is a hero. It is said so in the
story.
Genitive case + This phrase expresses for what or for what reason, e.g., 8A-=A-:.A:A-.R/-/-%?-
.R/-/ #$-3%-%-M%?--?R%-, I had a very hard time for the sake of this son.
Tibetan English
8A-2.J-$A-.R/-/, .3$-3A-3%-%-$9A$-$>J$?-?R%-, So many soldiers have died for
peace.
|R<-3R-<-$R-$/?-$A-.R/-/, #<-$J?-<%-$A-HA3-5%-2R<-?R%-, He lost his family for money and
position.
/.-0-:.A:A-.R/-/-MA%-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-?J3?-5K$?-(J-$9A$-;?-?R%-, Many people were concerned for
this patient.
%:A-aR2-$?R:A-.R/-/, @-3-$*A?-!?-=R-%R-?3-&:A-<A%-%-#$-3,R%-, My parents have worked hard for
thirty years for my education.
_%?-:#R<-$A-($-|R:A-.R/-//, .R-2.$-$A?-(.-0-|R<-3R-?3-2o-3)=, The person concerned paid 300
yuan as a fine for the car accident.
•284•
n% vs. $4BB$? They are used with verbs in PRT, deriving adjectives, to express, with the former,
a fully prepared situation and, with the latter, a resolution.
n% $4BB$?
.-%<-?J3?-#<-&%-3J., I am carefree
and fully ready
HR?-%-3-:$R$ L-2-:.A-%?-=?- Don't stop me! I am
determined to do
*A.-0R-;?-n%--;A/, to enjoy life. $4BB$?-;A/, this.
P-1A$-;?-5<-?R%-, .- The meeting is

absolutely ready
.-:,2-lR.-:$R-lR3-$4BB$?--<J., The campaign is
fully ready to start.
5S$?-:.-:$R-lR3-n%-;A/, to begin; all is
prepared.
c/-3R-:.A-?J3?-;$ 5K-KA- This old lady is
kind and she is
c/-3R-:.A-5K-KA-3<-:IR-$4BB$?--<J., This old lady is
ready to die since
3<-:IR-n%-;A/, fully ready to
die.
3<-$J-?J3?-#<-3A-(J, she is not worried.
%-.-2R-:IR-n%--3A/, #-0<- I am not fully

ready to leave: I
%-.-2R-=?-,R$-/?-:IR-$4BB$?-- I am not so willing
to leave the work
$9A$-$-|$-.$R?, have to wait for
a phone call.
3A/, .?-5S.-3-,R/-/, since the time is still
too early.
HR.-.-2R-.$:-n%--3-<J., L- You shouldn't be
too glad: you
:$R-2-L-2-.J-HR.-!J<-$4BB$?--3- The boss is not
decided about
2-.J-HR.-3A-!J<-/-,%-, might not get
the job.
<J., offering you the job.
•285•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--.$-2,,
2R.-GA-29:-2+%-,
29:-2+% cuisine o-$A-29:-2+%-%-2R.-3A-3%-%-.$:,
$-# variety; kind 5S%-$A-$-#-3%-/R-$A?-$-3%-5S%-#%-9J<,
.-3 several ?-.GA=-5S-2-#J-2-.-3<-2$R?-;R.,
.3A$?-$8A aim; target .3A$?-$8A-3J.-/-=?-!-:$R-3-lR3,
2&. nutrition 9?-%/-%R/-/-2&.-3J.,
2&.-&/ nutritious 9-3-2&.-&/-9-oR-@R%-$A?-$=-(J,
2.J-#$ well-being MA-$A-2.J-#$-.0=-:LR<-$A-#-/-;R.,
<A%-,% length #R%-2R-:.A-$*A?-!<-<A%-,%-3J.,
,$-;R. to depend on %-:IR-3A-:IR-.!R/-3(R$-$-,$-;R.,
#-9? food #-9?-9R?-/R-*%-/-=?-#3?-2.J,
#J2 to combine; to put together 7-(%-<-(%-.!<-3-#J2,
1<-3 wheat bran 1<-3-$A?-9R$-$?R?-/-2&.-Z,
vR$?-$?R.-(J able to make feel full (food) l3-0-vR$?-$?R.-@R%-$A?-(J,
:53?-0R proper; appropriate 8-;?-$A?-2J3-0R-<A$-/-:53?-0R-3A/,
~A%-/. heart disease; hatred .P-2R<-~A%-/.-.J-3R-3-:6B/,
0/-/. cancer 0/-/.-/.-,2?-h$?-$9A$-;A/,
O$-5. blood pressure O$-5.-3,R-/-{3?->-3%-%-9-3A-*/,
8< to become blind c.-0R-:.A-/-/A%-8<-?R%-,
1/-,R$?-(J beneficial; good for o-;A$->J?-/-1/-,R$?-(J,
Y/-3 pea; bean Y/-3-$A-/%-/-+/-0J-NA-3%-,
|R-% egg |R-%-(%-/-<-2&.-(J,
8R yogurt 8R-$3-0R-$A-/%-/-3<-($?-;R.-$A
K<-< cheese K<-<-:R-3-3J.-/-=?-YR=-3J.,
•286•
9$ to be threadbare $R/-o-(<-<-*A-3-$A?-9$-,=,
,A$ to be able to measure / to control MA-3$R-!R%-.J?-<%-5S.-,A$-$A-3J.,
:L%-#%? origin; source 2R.-{.-$A-:L%-#%?-%?-<-3A->J?,
t$?-9R bucket t$?-9R-:.A:A-/%-%-(-3%-%-3A->R%-,
$;A? oil {J-5K-$A-$;A?-2R.-/?-9-$;A?-$4S-2R-<J.,
5S.-.!< cabbage 5S.-.!<-}R-5S.-$R%-2.J-3R-$9A$-;A/,
t$?-NA/ can (canned food); tin t$?-NA/-/%-$A-9-3-o/-.-3-9,
Z% gram ?A=-+R$-$-o-3-$%-<-Z%-S$-;R.,
#J3-2 spoon %?-(%-.?-<-#J3-2-2!R=-3-MR%-,
=$-2= wool =$-2=-:.A?-?-$./-$9A$-3A-;R%-,
.R? bundle .R-5B$?-=$-2=-.R?-$?3-=R/,
z?-< courtyard =$-,A<-2+%-$A?-z?-<-;R%-$A-;R.,
;$ piece (of cloth) <?-;$-$&A$-$A?-.<-tR$-29R?,
2$-( box %?-*A/-$&A$-$-.-2-2$-(-$&A$-:,J/,
8. to lose weight =?-!-tA-?R%-, %:A->-8.-?R%-,
m-&/ polite MA-m-&/-:.A?-%J.-5%-/?-9-3-3A-9,
//-;? to push; to force %:A-c/-3R-$A?-:P=-2-9-3-//-3A-;?,
/%-$/? fast /%-$/?-29%-/-8J-,$-$A?-vR$?-$A
4B?-4-$9A$ a little bit .R-8$-%->-4B?-4-$9A$-,R$?-;R.,
#$ to be enough to buy |R<-3R-2&-$A?-.0J-(-.J-3A-#$
.R-8$ recently .R-8$-%:A-.$J-c/-(/-#%-/-;R.,
&%-3J. poor; impoverished A-/J-&%-3J.-.J-#-.0%?-3,R,
?J3?-5K$? concern; pressure 8A-=A-3-;R%-/, %?-?J3?-5J$?-;?-$A
~/-3R melodious {.-~/-3R-;A/-/-5S$?-2?$?-<J.,
$/:-m? cultural relic; antique $/:-m?-9J<-/R-5%-3-.%R?-2R-?R-3-<J.,
>-#R$ carcass of a slaughtered animal =$->-#R$-$&A$-$A?-^-2-$*A?-=-:.%-,
$R3-0-%R? to step HJ:-:.A?-^-2-S$-$A-,R$-/?-$R3-0-%R?,
•287•
>R% to find enough room / space #%-2-:.A:A-/%-%-MA-?3-&->R%-,
,J3? to get; to obtain S$-$?3-3-2$R?-/-$*A?-,J3?,
HA3-#-; kinship member (family) HA3-#-;-9R?-1/-5/-/-<R$?-;?-$A-;R.,
!-<-hR crystal sugar !-<-hR-.J%-?%-$%-?-$%-/-;R.,
.R to be able to match / compete .%=-<A/-,%-$?J<-<-3A-.R,
2$-,3 brick / box )-2$-,3-$?3-*R?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
:R-2o= trouble HR.-:R-2o=-<J., <J.-S-…
#A?-9 to suffer a loss aR2-9<-3A-:IR-/, HR?-#J?-9-o-<J.,
*$ to be afraid of %-%:A-.$J-c/-/-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-*$
3$R-,R/ to become independent 29:-2-.J-$*A?-!?-3$R-,R/-$A-3J.,
$?R$-:)R$ saving $?R$-:)R$-3J.-<-|R<-3R-!A3-oR-l-3R-<J.,
5B= fat %-.$:-/R-5B=-3A/, >-$$-<J.,
*A/-3-:HR= to get by %?-.J-<A%-HA3-/-*A/-3-:HR=-$A-3J.,
#-$;R<-? excuse #-$;R<-?-.J?-$R-(R.-o-3-<J.,
=$-/-;R. in one's control HR.-?R%-(R$-3A/-%:A-=$-/-;R.,
3#=-3 kidney 3#=-3-$A-/%-%-hR-:($-:PR,
•288•
aR2-5/-2&-2,
2h-3R.,
Types of Adjectives S$? and @R%-$A?

Noun Modifiers Duplicated Adjectives
Verb Modifiers Duplicated Adverbs
Adverbs of Manner
A tent housing Dpal skyid (b. 1900), and four generations of his descendants, Sger rtse
County, Mnga' ris Administrative Region, TAR (2003).
Text One: duplicated verb, adjectives, and adverbs Text
Text One: duplicated verb, adjectives, and adverbs
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
29:-2+%-,R$-$A-*A?-:$=,
353?-353?-3-#A$-0-2?$?-/-#$-3J.-<J.-:.R.-$A 2R.-MA-<A$?-,A<-2+%-$A?-..-0-(J, #A$-0-;?-oR<-@@R%-$A?-:6K3-
/A-<J., ?J3?-&/-$9A$-$A-YR$-]%?-/-z$-$A?-#A$-*J?-(J, #A$-0-2?$?-/-i3-(A/-:#R<-/A-<J.-9J<-$A .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/-
<, 2R.-/?-,A<-2+%-$A-:)A$-gJ/-0, ]-3-~A%-eJ-&/, ,<-2-:.R.-3#/-$A-(R?-=$?-0, MA-?-;A/-/-<-5%-3-$A?-.3<-
9?-9-$A-;R., MA-..-0-&/-i3-.$-:.A-<A$?-$A?-.3<-$%-/?-;R%-/R->J?-o-<J., .J?-/-#R-9R?-.-2R-9-.R/-(A-$9A$-<J.,
9- 3- $A- ,R/- #%?- 1/- ?3- 5S$?- 3A/- o- nJ/- $9A$- <J.- 2?3- $A 2R.- /- .3<- 9?- 3A/- .- 9- 3- <A$?- $8/- 0- 3%- %- 3J.- $A PR
/?, :R-3-<A$?-$A-,R/-m?-$A-@/-(.-/?, }R-$A-<A$?-*%-*%-<J., .-2<-$A-5/-<A$-$A-v-5=-v<-/, ?-:H$?-?-<-?-3$R-
3,R-?-/?-$3-$A-<A$?-z$-+-3%-%-.$R?-:.R.-$A-;R., .J-;A/-/, 2R.-$A-?-(-@/-/-?-(-.J-3R-$9A$-:5S=-YR=-3J.-$A $/?-
5=-:.A-3R-$9A$-$A-:R$-/?, >-3A-9-<%-9-<J., .3<-$&R.-3#/--$9A$-$A?-2R.-/?-#$-(J/-0R-3,R%-o-<J.,
;A/- /- <, 2R.- 3%- (J- >R?-#A$- 0<- 0$- /A- <J., >- 9- oR- .$R?- 3#R- $9A$- ;A/- 2+%- /, #A$- 0- $;R=- oR<-LJ.- ,2?- $%- 29%-
:5S=-$A-;R.-$A >-9-:.R., <J.-S-#A$-0-;?-3A-:.R.-/, 2R.-#-;?-$A?-2>/-0-\-$A-;R., <J.-S-$$-=R%?-,R.-3#/-#R-9R-
<%-<%-<J., .J%-?%-$A-5S%-<-$A-3#R-3R.-$/?-=$?-v<-/, LJ.-,2?-:.A-<%-3$R-<%-$;R$?--;?-/A-<J., .J-;A/-/-<-:.A-
#A$-0-$;R=-,2?-$9A$-$-2lA?-/-(R$-$A-;R., .J-3A/-., 2R.-MA-9R-MA-\J/-0-K$?-9R$-2>:-3A->J?-/R-3-<J., %:A-<R$?-0-
$9A$-$A?-.R/-.$-*A.-0R-$9A$-2>.-,=, #<-$J:A-A-1-$A?-?-bR-,.-$A-:U=-(?-(J-$9A$-*R-:.R.-/A-<, A-3-$+A%-/?-3-
.$:-,=, :U=-(?-$A?-?-2bR?-/, ?-:R$-$A-:2:-:2-$?R.-o-<J., .J-*J?-0-(J-9J<, HA3-5%-$A-2.J-#$-:U=-(?-.J:A-
#-/-;R.-/-<, 3,:-:)$-A-3-$A-.2%-%-2.-,=-9J<, <J.-S-A-3-3R-<%-$A?-.3<-9?-3J.-/-*A/-3-3A-:HR=-9J<,
<R%-?- /?, 9- 3-$A-$-3%- /R-$A?, ;%-3A/-.- K$?-9R$- *%-/R-$A?, <R%-2-9R?->-:VR$-.0:-9R:A-.J- 3R- $9A$- 9-$A-3J., .J:A-
nJ/-$A?-:VR$-0-9R?-<->-9-oR-)J-*%-%-$+R%-,2-o-<J.-:.R.-/-,%-, <J.-S, :VR$-?-/?-.J-3R-$9A$-;A/-oR-.!:-o-<J., |R-
#-/-K$?-9R$-$%-3%-<J., =$-o$-?-#J<-<R-<-K$?-9R$-+$-+$-<J., $/?-5=-:.A-(J-?-$9A$-$-28$-/, 35S-2R.-3,R-
|%-$A-!J%-/?-?-o-3%-(J->R?-C-,%-<J., C-,%-/-;R.-/R-K$?-9R$-3A/-.-$8/-3-<J.,
%:A- %R- 2R-<- >- .$:- A- K- 3- $9A$- ;A/, ..- 0- &/- <-A- K- 3- $9A$- ;A/, #<- $J?- =$- 2>:- .?, %R- <R.- <R- ;?, #- /?- 3- EA-
:.R/- /R- %:A- MA$- =3- /- $?=- $A #- =2- 3%- /, #<- $J?- $>J- $>J- 3//- 3R- $+R% - ;R%- , OA$?- OA$?- 3J.- /, #<- $J?- .$R?-
3#R-<-#A$-0-$A-2<-/?-#$-M%?-;R.-/-,%-,
.J%- ?%- ;=- {R<- 2- 3%- %- $A?- 2R.- /?- :5S- 2- .!:- 9J<- $A- ;R., }R- <- 9- 3- #R- 9R- .$:- /R- 2R.- /- 3J.- 9J<, <J.- S- 2R.-MA- 9R?- 3A-
•290•
<2?-/?-3A-<2?-2<-<-?-:.A-/?-:5S-2-*A.- #$-:SJ?-3-<R=, .J:A-<A%-%->-<-%3-%3->$?-$A?- 9-3-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R<-
*/-;R., :.A-3J.-$/-3J., =?-%/-/-2R.-/?-,-/-29:-2+%-<-=R%?-,R.-;?-3A-,2-$A-:.R.-3A-*/, .J-<%-<%-=R2?-,2-
3A-,2-$A-.R/-.$-<J., .-2<-}R-<-9-3-<A$?-$8/-0-;R.-/-<-, $3-9?-$3-(-.-2R-$4S-2R-;A/-$A-;R., :.A-(A-$9A$-<J.-9J<-
3#/-;R., <J.-S->- 3A-9- oR-2R.-<A$?-$J<-35S/- /-$.3-!- $9A$-3-<J., >-9- oR-o.-<-P2-;R.- /A-$9A$-<J., 2R.-<A$?- $A-
PR%-2-=->?-$A?-.-2R-:.A-3R-:.R.-$A-;R., >-9R?-/-$/-/-3A-Z, :.A<-3A-Z-9J<, 2f/-:UA/-=-?R$?-$A-/%-/?-$R-o-3%-/,
>- <- =?- 5S/- 0R-2<- <- :VJ=- 2- (J- $9A$- L%- ;R., :.A-9R-MA- :5S-2-o2- uR%?- 3A- $&A$- /R:A - :.R.- 5=- <J., #A$- 0- :)A$?- (J-/R-
2R.-MA-LA%?-$A-v-5=-<J., <J.-S->-33A- 9-<%-9-;A/-2+%-/, v-5=-$%-;A/-/-<-$&A$-$A?- <-?-o-(R.-$A-3J., #A$-0-?J3?-
&/-$A-2.J-#$-33,R%-3J.-<J$-3J.-$9A$-$-,$-;R., >-9-3A/-:5S-2-$A-2.J-#$-+$-+$-$-,$-;R., $/?-5=-:.A:A-:R$ #A$-
0-$A-i3-(A/-,$-<A%-8A$-$-:.%-o$-oR-.!:-$A-;R.,
10.1 --Adjectives
Example Explanation
8A-3R-;$--3-:.A-#<-$J:A-c/-3R-<J.,
%-$R/-o-3.RR$-&/-/-3A-.$:, Two-syllabic adjectives follow nouns.
8A-=A-$9$$?-<AA%-.J-5K-2g/-<J.,
3,RR/-0R-<A, A-}RR/-.LA%?, :#R2?--;%?-,%-,
Adjectives can be put before a noun when one
(//-2-3R-$/?-=-:IR-.?, (%-<R$?-0-?J3?- rhythmically gives a speech, a style seldom used in
0-:#R<-?, SAA/-(J/-1-3-2?3-0-,R$?-?, daily conversations.
A-3.R-/?-/3-^-:H$?--3R-<J.,
Two-syllabic adjectives are the complement.
g-<$-<$-:.A-2o$?-/-3IRR$?--3R-<J.,
3J-+R$-:.A-;$ 3J-+R$-$/-24S$ Monosyllabic adjectives are alone as the
)R-3R-]-<A-A-MJ?-k-(J/-/-vR?-/-33,RR, complements.
]-3-:.A-~A%-eJ-&/-<J., Many &/-ending words are adjectives: ~A%-eJ-&/; $R3-

5K-5K-<-5%-3-<-&R-&/-3A/, 0-&/; <-&R-&/; <A$-0-&/
1$-YR$-($?-<A$-0--&/-$9A$-<J.,
3J.-0R-;<-;R%-$%--2-(J,
Many adjectives are derived from the combination
MA-%/-=2--(J, :KR<-2R-@%--(J, of a noun and monosyllabic adjective. Most such
?%?-o?-=?-(JJ-/-<, #<-$J:A-c/-3R-:.$--(J, adjectives are treated as monosyllabic.
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Notes-1
1. Nouns are put before monosyllabic adjectives to derive phrasal adjectives.

9R$-.J-#-3,R, MA-$/-$9$?-3,R, MA-$9$?-3,R-.J-%:A-%/-;-;A/,
<?-.J-3.R$-(J, o=-2R-.2%-,%-(J, <?-3.R$-(J-/R-.J-5S%-#%-:.A:A-/%-/-3J.,
2. The monosyllabic adjective (J is often combined with nouns to render phrasal adjectives.
HA3-5%-:.A-2?R.-/3?-(J, o-(J, aR2-3-:.A-=R-(%-, <J.-S-]R-(J,
8A-=A-.J-%/-(J, #-3-.G, =R-(J-/-*3?-MR%-(J-9J<,
3. Phrasal adjectives can be split by inserting adverbs.
2R.-;A$-@R%-$A?-fR$-:6B%-(J, 2R.-;A$-fR$-:6B%-@R%-$A?-(J,
3<-$J-4B?-4-$9A$-$$9$?-(%-, 3<-$J-$9$?-4B?-4-$9A$-(%-,
4. Articles and declarative pronouns follow adjectives.
%?-$R/-o-$R%-.!:-3R-.J-:.R.-$A MA-(-3J.-$9A$-.J-<A%-%J.-5%-%-,R/-,=,
MA-3$R-!R%-.J-aR2-3-<-=.-0-$9A$-<J., .$R/-0-(J/-0R-.J-/-/A%-=?-5<-?R%-,
Exercise 1 Complete each statement by selecting one of the two adjectives given for
each line. You may convert monosyllabic adjectives into disyllabic ones.
.0J<-2eR., 9-2-:.A->J?-;R/-&/-$9A$-<J., #<-$J-(%-.?-/?-2lR/-:P?-(J / =J-=R-(J,

9-2-:.A->J?-;R/-&/-<J., #<-$J-(%-.?-/?-2lR/-:P?-(J,
1. %:A-8A-=A-2.J-$A-3J., %-?J3?-#$ / *A.___________________________________________

2. #-l%-=?-!-=?-=?, .$R%-3R-%-;A-$-(J / (%-,______________________________________
3. o-{.-<-2R.-{.-3A-$&A$ 2R.-{.-o-MA-$A?-.%?-/-l / .!:, ______________________________
4. 8A-3R-3R-24S$/ 3R-;$-.J-?J3?-29%-/-<, 3<-$J<-.$:-3#/-3J., ___________________________
5. IJ/-/-:$R-oR-.!:-3R / l-3R-<J., ,<-<-;R%-/-b%-2-$.-:IR, ______________________________
6. MA-:.A-;R/-+/-&/-$9A$-;A/, 2v?-/-#R-\/-/-\J/-/J-___________________________________
7. 9R$-=$-5%-3-#-3-.$-,=, #-(% / #-3,R-$*A?-! ___________________________________
8. MA-:.A-]R-&/-;A/-/, #<-$J-<A$-lR$ / <A$-;$-<-;A/-o-<J., _______________________________
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Exercise 2 Put appropriate articles, demonstrative pronouns, and other appropriate
words in the blanks below.
A lazy man and a compassionate lama met each other on their way. The man was famous for telling
lies.
"Hey! Liar, can you tell me a lie?" said the compassionate lama.
"My kind mother passed away. It's difficult to come up with a lie when I'm unhappy. But if you, my
lama, come to my home tomorrow to pray for my mother, it would be a great blessing and
meaningful. And my offering wouldn't be too little," said Liar.
"May the Three Great Jewels bless your mother! She was a good person. Anyway, this world is full of
hardship. I will come tomorrow," said the compassionate lama.
The following day was very nice. Liar was lying by a big river. The lama came in a brand new monk
vestment.
8A- =A- _____ <- ]- 3-_____ =3- #- /?- %R- ,$- /A- <J., 8A- =A- .J- ___ (J, .J:A- !2?- $A?-#R-
$/:--$+3-8AA$
____ , ]- 3- ~A%- eJ- &/- $A?, "A- <R, m/- n=, HR?- m/- ____=2-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,"9J<, "%:A-
A- 3- _____ :.?- ?R%- , ?J3?- _____ .?, m/- 1A$- oR- ____ <J., A- =$?- =R- =R, /%?- !- HJ.- %J.- 5%- %- 1J2?-/?,
3-29%-$A-.R/-/-*2?-:)$-<J-8?-/-_____, :2=-2-______#R-,$-;A/," m/-n=- $A?-.J->J.-2>., A-=$?-~A%-
eJ-&/-$A?".!R/-3(R$-$?3-0R, HR:A-A-3-MA-____$9A$-;A/, ;A/-/-<-:)A$-gJ/-:#R<-2-____, %-/%?-!-;R%-,"9J<,
KA-*A/-/3-^-_____, 8A-=A- m/-n=-(-______$A-:I3-/-=R$-;R., ]-3-$A?-3/2?-$92-_____$R/-
/?- ,R/- ?R%- , "HR?- :.A- /- (A- $9A$- =?- $A- ;R., HR:A- A- 3- :.?- ?R%- /A- 3A/- /?, "A- =$?- $A?- SA? - /, m/- n=- $A?- "A-
=$?, HR?-m/->R.-9J<, %?-m/-=2-/A-;A/," 9J<,
10.2 --Various types of adjectives
w/; ;R.: 3JJ.: as adjective converters

Example Explanation
2-<A$-w/-:.A-aR2-9<-;A/-$&A$-3A/-$*A?-:IR-.$R?,
This smart boy has no choice but to go to school.
.-,J%?-$A-;=-{R<-.R/-w/-<J., .R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$->J?-,=,
The trip is really meaningful this time. I learned many new things. The three particles convert
#R-MA-$??-3JJ.-$9A$-;A/, MA-$A-(J-(%-%-3A-v, nouns into adjectives.
He is not a polite person, disregarding young and old.

<R$?-3%-%-$9A$-;?-2+%-, <J.-S-5%-3-.R/-3J.-<J., %R-3-=R/,
(One) did a big favor but earned nothing for it. It is all meaningless.
•293•
Notes-2
1. When a monosyllabic adjective is the complement, an auxiliary adverb can be added to

clarify the tense.
In general Past tense Conjectural
_%?-:#R<-.J-:IRR$?--$A _%?-:#R<-.J-:IRR$?--,=, _%?-:#R<-.J-:IRR$?--o-<J.,
9R$-.J-#-3,RR-$A 9R$-.J-#-3,RR-?R%-, 9R$-.J-#-3,RR-o-<J.,
.J-<A%-$A-9-3-.J-8A3-$A #-l%-$A-9-3-<-8A3-,=, .J-<A%-$A-9-3-<-8A3-o-<J.,
2. Monosyllabic adjectives are put before subject nouns, in poetic statements.
Before a subject-noun In complement
3,RR-.0R/-0R-%R-:H$?-<J., .0R/-0R-%R-:H$?-.J-$R-$/?-3,RR/-0R-<J.,
;$--2-3R-=?-&/-<J., 2-3R-=?-.2%-&/-.J-*J?-=?-;$
/$-35/-3R-$+A%-3,:-3J., 35/-$+A%-3J.-($-/$
3. Genitive case markers are used to convert nouns and verbs into adjectives. Such
adjectives are attributive.
Verb-adjective Noun-adjective Regular adjective
converted converted
:PRR$?--$A-2-3R<-?J3?-:(R<-$A ;$--$A-2-3R<-?J3?-:(R<-$A 2-3R-;$--3-=-?J3?-:(R<-$A
:PRR-$A-8A-=A-2.J-3R-LR?, ?J3?--$A-{.-(-i3-.$-<J., 8A-=A-.J-MA-%/-<J., eJ?-3-:V%?,
:1<-$A-L-3R-#R.-S, 3J-$A-*A/-3-2.-,=, .J-<A%-5.-0-3J-<J.,
Exercise 3 Based on the context, write appropriate adjectives, function words, and
other necessary words in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., #-l%-%-?J3?-________, ( ?J3?-#$) #-l%-%-?J3?-#$-,=,

Present tense:
1. .%R?-0R-.J-________, ( )
tA 8-;?-.J?-______, (H$)
2. |R-:.A-__________, ((J) %___________, (>R%)
3. $?R=-!R/-________, (:IR-|R-(J) |R<-3R-$A?-______, (:.%)
4. A-&J-:.A-.-2R-<_____, (;$) 3<-$J-________, (;$-3)
5. 8A%-=?-_________, (#$-(J) =?-:.R.-3#/-___, (3%)
6. HA3-5%-:.A-_______, (/R$?) .-2R-<_________, (&%-3J.)
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Past tense:
1. .%R?-0R-.J-___________, ( )
tA 8-;?-.J?- ______, (:H$)
2. |R-:.A-/-/A%-__________, ((%) %____________, (>R%)
3. $?R=-!R/-___________, (:IR-|R-(J) |R<-3R-$A?-_______, (:.%)
4. A-&J-:.A-.J%-3-@R%-$A?-____, (;$) .-2R-<-_________, (:I<)
5. 8A%-=?-____________, (#$-(J) =?-:.R.-3#/-____, (3%)
6. HA3-5%-:.A-__________, (&%-3J.) .J%-?%-_______/-<, (/R$?)
Future (conjectural) tense:

1. .%R?-0R-.J-___________, ( )
tA 8-;?-.J?-_______, (:H$)
2. |R-:.A-3A-(J-/, %-_______, (>R%)
3. $?R=-!R/-___________, (:IR-|R-(J) |R<-3R-!R%-$A?-_____, (:.%)

4. A-&J-:.A-____________, (;$) 3<-$J:A-8A-3R-<-_____, (;$)
5. 8A%-=?-____________, (#$-(J) =?-/-:.R.-3#/-___, (3%)
6. HA3-5%-:.A-__________, ()J-/R$?) HA3-3A-5%-3-______, (=?-(J)
10.3 --Noun / Verb modifiers
--Verb modifiers
Verb + / ? ,. English Explanation
%-:.$-?-0R-=A/-$A-><- My address is in the east of It indicates someone usually stays

Berlin. there.
KR$?-/-;R.,
#<-$J-:IRR-?-:.A-/?-,$-@R%- His destination is very far
from here.
It signifies the place where someone is
about to go.
$A?-<A%-,
?%?-o?-$A?-.0J-(-2+RR/-?- The place where Sang rgyas
studied is Beijing.
The action has already taken place in
Beijing, and thus the verb is in PAT.
0J-&A/-;A/,
#R-?R%-?<-%-3A-,R/, I cannot reach the place
where he has already been.
The action has taken place, and thus the
verb is in PAT.
2R.-;A$-:VAA-,.-<%-$:A- The Tibetan writing tool ,. is compounded with a verb in PRT to
is not this normal pen. derive a noun, referring to a tool.
t$?-/$-:.A-3A/,
3)=-2-9R-z-?<-:IRR-,.- The vehicle the pilgrims
take to Lhasa is an auto.
_%?-:#R<-<J.,
•295•
--Noun modifiers
Noun + noun English
.-:VR$-0-9R-.L<--?-/-;R., The herders are now on the summer pasture.
.--.$/-H-$R/-</-<J., It is time to wear winter coats.
MA-:)R/-,%-&/-.J<-3,RR-:VAA%-aR2-$?R-<-,R2-3J., That capable man does not even have a senior high
school education.
=3--<R$?-$*A?-!-?R%-$A?-?R%-$A?-3-:(3?, The two traveling companions did not get along while
traveling.
:VR$-/?-:5SS-gJ/-K$?-9R$-;A/, The life resources in herding areas are the livestock.
Notes-3
1. ,.: This article is compounded with verbs in PRT to form a noun. Such nouns usually
refer to a tool, e.g., :S.-,.-3J.-/-%?-.R?-0R-uA.-3R-:.A-3A-H$ I cannot carry this heavy load
without a transportation vehicle.
2. ?: This particle is compounded with verbs either in PAT or in PRT to refer to where, e.g.,
#R-?R%-?-z-?-<J., :IR-,.-t$?-g-<J., He went to Lhasa riding a bicycle. / %-:IR-:.R.-?-2R.-3A/,
The place I want to travel to is not Tibet.
Exercise 4 Make sentences with the verbs ? and ,..
.0J<-2eR., With : ? %?-:VA-?-aR2-#%-/%-;A/, (:VA) With ,.: :VA-,.-0A<-;A/, (:VA)

Verb Verb + ? Verb + ,.
1. 2>. 1. __________________________ 1. _________________________
2. :1< 2. __________________________ 2. _________________________
3. *R 3. __________________________ 3. _________________________
4. =? 4. __________________________ 4. _________________________
5. <A$ 5. __________________________ 5. _________________________
6. {R= 6. __________________________ 6. _________________________
7. :.R/ 7. __________________________ 7. _________________________
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10.4 --Adverb of manner
Statement with Statement with adverbs Explanation

adjectives
K$?-mA-=R-(%-:.A-#$-<?-(J, K$?-mA-=R-(%-:.A?-#$-<?-(J->J.-K$?-9R$-:5S, n>J. is added after
adjectives to convert to
<R%-2-<A$?-$J-8R%-$A?-#-3IRR$?, <R%-2-<A$?-$J?-3IRR$?--3R->J.-2>.,
adverbs
:)<-3/-/?-MA-5%-3-VJ=-2-(J, :)<-3/-/?-MA-<A$?-$J?-VJ=-2-(J->J.-=?-$A-;R., oThe instrumental
.$J-c/-5K-<A%-%R-:H$?-;A/, .$J-c/-5K-<A%-%R-:H$?-->J.-:.$-$A case marker ? is used
as an adjective-adverb
%-$R/-o-?R-3-3%-%-;R., %?-$R/-o-3%-%-?R-3->J.-$R/-$A-;R.,
converter, e.g., HR.-
2-(%-:.A-?J3?--#$-(J, 2-(%-:.A-?J3?--#$-(J->J.-;R., 3IR$?-3R?-?R%-,
Notes-4
1. >J. is used with disyllabic adjectives to form adverbs of manner:
Correct Incorrect
*A-3--.=--3R->J.-;=-,=, *A-3-.=-->J.-;=-,=,
3<-$J?-\-.L%?-~/--3R->J.-]%?, 3<-$J?-\-.L%?-~/-->J.-]%?,
3J-:#R<-:.A-3IR$?-3RR->JJ.-:IR-$A 3J-:#R<-:.A-3IRR$?-->J.-:IR-$A
2. Verbs are normally put either after a noun or before a verb, e.g., ?%?-o?-$A?-;A-$J-3IR$?-3R-
>J.-VA?, Sang rgyas quickly wrote a letter. / ?%?-o?-$A?-3IR$?-3R->J.-;A-$J-VA?, Sang rgyas
wrote a letter quickly.
3. (A-3R-$9A$->J. might be contracted as (A->J., e.g., 8-;?-:.A?-L-2-.!:-3R-:.A-(A->J.-((A-3R-$9A$-
>J.) =?-,2?-;?-/A-<J., How did this child manage to do this difficult job?
Exercise 5 Complete the statements with the phrases in parentheses and >J..
.0J<-2eR., .$R/-0-/%-/?-{.-3,R/-0R->J.-2>.-3A-*/, ({.-3,R/-0R)
1. 3/:-3-$A?-A-MJ?-<-A-/J-__________$*R<-.$R?, (~A%-eJ-(J)
2. $?<-2-9R?- __________c/-0-<A$?-$A-#-=-*/-.$R?, (2lA-=J/-(J)
3. MA-3%-$A-OR.-/?-__________:R-LJ.-3A-*/, ($?=-2R)
4. *J-.-$A-2<-/?-1R-3R-$A-.R/-.$- __________\J%-.$R?, (wJ3-0R)
5. @-3<-5B$-__________2>.-/-3A-Z-9J<, (l2-3R)
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6. 9-3-__________3-9R?-/, #-9-o?-3A-(R.-9J<, (#-<R$)
7. .JA.-!-$R/-o-__________$R/-.$R?, .J-3A/-.-:5B$-:IR, (Y2-3R)
8. ]-3-<-.0R/-0R, MA-=R-(J-9R-__________2>.-.$R?, (%$-:)3-0R)
Exercise 6 Convert the adjective in the first part of each statement to an adverb and
put the adverb in the blank in the second half of the same sentence.
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J-.$J-c/->-5-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J?->-5->J.-aR2-OA.-;?-$A
1. #<-$J-MA-S%-3R-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J?-/3-;A/-/-<-__________2>.-$A
2. :VR$-HA3-9R-1/-5/-/?-@R%-$A-,$-<A%-;A/, :VR$-HA3-9R-1/-5/-/-__________;R.,
3. c/-3R-:.A-/3-;A/-<-MA$-(-$R<-<R-<R, MA$-(-o/-.-MA$-3,:-/-__________;R.,
4. \-3-0.-35S-{.-~/-3R-<J., 3<-$J?-\-.L%?-__________=J/-$A
5. HA-<-%%-2R-=3-/-:(3?-0R-3A/-9J<, MA-:.A-$*A?-!-__________3A-:.$
6. _%-3J.-/-2<-$%-$A-3A/-.=-3R-<J., 3A/-__________:IR-$A-;R.,
7. 29:-2-$/-$*A?-!-2v?-/-#$-$A #R-$*A?-!-/3-;A/-<-__________2#.-;R.,
8. .R-5B$?-.L<-#-5.-0-(J-$A .R-5B$?-.L<-#-__________;=-,=,
9. .!<-;R=-:.A-:R.-G$-?J, %?-*R-:.R.-$A .!<-;R=-:.A-__________;R.,
10. %:A-<R$?-0-(%-$A?-@-/J-@R/-/J-<J., #<-$J-__________,R/-2+%-,
Exercise 7 Tell how you do these things using adverbs. Next, reconstruct the same
sentences using adjectives.
.0J<-2eR., 9-3-9, %?-9-3-o/-.-.=-3R->J.-9, %-9-3-9R?-/-.=-3R-;A/,
Action With adverbs With adjectives

1. 2R.-{.-2>. 1. ________________________ 1. ________________________
2. (%-:,% 2. ________________________ 2. ________________________
3. =?-L-:VA 3. ________________________ 3. ________________________
4. $R/-o-*R 4. ________________________ 4. ________________________
5. L-2-=? 5. ________________________ 5. ________________________

6. m/-2>. 6. ________________________ 6. ________________________
7. _%?-:#R<-{R< 7. ________________________ 7. ________________________
•298•
8. 2-=R/-:)= 8. ________________________ 8. ________________________
Exercise 8 Write adjectives, articles, be verbs, and other necessary function words in
the blanks. Convert the adjectives into adverbs if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-H-.J-mR2-,R-<J., (mR2-,R) ?%?-o?-$A?-2R.-H-.J-mR2-,R->J.-$R/-2+%-,=, (mR2-,R)
!-2 HR.-2R.-<-2.-?R%-9J<-$A AJ-2.J/,

#--2 ?R%-%-, %-2R.-<-2.-?R%-%-, :$R-lR3-.?-:IR-<R$?-#-;?-%J?-%J?- ________, (.!:) #-;?-
$9A$-________, (<%-3$R-<%-o=-) .R/-.$- ________3A-=?-$A (.$:-3R) ?-$/?-$A-MA<-
________, (2lA-2!<-3A-(J) /%?-3R<-________=%?-$AA (:KA-3R) }-?J?-;<-=R%?-9J<-/, #R-
9R-________, (:R/-0) .J%-,R$-;=-{R<-.J-3R-_______$9A$-3-<J., (*A.-0R) %J.-(:R-5%-3-

________;R%-%-, (.!:-3R)
!-2 (A-$9A$-3-*/-/?,
#--2 :IR-<R$?-$?3-$A?->-3A-9, #R-$?3-0R-________, (.!:) 2R.-/->-________, ($%-3%-3%)
<J.-S-}R-_______, ($%-*%-*%) #R$-$-9-3-3-22?-/, %R-________:.$-$A (#$-3R) .J?-3A-
5., :.A-______, ($4%-3) $/-$4%-3-3-<J.-9J<, ?-$/?-$A-MA-$A?-_____3A-9-9J<, ($4%-3)
!-2 */-/, HR?-=?-!-________$9A$-=?-2+%-$9A$ (.!:-3R)
#--2 2>.-.$R?-/?, MA-3%-%-$9A$-3$R-#.-;?-oR-________,(.!:-3R)
!-2 .J-3A/-.-HR?-(A-$9A$-3,R%-,=,
#--2 .J-3A/-.-%-MA-*A.-0R-<-________,$-,=, (3%-%) %-d-2-$A-$?<-2-________,$-,=, (=R-*%)
^-2-2./-0:A-/%-%-, C-,%-________$%-?-$%-/-;R., ((J/-0R) $%-?-$%-/-C-,%-
________, (}R-u%-?J) 3J-+R$-hR$-$R-________, (?J<-=3-3J) %J?-%J?-________, (*A.-0R)
%J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-;=-{R<-<-?R%-, %J.-$*A?-!-________3-?R%-, (.=-3R) ________;<-

3<-<-?R%-%-, (3IR$?-3R)#<-$J-?J3?-o-;%?-$A _____________$A (%R2?-0-(J) %R2?-0-\J%-
/, %?-;%-.R/-.$-*A.-0R-$9A$-S/-$A
!-2 HR?->R.-S,
#--2 *A/-3-.J-@R%-$A?-________, (5.-0-(J) #R-<-%J.-$*A?-________<-/%-$9A$-$-,R/-,=, (:KA-
3R) {2?-.J<-HA-c/-$9A$-9$-2+%-, :VR$-HA-________, (24/-0R) <J.-S-#<-$J-________
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_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-/?-|R<-2.-2+%-, (%R2?-0-(J) #<-$J-HA3-2.$-:5S=-$A-2.-,=, \R-o$-$9A$-$
HA-c/-!$-:S-3R-.J->R<-,=,
!-2 A-4B, 8J-,$-$A?________, (:)A$?-(J)
#-2 .J-;A/-/-<, #<-$J-________4-$A-KR$?-$-2.-,=, (24/-0R) <J.-S-HA-c/-.J-/R-g$?-(J-$A HA-c/-
%:A-KR$?-$-2o$?-;R%-,=, %-_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-/?- ________2#.-<, (%R2?-0-(J) <J.-S-%:A-
82?-/?-9-:U$-=%?-,=, HA-c/-________,R/-,=, (3IR$?-3R) .J?-%-:)-/-,%-, .J-/?-%-
_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-/?-|R<-2., VR?-2+%-%-,
!-2 HR.-:.A-(A-3R-$9A$-________, (\J/) 24/-?-_%?-:#R<-/%-/?...
#-2 {2?-.J<, ;$-;$-$-HA3-2.$-_______,R/-,=, (3IR$?-3R) 2_-,R$-$-.-2R-<-9-:U$-=%?-$A
Text Two: adverbs and Tibetan versions of too
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R.-0-%R-3R-8A$
%:A-%R-3R-5K-<A%-1R=-3-%J.-5%-/?-MA-:.%-&/-$9A$-$-2lA-$A-;R., 3<-$J-.$/-#-9A-=A%-/-:.$-$A-;R., #J-2-$A-/%-$A-:5S-

2-@R%- $A?- .!:-3R-;A/- /- <, PR%-HJ<- $A- /%- /?- 2#.-/-3<-$J- =R-(J- ?R%- , 3A-=R2?- $A-9J<, 3<-$J-<%-$A-8A %- 2- $A-:5S- 2<-
@R%-$A?-.%?-$A-;R.,
3<- $J- 1924=R<- lJ- #R$- mR%- $A- :VR$- HA3- $9A$- /?- *J?, *J?- /?- &%- 3- :$R<- <, 3<- $J:A- A- 3- >A- ?R% - 9J<, 3<-$J<- MA%-
YA%- 28A- ;R., .J:A- /%- /?- 3<- $J- A- +- $A?- (%-%R-<J., *A/- 3- $9A$- $ <J2- $R%- $A- *J?- 0-(- 3J.- $9A$- #R- 3R- 5%- %- ,R/- ?R%- ,
*J?- 29A- .J? - 3<- $J- <R%- ?<- HA.- ?R%- , 3<- $J?-.- 2R- <- {2?- .J- S/- $A- ;R., 3<- $J?-"%:A- 0- A- 2R- .J:A- <3- /- z2- z2- ;?- $A-
;R.,"9J<,
A-2R-(-3J.-.J- $8$- /?- 3<-$J:A-A-1<-*/-?R%-, A-1-$A?- 3<-$J- $&J?-oR-3%- ?R%- , .J:A- nJ/-$A?- 3<-$J-(%-.?-%/-=%-%-
2.- ?R%-9J< , =R- 2&R- 2o.- $A- ,R$- /?- 3<- $J- $*J/- 1A$- ;?- /A- <J., 8A- =A- $9A$- 24?- /A- < , 3<- $J- 29:- 5%- ,R<- ?R%- , .J:A-
$8$-/?-3<-$J-%:A-%R-2R-<-29:-5%-2&R?, #R-$*A?-!<-8A-3R-$9A$-;R., 8A-3R-$8$-/?-o=-#2-$A-=?-LJ.-0-<-8-;?-s-
$A-A-3<-*/-?R%-,
%- (%- .?- $A- <?- %R- 3R- $A- =R$?- /?- =$- ($?- /A- ;A/, (%- .?- $A- o2- $A- $R/- o- @- 3- $A?- LA/- /- <, #- 9?- 1=- (J<- 3<- $J?-
2+R/-/A-<J., /%?-}-=%?-<-.$R%-:KA-*=->J.-%J.-MA%-YA%-9R<-9-3-2&R?-/A-<J., 3<-$J?-.J%-?%-$A-MA-2?R.-/3?-(J-:.R.-
•300•
$A-;R., (A-$9A$-.$R?-/-=$-2YA%?-/-(R$-9J<,
3<-$J-z-?-:IR-?J3?-(J-/R-$A?, %J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-z-?<-?R%-/A-;A/, MA-3%-%-$A?-z-?-?-3$R-@R%-$A?-3,R, .J<-:IR-oR-

@R%- $A?- .!:- 9J<, 3<- $J?- t$?- L<- ,J%?- $&A$- $- :.$- ,2- o- /- 9J<, ,J%?- .J<- $/3- P<- 2#.- /R- 3<- $J?- 3A- 2eJ.- $A-
9J<, .-3<-$J-=R-I-28A<-2.-;R., <J.-S, 3<-$J-A-3J-<-#<-5-2R-<-5-3R<-v-$A-:IR-:.R.-$A-;R., .-3<-$J-A-<A<-?R%-/-=R-
(J-?R%-, .J:A-,R$-$-A-<A:A-$8%-52-#%-/?-;A-$J-=J/-oR-l-3R-3-<J., .J-;A/-/-<-3<-$J-?J3?->A-$A-3J.,
10.5 --S$? vs. @R%-$A?
With verb With adjective Explanation
.J-<A%-=?-!-=?--S$?-?R%-, .J-<A%-=?-!-3%--S$?-,=, S$? expresses too

much.
S$? 5K-<A%-$A?-2>.-S$?--,=, 5K-<A%-$A-$+3-2>.-<A%-S$?-,=,
3.%-.$R%-29AA-S$?--,=, 3.%-.$R%-(%-3%-S$?-?R%-,
c/-3R-:.A?-.0J-(<-@R%-$A?-v, 3<-$J<-.0J-(-@R%-$A?-3%-, @R%-$A? expresses very
@R%-$A? _%?-:#R<-:.A-@R%-$A?-o$-$A g-:.A-$R3-#-@R%-$A?-.=, or very much.
8A-=A-:.A?-:.%-o$-@R%-$A?-;?, #<-$J-:.%-o$-@R%-$A?-(J,
Exercise 9 Write S$? , @R%-$A? , and other function words to express too much in the
blanks.
.0J<-2eR., .$/-#-2R.-/?-@R%-$A?-:H$?-$A :.A-/?-2?J<-2-(J-S$?, %?-3A-29R.-$A
1. 9-3-9R?______/-:L%-$8A-3A-2.J, 7. 8-;?-T-5$-;A/-______3A-29%-$A
2. $R/-o-*%-_____/-(3-0-1R$-o-<J., :.A-<-#R/, 8. .$J-c/-$A?-$>J-$>J-$+R%-____,=, aR2-3-
3. 0R-=A/-/?-#-.2$?-____$4%-3-<J., #R<-;$- 9R____.$:-$A-3J.,

<-_____;$-$A 9. .$/-#-0R-=A/-/?-*A/-3-______,%-$A
4. aR2-3-:.A-$?3-0R-______#$-<?-(J, o$?- 10. z-?<-:IR-/-.J%-?%-______l-3R-<J.,
:V?-3A-29%-/-<, 11. .J-<A%-$A-*A-3-5-_____, |R-/?-:.$-3A-,2,
5. $R-<J-:.A-_R/-______;R., .-2R-9-3A-*/, 12. 8A-3R-:.A-{3-____, 3<-$J?-9-3-_____3A-9,
6. r%-=A-lJ-/-%-$9$?-,%- __, $8/-$A-.R-;-3-<J., 13. MA-:.A-#-3IR$?-______, %?-_____@-3A-$R-$A
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14. /.-0-:.A?-$8$-KR$?-$3-9?-_____9-3A-*/, 16. ;<-3<-<-____3-:IR, ?-:.A-*J/-#-(J-_____,
15. #-2>.-3%-______/, 3$R-$A?-*R-9J<,
Text Three: adverbs
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-KA?-2A?-9-<J$-0<, KA-o=-IA-PR$?-0R-8A$-$A?-$8%-52-#%-=-353?-.R<-;A-$J-VA?-0,
~A%-*J-2:A-<R$?-0-John=$?,
%?-:.A-/?-HR.-%:A-<R$?-0-%R-g$ A-&J-5K-<A%-1R=-3-353?-.R<-;?, 3<-$J-.-=R-2o.-&-z$-;A/, 3<-$J:A-5-2R-
<-5-3R-28A-%:A->$-0R-+$-+$-;A/, #R-9R-%:A-}R/-(.-$A-aR2-3-<-;A/, %-3<-$J:A-HA3-5%-%-<-@@R%-$A?-$?=-(-3J., .J-<A%-
;A-$J-VA?-/?-.R/-:.A-2>.-:.R.-/A-;A/,
A-&J-5K-<A%-1R=-3-$A?-A-<A:A-$8%-52-#%-/?-Visa =J/-$A-;R., ;A-$J-=R/-/-3<-$J-A-3J-<A-#<-5-3R-<-;%-5-$*A?-
!-v-$A-:IR-o-<J., 3<-$J-@R%-$A?-2.J-,%-<J., .J-;A/-/-<, 5K-YR$-=-#:A-*A-3-:S-3R-<J., .-,J%?-3<-$J:A-$R-{2?-A-+-
$A?-$8$-3-;A/-/-,%-,
1994=R<-%?-A-&J-5K-<A%-1R=-3-%R->J?-/A-;A/, .J-$A-<?, %-3<-$J-<-$?=-(-;R., 3<-$J<-YR=-o/-$A-HA3-5%-
$9A$-;R., HA3-5%-:.A:A-/%-/-3<-$J:A-8A-3R, 3$-0, 5-<A$?-S$-;R., 3<-$J:A-8A-3R-<-3$-0-$*A?-!-=?-LJ.-0-<, 5-
<A$?-S$-0R-aR2-3-;A/-.?, 3<-$J-*J?-;:-/?-8A%-2-2&R?, 5-<A$?-S$-0R-aR2-9-/-;R.-.?, 3<-$J?-o2-*R<-;?, .-5-
<A$?-9R<-2g/-:)$?-$A-L-2-,R2-;R., 3<-$J:A-8A-3R-<-3$-0-=?-:H<-;?-;R.,
.-3<-$J-<-8A-3R-<-3$-0-9R-5-2R-5K-<A%-$A-HA3-5%-/-3*3-0?-2#.-;R., 3<-$J-5%-$A-3$-0-.J%-3-?-$/?-YA.-
$8%-$9A$-$A-:$R-2-<, $8$-/?-8A%-(J/-<A3-0-$A-:$R-2-$9A$-<J., 3<-$J:A-8A-3R-5K-$%-%R<-=?-LJ.-0-2&R?, =R-S$-$A-
}R/-/-=?-:H<-;?-?R%-, 3<-$J:A-5-2R-5K-<A%-$A?-KA-o=-/-L-2-$*J<-$A-;R., 3<-$J:A-5-3R-$9A$-$A?-KA-o=-/?-aR2-9-
2+R/, .-35S-}R/-/-.$J-c/-$A-L-2-*R%-$A-;R., 3<-$J:A-5-3R-z-3R-$A?-.-A-&J-5K-<A%-1R=-3-A-3J-<A-!<-:2R.-$A-;R., .J:A-
nJ/-$A?-3<-$J?-Visa=J/-9J<-$A-;R.,
A-3J-<A-#-$A-2&:-OA3?-$A-/%-/, Visa =J/-3#/-5%-3-HA3-$8A-%R-:.R.-3#/-/-2lA-.$R?-9J<-;R.-$A A-&J-5K-
<A%-1R=-3-KA<-<-;R%-/R-#R-,$-;A/, 3<-$J-2R.-;A$-$A-,R$-/?-;A$-kR%?-;A/, o-{.-<-o-;A$-3A->J?, .LA/-{.-5B$-:V-
$9A$-<-3A->J?, .J?-3A-5., 3<-$J-HA3-5%-$A-$&J?-0-<-#J-3A-5%-3-.$:-?-$9A$-;A/, 3<-$J-A-3J-<A-#-/?-2?R.-o-<J.,
.J-;A/-/-<-3<-$J-KA<-<-;R%-oR-d3-o-<J., 3<-$J-$/?-3A-%R-/R-#R-,$-;A/,
;A-$J-:.A-2[$?-/R-2!:-SA/-(J, $/?-5=-<J-.-2R->J?-:.R.-/, %-<-:VJ=-$+$-;?-/-(R$
0A?-AJ<-$A?-~A%-,$-0-/?,
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10.6 --Clause adverbializer: >J.
With verb English Explanation
%?-{.-(-2>.--/R->J.-2lA-o-;A/, I will keep my word as I

said.
Someone promises to
strictly keep his word.
%?-$?%-$+3-:.A->J?-/R->J.-:.$-o?, I will act as though just
I know the secret.
It hints that someone will
not pretend.
%?-=?-!-:.A-=?-,22-/RR->JJ.-=?-/?, I did this job as well as
I could.
Someone did his best to
finish the job, probably
>J. single-mindedly.
=2-o$-/-$8/-$A?-3A->JJ?-/RR->JJ.-oR2?, If you want, boast
about yourself without
Someone suggests that
boasting is not something
being discovered! that others should be able
to discover.
HR.-aR2-3-;A/-/-;A/-/R->J.-#R., Act as a student if you
are a student!
It's a suggestion for a
student who probably did
not act properly.
Notes-5
1. >J. is used with verbial phrases to derive adverbial clauses. nWith a verbial phrase in
past tense mood: .0%-3A-$A?-.R/-.$-<%-$A?-<A$-/R->J.-2>.-2+%-, The witness clarified
everything according to what he had seen. oWith a verbial phrase in present tense mood:
#J-.0R/-$A?-<%-$J<-<J-2-:.R/-$A-;R.-/R->J.-#J-.0R/-$A-L-2-=?, The village leader acts as he is
supposed to act as the leader. pWith a verbial phrase in future tense mood: aR2-3-9R?-#R-9R-
aR2-9-/?-=R-$?3-:.$-o-;A/-/R->J.-}R/-lA?-29R-$A-;R., The students make their budgets based
on the plan to be in the school for three years.
2. / … S$? is applied to express something is too much in being so or to do, e.g., 3<-$J-z-?<-
?R%-/-=R-(J-S$?, She is too old to go to Lhasa. / (%-:.A-3R-$9A$-:,%?-/-3%-S$?, This much
alcohol is too much to drink.
Exercise 10 Use / … S$? and necessary auxiliaries to express something that is too
much to do.
.0J<-2eR., 8A-3R-:.A-@R%-$A?-24/-0R-<J., 29:-^<-3A-<%-$A (29:-^-2&:) 8A-3R-:.A-29:-^-2&R?-/-24/-S$?,

Words to use Original statement With / … S$? Structure
(8R/) 1. 0J-&A/-,$-<A%-$A t$?-g<-3-8R/, 1. ________________________
($R/) 2. .J-<A%-5.-0-(J-$A $R/-o-:.A-3,$-$A 2. ________________________
(28J?) 3. (%-:.A-24/-$A 3%-%-3-28J?, 3. ________________________
(LA/) 4. .0J-(-:.A-$R%-.!:-$A $R%-|R<-3R-?3-&-<J., 4. ________________________
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( :,%?) 5. 9-3-:.A-$4%-3-3-<J., 5. ________________________
({R=) 6. .-2R-KA-SR-<J., .$R%-)-}-?R%-, 6. ________________________
(=R-(%) 7. #R-=R-(%-<J., =?-:H<-;?-</-3J., 7. ________________________
(HJ<) 8. .%R?-2R-:.A-tA-3R-<J., %?-3A-H$-$A 8. ________________________
Exercise 11 Fill in adjectives and adverbs.
.0J<-2eR., $;%-*A.-1R=-3-8A-3R-o.-29%-$9A$-3-<J., (o.-29%-) 3<-$J?-L-2-o.-24S$->J.-=?-$A (o.-24S$)
1. $/3-$>A?-________, (:H$?) #<-$J?-K$?-9R$-______:5S-$A-;R., (.=-3R) K$?-9R$-_______:5S?-

/, (3IR$?-3R) K$?-9R$-$A->J.-*3?-:IR,
2. %:A-A-&J-MA-_________, (%$-:)3) <J.-S-%:A-/-3R-$A?-_________2>.-$A-;R., ({.-:P$?-(J)
3. %:A-A-#-MA-_________, (<A$-;$) aR2-9<-3-?R%-/-<-o-{.-_________2>.-,2, (L%-3)
4. .J-<A%-|R-/?-_______, (SR) %J.-(:R-|R-/?-________:.$ (SR/-0R) /%-/?-@R%-$A?-_______, (:H$?)
5. MA-3%-%-l3-0-_________.$:-$A-;R., (8A2-3R) <J.-S-%-3A-.$:, l3-0-_________9R?-/-8A3, (5$-3R)
6. ?%?-o?-$A?-________2>.-$A (<J3-3) %?-@-3A-$R-$A #<-$J:A-c/-3R-$A?-<-_______@-3A-$R-9J<, (;%-.$)
7. 5K-<A%-.J%-3-LA?-0-______, (T-5$) .-______$9A$-<J., (zR.-0R) ____<%-=?-*R%-$A-;R., (;<-?J3?-(J)
8. (R?-1R/-$A-c.-0R-$A?- _____|R<-3R-2?$?-/, (?J3?-(%) #<-$J:A-c.-3R-$A?-_______!A3-$A-;R., ($%-:.R.)
9. .R-5B$?-.L<-C-_________, ($R%-3,R) 5S%-2-3%-%-$A?-.L<-C-________*R?-2+%-, ($R%-3,R/-0R) <J.-S-
.-5S%-2-9R?-.L<-C-_________:5S%-$A-;R., ($R%-.3:-3R)
10. aR2-3-9R-/3-;A/-/-<-_____aR2-OA.-<-,R/-$A-;R., (.?-,R$) .$J-c/-;%-<-;%-$A?- _____,R/-$A-;R., (:KA-3R)
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Verb Verbs are duplicated to stress the degree of an effort, e.g., %?-=?-=?-?R%-, I worked
duplication for a long time.

%J.-(:R-?R%-?R%-/?-.$R/-0-$9A$-$-,R/, We went a long way and reached a
monastery.
nVerb
duplication is
#<-$J:A-5$?-!<-2v?-/, #<-$J?-.J-<A%-=?-- Observing his readiness, I think he emphatic.
will do a lot today.
=?--o-<J., oVerb
duplication
emphasizes a
5S$?-,R$-/?-%?-2>.--2>.-2+%-, I talked (a lot) at the meeting.
lingering
duration or
9R$-:.A-$?R?-$?RR?-2+%-, <J.-S-YR-3-22?, This animal had been fed (a lot) but
did not get strong. process.
%?-9R?-9R?-2+%-, <J.-S-.-2R-3-2o$?-,=, I ate a lot but still did not feel full.
Adverb Adverbs are repeated to emphasize a manner, e.g., %?-;A-$J-3IR$?-3R-3IR$?-3R->J.-:VA,

duplication I write very fast.

0J-&A/-3IRR$?--3R-3IR$?-3RR->JJ.-(J-(J-*/-,=, Beijing became very large
very quickly.
nDuplication
emphasizes the manner
t$?-$9R%-$A?-=?-!-}-?J?-}--?J?->JJ.-P2-,=, Lcags gzong completed his of action.
job very early.
oDuplication hints very
%?-L-2-:.A-Z-=--Z--=->JJ.-=?-o-;A/, L-2-:.A- I will work on this job very
hard. It is very interesting. much.
%J?-%J?-2?R.-$A
#%-2-:.A-.0<-$A-!J%-/-(J-(JJ->JJ.-;R.-$A %R-3-$A?- This building looks very
large in the picture; it is in
.J-3R-$9A$-3A-(J, fact not so big.
/3-3#:-/-ZA/-3,$--0R-3,$$-0RR->JJ.-;R.-$A (<- The clouds are very thick in

the sky. It is going to rain.
:22-o-<J.,
•305•
Adjective Adjectives are repeated in order to emphasize, e.g., 2.$-3R-%<-Z-Z-,=, The hostess
duplication was very kind to me.

.J-<A%-$/3-%R-?%?--3R-?%?--3R-<J., The sky is (very) clear today. nAdjective duplication
is emphatic.
A-3-$A-9-3-o/-.-8A3-0R-8A3-0R-<J., My mother's food is always
(very) tasty. oDuplication hints
very.
8-;?-$/-?J3?--(%-?J3?--(%-$9A$-<J., That child is (very) careful.
/-/A%-%?-.L<-C-3%-%-3%--%-fJ.-,=, I found (a lot) of caterpillar

fungi.
%:A-8A-=A-#R$-0-$?=--2R-$?=--2R-<J., My son is very understanding.
Spontaneous Such combinations indicate either a result or a situation.

verb +
auxiliary
Tibetan English
=?-!-=?-=?-/?-%-(.--?R%-, I am exhausted after working for a long time.
\R$-2f/-:.A-<A$-/A-<, :VR$-0-$9A$-;-35<--,=, A herder was amazed as soon as he saw the

movie.
z-?-*A.-(:A-:I3-/-($?--;R., Lhasa is located by the Skyid chu River.
9R$-=$-5<--?R%-, .-:5S-gJ/-$&A$-<-3J., The livestock are all gone and there is nothing
left to live on.
29:-2-*A.-0R-$*A?-!-/-/A%-,R<-,=, The happy couple were divorced last year.
With what / out of what something is done is expressed by instrumental case markers
$A? compound with nouns, e.g., %?-?J3?-$A?-{.-(-2>., I spoke with heartfelt sincerity.
Tibetan English
#<-$J?-~A%-/.-$AA?-.P-2R-2?., He killed his enemy with hatred.
.$J-c/-$A?-aR2-3-{==-aRR%-$A?-2*%?, The teacher brought up his students

encouragingly.
L3??-<--~A%-eJ-$A?-?J3?-&/-*R%-.$R?, People should be taken care of kindly and
compassionately.
:../--0-$$A?-.%?-/-3IR$?, One learns fast with compassion.
2lJJ-.%%?-$AA?-29:-^-$*A?-!-*A.-0R-*/, Love made the couple happy.
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,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--2&-2,,
29:-2+%-,R$-$A-*A?-:$=,
#A$-0 sin :2:-:2-2?.-/-#A$-0-;A/-9J<-$A
2?$? to accumulate; to commit MA-?-;A/-/-<-#A$-0-2?$?-/-3A-:.R.,
#$-3J. to be forgivable; to be reasonable HR.-:5B$-0-9R?-/R-8J-,$-$A?-#$-3J.,
..-0-(J faithful; pious ..-0-(J-/-3-EA-:.R/-.$R?-.R/-3J.,
#A$-*J? sin #A$-*J?-2?3?-/-%?->-2&.-/-:.R.,
:)A$-gJ/-0 layman :)A$-gJ/-0-<A$?-$A?-<-,<-2-.3A$?-/-(R$
,<-2 salvation ,<-2-:.R.-/-.!:-=?-,R.-.$R?,
(R?-=$?-0 religious person (R?-=$?-0-$A?-2.J/-2*%?-/-:PA$
.3< meat; non-vegetarian food .3<-9-3#/-#%-2-:.A:A-/%-%-;R%-3A-(R$
i3-.$ serious; strict; perfect %-(R?-2-3A/, PR%-2-i3-.$-$9A$-;A/,
.3<-9? non-vegetarian food (/-0-:.A?-.3<-9?-$+/-/?-3A-9,
/? barley /?-l3-0-$A-o-(-$4S-2R-;A/,
5/-<A$ science 5/-<A$-.<-/, .0=-:LR<-o?,
v<-/ according to $8%-=$?-v<-/, 2>.-YR=-:.A-3A-:PA$
.$R?-3#R need .$R?-3#R-3J.-/-|R<-3R-3-!A3,
LJ.-,2? method; technique LJ.-,2?-3J.-/-L-2-:P2-.!:,
2>/-0 butcher 2R.-/?-2>/-0-9R-#-3(J-;A/,
3#R-3R. supply 3#R-3R.-(J-?R%-/, .%R?-$R%-($-:PR,
$/?-=$? reason $/?-=$?-3A-2>.-/-iR$-=A-<J.,
<%-3$R-<%-$;R$ self-deception <%-3$R-<%-$;R$?-$A?-3$R-3A-,R/,
\J/-0 fool \J/-0-<-P%-2R-H.-0<-4B?-4-$9A$-<J.,
:U=-(? machine :U=-(?-=?-/-:)<-3/-Z,
:2:-:2 insects .JA.-!<-:2:-:2-9R-.2$?-o?-:$R-lR3,
•307•
.2%-%-2.-,= to become subject to .R/-:.A-;%-MA-#-eJ-&/-.J:A-.2%-%-2.-,=,
=$-o$ to take; to grab $8/-$A-.%R?-2R<-=$-3-o$
A-K-3 very bad .%R?-2R-.J-o-%?-A-K-3-$9A$-<J.,
2>: to slaughter 2>/-0-$A?-.-=$-$9A$-2>:-$A-;R.,
<R.-<R serious A-1-%R-<R.-<R->J.-;R.-$A
#-=2 talk #-=2-3%-/-.R/-3A-:P2,
$>J-$>J-$+R% to scold; to criticize A-1-$A?-o-35/-3J.-<-$>J-$>J-$+R%-,
$.3-! choice {.-<A$?-$%-.R%-aR2-3-9R:C-$.3-!-;A/,
o.-<-P2 to imbed in one's personality m/-=2-oR-#<-$J:A-o.-<-P2-;R.,
o2-uR%? background ,R.-0-$A?-#R:C-o2-uR%?->J?-$A
?-o-(R. to be able to be effective MA-$*R3-(%-.J?-$%-/?-<-?-o-3A-(R.,
3,R%-3J.-<J$-3J. invisible 3#:-.2$?-3,R%-3J.-<J$-3J.-$9A$-;A/,
3.R$-&/ colorful; bright colored c/-0-9R?-$R/-o-3.R$-&/-$R/-/-;$
:#R2?-;%? spacious C-?-:.A-(A-3R-$9A$-:#R2?-;%?-$A
:KR<-2R dandy (person) 8A-=A-:KR<-2R-$R/-o-l-(J/-$R/-oR<-.$:,
@%-(J cocky MA-]R-.3/-@%-(J,
=?-(J lucky; workaholic 3<-$J:A-c.-0R-=?-(J, 3<-$J-.J-3R-3A/,
:.$-(J reluctant to work 3<-$J-=?-3A-(J, 3<-$J-:.$-(J,
>J?-;R/-&/ intellectual >J?-;R/-&/-:K$?-/-*R/-<-(J,
\/-/-\J/-/J fool; stupid 8A-=A-:.A-\/-/-\J/-/J-$9A$-<J.,
]R-&/ intelligent MA-]R-&/-$A?-=?-!-l-3R->J.-=?-,2,
*2?-:)$ prayer %-MA-*2?-:)$-8-3#/-$9A$-3A/,
:2=-2 offer; donation :2=-2-*%-/-]-3-.$:-$A-3J.,
3/2?-$92 monk robe PR%-2-$A-/%-/-3/2?-$92-$R/-3#/-3J.,
<A$-w/ thoughtful; intelligent <A-2R%-<A$-w/-$A?-?J%-$J-2?.-9J<,
$?-3J. impolite MA-$?-3J.-3-2&:, ;-<2?->A$-LR?,
%R-=R/ to save face #-;$-$A?-#<-$J:A-%R-3A-=R/,
•308•
%R-:H$? grim; unhappy expression A-#-.A/-0-8J-,$-$A?-%R-:H$?-<J.,
:R-LJ. to kiss :R-LJ.-oR-2R.-/?-3A-.<,
l2-3R rough *=-$./-l2-3R-<J., %-*=-3-,2,
#-<R$ silence b/-3-$9A$-#-<R$->J.-,R/-2+%-,
Y2-3R thin $R/-o-Y2-3R-:.A-.L<-#-.$J-2-<J.,
%$-:)3-0R gentle (in talk) 8A-3R-%$-:)3-0R-$/-?-<J.,
$R<-<R-<R brimming (with tears) A-3-3J.-/, 8-;?-.J-3A$-(-$R<-<R-<R,
:(3?-0R congenial; harmonious ,%-!A-<-=$-:(3?-0R-$%-/?-;A/,
@-/J-@R/-/J dumbfounded; to be in a daze aR2-3-:.A-@-/J-@R/-/J, $&A$-<-3A->J?,
mR2-,R ugly; unkempt #%-2-mR2-,R-:.A<-$4%-.$-LR?,
<%-3$R-<%-o= wayward aR2-#%-$A-/%-/?-<%-3$R-<%-o=-3A-;R%-,
3$R-#.-;? to organize 5S$?-:.-:.A-3$R-#.-;?-3#/-%-3A/,
}R-u%-?J glittering and green ^-2./-0:A-/%-%-C-,%-}R-u%-?J,
?J<-=3-3J glittering and yellow 3J-+R$-?J<-(J/-,%-/-?J<-=3-3J,
?J3?-o-&/ broadminded MA-?J3?-o-&/-$A-]R-3A$-HR?-3A-,A$
/R-g$?-(J overacting; crazy #<-$J-3A$-.0J<-3-:6B/, /R-g$?-(J,
9-:U$-=%? to feel itchy \R$-2f/-.J<-2v?-/, %-9-:U$-=%?,
;$-;$-$ fortunately ;$-;$-$-A-1-$A?-|R<-3R-2{<-;R%-,
<%-$:A normal; ordinary 8A-3R-<A$-cR.-.J-<%-$:A-3-<J.,
:.%-&/ beloved 8A-3R-,-(%-#<-$J:A-8-;?-:.%-&/-;A/,
2lA to respect; to take into account %?-MA-%/-.J-<R$?-0<-2lA-$A-3J.,
.%? to show affection HA-HA-2.$-$-.%?-$A-;R.,
A-2R man A-3.R-/?-*J?-0-5%-3-A-2R-<J.,
z2-z2 fluttering .<-tR$-<A-3$R-/-z2-z2-$;R-$A-;R.,
%/-=% spoiled $&J?-S$?-/, #<-$J-%/-=%-%-2.-:PR,
2?R.-/3?-(J lucky 2?R.-/3?-3-(J-/-=?-S%-YR=-3J.,
5-2R nephew; grandson %:A-5-2R-aR2-:VA%-/-;R.,
•309•
5-3R niece; granddaughter 5-3R-5%-3-A-#-/.-0<-v-$A-:IR,
$8%-52-#% embassy $8%-52-#%-%-:IR-:.R.-?-$9A$-3A/,
:L%-$8A origin; source; body .R/-nJ/-:.A:A-:L%-$8A-;%-8A-=A-.J-<J.,
%R-g$ reliable <R$?-0-%R-g$-;A/-/-KA-,$-;R.-.$R?,
353?-.R< introduction MA-o?-&/-1/-5/-/-353?-.R<-;?-3A-.$R?,
>$-0R intimate friend %:A->$-0R, HR.-;R%-/R-gJ/-:VJ=-;$-$A
$?=-( familiarity =R-$*A?-:$R<-<%-%?-3R<-$?=-(-3A-=R/,
=-# pass; on top of a mountain =-#-/-=$-H-(J-$9A$-;R.,
3$-0 bridegroom; son-in-law 3$-0-;A/-/-A-8%-2!<-.$R?,
2g/-:)$? constant; steady HA3-$8A-2g/-:)$?-;R%-/-<%-3$R-,R/,
=?-:H<-;? to be retired =?-LJ.-c/-0-.J-%=-:H<-;?-;R.,
2&:-OA3? law 2&:-OA3?-.R%-3#/-)J-3%-)J-3%-<J.,
;A$-kR%? illiterate ;A$-kR%?-.J%-?%-1=-(J<-3J.,
5B$-:V sentence 5B$-:V-28A-$A?-~/-%$-$9A$-VA?,
}2 to be longing for; to be voracious ,%-vR$?->-}2-$A-;R.,
:VJ=-$+$ contact #$-$-,$-/-%-<-:VJ=-$+$-LR?,
o.-24S$->J. reluctantly =?-!-2-9R?-=?-!-o.-24S$->J.-=?,
:P$?-(J resonant (voice) 8-;?-=R-*%-.J:A-{.-:P$?-)J-(J-<J.,
L%-3 skilled; versed #J-.0R/-(2-YA.-0-L%-3-$9A$-;A/,
i=-3 concentrated; single-minded i=-3-;A/-/, L-2-:.A-.!:-3R-3A/,
5$-3R coarse KJ-:.A-@2-2{R=-/-5$-3R-<J.,
;%-.$ correct HR?-=/-2+2?-/R-;%-.$-3-<J.,
zR.-0R relaxed; loose zR.-0R-LR?, .-2R-.?-5S.-3%-$A
•310•
aR2-5/-2&-$&A$-0,
2h-3R.,
.?; <J$-2<; 8R<-<; {2?-2 Past Perfect Tense

}R/; $8$-/?; 3…$R%-% Experiential Perfect Tense
<A%-%; /?...2< Perfect Continuous Tense
$A-<?; $A-<?...2<-< $%-3%; $%-;R.; $%-:.R.
Present Perfect Tense >=-/?; $8$-/?
Bla brang Monastery, Bsang chu County, Gan lho Prefecture, Gansu Province (2011).
Text One: temporal clause
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, ]-V%-2N->A?-:HA=,
]-V%-2N->A?-:HA=-/%-2!/-$A-P2-3,:-.$J-=$?-0-$A-.$R/-0-(J->R?-S$-$A-/%-$A-$&A$-;A/, .J%-?%-$A-!/-?:-8A%-
(J/-$A-2?%-(-mR%-/-($?-;R., !/-zR-2R.-<A$?-<%-*R%-#=-$A-#R%?-%-$+R$?, 2R.-uR%?-$A-.$R/-0-@/-(.-/?, ]-V%-
.$R/-0-/-9-2-$A-3A-P%?-A-+-$A?-(J-2R-;R.-9J<, ?-:.A-/-2R.-<A$?-$A?-MA-P%?-,A:A-2o-(-$A-2./-&-9A/,
.$R/-0-:.A-.$J-=$?-0-$A-!R2?->$?-)J-(J<-:IR-.?, :)3-.L%?-28.-0-{-UJ%-.%-2R-$A?-
1709=R<-2+2?-/A-<J., .?-<2?-2&R-s-2-$A-3)$ eJ-4S%-#-2-$A?-.$J-=$?-0-$A-P2-3,:-
24$?-$A-<?-29%--, .$J-=$?-0-$A-!R2?->$?-)J-(J-/?-)J-(J<-2.-?R%-, .0=-:LR<-$A-!R2?-
>$?-<-,A-5S$?-$A->J.->$?-$A-,R$-/?-A-+-$A?-(J-2R-*/-?R%-, .$R/-0-24$?-$A-<?, ]-V%-
.$R/-0-;%-$A?-;%-$A?-#3?-<-A-3.R-?-(-/?-.$R/-0-A-+-$A?-(J-2R<-*/-?R%-, .-<J$-2<-A-3.R-><-zR-KR$?-$A-.$J-
=$?-0-$A-YA.-(R?-$*A?-$A-vJ-$/?-<J., .?-{2?-:.A:A-<A%-%-, ]-3-<, 3#?-0, *J?-(J/-.3-0-3%-%-$9A$-:.A-/?-
L%-, .0J<-28$-/-.$J-:./-(R?-:1J=-$A?-<-.J-/?-aR2-$*J<-;?-MR%-,
]-V%-.$R/-0-$A-MA-A-+-$A?-$4S-2R-.$R/-2.$-:)3-.L%?-28.-0-<J., #<-$J:A-:R$-/-$?J<-OA-28A, 3#/-0R-2o.-<-9-

2-!R%-$?3-$A-;/-;R., ]-V%-.$R/-0-$A-9-5%-S$-$A-/%-/, 9-2-9R?-$+/-5B$?-<A$-0, {<-lA?, (/, .L%?-<-^R?-
$<, ,%-!-<-:2$-29R-.R%-$A-;R., .$R/-0-:.A:A-#R%?-$+R$?-/-.$R/-(%-108;R.,
.$R/-0-2+2?-/R:A-$8$-/?, :I<-wR$-2?3-IA?-3A-H2-0-L%-;R., :)3-.L%?-28.-0-{-UJ%-.%-2R-$A-<A%-$A-<?-{-

UJ%-s-2:A-2<-<, :.-#%-(J/-3R-6, z-#%-84, 3-EA-#%-<-9->$-!R%-z$ 3(R.-gJ/-$%-3%-28J%?, .-<J$-2<, ]-V%-
.$R/-0-PR%-HJ<-(%-(%-2R.-$A-H.-(R?-&/-$9A$-$-($?-;R., ]-V%-.$R/-0-A-3.R-?-(-$A-(R?-=$?, aR2-$?R-<-<A$-
$/?-$A-vJ-2-$9A$-<J., .J?-3A-5., +-l=-$A-$+J<-#-$9A$-<-<J., :2$-{-$-5S$?-OA-$?3-;?-3?-;R., .?-<2?-.-
3:A-<A%-%-, $4$-=$-<-2l3?-(R?-OA-S$-z$-2+R/-;R., =R-o?-$A-$/:-m?-<-29R-l=-$A-,R/-m?-<-$%-3%-;R., :2$-
{-#-;?-=A-{, #-;?-$?J<-{, #-;?-$;-{, #-;?->J=-{-<J., :.A-5%-3-$A-/%-/?, A-+-$A?-l-(J-2R->G-3-EJ:A-:2$-
{-<J., :2$-{-:.A-.?-<2?-2o.-0-$A-/%-2=-;=-/?-:HJ<-;R%-9J<, eJ-4S%-#-2-$A?-<2-$/?-;?-MR%-9J<, .$R/-0:A-
/%-$A-wJ2?-VA?, ,%-! $R?-P2, $4$?-P2, 3J-+R$-3(R.-3)=-=-?R$?-2R.-$A-+-l=-$A-?%?-3-<J., .J%-?%-, .$R/-
0-$A-.?-(J/-$4S-2R-(R/-=3-(J/-3R-<J., .?-(J/-:.A-=$?-fA%-$A-^-2-.%-2R:C-5K?-0-3/?-15$A-2<-<J., 1982=R<, o=-
YA.-,A-H2-#%-$A?-]-V%-.$R/-0-"o=-;R%?-$/:-m?-Y%-*R2-#J-#$-lJ-P?"$A-#R%?-%-28$
•312•
11.1 --
.?; <J$-2<; 8R<-<
Time word Example Notes
%-$*J/-1A$-;?-.??, =R-2&R-2o.-;A/, nwhen
3.%-.$R%-A-3-KA<-<-;R%-.?, %?-=?-L-.-2R-VA?-5<-3J., owhile

.? pduring
:P=-2-9R-:IR-2?3-.??, (<-2-(J->J.-22?-,=,
=R-(%-.?--{.-<A$?-.%?-/-3IR$?,
.-<J$-2<-]-V%-.$R/-0-=R-?3-2o-:S-3-$9A$-:$R<-;R., nlingering period of
time
<J$-2< / aR2-:VA%-%-:IR-<J$-2<, %-8A%-#J-(%-(%-$9A$-/?-2#., ountil
<J$-$J< >A-<J$-$JJ<-#<-$J-lR3-0-0R-I$?-&/-$9A$-$-3-*/,
/3-^-)J-SR<-;R%-<J$-$J<, :VR$-0-9R-.$/-?-/?-:.$-o-<J.,
K$?-mA-$9A$-$A?-K$?-9R$-:5S-8R<-<-\-=J/, nduring; while
aR2-3-3%-%-$A?-aR2-.R%-;?-8R<-<--L-2-<-=?-$A-;R., oby the way

8R<-<
HR.-5S%-#%-/%-%-:IR-/, 8R<-<--7-(%->J=-.3-$%-*R?->R$
9-3-$A-8R<-<, (-3%-%-3-:,%-,
_%?-:#R<-:.A-PR%-HJ<-/?--PR%-$?J2-2<-o$-$A-;R., nfrom…to
/?...2< %J.-5%-/?-#R-5%-$A-2<-/-HA3-5%-$?3-;R., oin between
$A-<?...2<-< :.A-$A-<?-(-#-2<--<-,A-=J-$&A$-;R.,
?-:.A-$A-<?-|%-$/-$A-2<--<-#R%-2R-:6$?,
Notes-1
1. 2<-<J$-$ vs. <J$-$J<: The former means during or between, e.g., %-.LA/-)A-/?-=R-$?3-3-2#.,
.J:A-2<-<J$-$ %?-.LA/-{.-.%?, I stayed in Britain for three years. During that time, I
studied English. The latter means until, e.g., /-/A%-<J$-$J<-%-.LA/-)A-/?-2#., I stayed in
England until last year.
2. 8R<-< means while, by the way, or at one's convenience, e.g., n8R<-<-%?-HR.-=-]R-$?=-$9A$-
o$ =?-L-:VA-oR-3-2eJ., By the way, I remind you not to forget your homework. o8R<-<-HR.-
%-:.$-?<-&A$->R$ Please come to my place at your convenience! A lingering period of time
is emphasized by repeating the verb and 8R<-<, e.g., %?-1-3-S/-8R<-S/-8R<-<, MA$-(-$R<-<R-<R-
*/-,=, Missing my parents, my eyes brimmed with tears.
•313•
Exercise 1 Write the main clause for each time clause.
.0J<-2eR., %-#3?-3-1993=R<-?R%-.?, %-%:A-.-{2?-$A-c/-3R<-,$

Time clause Main clause
1. %-2R.-{.-,J%?-,R$-3-.%?-.?, _________________________________________
2. %-=R-2&-2./-/-:2.-<J$-2<, _________________________________________
3. %-2R.-<-2R.-{.-.R%-$A-;R%-.?, _________________________________________
4. %?-\R$-2f/-,R$-.%-2R-<A$-.?, _________________________________________
5. %-#J-2-/%-/?-|R<-:2.-<J$-2<, _________________________________________
6. %-.-,J%?-:)<-3/-/-;R%-<J$-2<, _________________________________________
Exercise 2 Write the main clause for each time clause.
.0J<-2eR., !R/-3R-:.A:A-$8$-/?, %-.-2R-!R/-3R-$9A$-$-8$?-.$R?,

Time clause Main clause
1. 2R.-3R-;$-3-:.A<-v-8R<-<, _______________________________________
2. %?-.$:-<R$?-$-#-0<-$+R%-8R<-<,
_______________________________________
3. %?-2R.-{.-2>.-8R<-2>.-8R<-<,
_______________________________________
4. =?-!-:.A-=?-/R:C-$8$-/?,
_______________________________________
5. %-%:A-.-2<-$A-L-2<-.$:-8R<-<,
_______________________________________
6. %-aR2-9-/?-3,<-KA/-/R:C-$8$-/?,
_______________________________________
11.2 --}R/-/; }R/-/?; $8$-/; $8$-/?; 3…$R%-%

Time Example Explanation
word
=R-$?3-$A-}R/-/,, %-:)<-3/-/-3J., 2R.-/-;R., nago
$9:-:#R<-$?3-$A-}R/-/, %?-3,<-KA/-lR3-;A$-:.A-:VA-$A-;R., obefore (both locative
}R/-/ and temporal)
HR.-.?-5S.-$?3-0-$A-}R/-/-?R%-, %-HR:A-$8$-/?-;R%-,
KA-SR:C-.?-5S.-2o.-$A-}R/-/-$/3-P-:1<-o-<J.,
•314•
$9:-:#R<-$?3-$A-}R/-/?, %?-3,<-KA/-lR3-;A$-:.A-VA?, nago; before
$/3-P-.?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-}R/-/?-:1<-,=, oused in past tense and
}R/-/? future tense mood
%?-aR2-9-=R-$*A?-$A-}R/-/?-2+R/-5<-?R%-,
.R-5B$?-=R-+R$-^-2-2./-0:A-}R/-/?-VJ$?-2+%-,
5S$?-:.-$A-$8$--/, 3R-5S$?-$9A$-;R.,
after (both locative and
$9:-:#R<-:.A:A-$8$--/, L-2-3%-%-$9A$-;R., temporal)
$8$-/
.J-<A%-$A-$8$--/-/%?-! L-2-%?-%J?-%J?-3A-H$-$A
.?-5S.-$?3-$A-$8$--/-%-lA?-<A$-$A-aR2-OA.-;R.,
=R-2o-$A-$8$--/?-35S-:.A-{3-o-<J., nbehind
%:A-$8$$-/?-5K-<A%-/%-%-,R/-,=, oafter
$8$-/?
.$R%-)-$A-$8$--/?-%?-$&A$-<-3-=?, palso means in future
=R-$?3-$A-$8$--/?-%-KA-o=-<-2.-;R%-,
%-KA-o=-<-33-;R%-$RR%-, %:A-.LA/-{.-:.A-3R-$9A$-3A-Z,
nbefore (temporal)
3+ %:A-%R-2R-z-?<-3-?R%-$RR%-, #<-$J-:VR$-0-$9A$-;A/,
oIn a time clause, the verb
$R%-% #<-$J-29:-5%-3-2&R?-$R%-, MA-n%->J.-=R-3%-%-:$R<-?R%-, is in PAT.
$/?-=-3-?R%-$R%-, 8A-3R-:.A-#J-2-:.A-/?-<J.,
Notes-2
1. $8$-/ and $8$-/? both mean behind and after, alternative to eJ?-/ and eJ?-/?.
%:A-$8$--/-5K-<A%-;R., behind--locative--with E-v
$8$-/
*A/-$*A?-$A-$8$--/-.?-(J/-$9A$-;R., after--temporal--with E-v
%:A-$8$--/?-5K-<A%-2#., behind--locative--past tense

$8$-/?
%?-=R-$?3-$A-$8$--/?-=?-o?, after--temporal--future tense
•315•
2. }R/-/ and }R/-/? both mean ago, before, and in front.
%:A-}R/-/-.%R?-0R-3%-%-;R., before--locative--with E-v

}R/-/
*A/-$*A?-$A-}R/-/-.?-(J/-$9A$-;R., before or ago--temporal--with E-v
%:A-}R/-/?-5K-<A%-2#., before --locative--past tense

}R/-/?
%?-L-2-:.A-}R/-/?-=?-?R%-, before--temporal--in past tense
3. 3 + $R% is used to express before (temporal); the verb in time clause is in PAT, e.g., %?-3-
SA?-$R%-%-, #<-$J?-#R-?%?-o?-;A/-9J<, Before I asked, he said he was Sangs rgyas.
4. }R/-/ means before (temporal), usually with nouns, e.g., .?-<2?-$?3-0-$A-}R/-/, ?-(-:.A-.-
2R-?-cR.-<J., The land was still wild before the third century.
5. }R/-/ vs. }R/-/?: They are selectively used with respect to tenses. The rules concerning
postpositions / and /? are also applicable.
6. }R/-/: }R/-=, in oral Amdo, becomes }R/-/, because the Ladon variant = is pronounced /.
Consequently, it also means to the front. %:A-}R/-/-(}R/-=) 3-:IR, Do not get ahead of me!
Exercise 3 Below is a short introduction of my grandfather. Complete it using
temporal words.
.0J<-2eR., %R-2R-<-%R-3R-29:-5%-,R<-.?, %-.-2R-*J?-3J.-9J<,
%:A-%R-2R-(%-(%-;A/-_____, #<-$J-:VR$-0-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J-HA3-5%-K$-0R-$9A$-$A-2-,-(%-;A/, 2&A%?-:PR=-$A-

_____, #<-$J-:VR$-0-2&R?-/A-<J., .J_____#<-$J-<R%-/?-2#., #<-$J-:VR$-/-;R.-_____, %:A-A-3-*J?-/A-<J.,
29:-5%-$%-2R-@R%-$A?-*A.-0R-;A/-9J<, #<-$J?-K$?-9R$-:5S-_____#J-5S%-2o2-/A-<J., #<-$J-=R-*A->-z$-;A/-

_____, b%-,%-%-z-?<-?R%-, =R-$&A$-$A-_____, #<-$J-KA<-<-;:-2-=R$-?R%-9J<, #<-$J?-5S%-m?-3%-%-HJ<-;R%-,
1965=R<, #<-$J-24S/-/-2&$-?R%-, 24S/-/?-:.$-_____#<-$J?-o-{.-,J%?-,R$-3-.%?-/A-<J., 24S/-/?-:2.-

_____#<-$J?-o-{.-L%-3->J.-2>.-,2, =R-$*A?-$A-_____, #<-$J-24S/-/?-2+%-, #<-$J-KA<-<-;:-2-,R/-
_____, %:A-A-3-<-%R-3R-$*A?-!-HA3-/-3J.-9J<, #<-$J-24S/-/?-2+%-_____, #<-$J:A-#%-2-$8%-$A-2-mA-#%-%-
2&R?-;R.-9J<, .J:A-_____, %:A-A-3-<-%R-3R-$*A?-!?-#$-=?-3%-%-M%?-9J<, $8$-/?-#R-$?3-0R-:R<-$A?-:VR$-0-

2&R?, .J->J.-=R-.-3%-:$R<-?R%-, .J:A-_____, #<-$J?-A-&J-$8/-$9A$-$-2v?-?R%-, %:A-%R-3R-<-%R-2R-$*A?-!-,R<-
_____, %R-3R-=R-28A-2&-z$-<J.-9J<, .J-_____, A-3-<-%R-3R-$A?-3*3-0?-,2-29%-/A-<J., <J.-S-.R/-.$-:.A-#<-
$J->A-_____, %R-2R-$A?-%-=-\J%-3-MR%-,
•316•
Exercise 4 Write }R/-/, }R/-/?, and 3…$R% in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 5S$?-$-3-8$?-$R%-%-, 9-2-9R-#R3-$A-3J.,
1. MA-5S$?-$A-______o-T-3#/-$9A$-;R.-$A 7. .?-5S.-2o.-<-__-,R/-__, 8-;?-9R-*=-$A-($?,

2. C-,%-$A-3J-+R$-^-2-$?3-0-$A-____2!.-o-<J., 8. $+3-2>.-____, */-3#/-5%-3-#-#-2.-?R%-,
3. =R-2&-___=R/-___, #<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-2{R<, 9. %?-.0J-(-?R-3-:.A-^-2-$*A?-$A-______2v?,
4. 8-;?-9R-______:IR-$A-($?, .?-5S.-:KA-;R., 10. %-___(.-___, %?-.R/-.$-:.A-5%-3-=?-o-;A/,
5. :$R-2-$A-______#<-$J?-$&A$-<-2>.-3-,2, 11. .$/-#-$A-______, $R/-o-SR/-0R-*R-.$R?-o-<J.,
6. %:A-9-3-5%-3-*A/-3-$*A?-$A-______5<-?R%-, 12. 0R-+-=-$A-______, MA-..-0-&/-0R-1J-2+2?-?R%-,
11.3 --<A%-%; /%-%; {2?-2; /A-<; <%-$A? and temporal Ladon case
Time Example Notes
word
%:A-%R-2R-$A-<A%-%-, #<-$J?-.R/-.$-3%-%-<A$-?R%-,
ntime-span
aR2-9-/?-=R-$?3-$A-<A%-%--%?-;:-+$-+$-S/-,=,
oLadon case markers are
<A%-% .?-5S.-$&A$-$A-<A%-%-%?-5B$-$*A?-+$-+$-VA?-;R., occasionally omitted.
KA-SR:A-<A%-%-(<-=.-2+%-,=,
^-2-$&A$-$A-<A%-%-$/?-5=-$9A$-3-$R
5S%-#%-:.A-.?-5S.-$&A$-$A-/%-%%-|R-o$-o-<J., nwithin a period of time
9R$-=$-9R-=R-$&A$-$A-/%--%-#-.$-,=, oLadon case marker is
/%-% occasionally omitted.
o$?-3R.-3#/-9R?-.?-5S.-$*A?-$A-/%--%-:VA-5<-.$R?,
.-^-2-$&A$-$A-/%--%-.$/-#-,R/-o-<J.,
*A/-3-$?3-3-/.-0-$A?-9-3-&%-3-9R?, Ladon case markers after a
number convey a period of time.
Ladon case
^-2-2o.-<-HA3-MA-9R-#-3-,$
variants MA-<A%-S$-$-?-(-:.A<-:I<-wR$-3-L%-,
8A-3R-:.A-$/?-/?-=R-2./-/-=?-?R%-,
•317•
A-1-;R.-/R:C-{2?-2, HA3-5%-:.A-(-nJ/-@R%-$A?-Z, nwhen
%-?-(-:.A<-;R%-/R:A-{2?--2, ?-(-:.A-2.J-:)$?-<J., oin the moment

{2?-2
OA-YR%-wJ-24/-OA-,R$-/-;R.-/R:C-{2?-2, 2R.-3%:-,%-(J, pA genitive case marker is added
to modify temporal nouns.
%-:IR-/R:C-{2?--2-;%-:P=-2-$9A$-,R/-,=,
%-,R/-/A-<, c/-3R-$A?-2#A$?-,=,
nas soon as
*A-3-><-/A-<, 3J-:#R<-2.-:PR,
ono sooner than
/A-< / <%-$A? 3<-$J-<A$-<%%-$AA?, %?-<%-$A-8A-=A-S/-,=,
.$J-c/-,R/-<%%-$AA?, aR2-3-9R-.=-&$-?J-2.-,=,
:V$-P$?-/A-<-\R$-.3<-:H$?,
Notes-3
Ladon case variants are combined with a concrete number to express a time period.
Distribution of Ladon case variants is shown below.
Regular Irregular
Number Ladon Example Number Ladon Example
variants variants
$&A$ $ $&A$-$ $*A?- :J $*A?-:J
$?3 3 $?3-3 28A :J 28A:J
S$- $ S$-$ s variant is not vocalized
2./ / 2./-/ 2o. < 2o.-<
.$ :J .$:J
Exercise 5 Write $8$-/?, $8$-/, }R/-/, and }R/-/? in the blanks. Pay attention to tense.
}RR/-/ / }RR/-/? $88$--/ / $8$$-/?

1. =R-S$-$A-____, #<-$J<-/-5-(J-$9A$-L%-, 1. %?- _____.LA/-{.-<-.R%-.$R?,
2. P2-3,:-:.A-=R-2o-$A-_____;R., 2. .!R/-3(R$-$A-__MA-(-3J.-$*A?-<-;R%-,=,
3. %?-?-(-:.A-_____<-<A$-MR%-#-<J., 3. "8A-=A, ?/-$%-3-*J, :.A:A-__.-L-2-3J."
4. KA-SR-.?-5S.-$?3-$A-_____9-3-2{R=, 4. %:A-_____3-:.$ }R/-/->R$
5. 8-;?-$A-_____{.-(-3%-%-2>.-3A-*/, 5. 9R$-H-?-YR.-$A-_____3-<A$
•318•
6. =R-$&A$-$A-__%?-.-2R-2R.-{.-3A->J?, 6. %-_____:VR$-0-2&:-/-3A-:.R.,
7. !$-$A-_____<?-0-=J/-o-3J., 7. _____-%J.-9R-;=-{R<-<-:IR,
8. $*J/-1A$-$A-__, %?-L-2-$&A$-<-3-24=, 8. #<-$J:A-___, %?-;%-<-%R-o:A-,$-2&.,
9. ___#<-$J-MA-@%-n=-$9A$-3A/, <J.-S-...., 9. MA-3%-$A-}R/-/-3-:IR, _____#R.,
10. ^-2-2./-0-$A_____#R%-2R-}R-u%-?J, 10. aR2-OA.-:.A:A-___%-.-2R-=?-o-3%-%-;R.,
Exercise 6 Complete the statements with temporal words learned in this chapter.
.0J<-2eR., %-2R.-/?-=R-S$-$-2#., .J:A-<A%-%-%?-2R.-{.-<-o-{.-3%-%-$9A$->J?-,=, $8$-/?-%-.-2R-:.A-/?-

:.$-o-;A/,
1. 8A-=A-.-aR2-9-(J/-3R-$A-=R-<A3-$?3-0-$A-aR2-3-$9A$-<J., #<-$J?-=R-2&-$?3-3-:2.-______PR%-HJ<-<A$-3-
MR%-, #<-$J-.L<-#-;:-/-;R.-______.-2R-<-K$?-9R$-:5S-$A-;R.,
2. %-8-;?-(%-(%-$9A$-;A/-______, 8A%-=?-<-=?-MR%-, K$?-=?-<-=R-$?3-______=?-MR%-, .J:A-
______%R-3R-<-%R-2R-$*A?-$A-3*3-0?-2#.-/?,
3. #<-$J?-aR2-9-(J/-3R-/?-3,<-KA/-______L-2-3-fJ., =R-$*A?-$A-______#<-$J?-L-2-$9A$-fJ.-?R%-,
4. #<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-{R<-______#-0<-$+R%-$A _%?-:#R<-3IR$?-3R->J.-$+R%-$A %-#<-$J:A-3*3-0?-:IR-
______@R%-$A?-0$
5. %?-aR2-:VA%-%-o$?-3R.-.?-=R-*A->-$A-______<J., {2?-.J<-%:A-/-2R-.-2R-=R-^-2-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-;A/,
6. %:A-c/-3R-9A-=A%-%-3-%<______<J2-$R%-/?-2#.-/A-<J., .J:A-_____3<-$J-5%-<-%J.-5%-$*A?-!-HA3-35K?-
;A/, <J.-S-%J.-$*A?-!?-1/-5/-______-%R->J?-/A-;A/,
7. 3<-$J:A-A-1, %:A-IJ?-0R-=R-*A->-z$-$-aR2-9-$9A$-$A-.$J-c/-;A/, .J:A-___#<-$J-<%-$A-IJ?-0R-<-3*3-0?-2#.,
8. %:A-A-3-$A?-<R%-=?-=?-______:VR$-=?-<-=?-/A-<J., .!:-%=-$A-_____, 3<-$J-:VR$-/?-2#.-9J<,
9. %:A-/-3R-#J-<-$9A$-aR2-9<-=R-$?3______?R%-, .J-/?-3<-$J-HA3-3-z%-?R%-, .J:A-o-nJ/-%:A-/-2R-<J., 3<-$J-
3J.-/, #<-$J-$*R<-3#/-3J.-?R%-,
10. .J%-?%-3-&%-lJ.-3#/-)J-3%-)J-3%-<J., #R3-______, %-<-%:A-<R$?-0R-9R-3-&%-lJ-$A-;R.,
11. 29:-5%-$%-2R-z-?<-3)=-{R<-<-:IR-o?-9J<, 3)=-{R<-$A-____3<-$J-$4S-2R-2N->A?-z/-0R-/?-:.$-o?-9J<,
12. 3<-$J-3R-n%-$9A$-;A/-______, o/-.-29:-5%-;R.-:.R., 3<-$J<-29:-5%-;R.-______, 3<-$J?-<%-.2%-
4B?-4-$9A$-3J.-9J<-$A-;R.,
•319•
13. %:A-A-1-$A?-;=->=-/?-=R-2./-______L-2-=?-, #<-$J:A-^-1R$?-<-;=->=-/-;R%-$A-;R., =R-2./-$A-
______#<-$J?-MA-n%->J.-:5S-2-2*=,
14. %:A-A-/J-(IJ?-3R) $A?-=?-#%?-$9A$-/?-L-2-=R-*A->-______=?-?R%-, 3<-$J:A-A-1-c?-;R.-______, 3<-

$J?-=?-:H<-;?-/A-<J., 3<-$J?-.?-5S.-*J<-28A-$A-______1-c/-$*R<-$A-;R.,
15. %:A-A-&J-0J-&A/-/?-=R-2o.-______2#., .J:A-<A%-%-3<-$J?-!%-9A-$9A$-$A-/%-/?-L-2-=?, <J.-S, 3<-$J-;:-
S/-______o/-.-1-;:-2-;R%-$A-;R., =R-$&A$-$A-______3<-$J-,J%?-$&A$-,R/-,=,
16. 2./-$*A?-$A-______%:A-5-2R-%<-v-$A-;R%-o-<J., %J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-o=-#2-3%-%-v-{R<-<-:IR-o-;A/,
17. =R-$?3-$A-______, %-A-3J-<A-#<-,J%?-$&A$-$-?R%-, MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-%-o-MA-<J.-:.R.-$A-;R.,
18. 5S%-3-2hA2?-____%:A-A-#-?-$/?-$A-MA-K$-0R-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J:A-5S%-2hA2?-?R%-, .-#<-$J?-;:-/-8A%-=?-
$*J<-$A-;R.,
19. %?-2./-$*A?-$A-______;A$-2+<-$A-L-2-:.A-=?-5<-.$R?, .-.?-5S.-&%-3J.-$A .-%-]R-2.J-$A-3J.,
20. .!R/-3(R$-$A?-MA-$9A$-$-#-0<-$+R%-$A-;R., %?-#<-$J-{<-3-2&-,3-0-$A-______KA<-<-#-0<-$+R%-$A- :)$
21. /%?-!-$A-aR2-OA.-.?-5S.-2o.-+$-+$-$A-!J%-;A/, aR2-3-5%-3-.?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-______-,R/-$A-($?,
22. aR2-3-9R-#R3-$A-3J., aR2-{2?-:.A-3)$-3-PA=-_____2R.-;A$-$A-o$?-$9A$-;R., #R-9R?-.-P-1A$-+$-+$-;?-
$A-;R.,
23. %?-L-2-$?<-2-$9A$-fJ.-;R., ^-2-$&A$-$A-______=?-24:-|R<-3R-!R%-$9A$-;A/, <J.-S-%?-=R-3%-%-$9A$-
____=?-/-3A-:.R.,
24. %:A-A-1-.-=?-:H<-;?-;R., %:A-A-3-<-=R-$&A$-$A-____=?-:H<-;?-o-<J., .J:A-____#R-$*A?-!-KA-o=-<-

:IR-o-<J.,
25. =R-$8$-3-_____,R/-______, %:A-A-3-$A?-=?-:H<-3A-;?-9J<, 3<-$J<-=?-!-3J.-/-:.$-,2-$A-3J.,
26. 3.%-.$R%-#<-$J?-9-3-{R=-_____, =$-0-3J-$A?-2YJ$?-?R%-, (/-0-$A?-v-______, (/-0-#<-$J<-/-5-
=%?-$A-;R.,
27. A-<R-8A-=A, %:A-______3-:.$ %:A-$8$-/?-2><-#-,R%?, %-HR:A-______,R/-/A-;A/,
28. 8-;?-9R-aR2-9-/?-3-,R/-______, %?-HA3-=?-<-$;R-{R=-.?-5S.-3%-%-$9A$-$-=?-?R%-,
29. #-l%-.J-<A%-29:-2-:.A-$*A?-!-:PA$-$A-3J.-9J<, #R-$*A?-!?-3*3-0?-=R-28A-2&-$A-____:5S-2-2*=-/A-<J.,
30. =R-3%-%-$9A$-$A-______, ?-(-:.A<-3-$J-(J-$9A$-L%-?R%-, .J:A-______MA-9R$-$*A?-!-#-.$-?R%-,
•320•
Text Two: present perfect / past perfect tense, and perfect continuous tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
\J%-KR$?-$?<-2-8A$
.?-<2?-}R/-3-$A-=R-<2?-2o.-&-2-$A-<?, 2R.-$A-?-(-/-\J%-$8A-$?<-2-3%-%-$9A$-.<-$A-;R., 2R.-$A-YR=-o/-<A$-
$/?-:1J=-o?-$A-=3-$%-/-;R., 2R.-{.-:1J=-o?-$A-#-KR$?-$%-/-;R., 2R.-3A-<A$?-$A-aR2-$?R-(A-$9A$->J.-%J=-
.$R?, >J?-;R/-0-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-.-<J$-2<-.J.-lR3-3%-%-1=-;R.,
\J%-$8A-:1J=-#-:.A-3,<-$+$?-/-2R.-,A-5S$?-$A-$/?-5=-,A-#R$-$9A$-/?-L%-;R., 2R.-MA-$A-,A-5S$?-:.A-.0=-:LR<-
:1J=-o?-$A-5.-3A-3,R, ,A-5S$?-$8/-$A-eJ?-/-=?-;R., YR=-o/-$A-<A$-$/?-<-,A-5S$?-$?<-2-$A-.$J-35/-$*A?-!-
1/-5/-/-:1=-!-:UR.-3J., {2?-,R$-$A-aR2-$?R-:6B/-KR$?-3A-:PA$-9J<-$A-;R., .0=-:LR<-:1J=-o?-$A-5.-3A-3,R-
/R:C-,R$-/?, >J?-;R/-0-{R<-$9A$-$A?-.$R/-0-<-(R?-=$?-$-=J-=/-:.J.-$A-;R., 2R.-MA-<A$?-$A?-o-/R<-.$R/-0-<-]-3-
<, ,A<-/-(R?-=$?-$A-,R$-$-2!A3?-;R., 3-3,.-<?-!A3-$A-;R., :IR-!%?-:.A-3%-5S$?-$-$.R?-<J., 5S%-=?-3-l-<-
.J->J.-$?R$-,2-3J.-9J<, MA-=-=-$9A$-$A?-2R.-3%-5S$?-$-5S%-=?-$A-:.->J?-3J.-9J<, .J<-o-nJ/-3%-%-$9A$-;R.-/-<,
$4S-2R<-5S%-=?-$%-(%-, :.R.-(%-(R$->J?-$A?->/->$?-(J/-0-2+%-;R.-9J<, o-nJ/-:.A-$*A?-!-<-(R?-=$?-$-:VJ=-
2-24$?-;R., (R?-=$?-$A?-2v?-/, 5S%-=?-$A?-=?-o-:V?-3A-2?3, :.R.-(%-(R$->J?-3J.-/-=?-=3-3-3A-:IR,
<J.-S, 2R.-MA-$A-?-o?-$A-:5S-$/?-$A?-2R.-3A:A-.0=-:LR<-$A-,R$-$->/->$?-2+%-AJ-;R.-9J<-/, .J:A-,.-<-:.%-o$-
3#/-@R%-$A?-*%-, 2R.-$A-?-(-:63-\A%-$A-!J%-/?-?-3$R-A-+-$A?-3,R-?-<J., ?-3$R-(-~R3?-$A?-3?-!R%-4 $A-;/-<J.,
?-o-,A-=J-P-28A-3-?-;-2.5 $A-!J%-/-MA-?-;-5.6 .-<J$-2<-:5S-$A-;R., ?-o-:.A-3R-(J-$9A$ MA-P%?-:.A-3R-(%-(%-$9A$-
5S%-=?-$A-,R$-/?-3*3-:SJ?-;R%-oR-@R%-$A?-.!:-$A-;R.,
2R.-$A-YR=-o/-$A-<A$-$/?-(A-$9A$->J.-Y%-*R%-;?-o-;A/, \J%-$8A-:.A-.J%-3-<-\J%-;R., .0J<-28$-/-.$J-:./-(R?-
:1J=-$A?-.J:A-KR$?-/?-3%-%-VA?-;R., :.A-.-2R-<-MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-\J%-$A-;R., $4S-2R<-.J%-?%-$A-:1J=-o?-3IR$?-3R-
:.A:A-:R$ <%-$A-H.-(R?-35S/-LJ.-2R.-H, 2R.-{., /%-2!/-(R?-=$?, ;=-YR=-$R3?-:SA?-5%-3-:I<-wR$-$A-$-24/-
0R:A-#-/-;R., .0J<-28$-/, #J-2-=-=-$A-/%-/-2R.-H-$R/-3#/-<A$-o-3J., PR%-HJ<-/%-$A-2R.-3%-%-$A?-2R.-{.-2>.-
3A->J?, $/?-5=-:.A?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-2.J-$A-:)$-$A-3J.,
3A-<A$?-aR2-$?R-$A-$/.-.R/-3A-<A$?-$A-2.J-#$-$-,$-;R., ,A<-/-aR2-$?R-$A-,R$-/-$/.-.R/-3%-%-$9A$-;R., 2R.-;A$-
$A-,R$-/?-aR2-$?R-,R2-/, aR2-$?R-,R2-3#/-9R?-,A-5S$?-$A-!J%-/-L-2-fJ.-$A-3J., :.A-.-MA-3%-%-:.%-o$-(J-.R/-<J.,
$/.-.R/-:.A:A-o-nJ/-$4S-2R-2R.-;A$-2!R=-o-(%-/R-<J., 2R.-$A-?-$/?-?R-?R-/?-2R.-;A$-aR2-9-/-3-$+R$?, ?-$/?-<%-
•321•
$A-YA.-$8%-3-=$-/-<-2R.-;A$-2!R=-$A-3J., 2R.-{.-2R.-$A-?-(-/?-$8%-KR$?-$A-{.-(-;A/-/R-%$-,R$-<J., .R/-,R$-/-
l-2-/?-3J., $/?-5=-:.A:A-:R$ 2R.-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-.-o-;A$-.R%-$A-;R.,
\J%-KR$?-:1J=-#-:.A?-2R.-3A:A-,A-5S$?-$-2PR.-=3-$?<-2-$9A$-}R/-(.-/?-$+R.-:.R.-$A-;R., 3A-<A$?-$8/-<-2<-
$A-:VJ=-2-)J-.3, 2R.-,A-5S$?-$A-$/.-.R/-$%-3%-.-2R-3-3,.-<?-z%-%-2.-/, \J%-KR$?-:1J=-#-:.A-<-8R<-<-.-2R-)J-
(J<-:IR-o-<J.,
11.4 --Present perfect tense and past perfect tense
Subject Complement Verb in PAT + ;RR. Note
>J?-;R/-0-3%-%-$A?- lR3-;A$-$%-3%-$9A$ 1==-;RR., verbs in PAT + ;R.

#J-2-:.A? .$R/-0-$A-,R$-$-|R<-3R- 2!!A3?-;RR., / 3J. forms either
past perfect tense
N%-$R-<-:)<-3/-$A?- KA-:VJ=-$A-:VJ=-2- 244$?--;R., or present perfect
.$J-:./-(R?-:1J=-$A?- YR=-o/-$A-{R<-/?-.0J-(-3%-%- VAA?-;R., tense
%?- MA-$?3-3-MA-s-$A-9-3- 2{RR=-;R.,

With spontaneous English With active verbs English
verbs
z-?-.2?-/-($?-;RR., Lhasa is located in
central Tibet.
)R-#%-.2?-/-=?--;R., Lhasa is / has been
built in central
Tibet.
#<-$J-8A-3R-:.A<-?J3?--:#R<- He is interested in
this girl.
#<-$J?-?J3?-8A-3R-.J<-2{RR<- He has given his
heart to that girl.
;RR., ;RR.,
#%-2-$?<-2-.J-P22-;RR., The new house is
finished (in
#%-2-$?<-2-$9A$-2lJJ%?-- A new house has
been constructed.
construction). ;RR.,
9-3-5%-3-5<--;RR., All food is gone. 9-3-5%-3-9R?-;R., All the food has
been eaten.
Notes-4
Verbs in PAT + ;R. / 3J.: This perfect tense structure forms either past perfect tense or
present perfect tense. In this case, ;R. is a perfective adverb rather than E-v. nWhether a
statement is in past perfect tense or in present perfect tense depends on context, e.g., %?-.-
=?-!-=?-5<-;R., I've finished my work now. / HR.-3-;R%-$R%-, %?-=?-!-=?-5<-;R., Before you
came, I had finished my work. oWhen spontaneous verbs are with E-v, the statements may
not convey the sense of past / present perfect tense.
•322•
Exercise 7 Complete the dialogue with the correct verb tense forms in parentheses
and necessary function words, for example ;R. and ?R%.
!-2 HR?-.$R%-)-_____________, (:,%)

#--2 :,%?-3J., A-3-$A?-.-2R-9-3-__________, ({R=)
!-2 .J-<A%-HR.-5%-#R3-$A-3J., .J-<A%-HR?-(A-$9A$-__________, (=?)
#--2 %?-(J-$9A$-=?-3J., %?-.J-<A%-=?_______, (,2) %-4B?-4-$9A$-3A-2.J-$A <J.-S-%?-A-3<-$%-)-{R=-
<R$?-_______, (;?)
!-2 %-1-;=-=-,R/-<%-;A/, ,R/-/?-.?-5S.-28A-+$-+$_________ (:$R<)
#--2 HR.-KA<-<-PR%-2h=-<-/3-__________, (:IR) *A/-3-$*A?-$A-$8$-/?-:IR-/-%-<-3*3-0?-:IR, PR%-
2h=-/-%-*R-o-(-<J-;R.,
!-2 .-,J%?-%?-2./-$*A?-$A-$%-$?J%-________, (=J/) <J3-3-3A-:IR, /-/A%-.R-5B$?-HR?-(A-$9A$-
________, (=?)
#--2 %?-L-2-3%-%-$9A$-$A-__________, (:$R-lR3) K$?-9R$-*A?-2o-?3-2o-$9A$-_______, ($?R)
.J?-3A-5.-%?-.-2R-K$?-9R$-$?R-*R%-$A-{R<-/?-.0J-(-$9A$-_________, (:VA) HR.-.$R?-/, %?-/%?-!-
.0J-(-$9A$-:HJ<-;R%-,
!-2 .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, HR?-#$-(J-$9A$-__________o-<J., (3,R%) HR?-.0J-(-.J-=R-(A-3R-$9A$-$-
__________, (:VA)
#--2 =R-$*A?-$?3-__________, (Ladon case) .J:A-/%-/, K$?-o., K$?-$?R-*R%-, K$?-C-:.J2?-oR,
K$?-9R$-v-*R%-LJ.-,2?-5%-3-__________, (\J%)
!-2 .J?-/-HR.-_2?-(J/-<J., %?-<-HR:A-.0J-(-.J-*R?-/-:.R.-$A HR.-=-.0J-(-:5S%-o-AJ-;R.,
#--2 %?-HA3-/-.-2R-.0J-(-(-<J-__________, (:6B/) HR?-*R-3A-.$R?, %?-HR.-=-$&A$-!J<,
!-2 29%-$A .J?-/-,$?-eJ-(J,
#--2 %J.-$*A?-!-;/-<A%-$9A$-$-__________, (%R-,$) .J-<A%-%J.-$*A?-!?-:.A-/?-9-3-9, .$R%-)-$A-$8$-
/?-%J.-$*A?-!-HR.-5%-%-:IR, %?-HR:A-1-3-$*A?-!-<-;/-$9A$-$-__________, (<A$)
•323•
Exercise 8 Write function words, tense indicative auxiliaries, and necessary verbs in
the blanks based on the context.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, HR?-2R.-{.-(A-3R-$9A$-$-.%?-;R., #-2, ?-(-:.A<-;R%-$A-<?, %?-.R%-$A-;R., .-=R-S$-:$R<-;R.,
!--2 HR.-]-V%-/?-(A-3R-$9A$-_____,
#--2 %-:.A-/?-=R-s-S$-$9A$-$-_____, .-%:A-29:-MA-5%-3-<-:.A-/-;R.,
!-2 HR.-5%-:.A-/?-*A.-0R-;A/-/,
#--2 *A.-$A *A.-$A ?-:.A<-;R%-$A-<?, c/-3R-<-8-;?-$*A?-!-<-*A.-____, #R-9R-:.A<-3-;R%-_____, %-#J<-<R-
4B?-4-$9A$-?/-,=,
!-2 ]-V%-$A-3,:-{R<-/-.$R/-0-<-C-,%-3%-%-;R., HR.-v-$A-_____?R%-,
#--2 %:A-8-;?-<-c/-3R-9R-?R%-_____, <J.-S-%-.-2R-_____, %-o/-.-;<-3<-<-:IR-#R3-3J.-$A .J:A-nJ/-$A?-?-(-
3%-%-$9A$-.-2R-<A$-_____,
!-2 .0J-(-A-3.R:C-#-{.-9J<-/R-HR?-fJ.-AJ-_____, ^-2-$&A$-$A-}R/-/-HR?-.0J-(-.J-:5S=-$A-;R.-3R,
#--2 %?-fJ.-,=, .0J-(-%J?-%J?-Z-$A $9:-:#R<-}R/-3-$A-<?, %:A-c/-3R-$A?-<-2!R=-_____, <J.-S-8-;?-
$*A?-!-$A?-.-2R-2R.-{.-.%?-/-:.R.-$A-3J.,
!-2 $9:-:#R<-$8$-3<-%-$4S.-<-:IR-o?-9J<-_____, 3*3-0?-:IR-,2-/, %J.-9R-*A.-0R-;R%-_____,
#--2 %?-<-.J%-3-$A-<?-?R%-/-:.R.-_____, .J<-?R%-/, *A/-3-(A-3R-$9A$-.$R?- _____,
!-2 *A/-3-$*A?-$?3-$9A$ :.$-?-%?-24=-_____, %J.-$*A?-!-%:A-<R$?-0-5%-/?-:.$
#--2 .J?-/-%J.-$*A?-:IR-oR-;?,
11.5 --Experiential perfect tense
Subject Complement Verb in PAT + MRR% Note
k-(J/-mR%- .J%-3-mR%-#$-K$-0R-$9A$- ;AA/-MR%-, ntells what one has

done
.!R/-3(R$-$A-A-3-$A?- (/-0-<- 2&&R?-MRR%-,
oIn past tense, the
%?- }R/-(.-lA?-:#R<-.R%-/ :.RR.-MR%-, adverb 3 is used to
#<-$J-<-%- .-<J$-2<-$+/-/?- :PAA$-3-MRR%-, deny.
pIn perfect tense,
9-2-:.A- .J%-3-9-?-/?- 2##.--MR%-33J., 3J. is generally used
%:A-%R-3R- A-3J-<A-#-8R%-$A?- ?RR%-3-MRR%-, to deny.
•324•
Notes-5
Verb in PAT+ MR%: nIt is used to express that something has ever been done or something
that has happened. oTo deny, either the adverb 3J. is put after MR% or 3 is put before MR%, e.g.,
35S-2R.-3,R-|%-:.A-3R-$9A$-:H$?-AJ-MR%-, Has the Tibet Plateau ever been so cold? / %:A-5K-,R$-/?-
:.A-3R-$9A$-:H$?-3-MR%-, %:A-5K-,R$-:.A-/?-:.A-3R-$9A$-:H$?-MR%-3J., It has never been so cold in
my life. In negative statements, adverbs such as 8R%-$A? and $+/-/? are often added, e.g., %-
8A-3R-.J<-8R%-$A?-.$:-3-MR%-, I have never been interested in that girl. Therefore, in this
structure, MR% is an experiential perfective adverb instead of a verb (as a verb, it means to
experience).
Exercise 9 Write tense-indicative function words and other necessary verbs in the
blanks.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, HR?-HA->-9R?-AJ-MR%-, #-2, %?-HA->-$+/-/?-9R?-3-MR%-, 2R.-MA-$A?-HA->-3A-9,
1R=-3 AJ, z-3R-*2?, HR?-:.A-/-(A-$9A$-;?-$A-;R.,

z--3R-*2? %-.J-<A%-:P=-2-(-<J-;R., .-%J.-(-2R?-:.A-/?-$%-)-:,%-9J<-_____, HR.-$%-$9A$-/?-;R%-,
1R=-3 %-.-=?-#%?-/?-;R%-/A-;A/, HR?-}R/-(.-9-#%-:.A:A-/%-/?-9-3-_______, 2v?-/-9-#%-.$:-
$9A$-<J.,
z--3R-*2? :.A-/?-9-3-@R%-$A?-Z-$A :2:-:2-$A-<A$?-3%-$A %?-:.A-/?-*->-5S.-v-;?- _____, :.A-/?-8-<-
$?<-2-<J.,
1R=-3 %?-8-$+/-/?-9R?-_____, <J.-S-.J-<A%-5S.-v-;?-/-(R$-$A
z--3R-*2? .J?-/-%J.-(-2R?-3*3-0?-9-3-9, 8R<-<, HR?-;<-8-;A-$J-.J-VA?-5<-AJ-_____,
1R=-3 %?-.-2R-_____, <J.-S-.J-<A%-%?-:VA-5<-$A-:)$- ____, #-l%-:$R-2-$A?-%-2#A$?-2#A$?-2+%-,
%?-MA-!-,$-#<-$J-:S-3-$9A$-<A$-_____,
z--3R-*2? .J<-*R/-3J., %?-<-VA?-5<-_____, }R/-(.-;A$-(-.J-3R-%?-$+/-/?-VA?-_____, \R-o$-$-VA?-/-
.!:-3R-.!:-3R-$9A$-<J.,
1R=-3 ;-.-9-3-,R/_____, 5%-3-$A?-9R, z-3R-*2?, HR:A-=R$?-$A-MA-.J-?-;A/,
z--3R-*2? #<-$J-%:A-5-2R-?%?-o?-<J., #<-$J?-z-?-/?-5S%-=R-2&-,3-0-2o2-_____, #-l%-.J-<A%-:.A-/->-
5S%-o$-_____,
1R=-3 ?%?-o?-HR.-(-;R.-(-;R.-<J., :-$*A?-!-$%-/?-,$-;R.-o-<J., HR.-$8A?-!-lJ<-?R%-AJ-___,
•325•
?%?--o? %-?R%-___, %-o/-.-z-?-/-:.$-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?, <A$-;R.-/-1=-(J<-z-?-/?-;A/-o-<J.,
1R=-3 HR.-z-?-/?-5S$?-:.<-8$?-AJ-____, %?-HR.-5S$?-:.-$9A$-$A-!J%-/?-,$-_____#-<J.,
?%?--o? /-/A%-$A-/2-L%-8A%-(J/-$?3-$A->-=?-,R/-*J.-5S$?-:.:A-!J%-%-%-8$?-$ .J:A-,R$-/?-3A/-/,
1R=-3 <J.-<J., .J:A-!J%-/?-<J., 5S$?-:.-.J<-%-<-8$?-$
?%?--o? AR, A-&J-1R=-3, HR.-4B?-4-$9A$-#R., %:A-c/-3R-$A?-#-0<-$+R%-____, 4B?-4-$9A$-#R.,
#-0<-IA-/%-/?
35S-3R 2J, HR.-$%-/-;R.-/?, 8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-*J=-</-,=,
?%?--o? %-.-2R-9-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-/-;R., %-.-2R-z-3R-*2?-2-#-V=-_____,
35S-3R HR.-<%-$A?-vR?, %?-3%-%-$9A$-3A-2>.-, HR.-.-/%?-$A-<?-|R-/?-=?-,=,
?%?--o? ;-;-;, %-.-<J3-3-;R%-, 2.J-3R,
11.6 --Present perfect tense and experiential perfect tense
Present perfect tense Explanation Experiential perfect tense Note

Positive
HR.-2R.-/?-(A-3R-$9A$-$-2#.--;R., a lingering
time until
HR.-2R.-/?-(A-3R-$9A$-$-2#.--MR%-, how long one
has stayed
then until then
%?-2l3?-1%-:.A-,J%?-3-$?3-3- reoccurring %?-<-2l3?-1%-.J<-,J%?-3-$?3-3- frequency
until then until then
2+RR/-;R., 2v?--MR%-,
%?-.J-<A%-9-3-#-5-+$-+$-*R?-;R., actions that
have already
}R/-(.-%?-<-9-3-#-5-*R?-MRR%-, what one has
done until
happened then
%-KA-o=-<-,J%?-$*A?-=-?R%-;R., frequency of
going abroad
%-KA-o=-<-,J%?-$*A?-=-?R%-MR%-, something
experienced
until then before
Negative
%-2R.-/?-;/-<A%-$9A$-$-2#.-- time span
lingering until
%-2R.-/?-8R%-$A?-2#.--3-MRR%-, something
never
3JJ., then experienced
%?-2l3?-1%-:.A-,J%?-3-$?3-3- until then

frequency
%?-1%-.J-,J%?-28A-=-2v?--3-MRR%-, until then
frequency
2+RR/-3J., denied denied
%?-.J-<A%-9-3-#-5-+$-+$-*R?-3J., something not

yet happened
%?-9-3-#-5-$+/-/?-*R?-3-MRR%-, until then
experience
at a certain denied
time
%-KA-o=-<-,J%?-$*A?-?R%-3J., until then
frequency of
%-KA-o=-<-,J%?-$&A$-3A/-.-?R%-3-MMR%-, until then
experience
going abroad denied
denied
•326•
Exercise 10 Write the correct tense forms of the verbs in parentheses in the blanks
using past / present perfect tense and, if necessary, auxiliaries.
.0J<-2eR., %-=R-?3-&<-:2.-<J$-2<-$/3-P<-2#.-3-MR%-, (:.$)
1. .-KA-SR:C-.?-5S.-.$-<-5=-2-<J., %-:.A-/?-.?-5S.-$&A$-$A-;/-/-_________, (|$) 5K-<A%-.-{<-3-s-$A-/%-

%-3A-;R%-/, %-:IR-9J<-$A-;R.,
2. %-#-l%-5K-<A%-$A-,R$-$-%J?-%J?-:5B$-0-9-$A #<-$J-,R/-.?, %-*%-3,:-<-.?-5S.-$&A$-$-_________, (:.$)
4B?-4-$9A$-$A?-%-#J<-<R-2.-?R%-,
3. t$?-L3?-!%-9A-.J:A-/%-/?-2.:-2+%-9J<, HR?-AJ-$R #<-$J?-5S%-=?-!%-9A-.J:A-/%-/?-=R-2&-$A-;/-/-=?-!-
_________, (=?) #<-$J?-!%-9A-$A-5/-#$-<J-<J-$A-/%-/?-L-2-_________, (12) !%-9A-=-(-o?-A-+-
$A?-;R.-/R-#R-<J.,
4. %-AJ-&A<-3-?R%-$R%-, %?-3(R.-gJ/-\A%-$?3-3-$A-:S-0<-3%-%-$9A$-_________, (<A$) :S-0<-9R?-2!/-/R-%R-
3-$9A$-3-<J., .R/-.%R?-$A?-3(R.-gJ/-9R-z$-+-(J-$A
5. 8A-=A-:.A-)R-3R-]-<A:A-!J%-%-_________, (:$R) t$?-g-8R/-/?-?:A-$R-=-{R<-<-_________, (o$) b%-,%-
%-L%-,%-%-_________, (:PR) #<-$J?-%J?-%J?-*J/-#<-3A-:6K3-$A #<-$J-=R-?R-s<-2.-.?, MA-3%-(J->R?-$A?-

5K-$%-2R<-MR%-.!:-/R-#<-$J?- _________, (MR%)
6. #-l%-1R=-3-=?-#%?-/%-%-;R%-.?, 3<-$J:A-3A$-.3<-2R-<J., MA$-(-<-_________, ({3) %?-2v?-/, 3<-$J-
#R-,$-$-_________, (1J-:.J2?)
Exercise 11 Complete the statements with appropriate tense forms of the verbs in
parentheses. Pay particular attention to past tense and perfect tense.
.0J<-2eR., %?-%:A-c/-3R-%R->J?-$A-<?, .-=R-*A->-:$R<-;R., (:$R<) .J:A-<A%-%-%J.-$*A?-!-#-lR.-$9A$-<-

;?-3-MR%-, (;?)
1. %-3.%-.$R%-HA3-3-,R/-.?, ?-_________, (<2) c/-3R-$A?-3R$-3R$-_________, (29R)

2. %-aR2-9-/%-%-,R/-$A-<?, %?-.R/-.$-(J-$*A?-_________, (:P2) $&A$-/?-%?-.0J-(-$9A$-_________,
(:VA) $*A?-/?-#%-2-$9A$-<-_________, (*R) <J.-S-%-#%-2-$?<-2-.J:A-/%-/-_________, (:.$) %:A-
@-3-$*A?-!-:.$-$A-;R.,
3. %-$8%-12-#%-$A-/%-%-,R/-.?, 5S$?-:.-____, (:$R-lR3) %:A-:$R-2-ZR-=%?-;?, %-5S$?-,R$-/?-2.:-2+%-,
•327•
4. %?-1-#.-:#R<-=R-$A-#-KJ?-/A-<, \-.L%?-(-;R.-$9A$-_________, ($R) %?-\-.L%?-.J-=R-3%-%-$9A$-$-
_________, ($R) */-8R<-<, %?-.J%-3-$A-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-_________, (S/)
5. $9:-:#R<-}R/-3-$A-/%-%-, %-.J%-3-$A-.$:-<R$?-$9A$-$-_________, (,$) %J.-$*A?-!-=R-3%-%-$9A$-

_________, (%R-,$) %J.-$*A?-!<-:I<-wR$-(J-$9A$-_________, (:L%) 3<-$J<-#-2h-;?-$A-;?-$A %-
8J-$A?-*A.-0R<-*/-,=, .J-/?-%?-3<-$J-;%-|R<-_________, (:2R.) .R-.$R%-%J.-$*A?-!?-9-3-3*3-0?-9-

9J<-$A-;R.,
6. t$?-$9R%-/%-%-,R/-/A-<, %?-#<-$J-%R-_________, (>J?) #<-$J-8J-$A?-_________, (>-8.) o-<-
_________, (*J) #<-$J-(-3J.-(-3J.-$9A$-<J.,
7. 3-;-MA-$A?-.J%-?%-$A-3R-8A-#R-/?-.0=-;R/-5.-3,R/-0R-$9A$-_________, (0/) <J.-S, /2-KR$?-$A-MA-{3-?-

$?<-2-,R/-.?, 3-;-<A$-$/?-l-2-/?-_________, (:)A$)
8. %-#3?-3-;R%-$A-<?, %-?-(-;$-?-3%-%-$9A$-$-v-$A-_________, (:PR) #3?-3-3-;R%-$R%-, ?-(-.<-lJ-3.R-
<-#J-.$J-9R-%?-_________, ($R)
Exercise 12 Tell if you have ever done or are willing to do the actions below.
.0J<-2eR., A-nJ-<A-#<-:IR, %-A-nJ-<A-#<-8R%-$A?-?R%-3-MR%-, <J.-S-%-?R%-/-:.R.,

1. 2R.-/?-:5S-2-<R= _______________________________________________
2. .LA/-;A$-.R% _______________________________________________
3. 9?-3%<-3R<-.$: _______________________________________________
4. g<-8R/ _______________________________________________
5. |R<-3R-$?R$ _______________________________________________
6. ;=-{R<-<-:IR _______________________________________________
Exercise 13 Make your own statements with temporal words such as <J$-2<, MR%, $A-<?,
and so on.
.0J<-2eR., %-3$R-/, .-/%?-$A-<?-%-3$R-/-,=, .-%-(/-0-$9A$-.$R?-$A

1. %?-2R.-;A$->J?, _______________________________________________
2. %-2R.-$A-9-3-=-.$:, _______________________________________________
3. %?-@-3-$*A?-!-<A$ _______________________________________________
•328•
4. %?-:6B/-9-:.A-/?-.%?, _______________________________________________
5. %?-0R-+-=-<A$ _______________________________________________
6. %?-HA->-9, _______________________________________________
7. %?-=?-!-=?-/?-=R-S$-:$R<,______________________________________________
8. .$J-c/-,%-(., <J.-S-aR2-OA.-PR=-3-</,________________________________________
9. %-35S-}R/-0R<-,J%?-$*A?-?R%-,_______________________________________________
10. .?-5S.-S$-0-$A-}R/-/-%-3A-=%?,_____________________________________________
11.7 --Present perfect continuous and past continuous tense
Past continuous Notes Present perfect continuous Notes

HR.-;R%-.?, %-#R3-$A-;R., nongoing in the
past
%-:.A-/?-=R-$?3-:$RR<-$A-;R., nstill ongoing
#-l%-A-3-33$RR-/-$A-;R., /-/A%-$A-<?-%-5S%-%-:IRR-$A-;R., oWithout the

oSomething was temporal
occurring in the phrase, the
%-HA3-3-,R/-.?, (<-(J- past.
HR.-;R%-.?, %?-=?-L-:VAA-$A-;R., tense is not
>J.-:22--$A-;R., clarified.
A-3-$A?-9-3-HJ<-;R%-.?, A-1-$A?-:2R.-.?, %-,%-/-lJ-$A-;R.,

8-;?-$*AA.-$A-;R.,
Negative Notes Negative Notes
HR.-;R%-.?, %-#R3-$A-3J., nat a certain point
in time
%-?-(-:.A-/?-=R-$?3-:$RR<-$A-3J., n until-then,
lingering time
#-l%-A-3-3$RR-/-$A-3J., /-/A%-$A-<?-%-5S%-%-:IRR-$A-3J., denied
oongoing
oIt could be
%-HA3-3-,R/-.?, (<-(J- HR.-;R%-.?-%?-=?-L-:VAA-$A-3J., either present
continuous or
>J.-:22--$A-3J., present perfect
continuous
A-3-$A?-9-3-HJ<-;R%-.?, A-1-$A?-:2R.-.?, %-,%-/-lJ-$A-3J., tense.
8-;?-$*AA.-$A-3J.,
Notes-6
Verb in PRT+ $A-;R. structure: It expresses both past tense continuous and perfect tense
continuous. To clarify the tense, a specific temporal word is used, e.g., n%-/%-%-;R%-.?-(-$.-$A-
;R., The water was boiling when I came in. o/-/A%-$A-}R/-/-%?-5S%-o$-$A-;R., I had been doing
business before last year. p/-/A%-$A-<?-%?-5S%-o$-$A-3J., I have not been doing business since
last year.
•329•
Exercise 14 Below is a foreigner's experience in China. Complete the narration with
correct tense forms of the verbs in parentheses. Use function words as
needed.
.0J<-2eR., %:A-YA%-3R-$A?-lJ.-,.-$9A$-fJ.-;R., (fJ.) %?-.J-3R-$9A$-8R%-$A?-<A$-3-MR%-, (<A$)
%:A-2R.-{.-)J-.$:-<-)J-.$:-<J., 2003$A-<?, %?-2R.-{.-_______,(.R%) /-/A%-.R-5B$?-$-%-$R%-:1J=-=-(J->J.-

_______, (;R%) %-2003=R<-2R.-<-3-;R%-$R%-, %?-<-=R-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-$-_______, (.R%) <J.-S, {2?-.J<-
%?-(J-$9A$-2>.-_______, (>J?) =R-(-4B$-$A-<A%-%-, %?-2h-3R.-<-,-~.-$A-aR2-.R%-%-_______, (@-8J/-;?)

<J.-S-1/-#J-(J-_______, (,R$?) .J:A-nJ/-$A?, %?-2R.-/?-2R.-{.-aR2-oR-_______, (,$-$A?-$&R.)
%?-N%-$R-/?-<A$-$/?-2eJ-<J?-$A-=?-$8A-$9A$-_______, (fJ.) .J-%-.$R?-/R-<-;A/-#-<J., ^-2-$&A$-$A-<A%-%-HA3-

5%-$9A$-/?-________, ($/?-5%-2&:) 3,:-3<-;A.-(.-$A-$R/-0-<J., $/?-5%-5%-/-%-=-=?-o-$&A$-<-
_______, (3J.) $/?-5%-5%-$A-c.-0R-<-c.-3R-$*A?-!<-#-2h______, (3J.) %?-{.-(-$&A$-<-
2>.______, (,2) .J:A-nJ/-$A?-=$-0-$*A?-!-!R%-2-<J.,
%-KA<-<-<%-$A-o=-#2-2-________ (=R$) {.-<A$?-$A-,R$-/?-%-=R-.-3%-%-.!:-%=-<-________, (:U.) %?-

$/.-.R/-:.A-%-<%-$:A-<R$?-0-$9A$-$-________, (2>.) #<-$J?-%-2R.-{.-2>.-?-$9A$-$-:IR-oR________,
(;<-$+R$-o$) %?-;%-2R.-<-:IR-oR-________, (,$-$A?-$&R.) $9:-:#R<-$*A?-$A-<A%-%-%?-24=-24=-;?-2R.-
{.-(J.-OA.-$A-:6B/-9-$9A$-________, (fJ.) .J-/?-%-A-3.R<-2.-;R%-, %J?-%J?-$R-(R.-,=, .-<J$-2<-%?-A-3.R-

/?-=R-$*A?-________, (aR2-.R%-;?) ____________, (:5S-2-<R=) %-KA<-<-:IR-<J$-2<-%-.-2R-=R-$&A$-
________, (:.$) {2?-.J<-,R/-/, %-2R.-{.-$A-,R$-/?-L%-3-________, (;A/)
Exercise 15 Complete the dialogue based on the context, using various tenses.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, HR?-.-2-:,J/-$A-;R.-/?, %?-HR?-.-2-2&.-2+%-:.R.-$A-;R., #-2, 2&.-<, $&R.-3A-,2-$A

!-2, KA<-<-:,J/-/?-(A-3R-$9A$-:$R<-;R., #-2, =R-$&A$-:$R<-;R.,
Question Answer
!-2 HR?-.-2R-<-K$?-:5S-___________, #-2 %-.-2R-<-:VR$-0-;A/, %?-K$?-__________,

!--2 HR?-K$?-____________________, #--2 =R-*A->-___________,
!--2 HR.-9R:C-:5S-2-___________, #--2 %J.-9R-*A.-0R-<J., 8-;?-9R-<-aR2-9<-:PR-_____,
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!-2 HR.-$*J/-1A$-;?-___________, #-2 =R?-;R., %J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-=R-S$____2#.,
!-2 HR?->-9-$A-3J.-/?, #A$-0-2?3?-3?, #-2 %?-.R-8$->-_______, <J.-S-#A$-0-2?3-$A-3J.,
!-2 HR?-(A-3R-$9A$-$->-___________, #-2 %?-=R-$?3-__________,
!-2 HR?-o-{.-2>.-___________, #-2 3J., 2>.-3A->J?, <J.-S-o-{.-3A->J?-/-.!:-$A
!-2 HR.-.J-<A%-Y%-/?-.?-5S.____:#R<-2+%-, #-2 .?-5S.-S$-0-$A-<?-___, .-2R-:#R<-5<-3J.,
!-2 HR:A-@-3-$A?-HR.-(%-:,%-$A-:)$-$A-___;R., #-2 .-2R-<-:,%-$A-:)$-___________,
!-2 ___________:,%-$A-2&$-3J., #-2 .-KA-IR.-L%-$A-<?-:,%-$A-2&$-3J.,
!-2 .J-Z-$A HR?-2R.-;A$-$A-.0J-(-VA?-5<-_____, #-2 .-2R-5<-$A-3J., .0J-(-$9A$-:VA-/-.?-5S._____,
!-2 HR?-}R/-(.-<-.0J-(-$9A$-____9J<, ___, #-2 .J-3A-2.J/, %?-}R/-(.-.0J-(-VA?-_________,
!-2 HR?-2R.-$A-<A$-$/?-____________/?, #-2 ;R., %?-2R.-$A-<A$-$/?-8A2-:)$-;?-$A-;R.,
!-2 2?3-0-)J-(J-AJ-<J., #-2 2?3-0-)J-(J-<J.-0, %-.J:A-,R$-$-?J3?-:#R<-___,
!-2 HR.-%R-3-H<-0<-2-<J., #-2 %-.J%-3-aR2-9<-?R%-/?, ______L-2-3-fJ.-,=,
!-2 %?-HR:A-c/-3R-___________, #-2 <A$-MR%-3J., 3<-$J-.-,J%?-<-:.A-/-3J.,
Text Three: present perfect tense and past tense
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, \R$-[.,
.?- <2?- }R/- 3- $A- =R- <2?- 2o.- &- 2:A- /%-, \R$- [.- 2.- $A- <?, =$- l=- $A- ,R$- /?- :I<- wR$- (J- $9A$- L%- ;R., \R$-
[.-,R$-3-9R-k%-$8A-$A-LJ.-/?-3A/-.-3J., >R%-o-(%-, LJ.-0-*%-, /?-0-(%-, $R%-.!:-3R-<J., *R-3#/-<A$?-$A?-\R$-
[.- $9A$- $- |R<-3R- OA- $A- ;/- LA/, <J.- S- LJ.- /?- 3- (J, \R$- [.- .J- 9R- LJ.- 0- $&A$- <J- $*A?- <J- $A?- P2- /A- <J., o/- .- ;A- $J-
$+$?-,.-<-2!R=-/A-<J.,
.-.?- <2?- :I<- ;R.- $A \R$- [.-:U=-(?-2!R=-o-&/- !R2?- &/- $9A$- $- */- ;R., 3*J/-(?-:.R/- 3#/-9R?- 3*J/-(?-
$-8A%-5S$?-0-$9A$-2+R/-;R., 3*J/-(?-:.A-9R-2!R=-/?, %J.-9R?-L-2-3%-%-$9A$-12-$A-;R., .0J<-28$-/, 2R.-;A$-
$A-,R$-/?-1/-5/-/-;A-$J-{<-,2, {.-<A$?-3A-:S-2-<-\R$-[.-$A-!J%-/?-,.-!<-.-.R%-,2, %J.-9R?-lJ.-3R-$A-<A$?-3%-
%- lJ- ,2, .J%- ?%- lJ.- 3R- $A- <A$?-lJ?- /, )J- 3IR$?- $- ?R%- ;R., .J?- 3A- 5.- MA- $A- ;A.- .2%- :UR$- ,2-/R- +$- +$- <J., \R$-
[.- 2!R=- 3#/- <A$?- $A?- S- o- $A- !J%-/?- \R$- [.- 2!R=- 3#/- $8/- 0- 9R<- :VJ=- $+$?- ;?-,2- $A- ;R., \R$-[.- $A- !J%-
/?-%J.-9R?-o=-,A-$A-,A-5S$?- $9A$-24$?-;R.- $A 3.R<-2#?-/, .J%-3-$A-:U=-(?-,2?-h$?-.J-.J%-?%- o=-,A:A->J?-
L:A-2%-36S.-$9A$-$-:1J=-;R.,
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Exercise 16 Make questions with phrases such as (A-3R-$9A$, ., (A-3R-$9A$-$, MR%, perfective
adverbs, and so on. Your partner answers. Pay particular attention to
perfect tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., ,J%? / (R?-:1$? / <A$ Question:HR?-$9:-:#R<-:.A:A-/%-(R?-:1$?-,J%?-.-<A$-;R.,

Answer: %?-#<-$J-,J%?-28A<-<A$-;R.,
.0J-( / . / 2v? !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________

.-2 / :,J/ !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________
|R<-3R / 2!R= !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________
9-3 / 2{R= / <%-$A? !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________
\R$-2f/ / v !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________
aR2-OA.-< / (. !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________
aR2-PR$? / $?<-2-1A$ !--2 _________________ #--2 _____________________
Exercise 17 Describe what you have and have not done. Pay particular attention to
tense forms of the verbs.
.0J<-2eR., A-nJ-<A-# / ?R% !-2, HR.-A-nJ-<A-#<-?R%-AJ-MR%-, #-2, MR%-3J., %-.-<J$-$J<-:IR-#R3-L%-3J.,

#R%-2R / :6$? !--2 ___________________ #--2 ______________________
A-3.R-$A-\ / aR2 !--2 ____________________ #--2 ______________________
{R<-VR / .R% !--2 ____________________ #--2 ______________________
2R.-$A-8A-3R< / :PR$? !--2 ____________________ #--2 ______________________
2R.-$A-9-#%-/? / 9 !--2 ____________________ #--2 ______________________
2R.-/?-g< / 8R/ !--2 ____________________ #--2 ______________________
c/-3R-< / #-lR.-o$ !--2 ____________________ #--2 ______________________

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Exercise 18 Tell what happened and was happening using temporal clauses.
.0J<-2eR., %-HA3-3-,R/-.?, 8A-=A-$A?-2f/-:UA/-=-v-$A-;R., c/-3R-$A?-$R/-o-$9A$-:,$-$A-;R.,
1. A-3-$A?-#%-2-_________, (2&:-.$-;?) 8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9-/?-KA<-<-_________, (,R/)

2. :P=-2- $9A$- g- ,R$- /- ________, (;R%) HA- 9$-_________, (:$R- lR3) :P=- 2- 4- $A- =R$?- $- ;R%- 3- 1R.- ,=,
3. b/- 3- $A?- 3<- $J:A- |R<- 3R- ________, (b) 3<- $J?- .- 2R- 3J-=R%-$9A$- $A-/%-%-_________, (v) 3<-$J-~A%-3- eJ,
4. %-HA3-3-_________, (,R/) c/-3R-$A?-9-3-&R$-4K:A-!J%-%-_________, (:)R$) 9-3-#-_%?-,-=-=, %:A-;A-
$-2*J.-,=,
5. c.-0R-=R-S$-&:A-!J%-_________, (>A) 3<-$J-=R-?3-&<-_________, (:2.) 3<-$J-.-2R-$?<-3R-;A/-/-<,
5K-$%-2R<-:R<-$A?-_________, (HA3-5%-2&:)
6. %:A-A-1-9A-=A%-/?-KA<-<-_________, (,R/) %-@R%-$A?- _________, (0$) %-*A/-3-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-$-
aR2-9<-3-?R%-, <J.-S-#<-$J?-%-=-$>J-$>J-3-2+%-,
7. %-KA-o=-/?-;:-2-_________, (,R/) #J-3A-5%-3-$A?-8A%-_________ (:VJ$) ;A/-/-<, %J.-5%-%-?-8A%-
3J.-/R-$A?, %-=-=?-!-=?-o-3J.,
8. <R$?-0-$A?-________, (#-0<-$+R%) %-________, (*=) #<-$J?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A-3*3-0?- *A.-0R-;?-
$A-;R., <J.-S-%-3-?R%-,
9. %-8A-3R-;$-3-$9A$-$-_________, ($&J<) 3<-$J-5-<-_________, (#-:#R<) %-%R-5-,=, 3<-$J-<-%R-
.3<-<R-*/-,=,
10. /-/A%-$A-^-2-$?3-0:A-/%-%:A-Z%-3R-_________, ($*J/-1A$-;?) %?-.-2R-=?-#%?-/-_________, (L-2-
=?) %?-3<-$J<-#-0<-$A-,R$-/?-gJ/-:VJ=-8?,
11. %?-=?-!-5%-3-_________, (12) :$R-2-$A?-;%-=?-!-$*A?-________, ($R/) {2?-.J<-%:A-#R$-/-
_______, (3J-:2<)
12. %?-$R/-o-?R-3-$R%-.!:-3R-$9A$-A-3-_________, (!J<) 3<-$J-_________, (?J3?-:$=) MA$-/%-/-
MA$-(-$R<-<R-<R,
13. :P=-2-$A?-E-3R-1.-8R<-<, "9-3-3-=?, %-vR$?-$A-3J.,"9J<, %-KA<-<-9-#%-/%-%______, (;R%) #<-$J?-9-
3-_______, (&/)
14. #<-$J<-($-|R-_________, (:L%) #<-$J?-________, (#-0<-$+R%) _%?-:#R<-________#-0<-
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2+%-/-*J/-#-(J, ({R<)
15. %:A-1-2R-aR2-(%-/-_________, (;R.) %?-aR2-:VA%-/-_________, (aR2-.R%-;?) #<-$J-aR2-:VA%-
%_________, (,R/) %-aR2-:VA%-/-_________, (3,<-KA/) @-3-$*A?-!?-"(J-2R-<R-<-(%-%R-iR-<J.,"9J<,

16. .-/%?-*A-3-_________, (><) %?-<A-3$R-/-K$?-9R$-________, (:5S) 9R$-=$-$%-?-$%-/-<J., <J.-S-
mA-<R$?-$&A$-<-3-<A$
17. c/-3R-:.A-/3-;A/-/-<-|R-#-/-;R., /-/A%-%-:.A<-_________, (;R%) 3<-$J?-{.-(-$?=-2R->J.-_______,
(2>.) .-KA_______, (<A$) 3<-$J-1=-(J<-_________, (@R/-=R$)
18. *J/-gR$-0-$A?-_________, (:SA) 24S/-3-_________, (0$) 24S/-3-$A?-_________, (=/-:.J2?)
*J/-gR$-0-$A?-_________, (_R3)
19. %:A-c/-3R-#J-2-:.A:A-/%-%-_________, ($/?-=-;R%) (-#-/-#R%-2R-+$-+$-_________, (*J) <J.-S-.J%-
?%-(-#-P3-0-{3-0R-$9A$-$-*/-;R.,
20. %?-.$:-<R$?-_________, (S/) .$:-<R$?-$A-;A-$J________, (=$-$-:UR.) 3<-$J:A-*J?-=?-%:A-MA$-
=3-/-;%-z%-%J-;R.-$A
Exercise 19 Write such temporal words as $8$-/?, /%-%, .? , {2?-2, }R/-/, and so on in
the blanks below.
.0J<-2eR., %-=R-$?3-$A-<?-#J-2-/%-/?-2#., =R-2&R-s-:2.-.?-PR%-HJ<-$9A$-$-$/?-%<,
1. ^-2-$*A?-0-______, 2R.-$A-?-(-#-;?-/?-/3-^-)J-:H$?-$-(J-$9A$-3A-:IR,
2. 2R.-$A-:IR-=$?-v<-/, :P=-2-3%-______8-;?-9R-:P=-#%-/%-/?-3A-:.$
3. \R$-2f/-$9A$-$-v-______, %?-<%-$A-.R/-.$-$9A$-S/-,=, "%-:VR$-/-;R.-______, <A-{J.-$9A$-/?-,%-
!A-$9A$-$-,$-?R%-,"
4. L-2-:.A-=?-_____5<-_____%-HA3-3-:IR-3A-*/, %?-L-2-:.A-.J-<A%-.?-5S.-2&-,3-0-$A-____=?-5<-.$R?,
5. .-.?-5S.-2./-______, 3A?-29R?-Y%-{<-$9A$-^-2-$A-#-#R<-<-,R/-o-<J., o=-#2-:.A?-=R-$%-3%-____3A?-
29R?-Y%-{<-.J-=?,
6. aR2-3-______, #<-$J-%:A-aR2-3-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R-<J.,
7. .-<J3-3-:IR, 3J-:#R<-{<-3-*A->-$A-______:IR-o-<J., .-%J.-$*A?-!<-.?-5S.-&%-3J.,
8. :IR-______, #<-$J-?-(-,$-<A%-.J-3R-$9A$-$-:IR-/-3-:.R., <J.-S, .?-5S.-$*A?-$A-_________, ;:-2-
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KA<-:#R<-/-<-,$-<A%-$A
9. =R-2&-$?3-$A-______, ?:-=J/-#-5%-%-;R., ?:-=J/-#-,R<-______, .J:A-!R2?->$?-<A3-28A/-*3?-?R%-,
10. ?A=-#R%-$A-3J-+R$-2!.-/R:C-______, #R%-3$R<-2.-$A?-2o2-,=, .R-5B$?-?A=-9-o-;R.-o-3-<J.,
11. =?-:H<-;?-/R:C-______, *J?-0-:.A-*A/-I%?-%-{R<-<-:IR-$A-;R., #<-$J-.$J-c/-$9A$-;A/-______, #<-$J-
.J-3R-$9A$-..-0-3A-(J,
12. %?-lR3-;A$-,%-,%-:.A-*A/-3-$?3-______2v?-;R., %?-353?-353?-3-$&A$-<-@-3A-$R %-2R.-;A$-$-Z-o-/,
Exercise 20 Write appropriate tense forms of the verbs in parentheses in the blanks
and, if necessary, add function words.
#--2h-.%--0R,
!--2 %?-2v?-/, 82?-8-2-$A?-%J.-$*A?-!-______, (2eJ.) %J.-$*A?-!?-:.A-/?-.?-5S.-$&A$-
$______, (|$) <J.-S, #<-$J?-%J.-$*A?-!-3A$-$A?-<-______, (v)
#--2 %?-2v?-/, HR.-2.J/-$A 82?-8-2-%J.-$*A?-$A-}/-/?-1<-<-5<-<-,J%?-2./-2o.-$9A$-$-______,
(:IR) OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, #<-$J?-%J.-$*A?-!?-9-3-]%?-;R.-______, (:.R.)
!-2 29:-2-$/-$*A?-!<-vR?, #R-$*A?-!-:.A-/?-{<-3-(-4B$-3A/-.-______, (:$R<) <J.-S-#R-$*A?-!:A-9-3-
______, (,R/)
#--2 %J.-$*A?-!?-9-3-]%?-3J.-/R-#<-$J?-______, (>J?) %J.-$*A?-!-:.A-/?-#<-$J<-2v?-/?-<-.?-5S.-
$9A$-______, (:$R<)
!-2 #<-$J?-______/A-<J., (3*3-:)R$-;?) #<-$J-&R$-4K-:.A-$A-<?-$/-/______, (o$)
#--2 2.J/-$A #<-$J?-%J.-$*A?-!:A-KR$?-$-,J%?-$&A$-<-______, (v)
#--2h-$*AA?-0,
!-2 HR?-N%-$R-/?-=R-(A-3R-$9A$-$-aR2-.R%-;?-;R.,
#--2 %?-:.A-/?-=R-s-S$-______, (aR2-.R%-;?)
!-2 %-<-N%-$R-/?-=R-3%-%-$9A$-________, (:$R<) <J.-S-^-2-$8$-3:A-/%-%-%-___________, (:IR)
#--2 (A-$9A$-$ HR?-:.A-/?-*A.-0R-<J.-9J<, :5S-2-$A-,R$-/?-.!:-%=-AJ-;R.,
!-2 /-/A%-$A-<?, %-<-%:A-c/-3R-$*A?-!-@R%-$A?-______, (:PA$) 3<-$J?-#-#->J.-2#.-/-.!:-3R-<J.-9J<,
#--2 %:A-<R$?-0-35S-3R-<-$/.-.R/-$&A$-$-______, (,$) .-3<-$J:A-c.-0R-KA-o=-/?-______, (;R%) <J.-S-
:VJ=-2-.-2R-<-@R%-$A?-3,/-0R-3-<J.,
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!-2 %J.-$*A?-$A-8A-=A-*J?-$A-<?, 3<-$J?-8A-=A-______, ($*R<) .-<J$-2<-3<-$J?-%-______, (o2-*R<-
;?) .-3<-$J?-L-2-.$:-$9A$-______, (fJ.) 3<-$J?-/3-;A/-/-<-;:-/?-:.$-/-3A-:.R.-9J<,
#-2 .R-8$-%?-<-8-;?-;R.-/-____, (:.R.) .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, %?-aR2-.R%-3-5<-$R%-, 8-;?-.$R?____,
(*/)
!-2 %?-@-$R-,=, =R-28A-$A-<A%-%-%J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-_____, (:.$) %-?R%->=-/?, :VJ=-2-(.-$A-3-:)$
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$%--3% It conveys quantitative concepts such as very much, so much as, so many, and the
like.

HR?-.J-<A%-.%R?-2R-$?<-2-3%-%-AJ-<A$ %?-.J-<A%-.%R?-2R-$?<-2-$%-3%--<A$-,=,
na lot; so many
.!R/-3(R$-$A?-#-=2-(A-3R-$9A$-;?-,=, .!R/-3(R$-$A?-#-=2-$%-3%--$9A$-;?-?R%-,
9-3-3%-%-9R?-/-#R$-0-2.J-o-AJ-<J., 9-3-$%-3%-9R?-/-#R$-0-3A-2.J, oas much as
one can
#<-$J?-$/.-.R/-(A->J.-,$-$&R.-;?-,=, ,2?-$$%--3%-:,J/-/?-$/.-.R/-,$-$&R.-;?,
o=-#2-3%-%-$9A$-/?-.-2R-.L<-#-AJ-;A/, o=-#%-$%--3%-$9A$-/-.-2R-.L<-#-<J.,
$%--;R. It conveys quantitative concepts such as whatever available, and available in plenty.

.R-.$R%-$A-.$R%-)-HR?-(A-$9A$-:,%-:.R., %?-.J-<A%-$%--;R.-:,%-o-;A/, neverything available
HR?-|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-$;<-/-:.R., %?-|R<-3R-$%--;R.-$9A$-$;<-/-:.R., osomething available

in plenty
HR.-=-o-9R$-(A-3R-$9A$-;R., %:A-=$-/-$%--;R.-=$-:.A-$?3-0R-<J., peverything one has
5S%-#%-/%-/-.%R?-2R-(A-3R-$9A$-3%-$A-/%-, 5S%-#%-/%-/-.%R?-2R-$%-;RR.-<J.,
HR?-:.A-5%-3-*R-o-AJ-;A/, %?-$%--;R.-3A-*R, %?-:.A-$*A?-!-*R,
$%--:.R. It expresses whatever someone wants or something available as he pleases.

.<-o?-&/-$A-o=-#2-/?-|R<-3R-$%- |R<-3R-$%-:.RR.-3-<J., =?-!-3-=?-/, navailability
:.R.-AJ-<J., owhatever someone

wants
HR?-.%R?-2R-(A-3R-$9A$-*R-o?, $R%-2.J-$A %?-$%-:.RR.-$9A$-*R-o-;A/,
A-1, HR?-%-$R/-o-$/-*R?-0, 8A-=A, $%-:.RR.-3-2>., A-1-3J.-0R-;A/,
5S%-#%-/%-/-.%R?-2R-(A-3R-$9A$-3%- 5S%-#%-/%-/-.%R?-2R-$%-:.RR.-<J.,
$A
.R-5B$?-$/3-:)R-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., .R-5B$?-$/3-:)R-hR$-$R-$%--:.R.-<J.,
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}R/-/ vs. }R/-/? This table illustrates subtle differences between the two temporal terms.
}R/-/ }R/-/?
before earlier / ago / before
=R-<2?-2o.-&-2-$A-}R/-/-<A-:.A-.-2R-/$?-<J., =R-*A->-$A-}R/-/?--<A-.J-*-,J<-,J<-*/-,=,
This mountain was a forest before the 80s. The mountain became bare 20 years ago.
aR2-{2?-3)$-$A-$9:-:#R<-$&A$-$A-}R/-/-%-;:-2-:IR, $9:-:#R<-$&A$-$A-}R/-/?--%-;:-2-:IR-o-;A/,
I will go home one week before the semester I will go home one week earlier.
ends.
3<-$J:A-}R/-/, %-A-3J-<A-#<-,R/, 3<-$J?-=R-28A:A-}R/-/?--A-3J-<A-#<-:IR-oR:A-P-1A$-;?,
I came to America before her. She started to prepare for going to the USA 4
years ago.
.?-5S.-$?3-0-$A-}R/-/-%?-=?-!-5%-3-=?-5<-?R%-, .?-5S.-$?3-0-$A-}R/-/?-%?-=?-!-=?-o-;A/,
I did all the work before 3 o'clock. I will work before 3 o'clock.
#<-$J:A-}R/-/, 3#?-0-#R-:S-3-$9A$-3J., =R-*A->-$A-}R/-/?, 3#?-2-#R-:S-3-3%-%-L%-,=,

There was no scholar like him before. Many scholars like him came onto the stage
20 years ago.
/%-.3J-$A-}R/-/-<-HA3-35K?-$*A?-!-:PA$-$A-3J., =R-$?3-$A-}R/-/?-HA3-35K?-$*A?-!-:PA$-$A-3J.,
The two families were already in a dispute before The two families had a dispute three years
the internal killing. ago.
28$ This adverb is put after the main verb in PAT at the end of a sentence to signify perfect
tense or past tense. It can often be translated already.
Perfect tense Past tense

KA-SR:A-.?-5S.-2./-0-,R/-.?-5S$?-:.-PR=-28$ 5K-<A%-,R/-28$ <J.-S-]-3-3-,R/,
The meeting was already over before 7 p.m. Tshe ring came but Lama did not.
=R-2o.-<-:2.-<J$-$J<-#<-$J-aR2-(%-/?-3,<--KA/-28$ \R$-2f/-:.A-$?3-0R-%?-3.%-.$R%-2v?--28$
He had already graduated from the primary I watched these three movies last night.
school before he became 8 years old.
=R-+R$-3-2+2?-$R%-, =.-5%-3-8A%-/%-%-2o2--28$ %?-.$:-<R$?-$-.-/%?-#-0<-$A-,R$-/?-#-2h-;?--
All manure has been spread in the field before 28$I talked to my lover this morning over the
sowing seeds. phone.
A-1-$A?-#-3-:$=-$R%-=$--:$==-28$ (My) father *J?-&/-$A-!/-aR%-*J/-gR$-0-$A?-l.-2&.-/?->J?-28$
had started to beat me before reasoning with The police investigated and discovered the
me. criminal's motivation.
•338•
/?--29% /?-29%, synonym of $A-<?, means since. It is not commonly used in oral Amdo.
With /?-299% $AA-<?
With
%-=R-S$-$-2.-$A-/?-299%--, %?-MA$->J=-$R/-$A-;R., %-=R-S$-$-2.-$A-<?, %?-MA$->J=-$R/-$A-;R.,

%-o=-#2-:.A<-;R%-$A-/?-299%-, 2R.-3A-$&A$-<-<A$-3-MR%-, %-o=-#2-:.A<-;R%-$A-<?, 2R.-$&A$-<-<A$-3-MR%-,
#<-$J-aR2-3-$9A$-;A/-$A-/?-299%-, L-2-24=-3-MR%-, aR2-3-$9A$-;A/-$A-<?, #<-$J?-L-2-24=-3-MR%-,
.J-<A%-*A-3-><-$A-/?--29%%-, %-#R3-$A-3J., .J-<A%-*A-3-><-$A-<?, %-#R3-$A-3J.,
L-2-=?-$A-/?-299%--, #R-.$J-c/-2&R?-/A-<J., L-2-=?-$A-<?, #R-.$J-c/-2&R?-/A-<J.,
HA3-5%-;R.-$A-/?--29%%-, %:A-A-&J-KA-=R$-$-:IR-3-,2, HA3-5%-;R.-$A-<?, %:A-A-&J-KA-=R$-$-?R%-3-MR%-,
>==-/? It conveys the temporal adverb after as a synonym of the temporal word $8$-/?.
>==-/? $88$--/?
HR.-?R%->=--/?, ??-2R.-{.-$A-aR2-OA.-;?-o-;A/, #<-$J-?R%-$8$--/?, i3-o=-$A?-2R.-{.-:OA.-o-<J.,
A-3-3J.->==-/?, 8-;?-$*A?-!?-8J-$A?-.!:-,=, A-3-3J.-$8$--/?, A-1-$A?-8-;?-$*A?-!-$*R<-,2-$A-3J.,
#-9?-3J.->==-/?, 3%-5S$?-$A?-.!:-#$-M%?, .0=-:LR<-*3?-$8$--/?, 3%-5S$?-$A?-.!:-#$-M%?,
$R-$/?-$?<-2-,R2->==-/?, #<-$J:A-3$R-0%-,=, $R-$/?-$?<-2-,R2-$8$--/?, #<-$J-@%-,=,
!R/-3R-PR=->==-/?-(%-n=-.-2R-:IR-#-3-*/, !R/-3R-$A-$8$--/?, :P=-2-9R-.-2R-.?-5S.-$&A$-$-3-?R%-,
^-2-(-4B$-$A->==-/?, /.-0<-.2$?-o?-?R%-, ^-2-(-4B$-$A-$8$--/?, /.-0-S$-?R%-,
Duplication of Verb + 8RR< Emphasizes a lingering period of time.
Not emphasized Emphatic duration Notes

L-2-;R.-8R<-<, %?-L-2-$8/-$9A$-24=-/-:.R., \--=J/-8RR<-=J/-8RR<-<, 3<-$J-?J3?-#$-,=, nlingering
duration
=3-#-/?-:IR-8R<-<, 8A%-2-$9A$-$A?-\-=J/-$A-;R., aRR2-.R%-;?--8R<-;?--8R<-<, 2R.-{.-)J-.!:-<J., o an action
either
$%-)-:,%-8R<-<, %-.$R%-)<-:.%-o$-(J, =3-/?-;R%-8R<-;RR%-8R<-<, %-OR-)J-(J-<J., lingering or
recurring
#$-$A-9J<-8R<-<, #<-$J-.$R.-$A-<-;R., |R<-3R-3J.-9J<-8RR<-9J<-8RR<-<, |R<-3R-!A3-$A-;R.,
*A.-8R<-<-#$-8R<, MA-5K-.J->J.-5<-,=, ;$-3-.J<-v-8R<-v--8R<-<, %-;A.-.2%->R<-,=,
•339•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-22&--$&A$-0,,
]-V%-2N->A?-:HA=,
/%-2!/ Buddhism /%-2!/-$A-o=-#2-5S-><-KR$?-/-;R.,
!/-?: Gansu (a province of China) !/-?:-$A-zR-KR$?-A-3.R-$A-?-(-;A/,
8A%-(J/ province 8A%-(J/-#=-$A-(J-;A/,
!R2?->$? power ?-(-:.A-.0=-:LR<-!R2?->$?-(J,
2+2 to found .$R/-0-:.A-=R-?3-&:A-}R/-2+2?,
>J.->$? influence; power 9?-2&.-&/-9R?-/->J.->$?-o?,
24$? to be established :6B/-9-$?<-2-:.A-/-/A%-24$?,
aR2-$*J< study :.A-/-2R.-;A$-aR2-$*J<-LJ.-3#/-*%-,
$?J<-OA a high position in a monastery ]-V%-.$R/-0-/-$?J<-OA-28A-;R.,
3#/-0R specialist; a position in monastery 3#/-0R-,A<-2+%-$A?-MA-=R-=R/-$9A$-;A/,
$+/-5B$?-<A$-0 logic $+/-5B$?-<A$-0-%?-.R%-/-3A-:.R.,
{<-lA? astronomy 2R.-$A-{<-lA?-$/:-/?-;R.,
^R?-$< dance and performance ^R?-$<-<A$-$/?-(%-2-s-$A-/%-;A/,
:2$ statue .$R/-0-/-:2$-l-(J/-3%-,
2?3-IA?-3A-H2 unimaginable ;=-:.A:A-36K?-uR%?-2?3-IA?-3A-H2,
{-UJ% incarnation +-=:A-]-3-{-UJ%-s-2-#3?-/?-;A/,
:.-#% meeting hall :.-#%-:.A-=R-S$-&-$A-}R/-/-=?,
9->$ monk's residence 9->$-9R-,A-2+%-$A?-3A-(J,
H.-(R?-&/ uniquely characterized *J?-0-:.A-MA-H.-(R?-&/-$9A$-<J.,
5/-l= scientific technology ,A-5S$?-.<-.$R?-/-5/-l=-3J.-3A-*/,
+-l= art +-l=-$A-,R$-/?-%?-$&A$-<-3A->J?,
$+J<-# mine $+J<-#-2R.-/-3%-, <J.-S-2}R$-3A-,2,
2l3?-(R? works (academic) #<-$J<-2l3?-(R?-3%-, <J.-S-A-m-*%-,
•340•
29R-l= craft; art; technology 29R-l=-3A-Z-/-,R/-m?-o-%?-<-3A-29%-,
$;-{ jade statue $;-{-l-(J-o-<J.,
>J=-{ statue made of crystal >J=-{-%?-3%-%-<A$-3-MR%-,
2=-;= Nepal 2=-;=-/-3(R.-gJ/-I$?-&/-$9A$-;R.,
<2-$/? consecration (ritual) =A-{-.J-<2-$/?-;?-/A-<-/%-%-28$
wJ2?-VA? fresco wJ2?-VA?-:.A-3%:-<A?-/?-,R/-/A-<J.,
$4$?-P2 embroidery ,%-!-$4$?-P2-=?-5K$?-(J,
l-(J-2R the valuable HR.-=-$%-.$R?, l-(J-2R-:R-/-l-(%-%R-,
?%?-3 essence; gist ?-*-=J$?-2>.-=J$?-2>.-$A-?%?-3-<J.,
=$?-fA% lunar calendar =$?-fA%-v<-/-^-2-*A/-?R-$&A$-&/-3J.,
o=-YA.-,A-H2-#% State Council o=-YA.-,A-#2-#%-YA.-:6B/-=?-#%?-;A/,
lJ-P? elite; top #R-MA-.2%-&/-lJ-P?-$9A$-;A/,
#R%?-%-28$ to be grouped; to be categorized %-{R<-#$-$?3-0-$A-#R%?-%-28$-;R.,
%R-2R paternal grandfather %R-2R-(%-.?, :5S-2-.!:-3R-;A/-9J<,
%R-3R maternal grandmother %R-3R-<-%R-2R-5K-$%-%-3*3-0?-2#.,
,-(% youngest %:A-8-;?-,-(%-.-=R-$?3-;A/,
#J-5S% business #J-5S%-2o2-/-*J/-#-<-;R.,
24S/-/-2&$ to imprison ?-:.A-/?-MA-3%-%-24S/-/-2&$-MR%-,
2-mA-#% kindergarten 8-;?-:.A-2-mA-#%-%-:IR-#-3A-*/,
,R< to get divorced 8A-3R-:.A-/-/A%-29:-5%-,R<-?R%-,
,2-29% to have a family %:A-%/-;-$A?-<%-$A-,2-29%-;R.,
$/?-=-?R% to marry 1R=-3-=R-2&-2./-$A-,R$-$/?-=-?R%-,
T-3#/ acrobat T-3#/-$A?-T-2!/-/, #<-$J?-_R3-?R%-,
2!. to explode %-1R-2-&R?-/?-2!.-=-#.-;R.,
v.-3R-2 audience v.-3R-2-3%-$A <J.-S-\-3-0$-$A-3J.,
<A. thin 3%-2R-.J->-<A., =?-*$-24S$->J.-;R.,
@%-n= cocky; haughty @%-n=-.J:A-3*3-0?-3-:IR, 8A-=A,
•341•
?/-$% loneliness; being bored ?/-$%-*J?-.?-%?-o/-.-.0J-(-[R$
|R-o$ to close; to shut down \R$-[.-$A-|R-3-o$ %?-2!R=-o?,
3%:-,%-(J powerful N%-$R-3%:-,%-)J-(J-<J.,
2%-#J2? apron )-3-$A?-3R-<%-$A-2%-#J2?-fJ.-$A-3J.,
IJ?-0R father-in-law IJ?-0R-<R%-/-;R., %?-o/-.-3A-<A$
<R%-=? agricultural activities <R%-=?-=?-/-#R3-o-3J.,
:VR$-=? nomadic activities %?-}R/-(.-:VR$-=?-<-=?-MR%-,
3-&% mahjong (majiang) 3-&%-lJ.-3#/-9R-1=-(J<-$?<-2-;A/,
3R-n% single woman 3R-n%-.J?-.-2R-3R-n%-%-:.$-o-;A/-9J<,
2./-$*A? a fortnight; two weeks /.-0-:.A-(/-#%-/?-2./-$*A?-2#.,
5S%-2hA2? to go bankrupt #R-5S%-2hA2?-/?-?J3?-3-*A.,
;A$-+< translation ;A$-+<-=?-!-.!:-3R-<J.,
]R-2.J relaxed; carefree L-2-3-P2-/-%-]R-3A-2.J,
3)$-PA= to end 5S$?-:.-.-?R-3-3)$-PA=-?R%-,
=?-24: remuneration; fee =?-24:-3J.-/-$;R$-0R-<J.,
2YJ$? to burn; to get burned ;A-$J-3J-/%-%-2YJ$?-2+%-,
2><-# queue KA-o=-/?-o/-.-2><-#-$+R%-,
3-$J famine .J%-?%-3-$J-:L%-?-.!R/,
\J%-KR$?-$?<-2-8A$
\J%-$8A theme; topic 5S$?-,R$-$A-\J%-$8A-<%-.2%-$A-{R<-<J.,
.J.-lR3 essay .J.-lR3-5%-3-.0J-(-:.A:A-/%-/-;R.,
3,<-$+$?-/ to put in a nutshell 3,<-$+$?-/-:.A-.R/-.$-(J-$9A$-3-<J.,
:1=-$-:UR. to fit well |R-:.A-:1=-!-:UR.-3J.,
:6B/-KR$? the way of doing something aR2-$?R-:6B/-KR$?-KA-o=-/?-Z-$A
>J?-;R/-0 intellectual >J?-;R/-0-;A/-/-.0J-(-2-;A/-o-<J.,
=J-=/-:.J. to blame for .R/-.$-L%-2+%-, .-#R<-=J-=/-3-:.J.,
•342•
3-l capital 3-l-3J.-/-#J-5S%-o$-,2?-3J.,
:.->J? idea; mind; consciousness lA->A%-%-:.->J?-3J.,
$%-(%-;? to belittle MA-$8/-/-$%-(%-3-;?,
:.R.-(%-(R$->J? sense of satisfaction :.R.-(%-(R$->J?-;A/-/-?J3?-*A.,
=?-o-:V? karma =?-o-:V?-2Y%?-/-#-=?-.$J
=?-=3-3-:IR to have a stroke of luck =?-=3-3-:IR-oR-<%-<%-$A-#-/-;R.,
?-o? geography %?-(%-.?-?-o?-22-$A?-3->J?,
,A-=J-P-28A-3 square km :)/-3/-?-o-,A-=J-P-28A-3-.-<J.,
;=-YR= local custom ;=-YR=-$R3?-:SA?-3-2lA?-/-3A-*/,
2!R=-o-(% not very useful; useless o-{.-A-<-/?-<-2!R=-o-3A-(%-,
3-=$ system :.A-/?-,A-5S$?-$A-3-=$-(-5%-;A/,
$8%-KR$? official $8%-KR$?-$A-;A$-(-:.A-$=-(J,
%$-,R$ verbal %$-,R$-/?-#<-$J?-L-2-:.A-#?-]%?,
=$-,R$-/? in practice; practically =$-,R$-/?-#<-$J?-$&A$-<-3A-=?,
2PR.-=3 path; road 9-1A$-L?-;R.-/-2PR.-=3-;R.-o-<J.,
#<-2. to emerge; to appear (-/%-/?-K$?-9R$-#<-2.-2+%-,
KA-:VJ= foreign relationship o=-#2-2<-$A-:VJ=-2-KA-:VJ=-<J.,
?J3?-:#R< to think about (with affection) %-c/-3R-$A-!J%-%-?J3?-:#R<-$A
0J at all (in negation) #-l%-%:A-=?-<R$?-0J-3-;R%-,=,
,R/-<% to (just) arrive HR.-,R/-.?, %-<-,R/-<%-;A/,
$?R-*R% upbringing; care 8-;?-$?R-*R%-A-m-;?-oR-$=-(J,
K$?-o. animal breeding K$?-o.-29%-/->->J.-29%-,
_2?-(J/ great MA-_2?-(J/-5%-3-2eJ.-3A-:IR,
:IR-</ to be the time to go .-:IR-</-?R%-, ?-<2-,=,
=?-#%? work unit =?-#%?-:.A-$?<-24$?-$9A$-;A/,
8 to be paralyzed 8-2R-:.A-=R-$?3-$A-!J%-b%-2-8-?R%-,
!-,$ discouraged; narrow-minded MA-!-,$-:.A-1R=-3-$A-1-2R-<J.,
•343•
=R$? next to; nearby &R$-4K-$A-=R$?-/-AR%-!J$?-$9A$-;R.,
>-5S% meat business >-5S%-o$-3#/-.J-A-3.R-/?-<J.,
>-=? meat industry >-=?-2R.-/?-3A-.<,
,R/-*J. production ,R/-*J.-3-o?-/, :5S-2-;<-;R%-3J.,
#-5 hot; urgency 9A-OR/-$A-9-3-#-5,
2.: to get fired MA-=J-=R-&/-.J-=?-#%?-/?-2.:-2+%-,
:6K3 to hesitate A-1-$A?-%-$*R$-oR<-3A-:6K3,
#R-,$-$ certainly #<-$J-2v?-/-#R-,$-$-.2?-/?-<J.,
#-lR. argument; altercation #-lR.-3-;?, *A.-0R->J.-#R.,
(-< beard #-3(J-9R?-(-<-:)R$-$A
.0=-;R/ civilization ?-KR$?-:.A-<A$-$/?-.0=-;R/-o?-;R.,
3%<-3R sweet )-3%<-3R-:,%-3#/-z-?-/-3%-,
$R%-:1J= development aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-$R%-:1J=-;R.-.$R?,
2h-3R. grammar 2R.-;A$-$A-2h-3R.-.!:-3R-;A/-$A-;R.,
,-~. vocabulary ,-~.-3%-%-.%?-/-<A$-0-o?,
@-8J/ diligence =?-!<-@-8J/-;?-/-:V?-2-=R/,
1/-#J benefit #J-5S%-$A-,R$-/?-1/-#J-3J.-?R%-,
=?-$8A project =?-$8A-:.A<-:$R-2-$A?-o2-*R<-3-;?,
\R$-[.,
\R$-[. computer 2R.-/-\R$-[.-;R.-3#/-3%-%-3J.,
k%-$8A basis; foundation k%-$8A-2g/-/-#%-2-2!/-3R-;R%-,
LJ.-/? function; ability ,R/-m?-:.A:A-LJ.-/?-(A-$9A$-<J.,
>R%-o capacity \R$-[.-:.A->R%-o-(J,
LJ.-0 function _%?-:#R<-:.A-LJ.-0-*%-,
;A-$J-$+$? to type; to input S%-;A$-.J-;A-$J-$+$?-/-3IR$?,
3*J/-(? software 3*J/-(?-3J.-/-\R$-[.-$A?-$R-3A-(R.,
•344•
$-8A%-5S$?-0 various .R/-.$-L%-/R-o-nJ/-$-5S$?-0?-<J.,
;A.-.2%-:UR$ be engrossed ;$-3-9R?-8A-=A-9R:C-;A.-.2%-:UR$-:IR,
:VJ=-$+$?-;? to contact %?-.$J-c/-/-:VJ=-$+$?-;?-$A-;R.,
o=-,A international o=-,A:A-!J%-/?-.LA/-;A$-2!R=-o-(J,
,2?-h$? terrible (in condition) HA3-5%-.J:A-$/?-22?-,2?-h$?-<J.,
2%-36S. storehouse; trove <A$-$/?-2%-36S.-/-aR2-o-3%-,
S-2 net S-2-$A-/%-%-;-$9A$-,J2?-;R.,
2f/-:UA/ TV set %:A-c/-3R-$A?-2f/-:UA/-/-3A-v,
b/-3 thief b/-3-$A?-%:A-|R<-#$-2b?-?R%-,
3J-=R% mirror $?<-3R-:.A?-o/-.-3J-=R%-29%-;R.,
?-8A% cropland ?-8A%-.-2<-HA3-5%-%-LA/-28$
$&J< to stare 8-;?-.J-lJ.-3R-$A-,R$-$-$&J<-;R.,
5-< this side (direction) 5-<->R$ .J-/?-*J/-#-(J,
#-:#R< to turn around #<-$J-#-:#R<-/?, ;%-2.J-3R-LR?-9J<,
$R/ to add .-%:A-,R$-$-=?-!-3-$R/,
&/ to gobble up 9-3-&/-3#/-HR.-;A/, %-3A/,
P3-0 river floor P3-0-/-hR-3A/-.-&%-3J.,
*J?-=? body 8A-3R-.J-*J?-=?-<-;$
z%-?J conspicuous; outstanding MA-$9$?-&/-.J-Y%-/-z%-?J-;R.,
,%-!A wolf ,%-!A-<-$;%-.!<-=$-3A-:(3?,
3A?-29R?-Y%-{< satellite 3A?-29R?-Y%-{<-,%-/-3J.-.$%-/-;R.,
*3? to decline 2R.-24/-0R-;%-$A?-;%-$A?-*3?-?R%-,
82?-8-2 waitress 82?-8-2-$A?-\-24:-(J-$9A$-3A-=R/,
3*3-28$ to pay attention; to heed %?-$/.-.R/-.J<-3*3-3-28$
3,/-0R harmonious; congenial :$R-2-<-=$-<R$?-3,/-0R-3-<J.,
:VJ=-2-(. to have no contact .!R/-3(R$-<-1R=-3-:VJ=-2-(.-?R%-,
•345•
•346•
aR2-5/-2&-$*A?-0,
2h-3R.,
Duplication of Verbs in PRT + $A Duplication of Verb PAT + $A

Infinitive Case vs. Participle Case Review of Infinitive Case
Use of Participle Particles Participle Case
Two stupas in the compound of Gro tshang rdo rje 'chang Monastery, Ledu County
(2013).
Text One: participle cases and infinitive cases
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A-=?-.2%-,
>A%-29R-.!R/-3(R$->A%-=?-=?-oR<-.$:-$A-3J., =R-$A-#<-=R-28$-;?, #<-$J?->A%-=?-=?-/A-<J., .L<-#-4.-/%-

/?-, .$/-#-4$-/%-/?, |R-KA-/%-/?-, ,%-%-4S$-;?, ;<-<-=%?-;?, /<-<?-=R-2&-,3-0-$A-<A%-%-#$-$A-:5S-2-
M%?, #%-2-P2-/A-<, #%-2-Z-$A-9J<-3#/-8R%-$A?-3J., ;R.-/-<, >A%-29R-$A-=$-l=-Z-$A-3A-9J<-<, #%-2-$A->A%-(-Z-
$A-9J<, {2?-:.A-3R<-,R/-/, #<-$J-%R-3-$A?-~A%-=%?-$A-;R.,
^-2-2o.-0-$A-5K?-0-.$-2:A-*A/, #<-$J-;%-;A-(.-?R%-, #<-$J?-A-#-5K-=R-5%-$A-#%-2-$?<-2-:P2-$A-:)$-o?-9J<,

.J-2-5%-/?-^-2-$?3-$A-<A%->A%-=?-=?-/-<, #<-$J<-)-.!<-;R=-$%-<-].-3-MR%-, ,-/-$%-)-<-#R-<%-$A?-:HJ<-;R%-
.$R?, ,A<-2+%-$A?, #%-2-$9A$-P2-/, !R/-3R-$9A$-;?-oR-?-(-.J:A-.0J-<J., <J.-S-A-#-5K-=R-$A?-(R.-4B$-<-P-1A$-
;?-/-:.R.-$A-3J., #<-$J?-.-2R-=?-\-<-^-2-$&A$-$*A?-$9A$-$-!J<-3A-,2-9J<,9-3-$9A$-9R?-/-:.R.-<?, A-#-
.!R/-3(R$-#R-<%-$A-VR-#-=J/-$A-?R%-, <J.-S-VR-#-22-$A?-<<A$-o-3J.-?R%-, ;-.-.J<-*R/-3J.-$A .-KA-SR:A-.?-5S.-S$-$-,R/-
=-#.-;R., =?-!-<-:P2-=-#.-;R.-$A #<-$J?-<%-$A-HA3-/?-.$R%-)-/R$?-3R-$9A$-9R?-/-(R$-:.R.,
A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A?-&-=$-5%-3-.R-.3-;?-<?-,%-%-2#., .-L-2-5%-3-P2-?R%-, #R-.J-2-5%-/?-:IR-</-<J., {2?-

.J<-#<-$J?-|R-:I3-/-4B-$-$9A$-RA$-RA$-I$?-$A-;R.-/R-$R-?R%-, >A%-29R-3-?R%-$R%-%-, #%-2-$?<-2-$A-/%-/-4B-$-;R.-
/-3-<J.-2?3?-3?, |R-:I3-$A-#%-.-(%-(%-.J:A-/%-%-:R-&R-$9A$-$A?-$4$?, $4$?-$4$?-;?, 2<-$9A$-$-4B-$-
I$?-o-3J.-?R%-, L-2-P2-?R%-2?3?-3?, #<-$J?-A-#-5K-=R-#R-<%-$A-=?-!<-v-$A-2R?-?R%-,
A-#-5K-=R-$A?-"HR?-L-2-=?-/R-2>.-o-3J.,"9J<-8R<-<, #%-2:A-/%-%-8A2-v-$9A$-;?, "%?-HR.-|R<-3R-^-2-$&A$-$A-

$8$-/?-2{<-;R%-," A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A?, "(R$-$A =?-;R/-/-2#R3?-0?-|R<-3R-!R%-s-;A/, HR:A-=$-/-|R<-3R-;R.-/,
HR?-^-2-$&A$-$A-/%-%-&A$-{<,"9J<, #<-$J?-<%-$A-&-=$-9R-#<-<?, A-#-5K-=R-5%-/?-|R<-2., A-#-5K-=R-$A?-#R-|R-#-
<J$-$J<-*J=-3-;?,
A-#-5K-=R-|R-#-/?-KA-<-:#R<-8R<-<, "A-#-.!R/-3(R$ =?-!-=?-8R<-<, HR?-=R:-U$-3-<A$-$ =R:-U$-~A%-eJ-$9A$-

;A/, %?-.J-<A%-}-SR-|R<-:IR-$A--2&$-2+%-, <J.-S, {2?-:.A<-,R/-/, =R:-U$-/3-;A/-/-<-KA<-<-HA3-3-;R%-%-, =R:-
U$-Z-/-$A-<-MA-:S-3-$9A$-;A/, =R:-U$-$A?-:.A-3R-8R%-$A?-3A-;?,"9J<,
•348•
A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A?-"A-#-5K-=R, %?-3-<A$-,=,"9J<-8R<-<-=3-3-2., {2?-.J<, A-#-5K-=R-$A?"OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/,
HA3-$A-|R-:I3-/-;R.-o-<J.,"9J<, .J-/?-A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A?-4B-$-.J-S/-?R%-, "A-4B?, .J-=R:-U$-;A/-/%-, .J-4B-$-;A/-
o-<J.," A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A-$R3-#-)J-3IR$?-$-2.-?R%-, #<-$J?-=?-(.-<-|R<-(.-5%-3-2eJ.-?R%-,
12.1 --Participle cases vs. infinitive cases
Participle English Infinitive English

%?-{.-<A$?-$?3-2a2?-- I learned three
languages by
{.-<A$?-$?3-aR2-oR-%:A- To study three
languages is my plan.
;?->J?-?R%-, studying. :(<-$8A-;A/,
.R/-.$-:.A-2>.--<?--,$-3A- This issue cannot be ,$-$&R.-3A-,2-/-<, .R/- It is necessary to
solved by talking. mention the issue
(R., .$-\J%-oR-\J%-.$R?, even though it cannot
be solved.
MA$-$A?-2v?--/?-.%R?-2R- One cannot see
many things by
%?-v-oR-.0J-(-3,$-0R- (The thing) I need to
read is this (very)
3%-%-$9A$-3A-<A$ looking with the
eyes.
3,$-0R-:.A-;A/, thick book.
:$R-2-g<-8R/-/?--,R/-2+%-, The leader came

riding a horse.
HR.-,R/-:.R.-/, g<-88R/-oR- If you want to get
there, please decide
LR?, to ride the horse.
:.A-/?-=R-$*A?-22#.-<?-- Staying here for two :)<-3/-$A-{.->J?-:.R.- If one wants to learn

years, I learned the German, it is better
%?-:)<-3/-$A-{.->J?-,=, German language. /, =R-$*A?-:.A-/?-:.$- to decide to stay here
for two years.
oRR-LR?,
%-_%?-:#R<-<-2#.--<?-:IR- I will go by car. _%?-:#R<-<-:.$--oR<-%-3A- I do not like to take a
car, but there is no
o-;A/, .$:, <J.-S-,2?-3J., choice.
#<-$J<-##-2h-;?--<?-%?- Talking to him, I $/?-5=-$?=-2R->J?-/- If one wants to know

clearly understood the situation well, it
$/?-5=-$?=-2R-$9A$->J?- the situation. :.R.-/, #<-$J<-#-2h-;?- is important to talk
with him.
,=, oRR-$=-(J,
Notes-1
Positive participle case: nIt consists of a verb in PAT plus a participle variant or consists
of a monosyllabic adjective plus a participle variant. It describes how something takes place
or how someone does something, e.g., #<-$J-&-=$-#<-<?-A-#-5K-=R-5%-/?-|R<-2., He came out
of Tshe lo's home carrying his stuff. / #R-3R-;$-;$-;?-I$?-,=, She became famous by being
so beautiful.oThe participle case is not used as subject or object. pParticiple case variants
•349•
can be treated at times as the causative conjunction and, e.g., 3J-+R$-2!.-<?, ?-(-5%-3-(A-3R-
$9A$-;$-$A The flowers have blossomed and the whole area is so beautiful. (The whole area is
so beautiful, with the flowers blossomed.)
Exercise 1 Write infinitive case and participle case in the blanks using the verbs in
parentheses. Refer to the participle variants distribution on the next
page.
.0J<-2eR., 5K-=R-$A?-.LA/-;A$-.R%-oR:A-:$R-lR3-$A-;R., (.R%-)
1. A-&J-?%?-o?-35S-;=-{R<-<-________.$:, (:IR)
2. L-2-$A-$8$-/?, t$?-L3?-$A?-\R$-2f/-/-________:IR-9J<, (v)
3. HR?-o-{.-________$%-/?-.%?, (2>.) #<-$J?-OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-0J-&A/-/?-.%?-;R.,
4. .0J-(-.J-.R-.$R%-%?-________<J., (v) <J.-S-HR?-2v?-/-:.R.-/-HJ<-/-(R$
5. .%R?-2R-:.A-5%-3-MA-$&A$-$A?-________.!:-3R-<J., (*J=) %?-.-2R-MA-(-4B$-:OA.-;R%-,
6. HR.-0J-&A/-/?-________(A-3R-$9A$-:$R<-?R%-, (:.$) %-<-.J-/?-=R-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-$-2#.-MR%-,
7. 3<-$J-:.A->J.-8-;?-=?-#%?-/%-%-________;R%-/, (:OA.) *A/-$9A$-$-=?-#%?-/%-/?-2.:-o-<J.,
8. c.-0R-$A?-9-3-________2|$?-;R., (9) c/-3R-=?-!-________#R3-$A-3J., (=?)
9. 29%-3R-$A?-3<-$J:A-|R<-#$-________2eJ.-?R%-, (:HJ<-;R%) %?-3<-$J<-|R<-3R-?3-2&-2*A?-2+%-%-,
10. %- .J%- 3- ?- (- :.A- /?- _____2#.- MR%- , (lJ) <J.- S- %?- $&A$- <- 3A- S/- $A %- =R- $*A?- ;A/- .?, %- :.A- /?- =R-$&A$- $-
2#.-9J<,
11. (R?- 1R/- $A?- .-______:5S- 2- <R=- $A- ;R., (#$- 3,R%) 3<- $J- c.- 0R- A- m- 2R-<____ 8A- =A- 3$R- !R% - $9A$- <- HA3- 5%-
2&R?, (,R<)
12. HR?- <%-$A- .$/- H-_______3- 2eJ., (:HJ<- ;R%) 2R.- /?- $/3- $>A?- :H$?- 3R- ;A/, :.<- ?A$- ?A$- ;?- /, HR.-
*A.-o-3-<J.,
13. .J%-3-%J.-$*A?-!?-_______:5S-2-2*=-/A-<J., (:PR$) .J%-?%-%J.-$*A?-!-_______#R3-0-<-3J.-$A (%R-,$)
14. 3<-$J?-$+3-%/-.J-(A->J.________3->J?, (2>.) (A-$9A$-;?-/-<-$+3-%/-#-/?-:2.-3-,2,
15. #-0<-$A-/%-/?-35S-3R-%?-2+%-, (A-$9A$-$R-o-<J.-________%-=?-;R%?-mR$?-&A.-,=, (2?3)
•350•
12.2 --Distribution of positive participle variants
Preceding With positive participle variants English Note

suffix
$ %-.J-<A%-2o$?-;?-;R%-, I came running today. nParticiple
variants are
$ 8A-=A-:.A-{.-;$-;?--I$?-,=, This boy became famous, his distributed
voice being melodious. with regard
% %:A-A-1-$A?-5K-$%-%-#$-M%?-;?--2.-?R%-, My father passed away having to the
experienced hardship during suffix of the
his entire life. syllable
% 2-wR3-0R-#-<:A-<R-29%-;;?-(-#-$9A$-$-,R/, The tramp boy came to a river they follow.
holding the corpse of a crow.
/ =-$-$A?-A-3-S/-/?--KA<-<-,R/-2+%-, Missing his mother, the lamb oAll
returned. participle
3 ?%-*A/-$A-.R/-.$-2?3?-3?, %-$*A.-3A-#$ I cannot sleep thinking about case
tomorrow's work.
variants
. 3J-+R$-2!.-<?, ?-(-5%-3-(A-3R-$9A$-;$-$A How beautiful the whole place
is with the flowers blossomed! can be
replaced by
2 #%?-22?-2?, /3-^-)J-:H$?-<J., Having snowed, it is getting
colder. /?
, a more
: A-3-.$:-;?-29A-,=, Being happy, the mother got common
drunk. usage in
? %-;/-<A%-%-=?-!-=?-/?--(.-2+%-, I was tired having worked for written
a long time.
Tibetan.
< 3<-$J-_%?-:#R<-2{R<-<?-,$-<A%-%-?R%-, She went to a far off place
driving a car.
= #<-$J?-?J3?-$;J=-<?--2>.-:$R-2l3?, Being relaxed, he started to
speak.
No suffix #<-$J-b%-%-8-;?--aR2-9<-?R%-, He went to school with a
paralyzed leg.
Exercise 2 Write infinitive cases and participle cases in the blanks, paying particular
attention to participle variants.
.0J<-2eR., KA-SR<-%<-=?-o-&%-3J., (=?) %?-HA3-/?-)-:,%?-;?-:.$-o-;A/, (:,%)
1. <R$?-0-9R, .R-.$R%-%J.-5%-%-:IR, %:A-c/-3R-$A?-______<-______3%-%-P-1A$-;?-;R., (v) (9)

2. .!R/-3(R$-5K-<A%-z-?-/?-_____:.R.-$A-;R., (:.$) #<-$J-.J-/-@-3-$*A?-!-<-8-;?-$9A$-____;R., ($*R<)
3. %:A-Z%-3R-$A?-*A$-;R-/?-___:.R.-$A-;R., (:5S-2-<R=) .J-/?-:5S-2-<R=-___.!:-3R-<J., .%R?-2R-$R%-.!:-$A
4. %:A-%/-;-#J-2-(%-(%-/?-8R%-$A?-____3A-:.R., (:.$) <J.-S-PR%-HJ<-/?-____#<-$J<-|R<-3R-3J., (:5S-2-*J=)
5. HR.-=?-!<-?R%-, %:A-KR$?-/______&%-3J., (:.%-o$)
6. %-%:A-A-MJ?-<-A-;A?-3*3-0?-=R-$&A$-$*A?-$9A$-$-:.$-:.R., .-#R-$*A?-!:A-______&%-3J., (5K-,$-9.)
7. .J-<A%-/%-/?-5.-0-(J-$A %-|R<-%%-$A-,R$-/?-,A-,J<-<-:.$- ______, (:IR)
•351•
8. HR.- ______AJ-;R., (:IR) <R$?-0R-9R-|R-#-/?-______.?-5S.-5=-2-$9A$-:$R<-,=, (|$)
9. =$-<-$/$-9R$-5%-3-35K?-?<-,R/-<J$-$-#<-$J-<A-3$R-$9A$-/?-______2#., ($4S$)
10. ______<-______,R$-/?, (9) (:.$) #<-$J:A-;/-/-MA-$9A$-3J.,
11. $8$-/?-.0=-:LR<-_____(J.-<, (aR2) %?-<-lA?-<A$-.R%-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-%-_____3J., (#R3)
12. (R?-35S-$R/-o-______3A-:,.-$A (*R) <J.-S-%?-____________2&$-2+%-, (24/-0R-;?) (*R)
13. 2R.- /?- KA- o=- <- ______ .R/- .$- l- 3R- $9A$- 3- <J., (;R%) $&A$- /?- {.- <A$?->J?- .$R?, $*A?- /?- $R3?- YR=-
=R2?-.$R?,
14. l=-.R%-2-:.A-______:IR-<-,2-$A-3J., ((.) o$-$%-/?-,2-o?,
15. AR-@R, %?-\R$-,2-$A-\R$-______2eJ.-?R%-, ($9A3) %-KA<-<-HA3-3-\R$-$9A3-______, (:IR)
16. #-l%-.J-<A%-3<-$J-*A.-$A-3J., 3<-$J?-"______;R., ______3J.-o-/,":.R.-$A-;R., (9) (=?)
17. %J.-(:R-3J-:#R<-$A-$8$-$-3-(R., %J.-(:R-3J-:#R<-$8$-3-______2|$?, (;R%)
18. t$?-L3?-$9:-:#R<-$9A$-$-aR2-OA.-<-3-;R%-,=, #<-$J-_____:.R.-/-<, (;R%) _____.!:-$A-;R., (;R%)
Text Two: Participle cases and infinitive cases
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, [R$-L-5/-0-$*A?,
[RR$-L-.%--0R,
.!R/- 3(R$- $A?- :VR$- /?- $/?- 5%- $9A$- fJ.- oRR- .!:- $A- ;R., #<- $J?- ,2?- 2!R.- 5%- 3- 2!RR=- <?-24=- /A- <J., <J.- S-
$&A$-<-3-fJ.-<-#R-;A.-(.-,=, #<-$J?-,$-*J-$A-3PR/-#%-%-#-0<-2+%-;?-#%-2-;R.-3J.-SA?-,=, <J.-S-#-0<-$A-/%-
/-I$?-o-$&A$-<-3J.-$A =3-0-$9A$-$A?-3./-KR$?-$A-<A-$9A$-$A-o2-/-:VR$-HA3-$9A$-;R., .J-2-5%-/?-#<-$J-8$-
:.$-;?-/-(R$-9J<, <J.-S-#<-$J-:VR$-HA3-.J<-,R/-o-3-<J., #<-$J<-.%R?-2R-uA.-3R-#<-o-;R., #-<-{R3-$A-;R., :,%-
o-3J.-<-#<-$J?-MR%-$R-$A #R-KA<-<-?R%-/, .?-5S.-$&A$-$A-=3-<J., }/-/-?R%-/, :IR-oR-.?-5S.-5=-2-$9A$-$A-=3-<J.,
#<-$J-.%R?-2R-5%-3-#<-<?-:VR$-HA3-.J<-2~J$?, %R-3-$A?-2>.-/, .J-<J$-$J<, #<-$J?-C-,%-/?-HA3-5%-$&A$-<-3-
<A$ #R-<J3-3-3-,R/-/, #<-$J-=?-(.--oR-.-.-.-<J.,
[RR$-L-$*AA?-0,
(/-0-I$?-&/-A-#-]-3-$A?-/.-0-#-;?-#<-$J:A-/%-%-;R%-$A-3A-:)$ #<-$J?-o-{.-3A->J?-/R-$A?, o-$A-/.-0-;R%-/-
#<-$J?-(A-2>.-oR- >J?-$A-3J., .J?-3A-5., 8A-3R-/.-0- $9A$-;R%- /, #<-$J?-(A-;?-oR- >J?-$A-3J., =$-0-$A?-l-2g$-oR-
<- :SA- 5B$- :SAA- oRR- .!:- $A- 3J., <J.- S-=?-,R$-/?- /.- 2g$- ;?- /, #<- $J- %R- 5- $A- ;R., #<- $J?-2.- 3J.- <- 2<- ,$- 29%--
•352•
%?--9-2-$A-:5S-2-<R=-/A-<J., <J.-S-.-*-?<-z%-/, #<-$J<-aR2-o-$%-3%-;R.-$A
A-#-]-3-<-#<-$J:A-.$:-<R$?-$*A?-!-$*J/-1A$-o?-9J<-$A-;R., <J.-S-#<-$J:A-.$:-<R$?-z-?<-:IR-oR<-:,.-$A-3J.,
$&A$-/?, 3<-$J?-z-?-/?-.%R?-0R-$R%-.!:-$A-:.R., $*A?-/?-.$R/-0-+$-+$-$-3)=-oR-29R.-$A-3J., 3<-$J?-:.R.-
oR-o=- /%- %- M=- oR- <J., <J.- S, A- #- ]- 3- $A?- $/?- 3(R$- z- ?- $A- 1/- /- :IR- ?- 3J.-9J<, .$:- <R$?-$A?-$$*J/- 1A$- oR- 5K-
$&A$- $A- .R/- .$- <J., o=- /%- %- M=- $A- :IR- 9J<, ..- 0- *J.- #R3- $8$- /?- +$- +$- ;A/- 9J<, <J.- S- A- #- ]- 3- $A?- )R- 2R- $A-
3./-/?-*J?-0-$&A$-$A-*2?-2&R=-/-:.R.-$A-;R.,
12.3 --Negative participle cases
Negative participle case

With negative participle case English Note
%J.-$*A?-!-.-2-3A-:,JJ/-/, (%-:,,%??-;?-:.$-$A-;R.,
We stay here not smoking but
drinking (alcohol).
nIf a whole
statement is
?%?-o?-$A?-3A-2?3-3--3A-2>., #<-$J:A-$+3-2>.- Sangs rgyas does not speak
without thinking. His speech is
in present
tense mood,
$A-/%-/-=J/-o-;R., worth listening to.
the verb in
participle
.$R%-3R-_%?--:#R<-3AA-{RR<-<-?R%-, =3-#-/?-*J/-#-(J, Don't go out driving at night! It's
dangerous on the way. case is PRT.
oThe
#<-$J?-?J3?--(%-3-;?-<--#?-9R?, He suffered a loss, not being
careful. negative
.3$-.0R/-o=--#2-3--=R/-/--3-,R/, o=-<?-,R/, The general returned not having adverbs 3
been defeated but having won the and are
3A
battle. used in
?-(-:.A-/-:SJ-$9A$-;R.-9J<, <J.-S-#<-$J-3-*$--$-2.- It is said that there is a ghost. But negative
he went without being scared. participle
,=, cases,
I have done this job for three years respectively
%?-L-2-:.A-3-H$--$-=R-$?3-3-=?-2+%-, being barely able to stand it. conveying
A-3:A-$>J-$>J-;A.-<--3AA-:6BB/-/-8-;?-$A?-A-3:A-#-\R%- The child is trying to amuse his past tense
mother without being offended by and present
$A-;R., her criticism. tense mood.
MA-$8/-0-$A-]-3A-|==-2--A-;A?-:.A-#-<R$-$J<-2#., This old lady remained quiet

without gossiping about others.
Notes-2
Negative adverbs , 3 3A , and 3J. are used to form negative participle cases, respectively, in the
past tense, present tense, and continuous tense mood, e.g., n %J.-9R-g-3A-8R/-/-:PR, We go, not
riding the horse. o%J.-9R-g-3-8R/-/-?R%-, We left without riding the horse. p1-;R.-$A-3J.-<-, 8A-=A-
$A?-.!:-$A-;R., The boy is suffering, having no father. q#<-$J?-(<-$.$?-:6B/-$A-3J.-<-(<-8R.-$A-
/%-%-2o$?, He rushed into the heavy rain, holding no umbrella.
•353•
Exercise 3 Write infinitive cases and participle cases in the blanks, particularly
noting their negative forms. Refer to the distribution of negative
participle variants on the next page.
.0J<-2eR., KA/-(.-#$-3A-3,R%-%-:.$-o-;A/, (#$-3,R%) 3A-5K-,%-,%-<J., .J-3R-$9A$-#$-3,R%-.$R?-.R/-3J.,
1. ?%?-o?-$A-L?-eJ?-$A-(J.-<, #<-$J<-.$:-g$?-(J-$9A$-:22-$A #<-$J?-.0=-:LR<-______,R$-/?-K$-eJ?-

3A-.3/-0-$9A$-28$-;R., (:1J=-o?-?-$+R%) .J?-3A-5., #<-$J?-%-o=-______.-2R-3-3,.-<?-:2.-0-;?-$A
(:6B/)
2. HR?-2R.-/?- >-3A-______3-;?, (9) A-1-=R-=R, 2R.-/?->- 3A- 9-<%- 9-<J., .J:A-,R$- $ HR?-$R/-o-SR/-0R-$9A$-<-
______ :IR- $A- ;R., (HJ<- $A- 3J.) HR.- 2R.- /?- (A- >J.- :.$- o?, HR:A-_____$R-<J- {3-0R- <-_____ H- :.A- 3R- $9A$-
;A/-/?, (9)($R/) HR?-2R.-/?-.!:-o-<J.,

3. 5K-<A%-35S-$A?-|R<-3R-______?%-=R-KA-o=-<-:IR-:.R.-$A-;R., ($?R$) 3<-$J?-|R<-3R-3%-%______$?R$-,2-/,
(2!R=) 3<-$J-=R-$&A$-$A-/%-%-:IR-,2-o-<J.,
4. 8A-3R- $9A$-z-#%- $A- /%-%-:IR- .?, *J?- 29A-$9A$-$A?- 3<- $J-______3- 2&$ (:IR) #<-$J?-o-35/-$?=-2R->J.-
2>.-,=, z-#%-$A-/%-%-,A<-2+%-$A?-8A-3R-9R-?R%-/-3A-(R$ 8A-3R-.J-______2.-,=, (%R-=%?)
5. \R$- [.- ______ (- :UA/- :5S=-______ =$- l=- <J., (2!R=) (>J?) =$- l=-:.A- aR2- 3- 5%- 3- $A?-______
$9A$- <J., (>J?) .J:A- nJ/- $A?, aR2- (%-/% - /?-\R$-[.-______YA.-$8%-$A?-;<-{=-;?-$A-;R., (OA.) HA3-/?-
=?-L-+$-+$-______, (:VA) #R-9R-\R$-[.-$A-!J%-/?-______<-$=-(J, (:.$)
6. %- 3$R- /- $A- ;R., (/- 0- $A?- 2v?- /, %-______ 3% - ?R%-, (=?) ______ *%-?R%-, (*=) #<-$J?-2v?-/, %?-
HA3-/?-*A/-3-(-<J<-%=-$?R-.$R?,
7. A-3-$A-#R$-/-MJ-:2<-$A-;R., <J.-S-8A-=A-(%-(%-$9A$-3<-$J:A-b%-%-______1J-:.J2?-$A-;R., ($+R%) #<-$J?-!-
<-______:.R.-$A-;R., (*R) <J.-S-A-3-$A?-______:.$-$A-;R., (*R-#-*/) 3<-$J?-.-2R-KA/-(.-#<-$J?-!-<-
9R?-/-3A-(R$-9J<-$A-;R.,
•354•
12.4 --Participle variants distribution in negative participle cases
Preceding Variants in negative participle case English

suffix
$ g-_%?-:#R<-$A-0J-0J<-3A-:SR$-$-?R%-, The horse went by, not being
startled by the car honking.
% #<-$J?-5<-<-3-;R%-%-%-2R?, He called me without coming
forward.
. $9-2-$A?-3A-2$R.-<-#-;-$*A?-!-2<-:.3-;?-$A-;R., Without smiling, the middle man
mediates between the two sides.
/ #<-$J-8-;?-3A-:6B/-/-|R<-:IR-oR<-.$:, He likes going out without taking
his baby.
2 $/3-3A-:22-2, :V$-+$-+$-I$?-$A It is only thundering without rain.
3 :P=-2-$A?-9-3-3A-:$3-3-.=-3R->J.-9R?, The guest slowly eats the food, not

gobbling.
: =-$-3A-:2:-:-3-3R-$A-:R$-/-;R., The lamb is under a ewe making no
sound.
< A-3-$A?-.LJ-2-3A-2$<-<-8-;?-5%-3<-$&J?-$A The mother cares about her
children without discriminating.
= .3$-.0%-3#<-3-2gR=-<-3#<-mR%-$A-/%-%-]$?, The army stormed into the fortress
without breaking the enclosing wall.
? 8A%-2-9R?-=?-!-3A-=?-:J-8A%-#-/-2#.-;R., The peasants remain in the field
without working.
No suffix %?-=?-L-3A-:VA-:J-/%-/-#-$.%?-;R., I fool around at home without doing
homework.
Notes-3
1. Negative participle cases in present tense mood: Describe something ongoing or

imminent. .%R?-2R-3%-%-3A-:HJ<-<-:PR, .J-3A/-.-%J.-9R-,R/-o-3-<J., We'll go without taking much
stuff, otherwise, we wouldn't get there. The verb in participle case is in PRT.
2. Negative participle cases in past tense mood: It describes something that has
already occurred, e.g., %J.-9R-.%R?-2R-3%-%-3-HJ<-<-;R%-, .J-3A/-.-2R-,R/-;R.-o-3-<J., We came
without bringing much stuff, otherwise we wouldn't have arrived here yet. The verb in the
participle case is in PAT.
3. There is no strict rule on which tense mood should be applied in participle cases as long
as the whole statement is in the past tense mood, e.g., %?-\R$-[.-3A-2!R=-<-L-2-=?-?R%-, /
%?-\R$-[.-3-2!R=-<-L-2-=?-?R%-, I did my work without using a computer.
Exercise 4 Write participle cases and infinitive cases in the blanks, paying particular
attention to their negative and positive forms.
.0J<-2eR., .R/-.$-5%-3-3A-:P2-2-=?-oR-l-3R-<J.,
1. L-2->R<-?R%-/-<, 3<-$J?- ________(:#%-<-;?) <%-$A?-<%-%-L-2-$9A$-_______=?-$A-;R., (!J<)
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2. z-<A?-35S-$A?-@:-NR-2R<-?R%-/R-$A?, 3<-$J<-o=-#2-$A-KA-<-_______$R-{2?-;R.-$A-3J., (:IR)
3. 0R-+-=-$A-[.-/?-_______;=-uR%?-<A$-3A-,2, (:.$) 0R-+-=-$A-[.-/?-2v?-/-.-%R-3-$%-2-*A.-0R-<J., ;=-
uR%?-<-<A$-,2,
4. 0-?J-5%-3-24S%?-5<-?R%-, HR.-|$-/-AJ-:.R., .?-5S.-2./-0-$A-!J%-$A-\R$-2f/-/-0-?J-____;R.-/-,%-, (:5S%)
5. <A-3$R<-_______2!R.-0-.$:-$9A$-3-<J., (:$R) %:A-b%-5B$?-/-;?-$9:-:#R<-$9A$-:$R<-;R., %?-.-,J%?-
(/-0-$A-#-*/-.$R?, .-,J%?-($-|R-:.A:A-/%-/-_______3%-%-$9A$-;R., (aR2)
6. %-.-2R.-/-;R.-o-/, %?-(%-_______<R$?-0-5S:A-3*3-0?-;R.-o-<J., (:,%) 2R.-/?-.$/-#-:H$?-/-<, *A-
3-*A/-I%?-%-><-/A-<J., .$/-#-:.A-/?-_______, (:.$) .L<-#-2R.-/?-_______:5S-2-<R=-/-#R-,$-$-
*A.-o-<J., (:.$) :.A-/?-*A-3-_____*A/-I%?-%-=?-!-3%-%-=?-/?-______.!:-3R-<J., (<A$) (:.$)
7. .$J-c/-$A?-=?-L-_______aR2-3-5%-3-$A-=?-:$/-;A/-9J<, (:VA) <J.-S-#<-$J?-=?-L-_______/3-;A/-
/-2eJ.-:IR, (v) .-,J%?-#<-$J?-aR2-3-9R<-_______=?-L-3%-%-$9A$-28$-,=, (~A%-eJ)
8. 3<-$J?-L-2-_______1-3-$*A?-!-$*R<-/-:.R.-$A-;R., (:1J/) .J-3A/-.-L-2_______<-#R-$*A?-!-
_______n-o$-;R%-/-3<-$J?-.!:-#$-MR%-$A-;R., (=?) ($*R<)
9. %J.-5%-$A-HA-c/-_______:IR-,2-$A-3J., (=R-=R/) #<-$J-(%-.?, %-_______3J.-/-#<-$J-?/-/A-<J., (<A$)

%:A-MA$-=3-/-#<-$J-;%-_______;R%-$A-;R., (wA%)
12.5 --Review: infinitive cases
Infinitive subject with verbs in PRT

Tibetan English Explanation
.0JJ-(-$9AA$-:VAA-oR-=R-$&A$-$A-.R/-.$-$9A$-3-<J.,
A book cannot be written in a year
(To write a book is not one year's
ninfinitive
case as
task.) subject
=?--!<--3A-(.--oR-<-=?--!-.?-,R$-$-:P2-oR-!%-9A- Not to be absent from work and to
finish work on time are mandatory in owith verb
:.A-/-;A/-/-.-3A/-.-<J., this company. in PRT
9-3-9-oR-%:A-=?-!-#J-<-2R-;A/, To eat is my only task.
Infinitive subject with monosyllabic adjectives

c/--3R-;$-oRR-c.-0R-$A-:.R.-0-<J., All husbands hope their wives are
beautiful.
Monosyll-
abic
_%?--:#R<-2!/--oR-$=-(J, .J-3A/-=3-/?-($-o-<J., It is very important that the car is very adjectives
sturdy. Or it will break down en-route. are used
in
?JJ3?--*A.-ooR-2.J-,%-$A-(-nJ/-<J., To be happy is indispensable for good
health. infinitive
case as
$RR/-o-3.RR$-.3<-oRR-;%-<-;%-$A?-2>.-,=, It is emphasized that the garment
should be red. well.
•356•
Quasi-nouns
%-=?-!-=?-/?-(.-$A %--9-o-.$R?, Working and working, I am tired. I
need something to eat.
Such quasi-nouns
consist of verbs in
29R-2-:.A?-=?--o-3%-%-=J/, This worker accepts more work to
do. PRT plus infinitive
.J%-?%-#<-$J<-:.RR/-o-3J., Recently, he has no books to read.
particle .
o
.R-.$R%-%-=-v-o-3%-%-;R., I have (a lot) to read tonight.
Infinitive case as complement

A-1-$A?-8-;?-9R-*=--$A-2&$ The father asked the children to go
to bed.
Infinitive case
appears in
HJ:-<-:R-3-/-o-LA/, The baby is given milk to drink.
complement.
8A%-2-9R?-=?-!-=?--oR-$8$-$-28$ The farmers postponed the work
that needs to be done.
\-3-?%?-o?-35S-$A?-\-=J/-oR-.%?, Singer Sang rgyas mtsho studied
how to sing songs.
Purposive infinitive case
K$-0R<-;R%-oR<-#<-$J?-5S%-o$-$A-;R., He is doing business to become
rich.
oR / o is attached
o$?--3R.-oR<-,R-:$R.-;?-.$R?-$A-;R., One must get registered to take the
exam.
Ladon variant < to
put across reason.
:.AA-:VAA-oR<-%<-/-$-$9A$-.$R?, I need a pen to write it.
A-3-.$:--$A-:)$-oR<-(J-$9A$-3A-.$R?, It does not take much to please

(my) Mother.
Infinitive case with postposition
L-2-:.AA-=?--oR:A-(J.-<-%?-=?-<R$?-2R?, I called my colleague to do this job. A genitive case
marker is necessary
IR?-3,/-;R%-oR:A-,R$-/?-KR$?-$*A-!?- Both sides have to compromise to
reach an agreement. after an infinitive
zR.-.$R?, case in order to
=?--:$/--=J/-oR:A-{R<-/?-=?-<R$?-$?3- The three colleagues are not generate

reaching a consensus on the postpositions.
0R-:PA$-$A-3J., division of labor.
PR$?--5S$?--2#-oR:A-,R$-/?-%-=-2?3- I have three points to make on how

to hold the meeting.
:(<-$?3-;R.,
Exercise 5 Write appropriate tense forms of the verbs in the blanks, paying
particular attention to infinitive case, participle case, and participle cases.
.0J<-2eR., 8-;?-$A?-=?-L-VA?-/?-$*A.-,=, (:VA) .J%-?%-8-;?-9R<-=?-o-(A-3R-$9A$-3%-$A (=?)
1. %?-35S-3R-_____3-fJ.-,=, (:5S=) <J.-S-3<-$J-5%-/?-______%J.-$*A?-!?-IR?-;?-;R., (,$)

•357•
2. KA<-<-;:-2-;R%-8R<-<, 3<-$J?-}R-______;A.-<-S/-,=, (*R) <J.-S-3<-$J?-|R<-3R-______2eJ.-?R%-, (:6B/)
3. .$J-c/-$A?-,-~.-$?<-2-3%-%-$9A$-________LA/-,=, (aR2) aR2-OA.-$A-,R$-/?-%?-3A%-5B$-.J-9R-
________2eJ.-?R%-, (;A.-<-:6B/), .-%?-$+/-/?-3A-S/-$A
4. HR?-.!R/-3(R$-$A-#-0<-A%-P%?-______3-:)$ (2R<) 4B?-4-$9A$-$A-/%-%-#<-$J<-.R/-.$-$9A$-______
;R., (2>.)
5. $?J<-3R-35S<-________3%-, (:SA) ]R-w/-/-_______3%-, (=?) ]R-w/-___________?/-$A-;R.,
(=/-:.J2?)
6. %-3<-$J<-,$-MR%-;R.-#-<J., /-/A%-=R-?<-$A-{2?-2-.%R?-P2-5%-/?-,$-$9A$ %J.-$*A?-!?-3*3-0?-
___________%R->J?-?R%-, (\-.L%?-=J/)
7. 2R.-;A$-________=R-$*A?-2.-,=, (.R%) 2R.-$A-MA?-#-2h-;?-.?-.-2R-<-________(J-$9A$-3J., ($R) %:A-
}/-/-.-2R-=3-,$-<A%-%-$9A$-________;R., (:IR)
8. !-2, )R-3R-]-<A-$A-3$R<-________l-3R-;A/-o-3-<J., (:$R) .J-3A/-.-MA-3%-%-$9A$-:$R?-;R.-o-<J., #-2, %?-.J-
>J.-3A-:.R.-$A :$R-#-l-3R-;A/-/-<, :$R-.R/-3J.,

9. .0J-(-:.A-HR:A-=$-/-________;A.-<-3-><, (;R.) %?-.-2R-.0J-(-:.A-2R<-?R%-:.R.-<,
10. %J.-(:R-*A/-$%-%R-_______-3J-:#R<-______2|$?, (:.$) (,R/) .-%J.-(-2R?-3A-_____;?-$A-;R., (|$)
11. A-1, HR.-AR%-*J$?-$A-!J%-%-_______*A/-$%-%R-2f/-:UA/-/-2v?-,=, (=R$) .-HR.-:$=-/-Z-o-<J.,
12. .LA/-)A:A-2h-3R.-<-________-3J.-9J<, (@-$R) %?-2v?-/, .LA/-)A:A-2h-3R.-.J-3R-.!:-3R-3-<J.,
13. #<-$J?-$%-?-:R.-:23-3-________2eJ.-$A-3J., (v) ,J%?-$8$-3, %?-#<-$J-________:IR, (:HA.)
14. .J%-,R$-A-;?-2?R.-/3?-*A.-:IR-,2-o-3-<J.-:.R.-<, <J.-S-_____-,R$-/?-3<-$J:A-;/-/-?-$&A$-<-3J., (:IR)
15. :P=-2-9R-}-3R?-$9A$-$A?-________P-1A$-;?-;R., (:IR) /%?-)-<-}-?J?-2{R=-.$R?-o-<J.,
16. c/-3R-$A?-2>.-/, 3<-$J<-______$&A$-<-3J.-9J<, (.$R?) <J.-S-3<-$J:A-*J?-{<-<-______$&A$-<-3J.-/-
%-2.J-3R-3-<J., (!J<)
17. #R-(:R______:KA-?R%-, (,R/) _%?-:#R<-.-/%?-$9A$-/?-2.-?R%-, .-#R-(:R-$A?______;?-$A-;R., (:.$)
18. /%-=?-____________,R$-/?, (2$R-L-;?) 2-(J-2R-$A?-*=-#%-________, (2&:-.$-;?) 2-:VA%-2-
$A?-:P=-#%-________, (2&:-.$-;?) 2-(%-%R-$A?-!-&-________;?-,=, (;<-:)R$-;?)

19. 0J-&A/-/?-3J-:#R<-$A-0-?J-______,R$-/?, (*R) Mike $A?-#$-(J-$9A$-M%?-?R%-, o-{.-5B$-$&A$-<-3A->J?,
20. .R/-.$-:.A-________l-3R-<J.-S, (2>.) ________.!:-3R-<J., (=?)
•358•
21. ________ ,R$-/?, (;=-{R<-<-:IR) %?-@-3-$*A?-!-:SA-.$R?,
22. >-________,R$-/?, (9) 3<-$J-]R-l-2g/-0R-<J., 2R.-/?-<->-#3-$%-<-3-9R?, <J.-S-1%-2R-(-3-<J.,
Exercise 6 Complete the two paragraphs with appropriate tense forms of the verbs in
parentheses. Use infinitive and participle cases if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., :V$-1-wA-<A-<A, %-*$-;?-#%-2-$A-/%-%-:6=-2+%-, (*$)

!--2, %-<-%:A-c/-3R-$*A?-!?-_________$9A$- #-- 2, .- ^- 2- 2&- 2- <J., /3-^- _________ l-3R-
:5K3-$A-;R.-.?, ($R/) 8A-3R-(%-%R-_________ <J., (:H$) .J- <A%- /3- ^- )J- :H$?- $- :IR- o- <J.- 9J<,
/%-%-,R/-,=, (*$) .-8$-}R-VJ%-%J-<-/%-/?-:K<- =R- I%?- %- ^- 2- 2&- 2:A- /% - %- /3- ^- :H$- :IR, /%?-
,=, %-<-c/-3R-$*A?-!-_________v-$A-?R%-, !-%-hR- ?R=-_________:IR, (*R) .J-3A/-.-%J.-5%-%-
(o$) =R-28A-&/-$A-8A-=A-________:$=-<-,2-$A- _________3J., (:2.) ?- :H$?- /, 8- ;?- 9R- <-
3J., (*$) $%-;A/-?-/-3J-tJ-<J., #R%-2R-$A-l-/- aR2- 9<- :IR-_________ , (:.R.- $A- 3J.) ,A<- /- %-
_________, (MJ-:2<) 3J-tJ-#R%-3$R<______ .$/-#<-3A-.$:-$A <J.-S-.$/-#-________.JA.-
.-.-.-<J., (lJ2?) MJ-3$R-3//-/A-<, %-8A-=A- !- (A- >J.- ;R% - o?, (;R%-) .$/- #- MA- <A$?- $J<-
_________?R%-, (:5S=) 8A-=A-2<-.J-/?- _________ #R3- 0- ;R., (:.$) !R/- $8$- $A- ;=-
_________3J.-?R%-, (<A$) #<-$J-HA3-$A-P-$- uR%?-(A-3R-$9A$-;$-$A .-,J%?-$A-$9:-:)$-$-/3-^-

$9A$-/-_________2#.-;R., ({%) 1%-2R-:.<- Z- /, %J.- 5%-_________ :IR- o?, (*A.- 0R- ;?)
<-<, ~A%-3-eJ, #R%-=R-9R-z%-/, %R-3?-?J3?-/?-3A-2?R.-$A
Exercise 7 Make factual statements with infinitive cases about yourself using
monosyllabic adjectives in infinitive case subject.
.0J<-2eR., %-1%-2R-Z-oR-3=-$?R-oR:A-#-/-3J., 9-3-$A-#-/-;R.,

Infinitive case as subject with adjective:
Infinitive case as complement with verb: %:A-=R-$?3-$A-:(<-$8A-2R.-;A$-.R%-oR-;A/,
Infinitive case subject: adjective-included Infinitive case complement: verb-included

1. _____________________________ 1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________ 2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________ 3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________ 4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________ 5. _____________________________
6. _____________________________ 6. _____________________________
•359•
Exercise 8 Write infinitive cases and participle cases in the blanks, paying particular
attention to tense forms of the verbs in parentheses.
!-2 %?-HR.-2{=-2-$9A$-$-3-<A$ HR.-________(A-$9A$-=?-$A-;R., (#R3)

#-2 %-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-________,R$-/-#R3-$A-3J., (=?) ^-2-}R/-3-$A-/%-%-, %-0J-&A/-/-5S$?-:.-$9A$-
$-________?R%-, (8$?) =?-o-(J-$9A$-________0J-&A/-/?-*A/-3-*A->-:$R<-,=, (3J.) .J-/?-%-
]-V%-.$R/-0-$A-/%-/?________3J.-,=, (#R3) %:A-@-3-$*A?-!-.-=R-2./-2&-$A-;/-<J., 3->A-$R%-%-,
.$R/-0R-/?-________%J.-9R:C-.0J-<J., ((R?-{R=) .$R/-0-/?-________,R$-/?, ((R?-{R=) %-]-V%-
/?-2./-$*A?-$9A$-$-2#.-2+%-, HR?->J?-/R-<J., %:A-@-3-$*A?-!-:VR$-/$-;A/-/R-$A?, PR%-/?-#R-$*A?-
!-(R.-4B$-<-3A-*/-$A %:A-c/-3R-$A?-#R-$*A?-!-________<R$?-;?-/A-<J., (3A$-v-;?) .J?-3A-5., .-
%?-=?-#%?-/-<-L-2-________:.R.-$A-3J., (=?)
!-2 HR?-(A-$9A$-$-=?-/-:.R.-$A-3J., t$?-$A-.!<-;R=-.J->J.- ________3-;?, (:1J/) HR?-L-2-.J-3R-
________.!:-3R-<J., (=$-$-;R%)
#-2 ,A<-/-%:A-=?-#%?-3A-Z-$A %:A-:$R-2-___________3J., (:.R.-0-5B3) 353?-353?-3-%?-$9:-
:)$-$-<-=?-!-=?-.$R?, *A/-I%?-%-L-2-________24S/-3-$9A$-$-<A$-$A (=?) %-29:-5%-$A-
3*3-0?-<-________:.R.-$A (:.$) .?-;/-:$R<-$A-:$R<-$A %-%:A-L-2-<-)J-3A-.$:-<J.,
!-2 .J?-/-HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-lA?-;R.,
#-2 /-/A%-$A-<?, %?-5S%-o$-$A-;R., /-/A%-.R-5B$?-$-.L<-C-$A-$R%-Z-$A %J.-5%-$A-.$/-?-k-(-$A-.%=-<-/-
;R., ?-(-.J-/-.L<-C-A-m-3%-%-________;R., (bR)
!-2 <J.-S, YA.-$8%-$A?-________:)$-$A-3J.-9J<, (bR) /-/A%-%J.-5S:C-#J-2-/%-/?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-HR.-9R:C-?-
(<-.L<-C-_______?R%-, (bR) <J.-S-#R-9R-5%-3-________KA<-<-,R/-,=, (=$-!R%) k-(-.L<-C-bR-$A-
:IR-?-$9A$-3-<J.-9J<,
#-2 2.J/-/A-<J., k-(-mR%-YA.-$8%-$A?-________:)$-$A-3J.-9J<, (bR) <J.-S, ?-$/?-$A-MA-#J-<-$A?-:2-
________.!:-3R-<J., (bR) #R-9R-KA-$A-:2-bR-3#/-9R-________:,.-$A-3J., (:$R$) 2!$-/-3-2!$-
/, :2-bR-3#/-9R?-$%-v<-/-<-?-,R$-/?-___________:2-bR-$A-;R., (<A$-$A-3A-:)$)
!-2 HR?-%-.L<-C-________,R$-$A-$/?-5=-$?=-2R-$9A$->R.-S, (bR)
#-2 %J.-9R:C-?-(-2>.-/, HA3-5%-<J-<J<-________.$/-?-<J-;R., (K$?-:5S) .$/-?-?-3$R-3,R, .L<-C-
3%-?-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?, /-/A%-.R-5B$?-$-:VR$-0-9R-__________2?R.-/3?-;R.-#-<J., (o-,R$-$-o$)
;A/-/-<, #R<-;$-______A-+-$A?-$=-(J/-;A/-9J<, (Y%-*R%-;?) YA.-$8%-$A?-KA-$A-MA-
•360•
________ :2-2bR-$A-:)$-$A-3J., (:$R$)
!-2 HR.-KA<-<-?R%-;?-.L<-C-2bR-o-AJ-;A/,
#-2 %?-.L<-C-2bR-o-3A/, <J.-S-.L<-C-2bR-oR:A-^-2-$*A?-$A-/%-%-, %?-%J.-5%-$A-?-(-MA-$8/-$9A$-$-
________:5S%-o-;A/, (:2-bR) YA.-$8%-$A?-:R<-$A?-bR-$A-3A-:)$-/, %?-#-<R$-$J<-MA-
________:2-2bR-o-;A/, (\) $%-v<-G%-, %J.-9R:C-;:-mR%-,R$-/?-,$-<A%-/R-$A?, ,A<-2+%-$A?-YA.-
$8%-$A?________.!:-o-<J., (>J?) >J?-?R%-/-<, %-<-:2-bR-3#/-9R-#R$-3*3-/-(R$-(R$-<J.,

!-2 .J-9J<-/,
#-2 %J.-9R:C-HA3-35K?-35S-}R/-8A%-(J/-$A-$&A$-1A=-<J., 35S-}R/-/?-.-<J$-2<-:2-________:)$-$A-;R.,
(bR) *J/-gR$-0-,R/-/, :2-2bR-3#/-9R-3$R-=R$-$A-?-,R$-$-2.-:PR, *J/-gR$-0-?R%-/A-<, #R-9R-KA<-<-;R%-$A-
;R.,
!-2 %?-2v?-/, LJ.-,2?-:.A-?-$/?-$A-MA-$A-:5S-2-____________<$-=?-;R., ()J-=J$?-$-$+R%) %?-
HR.-o2-*R<-;?-/-:.R.-$A <J.-S-HR?-MA-$%-/?-________:.%-AJ-2o2, (:5S=)
#-2 MA-________,R$-/?, (:5S=) %-?J3?-#<-(J-$A ;%-3A/-%?-:2-bR-oR:A-.2%-(-<J2-$&A$-$-MA-$9A$-$-
24S%-o-;A/, .J-;A/-/, MA-_______?-(-*R-3#/-$A-:$/-#<-<J., (:5S=) :2-bR-3#/-9R-,A<-2+%-$A?-<R%-
2-9R-<J., %-<R%-/-%R->J?-$&A$-<-3J.,
!-2 %?-<-HR:A-.R/-/-?-(-*R-3#/-$9A$-24=-;, :2-bR-oR:A-.2%-(-________|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-.$R?, (*R)
#-2 .J<-%-<-$?=-2R-$9A$-_______3J., (2>.)
!-2 ,A<-$A?-2v?-/, HR?-<%-$A-___________L-2-:.A-3R-=?-/-:PA$-$A (L-2-$;$) .J%-?%-YA.-$8%-$A-
L-2<-________L-2-$8/-0-3-=?-/-#-$?R-3A-,2, (2gJ/)
#-2 HR?-<-.J-:.R.-/, %J.-$*A?-!?-__________5S%-2o2-/-(A-3R-<J., (3*3-=?-;?)
!-2 %?-L-2-.J-3R-$A-KR$?-$-.-}-?J3?-:#R<-$A-3J., <J.-S-%?-<-:.%-o$ $%-v<-/-<, .R/-.$-:.A:A-!J%-/?-
HR.-________>-!$-;A/, (<R$?-;?) HR:A-]R-%R2? ________.!:-3R-<J., (;R.)
#-2 *J-<A%-%-%J.-$*A?-!- ________.R/-.$-8A2-3R<-\J%-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., (#-,$)
!-2 %-/%-3-$A-/%-%-7-(%-:,%-$A-_____.$:, (:IR) %J.-$*A?-!-/%-3-$A-/%-/?-?J3?-zR.-0R<->J.-2#.-/,
#-2 %-=-2>.-o-3J., .J-<A%-<-/%?-!-$*A?-!-%-#R3-$A-3J., .-,J%?-$A-$9:-:)$-$-________;?-/-(A-3R-
$9A$-<J., (,$)
!-2 (R$-$A %?-HR.-=-$8$-/?-#-0<-$+R%-;R%-,
•361•
Duplication of is used to stress how something is done in present tense mood, often treated
verb in PRT + $AA as a participle case.

%-lJ-$AA-lJJ-$AA-m-<-:IR, Jovial and playful, I wander to the
rocky mountain;
nused as participle
case
m-O-;$-lJ-/-%-<-lJ, I dance, jovial and playful, if the wild
yaks do. oprocess of an
%-lJ-$A-lJ-$A-OR3-3-:IR, Jovial and playful, I wander to the
party.
action emphasized
:.A-OR3-0-lJ-/-%-<-lJ, I play, jovial and playful, if all the

guests do.
pThe verbs are in
PRT since the action
8-;?-$9A$-wAA%-$A-wA%-$AA-;R%-$A-;R., Jumping and jumping, a child is (was) is lingering.
coming.
|R<-3R-;R.-$A-;R.-$A #<-$J-)J-2?J<-<J., Having ever more money, he
becomes stingier.
l=-.R%-2-.J-o$$-$AA-o$$-$AA-)J-3IR$?-<J., Running and running, the athlete
runs faster.
Duplication of is used to stress how something was done in past tense mood, usually treated
verb in PAT + $AA? as a participle case.

%?-VA?-$A?-VAA?-$A?-=$-0-/, Writing and writing, my fingers
were painful.
nas participle
case
#<-$J?-2$/--$A?-2$$/--$A?-2>.-,=, He spoke, emphasizing more and
more. oa progressive
or lingering
9-3-9R?-$A?-9RR?-$A?-)J-8A3-<J., Eating and eating, the food
became tastier. process
emphasized
#$-3,RR%-$A?-3,RR%-$A?, :5S-2-)J-#$-)J-#$-<J., Having suffered more from
hardship, life became still ever
worse.
8R/-0-?R%-$A?-?RR%-$A?-(.-,=, %-b%-,%-%-3A-:IR- The mount, marching and
marching, was exhausted. I had
!-3J., no choice but to walk.
Verb in PAT + <% It expresses something happened shortly before.

HR.-,R/-.?, %-?R%-<%%-;A/, When you came, I had just left. nused with verbs
in PAT
)-:#RR=-<%--;A/, ?J3?-(%->J.-,%?, The tea is just boiled. Drink carefully!
oindicates a very
short time has
HR.-aR2-9-/?-3,<--KA/-<%%-;A/-/, Have you just graduated from the
school? passed
HR.-2.J-3R, %?-HR.-#-0<-2+%--<%--;A/, How are you? I just phoned you.
•362•
3A + verb in PRT + <% is used to express someone has to do something with no choice, in
the same verb present tense mood.

.-$/3-P-$A-0-?J-<-*R?-2+%-, 3A-:IRR-<%--:IRR-<J., The air ticket has already been
bought. We have no choice but to go.
nIt conveys
no choice
$/-o-VA?-2+%-, .-|R<-3R-I%?-!-v<-<-3A-!J<- The contract is already signed. The …but
payment must be made in full.
<%--!J<-<J., oused to
describe
something
N%-$R<-:IR-/, o-;A$-3A-.R%-<%-.R%-<J., If (one) travels to China, he has no
choice but to learn Chinese. unstoppable
%?-3A-<J3-<%--<J3-<J., .?-5S.-.-,R/-2+%-, I must hurry up. The deadline is due.
MA-29%-/, #-=?-3A-.$JJ-<%--.$JJ-<J., If (someone) is a good person, he

certainly will get public praise.
3+ verb in PAT + <% expresses someone had no choice but to do in past tense mood.
+ the same verb

.$J-c/-$A-#-3-*/--<%--*/--<J., #<-$J-.J-3R-$9A$-24/-$A I had to obey my teacher.
He was so strict.
nused to
express one
%-(/-0-$A-=R$?-$-3-?R%-<%--?R%-<J., ?R-/-;?->A-=-#.-;R., I had no choice but to see a had no
doctor. I was almost dying choice but...
of toothache. oThe
duplicated
A-3-$A?-KJ-3-*R?-<%--*R?-<J., 9-3-5%-3-9R?-5<-?R%-, The mother had to buy
flour. All the food was verb is in
consumed. PAT since
something is
#<-$J-?J3?-3-#$-<%--#$-<J., #-l%-#<-$J:A-A-3-3-=R-9J<, He must have been really
sad. His mother passed described in
away yesterday. past tense
mood.
%?-_%?-:#R<-3-2{RR<-<%--2{RR<-<J., #-l%-<J3-3-:IR-.$R?, I had to leave yesterday in
a hurry. So I had to drive
my car.
(A-3R-$9AA$ + verb / It is equivalent to the English phrase no matter how much…

adjective + /-<
Tibetan English
.R/-.R/-:.A-(A-3R-$9AA$-.!:--/-<, %?-=?-#R-,$-;A/, No matter how difficult it is, I will
certainly do it.
#<-$J-(A-3R-$9AA$-3A-.$:--/-<, %?-.R/-.$-%R-3->J.-2>.-o?, No matter how unhappy he might be,
I am going to tell it as it is.
3%-5S$?-$A?-(A-3R-$9AA$-.!:--$A-;R.-/-<, YA.-$8%-$A?-.R-$%-3A-;?, No matter how big the people's
problems are, the government
ignores them.
$R/-o-$R%-(A-3R-$9AA$-.!:--/-<, o-2-hR$-$R-A-@R-<J., No matter how expensive the clothes
are, they still look cheap.
%?-L-2-(A-3R-$9AA$->J.-=?--/-<, %:A-A-1-$A?-29%-$A-3A-9J<, No matter how hard I do my job, my
father does not say "good."
•363•
,--~.--..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--2&&-$*AA?-0,
A-#-.!R/-3(R$-$A-=?-.2%-,
>A%-29R carpenter A-3.R-/?->A%-29R-3%-(J->R?-o-<J.,
>A%-=? woodwork; carpentry >A%-=?-.-2<-.J-3R-.<-$A-3J.,
4. heat 8A%-2-9R-$A?-4.-$A-/%-/?-=R-VJ$?,
4$ coldness 4$-$A-/%-/-8-;?-9R-:.<-<-<,
/< to creep ,%-!A?-/<-<?-=$-29%-,
=$-l= technology =$-l=-;R.-/-L-2-fJ.-a,
~A%-=%? to get upset ~A%-=%?-/-%?-{.-(-<-2>.-3A-,2,
;A-(. to be disappointed ;A-3-(., .-2R-<J-2-;R.-$A
]. to feed; to offer food /.-0-=-9-3-].-3J.,
.0J custom d-3R%-$A-:R-3-:,%-oR-2R.-$A-.0J-3-<J.,
(R.-4B$-< anything (in negation) MA-:)R/-0R-9J<-/R-$A?-(R.-4B$-<-3A->J?,
4B-$ mouse LA-3J-;R.-/-4B-$-;R.-3A-,2,
#%-. hole %?-#%-.-2bR?, .J:A-/%-%-HA-2+$?,
:R-&R stick :R-&R-=$-/-;R.-/, HA<-*$-3A-.$R?,
$4$? to poke; to prick #2-$A?-$4$?-/-@R%-$A?-5,
8R<-< while; meanwhile #<-$J?-9-8R<-<-:,%-8R<, 9-3#/-<J.,
8A2-v perusal; careful look :5S-2<-8A2-v-;?-/-<A$-o-3%-,
2{< to send %?-;A-$J-$9A$-A-&J<-2{<-2+%-,
=?-;R/ payment for work =?-;R/-3J.-/-%-=?-!<-3A-:PR,
*J=-3 see-off *J=-3-;?-3#/-9R-*J?-29A-+$-+$-<J.,
?J3?-2.J relaxed A-3-$A?-35/-$%-2R<-?J3?-3-2.J,
=R:-U$ kitten =R:-U$-?J3?-&/-(%-(%-$9A$-;A/,
•364•
/-$A-<…:S-3 so…that… #<-$J-MA-Z-/-$A-<-$?J<-:S-3-$9A$-<J.,
|R-:I3 behind a door t$?-9R-|R-:I3-/-28$-;R.,
A-4B? oh A-mA?, HA-c/-:.A-:)A$?-(J-$A-/%-,
$R3-# step $R3-#-<J3-3-%R?, HR.-$8$-$-=?-;R.,
=?-(. physically tired :$R-2.$-?J3?-(.-=?-(.-<-?R%-;R.,
|R<-(. unmet payment |R<-(.-3J.-/-K$-0R-;A/-9J<,
,$-(R. to be decided; to be solved .R/-.$-:.A-5S$?-,R$-/?-,$-3A-(R.,
2.: to kick out; to chase MA-z$-3-9R-!%-9A-$A?-2.:-o-<J.,
|R<-#$ wallet !R-$A-|R<-#$-.J-8J-,$-$A?-]R-:22-$9A$-<J.,
2*A? to lend; to borrow |R<-3R-2./-2o-3<-$J:A-=$-/?-2*A?,
:.<-?A$-?A$ shaking :.<-?A$-?A$ #<-$J?-&%-<-2>.-3-,2,
$+3-%/ bad news $+3-%/-$R-/-?J3?-3A-*A.,
&A. to become numbed $+3-%/-.J-$R-/A-<-%-&A.-,=,
?J3?-$;J= to relax ?J3?-3-$;J=, .P-2R-9R-.-2R-?R%-3J.,
8 to become paralyzed H$-5.-3,R-/R-$A?, #<-$J-8-?R%-,
:5S-2-*J= to make a living KA-\A%-2-:.A?-z-?-/?-:5S-2-*J=-o-<J.,
35K<-? nomad camp 35K<-?-$?<-2-/?-=$-.$R%-3R<-3A-:.$
$4S$ to sit down $4S$ ;<-<-=%?-3A-.$R?,
\R$-,2 electronic stove \R$-,2-.$J-2-<J., 3J-:2.-3-.$R?-/,
[R$-L-5/-0-$*A?,
,2?-2!R. idea ,2?-2!R.-3J.-/-2!R.-:.R3?-0-3A/,
=3-0 traveler =3-0-$9A$-$A?-$/?-5%-$;R<-$A-;R.,
3./-KR$? front 3./-KR$?-/-#%-2-(J-$9A$-;R.,
}/-KR$? front }/-KR$?-/?-MA-5S$?-$9A$-,R/-2+%-,
.-.-. now; immediately 8A-3R-:.A-.-.-.-:5B$-0-9-:IR,
l-2g$ to feel the pulse l-2g$-/-3A-?J3?-AJ->J?,
•365•
/.-2g$ to diagnose /.-2g$-3#/-(/-0-A-m-<J.,
*-? layman's life *-?-/?-9-2-:.A-8R%-$A?-*A.-3-MR%-,
29R. to stand; to be able to tolerate %?-/3-^-*$-2&R$-:.A-3A-29R.,
5K-$&A$ life span 5K-$&A$-$-*J?-0-:.A?-=?-$&A$-<-3-P2,
*J?-$&A$ life span *J?-$&A$-$A-n-;-MA-29%-;A/-.$R?,
*2?-2&R= to pray; to take refuge from %?-MA-$8/-/-*2?-3A-2&R=,
#-\R% to entice; to provoke HA-24/-0R-$A-#-3-\R%-,
]-|= to gossip; to disgrace HR?-%J.-5%-$A-]-3-|=, KA/-(.-.J-3R-3-;?,
:22 to deserve %:A-=?-24:-=-|R<-3R-2o-:22,
3A-.3/-0 not bad #J-.0R/-$A?-L?-eJ?-3A-.3/-0-28$-;R.,
A-o man ?-(-=-=-/?-*J?-0-9R<-A-o-9J<-$A-;R.,
(-:UA/ information (-:UA/-;R.-/-MA-$R-o-(J,
;<-{= encouragement MA-$R-2-&/-/-;<-{=-;?-.$R?,
#R$-/-MJ-:2< to become very thirsty #<-$J?-9-3-3-9R?, #R$-/-MJ-:2<-$A-;R.,
0J-0J honk 0J-0J-$R-/-g-:SR$-o-<J.,
:SR$ to be startled g-:SR$?-/-?J3?-(%-;?-.$R?,
$9-2 mediator $9-2-$A?-S%-$+3-2>.-.$R?,
2<-:.3 mediation 2<-:.3-3-;?-/-:PA$-3,/-3A-;R%-,
:V$ dragon :V$-P$?-/-(<-:22-o-<J.,
:$3 to gobble #<-$J?-l3-0-:$3-$A-;R.,
.LJ-2-2$< to distinguish; to discriminate 3A%-YA%-$A-2<-/?-%?-.LJ-2-3A-2$<,
$+R< to destroy; to break through 3J-+R$?-$A?-3#<-mR%-$+R<-?R%-,
3#<-mR% fortress 3#<-mR%-$A?-.3$-3A-Y%-,2,
3,:-:HR= to be able to sustain / to survive :.A->J.-:5S-2-3,:-3A-:HR=,
L-2->R< to become unemployed $/?-5=-3A-Z-$A L-2->R<-3#/-<-3%-,
|R-;A$ passport; certificate |R-;A$-3J.-/-|R-Y%-$A?-:$R$-o-<J.,
$R-{2? chance; opportunity $R-{2?-.3-:6B/-;?-/-o=-#-:,R2,
•366•
1A$-=3 regulation; rule 1A$-=3-*R$-/-3$R-3J.-=$?-3J.-;A/,
:.R.-0 desire; want :.R.-0-(J-/-?J3?-3A-*A.,
2!/ sturdy; strong *R<-3-:.A-2!/, <J.-S-$/-.J-3R-3-<J.,
2.J-,% health 2.J-,%-%-3*3-:)R$-LR?,
HJ: infant HJ:-$A?-A-3-$A-:R-3-:,%?-/-<2-;A/,
zR. to relax; to compromise .P-PR$?-$*A-!?-PR?-,R$-/?-zR.-2+%-,
2c= to go across =3-0-(<-2c=-?R%-,
:.R.-3-5B3 to become unsatisfied #<-$J-YJ.-0-=J/-0-(J, :.R.-3-5B3,
;A.-<-:6B/ to keep in mind 8J-#%-;A.-<-:6B/-3A-*/,
2R< to get lost PR%-2-$9A$-PR%-HJ<-/?-2R<-?R%-,
AR%-*J$? chair AR%-*J$?-3J.-/-b%-2-/-$A
2$R-L-;? to divide ?A=-+R$-o-3-28A-2R-2$R-L-;?-o-<J.,
#3-$% a mouthful .J-<A%-#<-$J?-9-3-#3-$%-<-3-9R?,
24K3 to sew $R/-o-:.A-24K3-3#/-3<-$J-<J.,
.-8$ plume #J-2-$A-[.-/-.-8$-:OA$?,
}R-VJ%-%J dark green and stretching out .-8$?-}J-VJ%-%J-2<-$%-%-9$-:.$
3J-tJ flame _%-;R.-/-3J-tJ-)J-(J-;A/,
!R/-$8$ late autumn !R/-$8$-MA-9R<-=?-!-*%-,
:VR$-/$ pure herder :VR$-/$-9R?-8A%-=?-3A-=?,
=$-!R% empty-handed :P=-2-:.A-/3-;A/-/-<-=$-!R%-<J.,
.$/-? winter pasture .$/-?-/-,%-!A-3A-3%-,
o-,R$-$-o$ to get rich 5S%-3-2o$?, 5S%-2-o-,R$-$-o$-3-,2,
3*3-=?-;? to cooperate o=-#2-5%-3-$A?-3*3-=?-;?-$A-;R.,
>-!$ certain #<-$J-:IR->-!$-<J.,
•367•
•368•
aR2-5/-2&-$?3-0,
2h-3R.,
Adjective Clauses Adjective Clause: locative

/R; 3#/; ? Adjective Clause: personalizer
Temporal Adjective Clauses Complementizer and Nominalizer: /R
Audience gathered for Cham, an annual religious dance performance, Bla brang
Monastery, Bsang chu County, Gan lho Prefecture, Gansu Province (2011).
Text One: adjective clauses
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, =3-0-<-*-3A,
35S-*A.-$A?-<%-$A-_%?-:#R<-?R-3-*A/-3-$*A?-$A-}R/-/-*R?-/R-2{R<-<?, k-zR-mR%-,R$-$-?R%-, .?-5S.-S$-0-$A-;?-3?-

<J., *A-3-=-#-/-/2-=-#.-;R., ^-2-2&-$&A$-0-$A-/%-%-, .?-5S.-2./-0-$A-!J%-?-<2-:IR, 35S-*A.-:.<-?A$-?A$
_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-/?-3A-P%-/-<, #R%-2R-_%-:52-$A-/%-/-2!$-$A-;R.-/R-<-8A%-#-$A-#%?-%%?-}R/-*A/-3-22?-/R-<A$-
;?, 3<-$J-P%->-9R?-?R%-, 3<-$J-:P=-2-$9A$-=J/-$A-:IR-?-.-2R-.?-5S.-$&A$-$A-=3-,$-<J., ($-)J-/$-<-/3-^-
:H$?-/R-$A?, 3<-$J-4B?-4-$9A$-2?R.-$A-3J.,
3<-$J-t%-*-#J-2, <R%-2R-/?-,$-*J-/R:C-2R.-#J-$9A$-$-,R/-/A-<, 3<-$J?-A-;?-=3-:I3-/-=%?-;R.-/R-$9A$-<A$-?R%-,

A-;?-.J?->R$-zJ-!J%-/-%-k-zR-mR%-%-:IR"VA?-;R.-/R-$9A$-29%-;R., 35S-*A.-;-35<-?R%-, 3<-$J?-A-;?-c/-3R-_%?-
:#R<-<-|$-3#/-$9A$-<A$-3-MR%-, A-;?-c/-3R-=R-.J-3R-3,R/-0R-$9A$-4$-/%-/-2|$?-;R.-/R-<A$-;?, 35S-*A.-$A?-
~A%-eJ->R<-?R%-, MA-$%-;A/-HA.-/-*J/-#-(J-2?3?-3?, ,A<-2+%-$A?-3<-$J?-=3-0-:,-$A-3J., <J.-S-A-;?-c/-3R-
$9A$-(A-$9A$->J.-*J/-#-(J-/%-, 35S-*A.-$A?-_%?-:#R<-:.$-$A-2&$-/A-<, A-;?-$;R/-$A-$;R/-$A-5-<-,R/,
A-;?-_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-%-2.-/A-<, 35S-*A.-$A?-3<-$J-<R-3A-(%-/R->J?-?R%-, =?-8J%-(J, >-2o$?-0R-=?-5S/--0R-;A/-/R-

$A?, _%?-:#R<-$A-/%-%-:2.-oR-3<-$J?-.!:-$A-;R., A-;?-.J?-2R.-H-$9A$->3->3->J.-$R/-;R., E-3R-$9A$-%R-,<-<-
$R/-;R., 3<-$J?-=$-$A-#$-3-(J-.J-b%-:R$-$A-,%-%-28$ {.-3$R-.3:-3R-$9A$-$A?, ",$?-eJ-(J, %-k-zR-mR%-%-
:IR,"9J<, <J.-S-{.-3$R-.3:-/R-$A?, 35S-*A.-$A?-$R-3-$R-$9A$-;?-?R%-,
"HR.-k-zR-mR%-/-:.$-$A-;R.-/?," 35S-*A.-$A?-SA?, 3R-<%-$A?-?-(-.J-/?-=R-.-3%-%-_%?-:#R<-2R$?-$-2+%-/A-<J.,

OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, A-;?-.J-35S-*A.-$A-<R$?-0-3%-%-%R->J?-3#/-$9A$-;A/-/-,%-,
"%-.J-/-:.$-$A-3J., 8A-3R," =3-0-$A?-%$-:)3-0R->J.-=3-2+2?, "%-<R$?-0-$9A$-$-v-$A-:IR-3#/-$9A$-;A/, %:A-

<R$?-0-$A?-#<-$J-%-=J/-$A-;R%-9J<, $8$-/?, #<-$J<-;R%-,.-3J.-<-;R%-3-,2, %?-:IR-,.-$9A$-24=-/-fJ.-o-<J.-
2?3?-3?, =3-#-/?-2|$?-/A-;A/,"
A-;?-.J:A-2>.-!%?, ;<-3<-<-v-!%?-$A?-35S-*A.-@R%-$A?-2.J-$A-3-2&$ A-;?-$A?-3$R-/?-d-3-2<-<-E-3R-$A-:R$-

/?-3./-KR$?-$-2v?-/?-2#., 3<-$J<-5S<-2-;-35<-$9A$ 3<-$J-*J/-#-$A-#-/-;R.-/R:C-5S<-2-$9A$-*J?-?R%-, <J.-
S, A-;?-c/-3R-$9A$-$A?-(A-$9A$-;?-,2-o?,
•370•
35S-*A.-=3-0-$A-KR$?-$-#-:#R<-3-,2, MA$-9<-$A?-2v?, 3<-$J?-E-3R-<-5B=-($?-;R.-/R-$A-$R/-o:A-$R%-#, P-28A-
\A%-28A-$A-5$?-! =$-0-$;?-$;R/-$A-!J%-$A-k-#<-8A2-v-;?,
=$-0-k-#-&/-… .-3-:UR., 35S-*A.->A%-?R%-, =3-0-3R-*J?-$9A$-3A/-/-1R-*J?-$9A$-<J.,
.J%-,R$-3<-$J?-(A-$9A$-;?-oR-3->J?, \R-o$-$-;A.-<-]R-$9A$-><-?R%-, 3<-$J?-#-=R->J.-$A?-$&?-/?, _%?-:#R<-GA-

=A-$9A$-:#R<-$A-2&$
" .-3-:UR.,"35S-*A.-$A?-:$-2+2?, "8-;?-$9A$ %?-8-;?-$9A$-$&<-2+%-,"
=3-0-_%?-:#R<-GA-=A-$9A$-:#R<-<?-2}%?-;R., "%?-$&A$-<-3-<A$ 8A-3R, %?-2v?-/, .R/-.$-$&A$-<-3J.-$A"9J<,

35S-*A.-$A?-"8-;?-$9A$-$-2o2-2+%-/R-#R-,$-;A/,"9J<, "HR.-|R<-2.-<-=3-!J%-/-&%-;R.-3J.-<-vR?-0," 35S-*A.-
$A?-.2$?-=R/-$A-3J.,
=3-0-.=-3R->J.-_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-/?-|R<-2., #$-3-=$-$-3-29%-%-, =3-0-|R<-2.-<%-$A?, 35S-*A.-$A?-$;A?-|R-

3//-/?-S%->.-?J-2.-?R%-, 35S-*A.-$A?-#-=R-$&?-/A-<, |R-<-2o2-?R%-, &%-3-:$R<-<, =3-0-<-35S-*A.-$*A?-$A-
2<-<-*%-3,:-<-=3-,$-,A-=J-S$-(.-?R%-, {2?-.J<-,R/-/A-<, 35S-*A.-$A?-,%-$A-#$-3-.J-S/-?R%-, #$-3-.J:A-/%-$A-
.%R?-0R<-2v?-/, =3-0-8A-3R-3A/-/R-.J-%R-3-$A?-?-;A/->J?-,2-/-,%-, _%?-:#R<-=3-$A-3,:-#-/?-2#.-/A-<, 35S-
*A.-$A?-#$-3-uA.-3R-.J-0%-%-]%?,
#$-3:A-/%-/-!-<J-$9A$-3A/-.-$8/-$&A$-<-3J., !-<J-.-2R-#-iR/-0R-0-PA-:S-3-$9A$ #$-3-$A-/%-KR$?-/-O$-,A$-{3-

0R-(-<J-<-;R., 35S-*A.-=$-0-:.<-<-<, {.-3$R-.3:-3R->J.-5J%-:$R-2l3?,
13.1 --Adjective clauses
Adjective clauses without genitive case

aR2-OA.-%-.$:-/RR-lA?-<A$-$A-aR2-OA.-3-<J., .LA/- The class I like is not math
class but the English one.
Such an adjective
clause follows the
;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-<J., noun it describes.
?-(-#<<-$JJ-?RR%-MR%-/RR-=%-2-:.A:A-@/-/-3J., All the places he has ever been

to are not beyond this valley.
3<-$J-=J$?-*J?-%?-*RR?-/R<-.$:-$A-3J., #<-$J?- She does not like the present I
bought, but the one he bought.
*RR?-/R<-.$:-$A-;R.,
8A-=A-.J%-3--HR.-<--$*J/-1AA$-;?-/RR-.-%:A-c.-0R-;A/, The man you married is now
my husband.
•371•
Adjective clause with genitive
Attributive adjective clause English Note
%-.$:--/R:C-9-3-3R$-3R$-<J., <J.-S-%-3R$-3R$-=?- One of the dishes I like is
dumplings. But I do not like
If such a clause
precedes the
oR<-3A-.$:, making it. noun it describes,
a genitive case is
.$JJ-:./-$A?-2{<-/R:C-;A-$J-.J-<A%-:LR<-,=, The letter Dge 'dun sent was necessary.
received today.
?%?--o?--$A?-2>.--/R:A-$+3-5%-3<-*/-3A-*/, #- One should not accept all that
Sang rgyas said; some of it are
;?-$>R2-;A/, lies.
%?--2v?--/R:C-.0J-(-.3<-<R-:.A-<J., .0J-(-#<-$J?- The book I read is the red one;

the brown one is the one he
2v?-/R-o-($-.J-<J., read.
@-3-$A?-28$--/R:C-o-/R<-5%-3-8A-=A?-2!A3?-5<- The son squandered all the

property his parents left
?R%-, behind.
Notes-1
1. /R is used to form an adjective clause.

In PRT
%?--:5S=-$AA-;RR.-/R:C-.%R?-2R-:.A-/-;R., The thing that I am looking for is here.
.%R?-2R-HR?-:5S=-$A-;R.-/RR-$/-/-;R., The thing that you are looking for is there.
In FUT
:P=-2-%?--:2R.-o--;A/-/RR-29%-?-(-<J-;A/, The guests whom I will invite are some good
friends.
%--<-$*JJ/-1A$-;?--oRR:A-2-3R-%?-.-2R-fJ.-3J., I have not yet found the girl who will marry
me.
In PAT
9A/-VA?-%?--2+2?-/RR-2R<-?R%-, The note that I had kept was lost.
3<-$J?-*RR?-;R%-/RR:A-(%-$A?-3-2.-,=, The liquor which she had bought did not

suffice.
2. /R is used with monosyllabic adjectives to form adjective clauses, with a latent definite
HA3-5%-:.A-/?-8-;?-;$-/R-3<-$J-<J., (The child who is beautiful in this family is
article, e.g.,
her.) The beautiful child in this family is her. / >-8A3-/R-=$->-;A/, (The meat that is
delicious is mutton.) The delicious meat is mutton. This particle is also used with verbs in
PRT to personalize, e.g., .J-<A%-$$+3-2>.-/R-#J-.0R/-<J., The person who gives a speech is the
village leader. / #-l%-.LA/-;A$-:.R/-/R-aR2-3-:.A-9R-3A/, People who read English yesterday
were not these students.
•372•
Exercise 1 Ask a question that the corresponding statement answers. Use the words
in parentheses and /R so as to include an adjective clause in the questions.
.0J<-2eR., Statement: 35S-*A.-$A?-#$-3-$9A$-0%-%-]%?,

Question: .%R?-0R-35S-*A.-$A?-0%-%-]%?-/R-(A-$9A$-<J., (=J/)
Statement Question
1. 35S-*A.-$A-_%?-:#R<-?R-3-?R-n%-$9A$-<J., 1. _________________________________( ) *R
2. A-;?-c/-3R-=R-=R/-=R/-*$-$9A$-<J., 2. ____________________________(/%-%-2.)
3. 8A-3R-#-=R-2-.J-35S-*A.-;A/, 3. ________________________(_%?-:#R<-2{R<)
4. A-;?-$A?-35S-*A.-$A-<R$?-0-3%-%-%R-3A->J?, 4. __________________________ (<R$?-0-;A/)
5. A-;?-$A?-2R.-H-$9A$-$R/-;R., 5. __________________________($R/-o-$R/-;R.)
6. =3-0-$A?-#$-3-_%?-:#R<-$A-/%-%-28$ 6. _______________________________(:)R$)
Exercise 2 Write adjective clauses in the blanks using . /R
.0J<-2eR., !-2, |R<-3R-%<-2{<-/R-$A?-%J?-%J?-$R-(R.-,=, ({<) |R<-3R-{<-/R-HR.-AJ-;A/, ({<)

#-2, |R<-3R-{<-/R-%-3A/, |R<-3R-HR:A-=$-$-:UR.-/R-%:A-c/-3R-$A?-2{<-/A-<J., (:UR.)
HR?- vR?- <, ?- 8A%- %:A- =$- $-________ 8A%- ?- :.A- <J., (,R2) %:A- =$- $- :,R2- oR<- %?- <J- 2- (J-$9A$-3-29%-, #-l%-
%:A- =$- $-YA.- $8%- $A?- ________ ;A- $J- :LR<- ,=, ({<) ;A- $J:A- #- 3- KJ?- $R%- %- , 8A%- ?- :.A-%:A-=$- $-;R%-o-3-<J.-
2?3?- ,=, %- 8A%- ?- :.A<-v- $A- ;R% - .?, MA- *A- >- ?3- &- $9A$- $A?-<- 8A%- ?- :.A<- v- $A- ;R., #R- 9R- 5%- 3- ~/- 8- ;A- $J- VA?-
________+$- +$- <J., (;R.) .J? - 3A- 5.- #R- 9R- %:A- }R/- /-________<J., (,R/) %- ;A- (.- ,=, <J.- S-%- ;A- $J- :VA- oR<-
________=?-LJ.-0-$9A$-<J., ({=-3-$+R%) ;A-$J-______5%-3-?-8A%-,R2-oR:A-$R-{2?-:S-3*3-;A/-9J<, (:VA)
<J:- 3A$- %- ________ %?- #- {R% - ;?- <, (!J<) <J:- 3A$- /%- =/- 3A________ :SA- 5B$- 5%- 3- %?- 2*<- 2+%- , (>J?)
?-8A%-%-.-2<-________ 3:-P%?, (;R.) ?-8A%-.J-.$-$-#J/- $A-;R.- /R:C-MA-P%?-5%-3-/%-%-:VA-.$R?- $A %J.-5%-%-
8A%-?-3%-/R-$A?, %?-$/?-5=-:.A-<A$?-#-{R%-;?-/-3-:.R., %?-8A%-?-%J.-5%-%-______P%?-!-%R-3-$?%-2+%-,
(.2%) %J.-5%-/-_______MA-$A-P%?-!-<-$?%-2+%-, (;R.)
?- 8A% -.- ,J%?- =$- $- ________ :.A, (,R2) %J.- 5%- %- 35S/- /- @R%- $A?- $=- (J-$A =R- 2&R- s- $A- }R/- /- %J.- 5%- /-
•373•
________ MA- P%?- $?3- <J., (;R.) <J.- S, %J.- 5%- MA- 3$R- hR$- $R- 8J- ,$-$A?- .<- ,=, .- 29:- 3$R- 2&- ,3- 0- ;R.,
:V-<A$?-/-/A%-________$A?-%J.-5%-%-3-:.%-,=, (=R/) .-%-29:-.0R/-#$-$-,$-;R., %J.-5%-3$R-,R/-#-.!:-
3R-<J., <J.-S-.-,J%?-%J.-5%-=?-.2%-Z-$A
Exercise 3 Rewrite the sentences by personalizing the bolded italic verbs.
.0J<-2eR., %:A-@-3-$*A?-!?-o/-.->-9, %?-/3-;A/-/-}R-9,

o/-.->-9-/R-@-3-$*A?-!-;A/, /3-;A/-/-<-}R-9-/R-%-;A/,
without personalizing particle with personalizing particle
1. #-l%-%?-8-;?-9R<-$R/-o-*RR?, c/-3R-HA3-/?-2##., 1. ___________________
2. =$-mA-$9A$-$A?-\--]%?, =3-0-$A?-=3-#-/?-?JJ3?-->R<-?R%-, 2. ___________________
3. A-&J-<-Y-3R-$*A?-!-5S%-o$-$A-:IRR-o-<J., %-/%-/?-:..$--.$R?, 3. ___________________
4. .!R/-3(R$-35S-3R-;$-$AA 3<-$J:A-MA%-YA%-$8/-0-9R-.J-3R-3A/, 4. ___________________
5. A-#-$A?-.%R?-0R-*RR?-/, |R<-3R-%?-!J<-.$RR?, 5. ___________________
6. 3<-$J-VA?-/-3IR$?, 5K-<A%-VA?-/-.=, 6. ___________________
7. ]R-w/-$A?-2R.-;A$-OAA.?RR%-, aR2-3-$?3-$A?-2R.-;A$-.%%?-$AA 7. ___________________
Exercise 4 Complete the statements with the appropriate tense forms of the verbs in
parentheses, , and /R 3#/.
.0J<-2eR., .-/%?-)-{R=-/R-%-;A/, ({R=) $R-<J-YJ$-/R-A-3-<J., (YJ$)
1. HA3-5%-:.A-/-c.-0R-$9A$-<-c.-3R-$9A$-;R., /%-=?-_____c.-3R-<J., (=?) KA-=?_____c.-0R-<J., (=?)

2. MA->J?- L-_____<- >J?-L-_____8R%- $A?- 3A- $&A$-9J<, (3J.) (;R.) <J.-S-3#?-0- :K$?-/-:.R3?-$%-, \J/-0-
:K$?-/-3,R-$%-9J<,
3. aR2- 3- _______ <- ______ ?R- ?R<- 2$<- 2+%- , (2lR/- :P?- (J) (2lR/- :P?-(%) %-aR2-3-________ /%- /-
;R.-$A (@<-2lR/-;?)
4. 3J-+R$-.JA.-!-_______.-.$/-$8$-$-2!.-$A-;R., (2!.) .J-.J%-?%-/3-^-:I<-wR$-(J-/R-$A?-<J.,
5. \R$-[.-:.A-%?-_______<J., (*R) <J.-S-.J-_______%:A-%/-;-#J<-<R-;A/, (2!R=)
6. :R-3-3A-:,%-_______.!R/-3(R$-;A/, (9J<) <J.-S-o/-.-#<-$J?-_______:R-3-+$-+$-<J., (:,%)
•374•
7. o/- .-_______ ($>R2- $+3) _______ *%- , (;A.- (J?) .0J<- :)R$- $- ]- 3- 5K- <A%- OA$?- ?J- <J., #<- $J- $>R2-
n=-A-K-3-$9A$-;A/,
8. >-)J-2o$?-)J-2o$?-<J., #<-$J-#R-,$-$A?-l=-.R%-%-3A-_____ (:IR) 9-3-;%-3%-%-____;A/-o-<J., (9)
9. HR.-$?3-0R:C-/%-/?-L-2-12-_______.!R/-3(R$-5K-<A%-;A/, (,2) __________<-#<-$J-<J., (%-o=-(J)
10. L-2-%?-_______aR2-OA.-;?-oR-;A/, (:.J3) <J.-S-%-.J:A-,R$-$-2?3-0-$+/-/?-3A-:#R<-$A
13.2 --More uses of /R

Adjective clause subject with personalizer--present tense mood
Tibetan English Note
o/-.-MA-$8/--/->-5-/R-$A?-<%-.R/-.J-3R-3A-2?3,
People who care about others do not verbs in the
care much about their own business. adjective clauses
%J.-5%--$A-=?--!-=?--/R-%-;A/, I'm the person who gets things done. are in PRT
:.AA-2-5%--$A-=$-:5SS-/R-#-l%-.J-<A%-/-$A-;R.,
The person who herds this family's
sheep has been sick recently.
Adjective clauses that modify nouns in past tense mood
\R$-2f/--%?--2v?--/R-2R.-$A-:5S-2-$A-KR$?-<J.,
The movie I watched was about
Tibetan life.
nverbs in the
clause are in
<A-3R-<A$-w/--$A?-VA?-/R<-.$:-g$?-,R2, The painting Rig ldan drew won a PAT
prize. oauxiliaries
may follow verbs
8A-3R-#R-.$:--?R%-/R-#3?-/?-<J., The girl he fell in love with is from
Khams. to clarify tense
Adjective clause subject--future tense mood

\R$-2f/--?%--*A/-!R/-o-;A/-/R-A-3J-<A-#-$A-<J.,
The movie that will be shown
tomorrow is from the USA.
verbs in the
clause are in
?%--=R-%?--:.RR/-o-;A/-/R-o-;A$-<-.LA/-;A$-;A/,
What I will study next year are FUT
Chinese and English.
5S$?--,R$-/?--\J%-o-;A/-/R-1A$-=3-$A-{R<-<J.,
The issue that will be discussed at
the meeting is about the regulations.
Notes-2
/R often implies a noun in an adjective clause. In this case, the noun is not vocalized since it
can be inferred from the context, e.g., nin subject: %-,$-/R-#R-;A/, (The person) I met is him. /
%?-2+R/-/R-$J-?<-$A-1%-;A/, What I read is the Gesar epic; oin object: %?-$3-3J.-/R-9, I eat
(food) that contains no fat. However, in order to emphasize, it is vocalized, e.g., %-9-=<-=$-
:.J.-/R-$9A$-$-|$-$A-;R., I am waiting for a Salar who transports sheep. / 8A-3R-#<-$J-.$:-/R-%:A-
.J%-3-$A-.$:-<R$?-<J., The girl he loves is my ex-girlfriend.
•375•
Exercise 5 Translate the English phrases into Tibetan and complete the Tibetan
statements.
.0J<-2eR., Tibetan version: 2R.-$A-.N$?-)-:,%?-3-MR%-/R-$9A$-2R.-$A-/%?-)-.$:-o-3-<J.,

English version: A person who has never drunk Tibetan butter tea…
Blanks to fill in Complement English Version
1. ________________ ,A<-2+%-$A?-C-?-2$R-/A-<J., A family which has two sons…
2. ________________ }R-(J-$9A$-3A-9, A Tibetan who often eats

meat…
3. ________________ :VR$-=?-=?-3A->J?, A farmer who lives in an
agricultural area…
4. ________________ ,A<-$A?-2R.-uR%?-%-.%R?-0R-*J=-$A-;R., A businessman who often goes
to Lhasa…
5. ________________ o=-/%-/-8J-,$-$A?-.!:-$A-;R., A herder who does not know
Chinese…
6. ________________ o/-.-HA3-/?-2f/-:UA/-/-v-oR<-.$:, A child who does not want to
go to school
7. ________________ PR%-HJ<-/?-l3-0-S/-$A-;R., Tibetans who often eat rtsam
pa…
8. ________________ C-?-$8/-0:A-=$-/?-\-$A-;R., The nomads who have a lot of
livestock…
9. ________________ .-2<-|R<-3R-3%-%-<$-$A-;R., The farmer who sells
vegetables…
11. _______________ .2?-/?-KA<-<-,R/-<%-<J., The pilgrim who looks tired…
Exercise 6 Write appropriate verb tense forms in parentheses and /R in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., %?-2a2-L-.$J-c/-$A?-LA/-/R-$+A%-$A?-2eJ.-?R%-, (!J<) .-%-.J-<A%-:IR-?-;R.-o-3-<J.,
1. 3.%-.$R%-%-KA<-<-3PR/-#%-%-=R$-/R-:KA-?R%-, |R-________-$A?-%-/%-%-:IR-$A-3-2&$ (Y%)

2. \R$-2f/-$A-0-?J-________%:A-1-2R-$A-%R->J?-$9A$-<J., (:5S%) #<-$J?-%-0-?J-3J.-<-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-2&$-,=,
3. 8A-=A-%-.-/%?-=3-#-/?-________(-;R.-(-;R.-$9A$-<J., (,$) <J.-S-%?-$?=-2R->J.-%R?-:6B/-3-,2,
4. .!R/-3(R$-1R=-3-$A?- ________3=-ZR-oR-<J., (>J?) )-:,%-oR-<J., MA-$A-]-|=-oR-<J.,
5. .%R?-2R-________5%-3-$?<-2-<J., (*R) <J.-S-/%-/?-$R/-o-$?3-3-*R/-;R.-$A
6. %:A-=$-/-________|R<-3R-5%-3-8A-3R<-LA/-2+%-, (;R.) .-%-KA<-<-:IR-,.-$A-=3-PR/-<-3J.,
7. A-3-________8-;?-(%-%R-;A/, (?J3?-,R$?) 8-;?-(%-%R-MA-3.R-3J.-A-K-3-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?,
8. YR$-($?-;-35<-#<-$J?-________-<A-?$?-#%-/-;R.-9J<, (<A$) %-;A/-$&A$-3A/-$*A?-v-$A-:IR-o-;A/,
•376•
9. aR2-3-_______________$?3-0R-aR2-9-/%-/?-:IR-$A-2&$-2+%-, (1A$-=3-3-:$=) ~A%-3-eJ,
10. %- KA<- <- HA3- 3- ,R/- .?, =$- %- A- +- $A?- ________ 2>?- 2+%- $9A$ (:.%- (J) %- *A/- $%- %R<- 3- *A.- ,=, %:A- A-
1-$>A/-eJ-$9A$-<J.,
13.3 --Review of /R
Adjective clause in present tense mood
Tibetan English
%?-.-=3-#-/-9-=<--=$-*R-/R-$9A$-$-|$-$A-;R., I am waiting on the road for a Salar (person)
who buys sheep.
%:A-Z%-3R-$A?-9-3-$3-3J.-/R-9, $3-(J-/, 3<-$J-0$-$A-;R.,My sister eats food that does not contain fat;
she gets scared if food contains much fat.
.$J-c/-$A?-aR2-3-aR2-OA.-<-3A-;R%-/R<-(.-0-$&R., The teacher punishes the students who are
absent from the class.
Adjective clause in past tense mood
Tibetan English
.0J-(-:.A-#-l%-%?--2R<-?R%-/R-<J., .J-<A%-fJ.-oR-;A.-=-<-3-S/,
This book is the one I lost yesterday. I had
never thought I would find it today.
A-3-$A?-9-3-.2%--w/--$A?-3-9R?-/R-5%-3-;<-:)R$-;?-2+%-, The mother finished all the food that
Dbang ldan had not eaten.
@-3-$*A?-!?-#R-$*A?-$A-8A-3R-%:AA-?J3?--/-;R.-/R-$8/-/-(%-?-
The parents betrothed their daughter, with
whom I fell in love, to another man.
2o2-2+%-,
Adjective clause in future tense mood
Tibetan English
MA-3%-$A?-o=--#2--:.AA:A-$4SS-:6BB/-/-:.$-o-;A/-/R-.J-<A%-<A$-,2-o-<J.,
Many will be able to see the person
who will be the leader of this country.
%?-%:AA-aR2-OA.-<-8$?--o-;A/-/R-9R-:.A<-2R?-;R., I have asked everyone, who will take
part in my class, to come here.
A-1-$A?-$+3-A-3-$A?-$R-/-:.RR.-o-;A/-/R-:$R-3-:$R<-2>., The father told much news and first
was what the mother would like to
hear.
Notes-3
1. oR and o are discussed in more detail in Notes 4, 5, and 6 in Chapter Eight in connection
with infinitive adjective clauses. Refer to these notes to do the following exercises.
2. /R: If an adjective clause is in future tense, infinitive adjective clauses are often used in
place of /R-included adjective clause, e.g., .J-<A%-KA-SR-.$J-c/-/.-0-=-v-$A-:IR-oR:A-.?-5S.-;A/,
This afternoon is the time to visit the sick teacher. / .J-<A%-KA-SR-.$J-c/-/.-0-=-v-$A-:IR-/R:C-.?-
5S.-;A/, This afternoon is the time of visiting the sick teacher. / :.A-#<-$J?-*R?-/-:.R.-oR:A-.0J-
(-<J., Or, :.A-#<-$J?-*R?-/-:.R.-/R:C-.0J-(-<J., This is the book that he will want to buy.
•377•
Exercise 7 Translate the English phrases into Tibetan and complete the Tibetan
sentences.
.0J<-2eR., Tibetan version: %-MA-;A.-5B3-o-3J.-/R:C-MA-<-:PR$?-/-3A-:.R.,

English version: People who are difficult to satisfy.
Subject Tibetan version Verb English version
1. ^-2-$A-Z%-3R- _________________________
.$:-$A-3J., Her husband who
has cheated her
3A-<A$ Things that I need
2. %? _________________________ urgently
3. 35S-3R-<-3R-$A-c.-0R _________________________
%R-,$-?R%-, Someone who they
both know
4. %:A-%/-; @R%-$A?-.$:, People who are
_________________________ honest
5. 5S%-o$-oR _________________________
;A/, Something that I
want to do
6. aR2-3-9R- _________________________
.$:-$A-;R., The teacher who
speaks very clearly
7. %- _________________________
8J-#%-(J, People who only
flatter
;A.-<-3A-S/-$A All that I have
8. %?- _________________________ learned yesterday
9. .$/-#-P%-oR-
_________________________
3A/, An issue he cares
about
10. lA?-<A$-.R%-oR-
_________________________
<J., A task I do not like to
do
11. %?- _________________________
.J-3R-<A$-3-MR%-, A person who is
good-looking
12. %:A-c/-3R _________________________
;A/-.$R?, A girl who is always
good-tempered
13. %:A-#-=R-2- _________________________
<J., A reliable person
who I like
14. }-?J?-;<-=%?-oR- _________________________
3A/, Something I want to
do
Exercise 8 Write an appropriate adjective clause in the blanks, using appropriate
verb tense forms in parentheses and articles.
.0J<-2eR., %-<-%:A- <R$?- 0- 3%- %- $A?- 3*3-0?-9-3- 9R?, 9-3-%?-9R?-/R-5%-3- 2*$?-2+%-, (9) %:A-3*3-0?-
9-3-9-/R-9R-<-#R$-0-2.J-$A-3J., (9)
1. :.A-?%?-o?-$A-?-$/?-3A/-#-<J., ?%?-o?-$A?__________3A%-L%-HR:A-=$-/-AJ-;R., (!J<)
2. %:A-=$-/-\R$-2f/-$A-0-?J-z$-3-$*A?-;R., %:A-3*3-0?-:IR-/-__________?-;R., (:.R.)
3. %-3A/, $R/-o-:O.-,.-$A-\R$-|R-__________%-3A/, (:LJ.) %-,R/-.?-\R$-|R-KJ?-;R.-$A
4. _%?- :#R<-=3-.GA=- /?- __________ ?- <J., (:)R$) 3$R- 3J.- =$?- 3J., _%?- :#R<- $8$- /?- _____ 5%-
•378•
3-:IR-,2-$A-3J., (;R%)
5. *J/-gR$-0-$A?->A-2R-5%-/?-;A-$J-$9A$-fJ.-?R%-, *J/-gR$-0-$A?-.-;A-$J-.J__________l.-$&R.-$A-;R., (:VA)
6. aR2- 3- aR2- {2?- :.A:A- L- .$:-__________-%:A- Z%- 3R- <J., (,R2) %:A- A- 3- $A?- ;%- %:A- 3./- /?- 3<- $J- Z- YR=-
o/-YR=-2>.-o-<J.,
7. %J.-5S:C-:6B/-9-/%-/?, aR2-3-A-+-$A?-_________35S-3R-;A/, (Z) <J.-S, =R-I%?-%-.$:-g$?-_______
3<-$J-3-<J., (=R/)
8. MA-?-$9A$-$-o2-*R<-;?_________%?->J?-$A (.$R?) .J%-?%-3%-5S$?-5S-%J?-%J?-~A%-3-eJ, :5S-2-)J-#$-<J.,
9. $?<-2-:.A-o-$<-/?-;R%-/A-<J., #<-$J-)R-3R-]-<A:A-!J%-%-__________<J., (:$R)
10. HA3-5%- 2l3?-1%-$A- /%- /- 8A2-:VA-;?- __________=R-o?-,R$-$A-HA3-5%-.2%-&/- $9A$-<J., (;R.) .J-2-5%-
$A-=R-o?-2&A%?-:PR=-$A-}R/-/-3)$-mR$?-?R%-,
11. %J.-5%-$A-8-;? __________8-;?-$8/-0-9R-?-?-<J., ($*R$) HR?-%-2>.-/-AJ-(R$
12. %J.- 9R:C- #J- 2- $A- MA- =R- 2./- $A- }R/- /- _________ .- KA<-<- ,R/- ;R.- 9J<, (:6B/- 29%- ;?) #R- 9R- .J%- 3- $/:- m?-
_______;A/, (5S%-o$)
Exercise 9 Write adjective clauses in the blanks using appropriate verb tense forms
in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., %-MA-2./-$A-3*3-0?-$/?-3)=-<-?R%-, $/?-3(R$-MA%-(J-/R-3%-%-$9A$-$-?R%-, (MA%-(J)

Mick John HR.-.-,J%?-A-3.R<-?R%-/R-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
John %-0J-$A?-3-*A.-,=,
Mick (A-$9A$-3-*/-/?, HR.-.$J-c/-<-aR2-PR$?-9R:C-3*3-0?-?R%-/A-<J., ______.-2R-?-$/?-$A-A-3.R-2-
$9A$-<J., (=3-HA.)
John _%?-:#R<-%J.-9R?-__________3A-Z-$A (\) _%?-:#R<-2.J-3R-3-<J., 3IR$?-3R-<-3-<J.,
Mick _%?-:#R<-.=-/-Z-$A-3R, 2.J-:)$?-<J., .J-3A/-.-,A<-2+%-$A?-A-3.R-/?-__________/R/-0-+$-+$-
;A/, (_%?-:#R<-{R<)
John A-3.R-$A-9-3-%-3A-#3?-$A ______%?-$+R%-3A-,2-$A (9) %:A-=3-<R$?-$8/-0-9R-<-$/.-.R/-:.A-;R.-
,=,
Mick %?-2v?-/, HR?-_________>-+$-+$-;A/-o-<J., (9) >-9-oR-3%-?R%-/, 353?-353?-3-l-:$$-
:IR,
•379•
John __________ __________
<- KA-o=-$A-v-{R<-2-<J., (<A$) ($R) %-A-3.R<-<%-$A?-<A$-3-
__________v-$A-?R%-, (MR%) <J.-S, $%-;A/-?-/, KA-o=-$A-v-{R<-2-<J.,
Mick HR:A-3*3-0?- __________MA-9R-(A-3R-<J., (:IR)
John #R-9R-<-.J-3A/-.J-<J., =3-/?-:IR-<R$?-3%-/, .R/-.$-3%-$A 9-3-%?-_______$/-$A?-3A-:.R., (:.R.)
9-3-$/-$A?-:.R.-/R-%?-3A-:.R., )-{=-$9A$-9R?-/-.?-5S.-(-<J-.$R?-$A .R/-.$-%?-2v?-/-;-35<-
______, (;A/) :IR-<R$?-#-;?-8J/-0-=R$-$R-$A
Mick HR?-:S-0<-AJ-]%?,
John %?-:S-0<-3%-%-$9A$-]%?-%-, <J.-S-2./-$&A$-$A-$8$-/?, %:A-0<-=J/-,.-2b?-?R%-, %?-
_________5%-3-<-2b?-?R%-, (0<-=J/) HR?-2v?-/-:.R.-/-<,
Mick 8J-#%-3-=%?, HR?-?-$/?-$A-MA-<-#-2h-AJ-;?,
John %?-:.A-/?-__________A3-{.-$A?-$R-$&A$-<-3-(R., (.R%) {.-(-$8/-$A?-__________%?-@-3-
$R (2>.) %?-2>.-/R-$8/-$A?-$R-2-3-=R/-,=,
Mick A-3.R-/?-.%R?-0R-$R%-2.J-9J<, HR?-*R-(-3%-%-AJ-2o2,
John *R-(-3-2o2, .%R?-2R-:.A-/?-__________3%-?R%-, (:HJ<) A-3.R-/?-$R/-o-3,$-0R-3-.$R?-,=,
Mick .J?-/, HR?-A-3.R-$A-/3-^-&A$->R.-S,
John %J.-(:R-A-3.R<-,R/-$A-<?, $/3-}R/-0R<-__________(<-<J., (;R.) (<-2!.-<?-*A/-3-$?3-3-
22?-,=, .J:A-$8$-/?-*A-3-24/-0R-,R/-/?, %:A-=?-$A->/-0$?-<-:5B$-,=,
Mick A-3.R-3A/-.-HR.-?-(-$8/-0-$%-$%-%-?R%-,
John %-z-?<-?R%-/-:.R.-,=, <J.-S-(R$-3(/-;A-$J-$9A$-3J.-/, KA-\A%-2-z-?<-?R%-/-3A-(R$-$A (R$-3(/-;A-$J-
=J/-oR<-__________|R<-3R-!R%-5S-$*A?-!-%?-!J<-/-3-:.R., (3#R)
Mick HR.-:.A-~A%-3-eJ,
John <J.-S-%?-<R$?-3R-$9A$-fJ.-,=, 8A-3R-%?-__________/%-/?-3<-$J-A-+-$A?-;$-/R-<J., (>J?) %:A-
3A$-/%-/-3<-$J-+$-+$-<J., %-.-.-.-KA<-<-A-3.R<-:IR-:.R.-$A
•380•
13.4 --Adjective clause: temporal and locative
Adjective clause--temporal
^-2-28A-2-2R.-<A$?--$A?-(R?-=$?--$A-(R-$-3%--%-The fourth lunar month is a time
when Tibetans hold many
A genitive case
%J=-/R:C-.?-5S.-$9A$-;A/, religious rituals. marker follows /R to

modify a temporal
=R-?<-%J.-5%--$A-29:--3A-5%--3-3*3--:6SS3-;R%- The New Year is the only festival
during which all my family concept such as a
,2-/R:C-.?-(J/-#J<-<R-<J., members can get together. specific day and
year.
2007-=R-N%-$R-/?--.R/-(J/-3%--%-L%-/R:C-=R- The year 2007 is the one during
which many events took place in
$9A$-<J., China.
.?-5S.-.$-2-/?-2&-2-$A-2<-%-A-+-$A?-3A-#R3- From 9 to 10 o'clock is the time

when I am busiest.
/R:C-.?-5S.-;A/,
Adjective clause --locative
A-&J-2#.-(/R:C)-?-/?-%-:.$-o?, I will stay in the place where my
sister stayed.
? put after
o=--#2--MA-*%-(/R:C)-?-/-1A$-=3-<-;R., The countries which have a small /R:C points out
population are well organized. where. In
:5SS-2-*A.-0R-;A/-(/R:C)-?-/?-:.$-oR-5%-3-$A-<J-2-<J.,
Everyone hopes to live in places
where life is comfortable.
such
<R$?--3R-:.$-$A-;R.-(/R:C)-?-=%-#R$-<, 8A-=A-:IRR-$A-The girlfriend lives in a valley but statements,

her lover lives on a mountain. /R:C is often
;R.-(/R:C)-?-<A-|%-<J., not vocalized.
o=-#2-%-?R%-(/R:C)-?-$A-/%-/-A-3J-<A-#-<-;R., The USA is among the countries
that I have already been to.
Notes-4
? is attached to verbs to modify where. Such combinations could be taken as quasi-nouns or

as a clause, e.g., #<- $J- :IR-?- =/- NA$- ;A/, Lanzhou is the place where he goes. / #<- $J- ?R%-?- =/-
NA$-;A/, Lanzhou was the place where he went.
•381•
Exercise 10 Write /R, ?, genitive case markers, and postpositions in the blanks and
complete the sentences. Use adjective clauses and the correct tense forms
of the verbs in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., ?-(- 2_/- (J- ?- $9A$- /?-2#.-2#.-<?, (2_/-(J) %-3,:-3)$-A-3.R<-KA<-<-?R%-, A-3.R-/?-?-(-

{3-(J-/R-$A?, =R-$&A$-$A-/%-%-%:A-#-%R-5%-3-IR%-,=, A-3.R-<%-$J-=$-($?-?-;A/-/-<, (=$-($?)
1. aR2-9-%:A-8A-=A-$A?-.0J-(-________(:.R/) %:A-HA3-35K?-$A-8-;?-$*A?-!?-<-.0J-(-:.R/-$A-;R.,
2. ,A<-2+%-$A?-%:A-%/-;-<-%J.-$*A?-!-________$&A$-;A/, (:.$) <J.-S, aR2-{2?-:.A:A-/%-%-#<-$J-0J-&A/-
$A-aR2-9-{.-<A$?-________$9A$-/-;R., (.R%)
3. 8-;?-*=-________/?-:<-3-o$ #<-$J-.-2R-$*A.-$A?-:.%-3J., (;R.)
4. |R<-,R/-/A-<, %?-(<-$.$?-3J.-/R->J?-?R%-, 1=-(J<-%-________\A%-!-/%-/?-2eJ.-?R%-, (:.$)
5. o/-.-(<-________$9A$-/?-%-:.$-/-3A-:.R., (:22) }R-<-#R%-%R-________*A.-0R-;A/-/-<, (;R.)
6. %?-________(%-#%-$A-/%-;A/, (#-0<-$+R%) :.A-/?-:<-(J-$A :.A-/-;R.-/R:A-5%-3-{.-3$R-A-K-$9A$-3,R-$A
7. John ;=-{R<-<-:IR-oR<-.$:, #<-$J-2R.-$A-?-(-3%-%-$9A$-$-?R%-, #<-$J?-.-#<-$J-________{R<-$A-.0J-(-
$9A$-:VA-$A-;R., (:IR) .0J-(-#<-$J?-_______.$:-$9A$-;A/-o-<J., (:VA)

8. 5K-<A%-, .R-.$R%-%-________9-3-9-$A-;R%-o-AJ-;A/,(:.$) .R/-:P2, %-;R%-,2-o-3-<J., <R$?-0-$9A$-$A?-
________$9A$-$-:IR-9J<, (VR-lJ)
9. %?-$R/-o-________28A-3.R-$A-5S%-#%-.J-;A/, (*R) $R/-o-$R%-@R%-$A?-2.J-$A $R/-o-________$A-o-%?-3A-

.$-/-<, ($R%-2.J) .J-2-5%-/?-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J.,
Exercise 11 Put in temporal adjective clauses.
.0J<-2eR., ^-2-.$-2-%-0R-=A/-/-3J.-/R:A-^-2-$9A$-<J., ^-2-.$-2-%-A-3.R<-:IR-oR:A-.?-5S.-$9A$-<J.,
1. $9:-:#R<-$&A$-$A-}-3R:C-.?-5S._________________;<-<-=%?_____________,
2. =R-$&A$-$A-/%-%-@-3-_________________^-2________________________,
3. ^-2-<J-<J-$A-5K?-0-______________^-1R$?___________________________,
4. 2./-U$-$&A$-$A-/%-%-%?-%=-$?R-___________________________________,
5. $9:-:#R<-$&A$-$A-/%-_______________%-A-+-$A?-#R3___________________,
6. =R-<J-<J-$A-^-2-________5K?-0_____________%-*J?____________________,
•382•
7. :$R-2-$A?-%-=-$>J-$>J-$+R%-.?-%:A-?J3?_______________________________,
8. .?-5S.-______________%?-$%-)-________________________________,
9. %:A-#3?-3A-?%?-___________________%-vR$?-$A-;R.-___________________,
10. 5.-0-$A-/%-/?-=?-!-=?-.?-{R3-(-A-+-$A?-3#R____________________________,
Exercise 12 Fill the blanks with adjective clauses to modify place, people, or
something. Use the appropriate tense forms of the verbs in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., %J.-$*A?-!-?R%- ?R%-;?-<A-3$R-$9A$- $-,R/-2+%-, ;R%-?- 2?J-5%-#J-2- ,$- <A%-,$-<A%-/, (;R%) %J.-$*A?-!-
:IR- ?- .- 2R- ,$- <A%- <J., (:IR) .J? - 3A- 5., 9- 3- =3- /?- 9- oR- <- 9R?- 5<- ?R%- , (9) .-(A- $9A$-;?- /%-,
.J-<A%-%-A-MJ?-k-(J/-$A-3$R<-___________*A/-3-.%-2R-<J., (:$R) .-%-(.-$A +A.-0-:.<-<-<, <A-{J.-:.A-/-.-%-

___________$9A$-3J.-$A (:IR) <J.-S, %-;A-(.-$A-3J., %:A-b%-2-2$.-<?-H$-:6<-$A-;R.-/-<, 3$R-=R$-$A-k-
(J/-mR%-8J-,$-$A?-?-_______(*A.), ___________$9A$-<J., (;A.-.2%-:(R<) .J:A-,R$-$-.-{2?-?-(-:.A-A-

+-$A?-__________.?-<J., (*A.) <A-:.2?-$A-(-<-=%-2, 3./-KR$?-$A-<A-%R?-$A->$-#R%-, $?R/-*3?-(A-3R-$9A$-
w/-$A <J.-S-.-%->A-=-#.-;R.-$A .-%-(-_________$/-/-;R.-o-/, (;R.) %?-(-o-3-2&-,3-0-=3-?%-:,%-o-<J.,
%-3$R-=R$-$-.J%-,R$-,R/-.?-.JA.-!-_________{2?-<J., (;=-$A-;R.) %?-2.-5S.-<-,2-5S.-$A?-%-<%-$J-

________MA-5%-3-o?-=R/-A-m-$9A$-;?-/?, (:.$) <J.-S-?-$/?-$A-2R.-{.-.R%-oR-8J-,$-$A?-.!:-$A <J.-S-A-
3.R:A-{.-________3$R-=R$-$A-;/-$9A$-3J., (.R%) %?-(J-$9A$-3A-$R-/-<, %?-_________.?-5S.-/%-%-,

(.R%-2-;?) %?-]R-$&A$-?J3?-$&A$-;?-/?, .-%?-%:A-=3-_________ <-#-2h-;?-,2-$A (HA.) .J-3A/-.-<A-OR.-
%J.-9R-___________:.A-/-2&R?-!-;R.-o-3-<J., (;R.)
%:A-:$R-<R$?-$&A$-.LA/-)A-/?-___________aR2-3-$9A$-;A/, (;R%) #<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-;A/-/-<, $-,%-A-K-3-

$9A$-<-<J., %:A-}/-2&.-<?-___________#<-$J-<J., (:$R) %-.=-3R-;A/-/R-$A?, #<-$J?-:#%-<-o/-3A-(.-<-
;?-$A %-#<-$J-___________Z-=->J.-:$R?-/, (;R.) #<-$J-;%-%-vR?-/-3,R-?-$9A$-/-;R., #<-$J-%-vR?-/-=R-
(%-, =?-!R2?-<-(J, .-%-c?-?R%-$9A$ =3-0-<-#R-$*A?-!<-#-2h-___________.?-5S.-<-;R.-$R-$A (;?) %:A-
%R-/-d=-/$-4-<-<, #<-$J?-.?-5S.-28A-$A-!J%-,R/-?-$9A$-/?-%=-$?R-9J<, <J.-S-.J-<J$-2<-.-2R-{<-3-*A->-;R.-$A %-
<A-:.2?-$A-?-(-K$?-9R$-$A?-___________.J<-KA<-<-,R/-;R.-o-/, (2!%)
•383•
KA-)-___________.?-5S.-,R/-=-#.-;R., (:,%) )-n%-<-$R-n%-, HJ:-9?-.J-<A$?-(A-3R-$9A$-8A3-A%-, <A-:.2?-
$A-%J.-9R-_________ 82?-82?-$9A$-/-;R., (;R%) .-/%?-$A-=$-mA-%J.-$?3-0R-$A?___________.-3A$-
3,R%-/-3J.-$A (<A$) %:A-b%-2-:.A-2$.-3J.-o-/, .!R/-3(R$-$?3-0R, %J.-9R-=3-:K$-3A-*/,
13.5 ?
-- and /R in adjective clauses
Adjective clause--locative
/Rwith postposition without postposition
? Note
%-/%--/?--2#.-/R:C-#%-2-.-2>A$?-2+%-$9A$ %-<%-$J<-2#.-MR%-?-%?-o/-.-S/-$A Post-

positions
%?-/%--/?--L-2-=?-/R:C-5S%-#%-2hA2?-?R%-, 3$R-=R$-?-(-;A.-.2%-:(RR<-?-$9A$-<J., are used in
adjective
clauses to
#<-$J?-/%--/-L-2-=?-$A-;R.-/R:C-=?-#%?-)J-:LR<-<J., #<-$J-*J?-0-(J, 5K-KA-3-/-:IRR-?-3J., clarify
more
#%-2-.$/-#-/%-/?--3J-+R$-2!.-/R-2R.-/-*%-, N%-$R-/-o-<A$?-3J.-?-$9A$-3J., specifically
where.
With ? that signifies to which, to whom, and from which
2.JJ/-2>.--?:AA-.0R/-3J., There is no officer to whom one can hand
in his complaint; and there is no deity
indicates ?
a target,
=?--2&RR=-?:AA-z-3J., with whom one can entrust his fate.
recipient,
2>.--?-8A-3R-<-*/--?-3/:-3, One talks to the daughter, but the
listener is the daughter-in-law. (a or an
proverb) origin in
%?-IR.-$+$?-o$-2?3?-/, IR.-;A$-8-?- I do want to file a lawsuit, but do not
know where to submit the paper.
adjective
clause.
$9A$-<-3A->J?-$A
Exercise 13 Fill in the adjective clauses to modify time, locality, people, or things. Use
the appropriate tense forms of the verbs in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., L- 2- %?- 212?- /R- 5%- 3- :$R- 2- $A- ]R<- :22- $A- ;R., (12) ,A<- $A?- %- .- 2.- ?R% - /- (R$ <J.- S- %:A- =?-
<R$?-=?-!<-;R%-3-,2-/R-$A?-%-=-=?-2&R=-;?-,=, .-%?-#<-$J?-=?-oR:A-L-2-=?- .$R?, (=?)
1. <J2-$R%-$A-#J-2-(%-(%-$9A$-%-_________<J., (*J) %-_________.-2<-PR%-#J-$9A$-$-*/-;R.,(*J)

2. (%-.?-%-K$?-9R$-_______.J-3R-$9A$-3-.$:-$9A$ (;R.) <J.-S-K$?-9R$-$&A$-<-________?-(-/?-%?-
K$?-9R$-S/-$A (3J.)
3. :.A-/?-MA-3%-%-$A?-:SA-5B$-:.A-:SA-$A 2R.-/-5S%-#%-.%R?-0R-:.A-3R-_________AJ-;R., (3%)
•384•
4. %-PR%-HJ<-:5S-2-$A-(-nJ/-_________@R%-$A?-.$:-$A (:6S3) PR%-HJ<-.J-3R-/?-=?-#3?-?%?-$A
5. PR%-HJ<-_%?-:#R<-3%-%-_________/?-%:A-@-3-$*A?-!-3$R-/-$A-;R., (o$-$A-;R.)
6. %-.-#J-2-<%-$J-_________?R%-/-:.R., (*J) 2R.-$A-$+3-.0J-<, L-c?-/-5%-S/, MA-c?-/-;:-S/-9J<,
7. %?-.?-5S.-$9:-:#R<-}R/-3-_________*R?-/-:.R., (<A$) <J.-S-%:A-c/-3R-$A?-.J-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J.-9J<,
8. %:A-@-3-$*A?-!?-.-#R-$*A?-!-/%-/_________#%-2-:5S%-o-;A/-9J<, (:.$-$A-;R.) #%-2-$8/-0-#R-$*A?-
!:A-_________-*R-o-;A/-9J<, (]R<-:22)
9. .JA.-!-C-,%-/?-_________.?-5S.-<J., (*A.) <J.-S-K$?-9R$-$-_________.?-5S.-^-2-S$-0-/?-
2o.-0-<J., (YR-:22)
10. =R-2&R-2o.-$A-8A-3R-$/?-=-:IR-</-<J.-9J<, <J.-S, %?-2v?-/-=R-2&R-2o.- ______=R-3-<J., ($/?-<-:IR)
11. *A/-/$-9J<-/R-2R.-MA-$A?-@R%-$A?-_________*A/-3-$9A$-<J., (:6K3) .0J<-28$-/, =R-?<-$A-5K?-0-2./-0-$A-
*A/-/, @-3-9R?-8-;?-9R-|R<-3R-<-2!R=-$A-3A-:)$
12. #R-$*A?-___________*A/-3-#R-$*A?-!-A-+-$A?-___________*A/-3-<J., ($*J/-!R/-;?) (*A.)
13. A-3.R-/-_________@R<-^-$A-=A-,R-<-z-?-/-_________@R<-^-$A-=A-,R-$*A?-!-3A-$&A$ (2!R=-$A-;R.)
(2!R=-$A-;R.)
14. __________________, ($%-2-*A.) __________________=R-^-.-28.-?R%-, (:.%-o$-3J.)
15. HA3-5%-$A-3$R<-2o2-/, <R$?-0-9R<-,$-_____________<-3J.-$A (#R3-0)
Exercise 14 Convert the phrases in parentheses to adjective clauses and put them in
the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., .R-5B$?-^-2-$*A?-0-$A-5K?-0-2./-/-o-=R-,R/-$A-;R.,(=R-?<-,R/) 5K?-0-2./-0-=R-?<-,R/-/R:C-*A/-/-

%-A-3.R<-:IR-o-;A/,
1. _____________________________, %-HA3-/-3J., %-|R-/-;R., (;:-KR$?-/?-:P=-2-$9A$-,R/)
2. ________________________*J/-gR$-#%-%-LA/-2+%-, (%?-|R<-#$-$9A$-fJ., .J-|R<-3R-$A?-2!%-;R.)
3. :$R-2-$A?-____________________*A/-3-(-<J-=?-!<-;R%-3A-.$R?-9J<, (%:A-=?-<R$?-$9A$-/-$A-;R.)
4. (8A-=A-$9A$-$A?-?%?-o?-35S-*=-#%-/-:5S=-$A-;R.)_____________________________KA<-<-2.-
,=, #<-$J-,R/-.?, ?%?-o?-35S-<%-$J<-3=-#%-/%-/-3J.-,=,

5. __________________________, (#-l%-3<-$J?-2f/-:UA/-/-v-$A-;R.) .J-<A%-MA-$8/-0-9R?-v-$A-;R.,
6. _____________________________, (%?-HR.-.$%-)-$A-$8$-/?-#-0<-2+%-%) HR?-3-*/-,=,
•385•
7. :$R-2-$A?-;%-{.-3$R-3,R/-0R->J.-=?-<R$?-$9A$-$-$>J-$>J-$+R%-$A-;R., #<-$J-;%-MA-_______________
______(=?-!-$A-$8$-$-=?-/-/3-;A/-/-<-$>J-$>J-$+R%-$A-;R.)
8. 82?-8-2-$A?_____________________________(3<-$J?-<J:-3A$-$9A$-24=-24=-2+%) %-LA/,
;%-{.-3$R-.3:-3R->J.-%?-<J:-3A$-#-{R%-;?-.$R?-9J<, =A%-5K-_____________________________
(%?-#-{R%-;?-.$R?) $%-$%-;A/-/%-,
9. %?-2f/-:UA/-$A-/%-/?-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-;R.-.?-\R$-(.-,=, __________________________3)$-
:V?-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-/%-, (%?-\R$-2f/-*A.-0R-$9A$-$-2v?)
10. (8-;?-$A?-#%-2-3J<-2+%) 35S-3R-___________________#%-2-.J:A-/%-/-.-2R-;R%-$A-3J., 2h-2o2-/-<,
11. _________________________(%?-HR:A-{.-$R-.$R?-$A) %?-HR.-@R%-$A?-S/-$A-;R., 3-2?3?-?-/?,
HR:A-#-0<-,R/-2+%-,
12. (;=-{R<-2-$9A$-$A?-?-$/?-$A-,R/-m?-H.-0<-&/-*R?-/-:.R.-$A-;R.) 5S%-2-$9A$-$A?-_______________
_________.J<-.%R?-2R-(-4B$-24S%?-/-:.R.-$R-$A
13. (*J?-0-$9A$-$A?-5S%-#%-/%-/-$R%-$+3-$A-;R.,) _________________________~A%-3-eJ, #<-$J?-
$R%-|R<-3R-$?3-&/-$A-.%R?-0R-$9A$-$-|R<-3R-*A?-2o-LA/-2+%-,
14. (*J?-0-$9A$-$A?-Y%-/-?A=-+R$-:5S%-$A-;R.) %-__________________________.J:A-=R$?-$-?R%-;?-
#<-$J:A-?A=-+R$-*R?,
15. (%:A-HA3-35K?-$A-8A-3R-/-/A%-$/?-,$-<A%-$9A$-$-2.-?R%) __________________________3-*A.-,=-
9J<, +$-3R-24/-0R-$9A$-<-~A.-3R-#R$-%/-$9A$-$A?-3<-$J-3/<-?R%-,
16. (.!<-;R=-9R-*$-24S$-;A/,) %?-______________________:O.-.$R?, .!<-;R=-$4%-3<-2+%-/A-<,
%:A-:.$-<R$?-$A?-2!R=-$A-;R., <J.-S-3<-$J?-$+/-/?-3A-:O., 3<-$J?-353?-353?-3-%:A-~A%-3$R<-o$-$A

Exercise 15 Write adjective clauses in the blanks using the appropriate tense forms of
the verbs and phrases in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., 5S%-<-/%-%->-,R/-/R:C-*A/-/, (>-,R/) >-*R-3#/-9R-/R?-2+%-, (>-*R) #-l%-.J-<A%->-:5S%-/R-$A?->-#.-

,2-$A-3J., (>-:5S%-) >-9-/R-$A?->-*R-,2-$A-3J., (9) A-3.R:A-9R$-=$->-%R-3-;R.-?-.!R/-$A (;R.)
3.%-.$R%-, %?-:P=-2-$A?- ________________9-3-:UR-3-$4%-3-;?-$A-;R.-.?, (9) %:A-<R$?-0-/%-3-

$9A$-$A-8A-=A-P$?-0-$A?-#-0<-2o2-,=, #<-$J?-________________Y%-$9A$-;A/-9J<, (#-0<-$+R%) #<-
$J-aR2-9-/?-1A=-=3-3-:$=-?R%-, #<-$J-aR2-OA.-<-8$?-$A-:)$-$A-3J.-9J<, .$/-#-/3-^-:.A-3R-$9A$-_______
•386•
_________ *A/-3-$9A$-$ (:H$?) 8-;?-=R-(%-$9A$-|R-/?-28$-/-3A-:PA$ (.-0-.J-3R-$9A$___________
_____?-;A/-/%-, ($&R.) P$?-0-I%-;?-#-2h-<-;?-,2-$A-3J., P$?-0-$A-@-3-____________ $*A?-!?-
$R-o-/, (,$-<A%-/-;R.) #R-$*A?-!-/R-o-<J., %?-#<-$J-_____________$%-;A/-SA?, (;R.) #<-$J?-aR2-9:A-o-

|R:A-$;?-KR$?-/, 5S%-#%-(%-(%-.-(%-_________$9A$-$A-/%-/-;R.-9J<, (:5S%)
8-;?-=R-(%-________________|R-#-/-%-2|$?-;?-;R., (<%-3$R-3A-,R/) P$?-0-$A?-#<-$J<-________

o-35/-2>.-,=, ((.-0-$&R.) *A/-3-.J:A-KA-SR:A-.?-5S.-$?3-0-lA?-<A$-.$J-c/-$A?-________________.?-
5S.-;A/, (aR2-OA.-;?) 3<-$J:A-aR2-OA.-<-/%-.R/-3J.-/R:C-3A-5., aR2-OA.-Z-=->J.-<-3A-;?, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-aR2-OA.-$A-
!J%-/-aR2-3-________________o/-.-3%-%-;R., ($*A.) =?-#$-P$?-0-aR2-3-aR2-OA.-<-o/-.-______
__________$9A$-;A/, (*/) <J.-S-*A/-3-.J<-aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/?-_________________aR2-3-#R-#J<-<R-<J.,
($*A.) P$?-0-$A?-2>.-/, #R-:6B/-9:A-/%-/?-2R.-#J<-<R-;A/-/R-$A?, .$J-c/-$A?-#<-$J-8R%-$A?-]R<-3A-:22, #<-
$J-3A/-., aR2-3-$8/-$9A$-$-<-aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-<A-3R-VA?-/R-$A?-(.-0-,J2?-?R%-, aR2-3-.J?_____________<A-3R-

.$J-c/-$A?-2>$?-2+%-9J<, (:VA)
.$J-c/-$A?-P$?-0-:.A<-3A-Z, $/-/-3A-Z-9J<, 3<-$J?-__________=?-L-:VA-#-3A-*/-9J<, (!J<) %?-P$?-0-

aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.-SA?-/, 3<-$J<-2>.-o-$&A$-<-3J., .$J-c/-____________9R?-#<-$J-aR2-3-A-
m-2R-;A/-9J<, (P$?-0-=-.$:) $%-v<-/-<, .$J-c/-<-aR2-3-$*A?-!-$&A$-$&A$-$A-YR$-,R$-$-?R%-;R., %?-2v?-/-
<, lA?-<A$-$A-.$J-c/-8J-,$-$A?-_________ $9A$-<J., (~A%-lJ%)
Text Two: adjective clauses
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, o/-.-A<-&A?-2!R=-/,
.R-8$-8A2-:)$-,A-5S$?-5/-<A$-#%-$A?-%J=-/R-v<-/, *J?-1R-3R-(%-.?-/?-i-&R$-o/-.-<J.-3#/-$9A$-$A?-o/-
.-2!R=-/, A<-&A?-i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-oR<-*J/-#-(J-9J<-$A-;R.,
}R/-(.-$A-8A2-:)$-$A-/%-/, A<-&A?-2!R=-<?-o/-.-\-.L%?-1-(J-/R<-*/-/, i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-*J.-*J/-#-(J-
/R-$9A$-$-*/-:IR-9J<, A-<-/?-.3$-$-8$?-$A-;R.-/R:A-=R-(%-!R%-$9A$-$-2g$-.J.-;?-<?, i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-;R.-
/R-3%-%-$9A$-fJ.-?R%-, <J.-S, 3-2?3?-?-$9A$-;R.-/R, i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-;R.-/R-9R-$?<-2-A<-&A?-2!R=-3#/-+$-
+$-3-<J., #R-9R-(%-.?-/?-i-2<-3-$A-$*/-5.-;%-<-;%-$A?-MR%-3#/-<-<J.,
8A2-:)$-:.A:A-OR.-/?, hR-=R%-\-5S$?-<-+A?-?A-#R<-^-2-$&A$-$-,J%?-$*A?-$A-;/-:IR-3#/, :<-(J-?-/?-L-2-
•387•
=?-/R:C-MA, A<-&A?-2!R=-<?-\-.L%?-%-*/-3#/-9R-$A-i-$A-.2%-5S<-<-2g$-.J.-;?, \-5S$?-<-L-2-=?-?-$A-:<-1-
i-$A-$R-5S.-<->/->$?-(J-/R-2!/-;R., .J:A-3*3-., MA-:.A-<A$?-$A-i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-/R:C-o-nJ/-$4S-2R-A<-&A-$A-2!R=-,R.-
<J., MA-:.A-9R:C-(/-2&R?-$A-=R-o?-.LJ-8A2-;?-/, A<-&A?-2!R=-,R.-;?-/R:C-$/R.-0-8-;?-;A/-.?-i-2<-3-$*/-5.-
o?-MR%-3-MR%-%-<$-=?-(J-$9A$-;R.,
}R/-(.-$A-8A2-:)$-3%-%-$A-/%-/, A<-&A?-2!R=-/R-<-2!R=-3#/--9R:C-i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-:IR-/R-$*A?-!-:VJ=-
2-(J-9J<, <J.-S, MA-i-2<-3-$A-$*/-5.-;R.-3#/-9R:C-/%-/, A<-&A?-$A-2!R=-,R.-i-$A-.2%-2R-*3?-*J.-z$-+-52?-
(J/-;A/-/R-,J%?-,R$-3<-2!/-;R., 8A2-:)$-5/-#$-$A?, MA-:.A-<A$?-$A-/%-/-*/-*J.-i-$/R.-0-,J2?-/R-52?-)J-(J-;A/-
9J<, ,A-#R3-#R-9R?-;?-/R:C-/%-/, 8-;?-.?-$A-i-$A-/.-}-?J?-(/-2&R?-;?-oR-$=-(J-9J<, i-5-;%-<-;%-$A?-o?-/R-<-
A<-&A?-<-o/-.-2!R=-/R:A-$?<-2-$?<-3R-<A$?-$J<-35S/-/, A<-&A?-i-:R/-*J.-*J/-#-&/-$9A$-;A/-$A-;R.,
13.6 --Review: /R
Nouns implied in adjective clauses
=?--/R-29%-$A =?-3#/-?-?-;A/, The work (that was done) was
done well. Who did it?
nThe noun is implied
in context.
.J-<A%-OA.-/RR-%?-@-3-$R-,=, =?-L-:VA-3A->J?-$AI did not understand what
was taught today. Now, I am oIf the verb before /R
not able to do the homework. is in PAT, the clause
i--$A-.2%-2RR-*3?--;R.-/RR-3$R/-0R-$A-8A-3R-<J.,
The person who lost hearing
is Mgon bo's daughter; she modifies something
3<-$J?-&%-$R-$A-3J., does not hear very much. other than a person.
pIf the verb before /R
v--/R-$*A.-<?-2#.-;R., MA-:.A-3R-$9A$-2-mA- The babysitter is sleeping.
Don't let such a person baby- is in PRT, the clause
2&:-$A-3-:)$ sit. likely modifies a
person as well.
As nominalizer or complementizer
.JJ-<AA%-aR2-3--5%-3--,R/-/RR-Z-$A %?-o$?-=J/-9J<-
It is good that all the students came
today. I am going to give a test.
nSuch clauses
can be used as
$A-;R., both subject
$/3--22?-/RR-8A%-=?-=-@R%-$A?-1/, #-l%-.J- The rain (that rained) is very good
for agriculture, it is very dry
and object.
o is used as
/R
<A%-,/-0-(J, recently.
both
complementizer
%?-3<<-$JJ-$%--/-;RR.-/R-3A->J?, I do not know where she is.
and nominalizer.
3<<-$JJ-$99$?--(J-/R-A-3<-<A$-?R%-, She is tall because of her mother.
•388•
Nouns specified in adjective clauses
L-2-*J/-#-(J-/R<-\-24:-3,R/-0R-:22-$A A risky job deserves high
remuneration.
/R is put either
after a
8-;?--<A$-/R-.J-2-5%-$A-<J., The child that has been seen is
from that family. monosyllabic
8A-3R-.$:--/R-.J-2-5%-$A-2-3R-<J., The good girl is the daughter of adjective or a
that family. verb to modify a
MA-]R-,%-/R<-2!R.-0-$8$-/-;R., A person without foresight does
have hindsight.
noun.
Adjective clauses with a latent definite article

\J/-0-:.A?-8-;?--<A$-0-;R.-/R-aR2-9<-3-2+%-, This stupid guy did not send the
intelligent child to school, but the
/R in adjective
clause suggests
3J.-/R-2+%-, unintelligent one.
a latent definite
$R/-o-%?--*R?-/R-o-($-<J., 3<-$J?-*R?-/R-u%-/$- The garment I purchased is the
brown one; the one she bought is
article
depending on
<J., the dark green one.
context.
:S--0<--#-l%--]%?--/R:A-!J%-/-MA-3%-%-$9A$-;R., There are many people in the

picture taken yesterday.
/R in participle phrases that modify complements
#%-2-:.A-=?--/R-Z-$A 2.$--;?--/R-<-Z-$A This house is well built and well
taken care of.
nA participle
case modifies
\-.L%?-]%?--/R-;$-$A :R<-$A?-&A$-=R%?, The song is well sung. Please sing it
again! monosyllabic
IR-3R$-2lAA$?--/R-3,R-$A .-.J:A-!J%-%-3-lA$ The bricks are piled high. Do not adjectives.
put more on!
%J.-(-2R-?R%-/R-3IR$?-$A .-<J3-3-,R/-o-<J., We walked fast. We will soon
arrive.
oSuch a
participle case
aR2-OA.-;?--/R-29%-$A <J.-S-*/-3#/-3%-%-3J., The class was taught well.
However, few people listened to it. tells in what
$R/-o-5.--/R-(%-?R%-, $R/-?-3A-:IR, The measurements for the garment
were too small so the garment is
something is
so.
too small to wear.
8-;?-:.A-$9$?--*J?-/R-(J-$A #<-$J-.-A-1-$A-(J-<J., This boy is physically growing big.
He is bigger than his father.
Notes-5
/R, together with a verb in PAT or a monosyllabic adjective, plays the role of gerundial case,
telling in what something is so, e.g., HR.-? ?R%-/R-Z-$A .J-3A/, MJ-$A?-5%-3-,=-$A-2+%-;R.-o-<J., It is
good that you went, or the fire would have burned down everything. / ;A-$J-VA?-/R-3A-Z-$A %?-;A$-
%R-3A-(R.-$A The letter is not well written and so I can't read it. / #<-$J?-aR2-OA.-;?-/R-@R%-$A?-Z, He
is very good at teaching. / #%-2lJ$?-)?-:$R.-;?-/R-;$ The building is nicely designed. Such
gerundial phrases modify adjective complements such as: 3,R, :KA, ;$, Z, 29%, (%, (J, .=,
3IR$?, ~/, $4S$, 3*3-0R, etc.
•389•
Exercise 16 Create adjective clauses and noun clauses with the phrases and sentences
in parentheses. Use function words and the morphemes /R and ?.
.0J<-2eR., %?-HA3-=?-3%-%-=?-/R-A-1-$A-]R<-:22-$A-3J., (%?-HA3-=?-3%-%-=?) A-3-$A?-Z-$A-9J<, 8-;?-

=R-(%-$9A$-$A?-.J-3R-$9A$-=?-,2-/, A-1?-=?-,2-/R-(A-$9A$-;A/-9J<, (A-1-(A-$9A$-=?-,2)
,RR.-0 IR.-$8A-2>.-/R-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
.RR/-:P22 .J:A-=R-<2?-3-\J%-, ______________________/?-IR-3-bR-$A-;R., (?-~A-3R-$9A$-;A/) %J.-5%-
$A-8A-3R-$A?-$/?-5%-/?-=R-2o.-<-#$-M%?, .-3<-$J-_________________$.R/-m?-<J.,
(.$R?-$A-3J.) {<-3-$%-<-3J.-<, KA<-<-;:-2-2.:-2+%-, 2^-/-.-2R-%J:-U$-$9A$
,RR.-0 HR.-OA3?-#%-%-3-?R%-/?,
.RR/-:P22 ?R%-%-, ?R%-.?-OA3?-#%-|R-2o2-;R.-$A =?-#%?-$A?-3=-ZR-/R:C-*A/-3-<J., .J-/?-%-8$-:.$-3-;?-<-
KA<-<-2.-;R%-,
,RR.-0 ;%-(A-$9A$-3-:PA$-,=,
.RR/-:P22 OA3?-3-$+$-oR-,A<-/?-o-$A-:IR-=$?-$9A$-<J., :-9R:C-#J-2:A-/%-/-<%-$A-:IR-=$?-$9A$-;R., 3,<-
$+$?-;R%-/, ______________________$9A$-2&:-/-3A-:.R.-$A (%-<%-$A-:IR-=$?-2lA-
3#/-$9A$-3A/)
,RR.-0 .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, $/?-5%-/?-______________________HR.-<%-$A-<%-.R/-<J., (\-24:-
=J/-,2-.$R?) .J-2-5%-$A?-______________________>J?-;R.-$A (HR?-.J-3R-3A-=?)
.RR/-:P22 .J-;A/-/-,%-, <J.-S-______________________$8/-<-;R.-o-<J., (LJ.-,2?-$R-(R.-;A/)
$/?-5%-$A->-*J-9R-2|=-;?-2<-:.3-;?-/-(R$-$A ;A/-$&A$-3A/-$*A?-*$-0-{3-0R-.N$-3A-.$R?-$A .J-
3A/-.-#R-5%-$A-l-2:A-]-3-.!R/-3(R$-24=-/-<-(R$-(R$-<J., $%-v<-/-<-$9-2R-$9A$-24=-/, .R/-.$-
(J-$A-*/-o-3-<J., .J:A-@/-(.-/?, ________________v<-<, (OA3?-,$-$&R.) 8A-=A-24S/-#%-
%-HA.-/, ____________________A-1-%?-24S/-#%-/%-%-2&$(8-;?-$*A?-;R.) /A-<J.,
,RR.-0 #R-5%-$A->-*J-$A-/%-/?-____________________:23-0-<J., HR?-#<-$J-24=-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
(#-=?-.<)
.RR/-:P22 %?-#R-5%-%-#-0<-,J%?-3%-%-$9A$-$-2+%-%-, ______________________8A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
(8A-3R-$9A$-$A?-#-0<-<-*/) #R-5%-%-8A-3R______________________;A/-o-<J., (8A-3R-=R-(%-
$9A$-;A/) :23-0-$A?-KA<-<-#-0<-2+%-3-;R%-,
•390•
,R.-0 $/?-5%-/?-______________________HR?-;A/-.-3A/-.-=R%?, (.%R?-2R-3%-%-HR.-:22)
,A<-$A?-:.A-5%-3-.R/-.$-______________________3-<J., (%-<-:VJ=-2-;R.) <J.-S-8A-3R-
$A?-___________________2?3?-/, (=R-2o.-<-$;R$-;?) %-.$R%-3R<-$*A.-3A-;R%-$A
.RR/-:P22 .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, %?-<J-2-(A-3R-$9A$-:.R/-o?, =R-2o.-<-|R<-3R-OA-$?3-=R/-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
,RR.-0 (R$-$A .J:A-,R$-$-______________________3-2eJ., (8-;?-~R<-oR<-|R<-3R-.$R?) 8-;?-
$/?-5%-/?-*J?-/A-<J., >A-/-#R-5%-$A-:SJ-<, $?R/-/-#R-5%-$A-MA-<J., 8-;?-$A-|R<-3R-3A-!J<-<%-!J<-;A/-
/A-<J.,
.RR/-:P22 $/?-5%-$A?, ______________________5%-3-KA<-<-3A-!J<-9J<, (#R-5%-$A?-.%R?-2R-<-$R/-
o-*R?) ______________________2.J/-/, (%?-4-$J-4B-$J-$9A$-$R) .%R?-2R-.J-<A$?-LA/-/, #R-
5%-$A-~A%-/.-<J.-9J<,
,RR.-0 ,A<-$A?-______________________;A/-/A-<J., ((/-2-3R-$/?-<-:IR-.$R?)__________
_____________8A-=A-9R-<J., (8A-=A-9R->=-/?-:.$) HR.-<-c.-3R-$*A?-!-<-8-;?-3%-%-$9A$-3J.,
________________________5%-3-$A?->J?-/A-<J., (HR.-$*A?-!-o-;R.) KA/-(.-HR?-8A-3R-
$/?-<-:IR-$A-3-:)$ ________________ _______$9A$-;A/, (3<-$J-%-:.%-;R.) .J-;A/-/,

3<-$J-______________________*/-o-<J., (3<-$J?-HR.-c/-cR/-$*A?-!-$*R<-o-<J.)
.RR/-:P22 %J.-$*A?-!<-35S/-/, .J-(R$-$A <J.-S-__________________8A-3R-3<-$J-<J., (8A-3R-#$-o-<J.)
,RR.-0 (A-$9A$-$ <J.-S-$/?-5%-%-3-.$R?-/-2&:-o-3J.-<,
.RR/-:P22 <J.-S-_________________$/?-5%-$A-c/-cR/-$*A?-!-<J.-9J<, (8A-3R-2.:) 8A-3R-<-8A-=A-$*A?-
!-:VJ=-2-YR$-<J.,
Exercise 17 Rewrite the statements so as to include either an adjective clause or a
noun clause, without changing the original meaning.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-$A-:VR$-0-$A?-K$?-9R$-C-,%-/-:5S-$A-;R., K$?-9R$-:.A-<A$?-$A->-@R%-$A?-$4%-3-;A/,

2R.-$A-:VR$-0-$A?-C-,%-/?-:5S?-/R:C-K$?-9R$-$A->-@R%-$A?-$4%-3-;A/,
Original statement
Rewritten statement
1. l3-0-2R.-$A-9-3-$4S-2R-$9A$-;A/, 3<-<-/?-$A?-2mA?-/A-<J., __________ 2R.-$A-9-3-$4S-2R-$9A$-;A/,

2. \R$-[.-(A-$9A$-;A/, 2R.-3%-%-$A?-\R$-[.-2!R=->J?-$A-3J., __________________________ ,
•391•
3. 35S-3R-$A?-o-{.-.R%-$A-;R., MA-$8/-0-3-<J., ________________________;A/,
4. 5K-<A%-z-?-/?-*J?, #<-$J-.-A-3.R-/-:.$-$A-;R., ________________________;A/,
5. <J2-$R%-<R%-3-:VR$-$A-?-(-$9A$-;A/, :.A-/?-2R.-$A-+-l=-.<, ____________________$9A$-;A/,
6. .$R/-0-/-9-2-9R-:.$-$A-;R., #R-9R?-aR2-.R%-<-;?-$A-;R., .$R/-0____________________;A/,

7. MA-..-0-&/-$A?-MA-\?-/?-=$-2>:-$A-;R., >-#R-9R?-9-$A-;R., MA-..-0-&/_________________;A/,
8. .J%-?%-S-o-$A-!J%-/?-.%R?-2R-*R-,2-$A-;R., .J-$?<-2eJ-<J.-9J<, MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?___________<J.-9J<,
9. %-<-%:A-c/-3R-?A=-+R$-*R-$A-?R%-, ?A=-+R$-:UR$-<J?-;?-$A-;R., ______________:UR$-<J?-;?-$A-;R.,
10. %?-.J%-3-=%-2-$9A$-/?-=$-:5S?, =%-2-.J-.-%R?-:6B/-3A-,2, ________________.-%R?-:6B/-3A-,2,
11. (R=-#-$?3-$A-/%-/?-#3?-MA-P%?-(J, ?-o-(J, __________________________,
12. .A/-0-<-A-#-$*A?-0J-&A/-/-:IR-o?-9J<, ________________________;A/,
/R ?
Exercise 18 Complete the sentences using , , and your own words if required.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, 2R.-/?-9-oR-:,%-oR-5%-3-HR.-9R-<-3A-$&A$ HR.-2R.-/?-AJ-=R2?-$A

#-2, %-2R.-/?-3A-=R2?-/R-o/-.->-9-oR-<J., .J-3A/-.-2R.-:.$-?-*A.-0R-$9A$-<J.,
1. !-2, %?-$R-/R-;A/-/, HR?-hR-eJ-$A-#%-2-*R-$A-;R.-9J<,

#-2, ;R., #%-2-%-.-/%-/__________________.J-3R-$9A$-3A-(J-$A hR-eJ-$A-#%-2-@R%-$A?-(J-$A
2. !-2, HR:A-Z%-3R-$?3-0R-KA-o=-/-;R.-9J<, #R-9R-?-?-;A/,
#-2, *A$-;R-/__________%:A-Z%-3R-(J-2R, NA-&-!A-/_______:VA%-2-<-=R-Z/-&A-/_______(%-%R-;A/,
3. !-2, HR?-2R.-;A$-aR2-9-$%-/?-2+R/-/?, /2-L%-3A-<A$?-aR2-9-(J/-3R-AJ-;A/,
#-2, 3A/, %?-2R.-;A$___________/2-L%-3A-<A$?-aR2-9-(J/-3R-3A/,
4. !-2, %:A-:.$-<R$?-MA-2>.-#-$9A$-<J., .R/-.$-(%-(%-$A-!J%-/?-<-2>.-o-(J,
#-2, %-__________________3*3-0?-22-$A?-:.$-3A-,2,
5. !-2, HR:A-A-3-^-2-}R/-3-/%-%-z-?-2.-,=-9J<, :IR-<R$?-3%-%-$9A$-;R.-$A-9J<, AJ-2.J/,
#-2, 2.J/, 3<-$J-___________Z-$A 3<-$J:A-:.R.-0-$9A$-P2-?R%-, 3*3-0?________MA-S$-<J.,
6. !-2, HR?-o/-.-aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/-2R.-{.-2!R=-$A-;R.-9J<, HR:A-aR2-3-5%-3-$A?-$R-2-=R/-$A-AJ-;R.,
#-2, aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/?-_____________2R.-{.-;A/, %?-__________aR2-3-5%-3-$A?-@-$R-$A-3J.,
7. !-2, <A$-$/?-$?<-2eJ-(J/-0R-$A-{2?-2, 3:R-4K-+%-$A-:S-0<-8A%-#<-:HJ<-.$R?-9J<, HR?-.-2<-AJ-S/-$A
•392•
#-2, =R?-S/, __________________=R-^-%:A-/-^-5%-3-$A?-5K-$%-2R-2eJ.-o-3-<J.,
8. !-2, I%-%R-$A-:S-0<-:.A-$*A?-!-(A-3R-$9A$-;$-$A-/%-, #%?-$%-?-$%-/-<J., :.A-HR:A-1-;=-AJ-<J.,
#-2, $;R/-$A-:S-0<-!J%-/-___________%:A-1-;=-<J., %:A-1-;=-.$/-#-*A._________$9A$-;A/,

9. !-2, A-3-$A-(3-0-)J-#$-<J., (/-0-$A?-(/-$-#-$*A?-*R-.$R?-9J<, HR?-AJ-*R?,
#-2, %?-(3-0-$A-(/_______________2eJ.-?R%-, |R-#-$A-5S%-#%-.J:A-/%-/-;R.________(/-<J.,

10. !-2, .J-<A%-3R-5S$?-,R$-/-MA-(A-3R-$9A$-3%-$A %?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-%R-<-3A->J?-$A HR:A-<R$?-0-AJ-;A/,
#-2, HR?-<A$__________5%-3-=/-NA$-/?-<J., #R-9R-%-<-3*3-0?-aR2-9-$&A$-___________<J.,

11. !-2, 2R.-$A-MA%-5%-3<-1=-(J<-/%-.R/-;R.-$A z-*2?-9J<-/-(A-$9A$-<J.,
#-2, z-*2?-9J<-/, z-$A?-*2?-?R%-9J<-/A-<J., <J.-S-.-2<-MA-_____________$&A$-<-%?-%R-3A->J?,

12. !-2, 2R.-3A-,A-$A?-1$->-9-9J<, <J.-S, 2R.-3A-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-1$->-$+/-/?-3A-9, .J:A-o-35/-(A-$9A$-<J.,
#-2, 2R.-$A-/%-/-___________;R.-$A 2R.-MA-5%-3-1$->-3A-9-____________3-<J.,

Exercise 19 Translate English statements into Tibetan with gerundial phrases
included.
.0J<-2eR., Tibetan version: _%?-:#R<-2{R<-/R-2.J-$A %-3A-#$-$A English version: The car ran smoothly.
Subject Tibetan Version English Version

1. =R-+R$- ________________________________ The crops grow evenly.
2. 3-EA-:#R<-=R The prayer wheel turns very
________________________________ slowly.
3. 9-3- ________________________________ The food was cooked well.
The speech is very well
4. $+3-2>.- ________________________________ written.
5. .?-5S.- ________________________________ Time passes by very fast.
The rangeland is managed
6. C-? ________________________________ well.
7. 3A-<A$?-3%-%- Many ethnic groups are well
________________________________ integrated.
8. #<-$J-
________________________________ He lost very badly.
9. $/3-P- ________________________________ The plane flies slowly.
10. :UA/-;A$
________________________________ The letter soon arrived.
•393•
Verb in PRT + /RR It is used with active verbs to derive adjective clauses.
Regular question Statement with /RR Notes
.J-<A%-*R-(-??-2o2, .J-<A%-**R-(--o$-/RR-1R=-3-;A/, n /R can be

replaced with
aR2-9-:.A-/-.-.$J-c/-$%-$A?-aR2-OA.- aRR2-OA.-;?--$A-3J.-/R-%J.-9R:C-lA?-<A$-$A-.$J-c/-(R?-
3#/.
;?-$A-3J., =R-<J.,
HR.-35S/-/-(A-$9A$-$=-(J, %--#-o2--!J<-/RR-$=-(J, oThe verbs
in adjective
5S$?-:.-:.A-??-l-:6$?-;?-$A-;R., 5SS$?--:.--l-:66$?--;?-/RR-%-;A/, clause are in
.!R/-3(R$-5%-$A-?-$/?-<-:IR-$A-;R., $/?--<-:IRR-/RR-8A-3R-:VA%-2-<J., PRT.
Verb in PAT + /RR It is used to convey either a nominalized noun clause or a complementized
noun clause.
Regular questions Statements with /RR Notes
3.%-.$R%-HR?-!R/-,R$-/?-MA-?-?-<A$ 3.%-.$R%-<AA$-/R-MA-3%-%-$9A$-;A/, <J.-S-%R->J?-/R- The verbs in

the clause
,R.-0-<-.R/-:P2-<J., are in PAT.
5S$?-#$-:.A?-\-.L%?-(A-$9A$-]%?, 5SS$?--#$-:.AA?-]%?-/RR-0J-&A/-$A-$?J<-3.R$-*A-3-<J.,
.R-8$-HR?-.R/-.$-(A-$9A$-P2-?R%-, .RR-8$--%?-P22-/RR-lR3-;A$-$*A?-;A/,
HR:A-\R$-[.-:.A-$%-;A/, :.A-HR:A-A--3-$AA?-*R?-/RR-<J.,
K$?-9R$-8A%-/%-%-??-2o2-/A-<J., 3->J?, K$?--9R$-8AA%-/%-%--2+%-/RR-24S$-$A
Monosyllabic It is used to convey an adjective clause with a definite article latent, implying
adjective + /RR who or what.
Regular questions Statements with /RR Notes
o-H-:.A-$*A?-!:A-/%-/?-$R%-$%-Z-$A %?-<-3A->J?-$A <J.-S-o--2-Z--/R-HR:A-=$-$A-.J-;A/-#-<J., /R

implies a
MA%-Z%-$?3-0R-aR2-.R%-%-?-Z, <AA$-0-iRR-/RR-(%-%R-<J., aR2-.RR%-%-Z--/R-2<-3-2R-<J., definite
HR.-N%-$R<-.$:-$A :)<-3/-/-.$:-$A 2>.-#-.!:-3R-<J., <J.-S-#R<-;$--$4%-/RR-:)<-3/-<J., article.

HR?-{.-<A$?-$%-.R%-o-;A/, 3A->J?, %?-2v?-/, l-/RR-.LA/-;A$-<J.,
•394•
/R in noun clause Such noun clauses are either nominalized or complementized.
Clause as subject Clause as object Notes

:VRR$-/?--/.--L%-/R-.R/-.$-52?-(J/-<J., %-?J3?-#<-(J-?-%:AA-o-{.--8/--/R-<J., Such
noun
*R-3#/--5%--3-|R<-3R-;R.-/R-$A?-.0=-:LR<-Z-/R-35S/, .R/-.$-(J-2R-#<-$J-*A.-$A-3J.-/R-<J., clauses
do not
imply a
_%?--:#RR<-$?<--2-*R?-/R-;=-{R<-<-:IR-oR:A-(J.-;A/, 3<-$J-#-3IR$?-$A 2>.-/R-%?--@-3A-$R-/R-<J., definite
article.
<R$?--0-$A-*R/-(-;A.-<-3A-:6BB/-/R-#R-$A-29%-(-$9A$-<J., %?-#<-$J-(A-$9AA$-.$RR?-/R-3->J?,
#R3-o-3J.-/R-#<-$J:A-$>A?-!-<J., A-1-$A?-*A/-$%-%R<-%-$%--/-;R.-/R-3->J?,
Verb / adj. + /R + polar This polar-phrase compound is used to confirm one thing and, at the
verb / adj. + /R same time, deny another.
Tibetan English
HR?-.R/-.$-%R-3->R., HR.-MA-%/-;A/-/R-3A/-/RR-2>.-3A-.$R?, Tell the truth! You do not need to explain if
you are a bad person or not.
:.A-2!:-;A/, HR?-=?--/R-3A-=?-/RR-3-2>., Don't tell if you do or not! It is an order.
;$--/R-24S$-/R-.R/-.$-$9A$-3-<J., c/-3R-$4S-2R-MA-29%-.$R?, A wife should be a nice person; her beauty

is not an issue.
L-2-;%--/R-<-tAA-/RR-5%-3-%:A-:$/-:#<-;A/, I end up having to do everything, easy or
difficult.
?-29%--/R-?-%/--/R-2>.-oR-.!:-3R-<J., It is difficult to judge who is good and who
is bad.
3A + verb in PRT + .$ + It signifies an extreme in a disapproving tone.
the same verb

8-;?-:.A-3A-:IRR-.$$-:IR, 3.%-.$R%-(.-:5S%-#%-%-<- This child goes everywhere;
he even went to a brothel last
This structure
is used to
2.-?R%-$9A$ night. make
disapproving
HR.-:.A-3A->JJ?-.$-->J?, %:A-$?%-2-:.A-(A-$9A$->J.->J?- You know everything! How comments.
did you know my secret?
?R%-,
o/-.-HR?-3A-$RR-.$$-$RR $/?-5=-:.A-(A-$9A$-$-3-$R-/?, Usually you know everything.
Why didn't you know this?
aR2-3-:.A?-3A-:VA-.$--:VA, !R/-0-,%-%-<-VA?-;R.-$A This student draws
everything. He even drew the
Buddha on the floor.
•395•
(A-3R-$9AA$ + verb / This structure was presented in Chapter Twelve. Here is an additional review
adjective + /-< of an equivalent to the English phrase no matter how…
Phrase Tibetan English

$%--;A/-/-< PR%-HJ<-$%-;AA/-/-<, %J.-5%-$A-A-;A?-?/-/?- Bored, my grandmother does not want
to live in a city, no matter which city it
:.$-/-3A-:.R., is.
(AA-;AA/-/-< %-vR$?-;?-3A-2.-$A 9-3-(A-$9AA$-;A/-/--<, .- I cannot stand the hunger; I would eat

any food now, no matter what it is.
%?-5%-3-9-o-<J.,
?--;A/-/--< A-3.R-/?-MA-?--;A/-/--<, 2lA-2!<-;?-oR:A-(J.- All male elders are called "uncle" to
show respect in Amdo, no matter who
<, =R-(J-2R-$9A$-$-A-#-9J<-$A-;R., they are.
(AA-3RR-$9AA$-;A/- $R/-o-$A-$R%-(A-3RR-$9AA$-;A/-/--<, 3<-$J?-]R- She shops for clothes as long as she

likes, whatever the price is.
/-< :22-/-*R-/A-<J.,
(AA-3RR-$9AA$-;R.- #<-$J-/?-2-(J/-0R-(A-3RR-$9AA$-;R.-/--<, MA-#J<-<R- He alone would not be able to
implement this task, no matter how
/-< $A?-.R/-.$-:.A-12-3A-,2, capable he is.
(AA-3RR-;AA/-/-< 35K-3-$*A?-!-<A$-:S-(A-3RR-;AA/-/-<,, A-3-$A?- Their mother can distinguish the twins,

no matter how identical they are.
.LJ-2-:LJ.-,2-$A-;R.,
.--;A/-/--< %-3<-$J<-.$:-/R-.R/-.$-%R-3-;A/, 3<-$J-=RR-.-- It is true that I love her, no matter how
old she is.
;A/-/--<,
(AA->JJ..../--< %?-Z-=-(A->JJ.-;?-/--<, aR2-3-9R-$A?-@-$&A$-<- No matter how hard I work, the
students do not understand anything.
$R-$A-3J.,
<JJ$-$J< It means either before or until. If the main clause is negative, it means until and, if the
main clause is positive, then it means before.
<JJ$-$J<
before until
=R-+R$-5K?-<J$-$J<, 8A%-2-9R?-=R-+R$-VJ$?-2+%-, =R-+R$-5K?-<J$-$J<, 8A%-2-9R?-=R-+R$-3-VJ$?,
%?-2>.-<J$-$J<, #R-$A?-$/?-5=-$?=-2R<->J?-;R., %?-2>.-<J$-$J<, #R-$A?-$/?-5=-$?=-2R<->J?-3J.,
/3-=%?-<J$-$JJ<, 8-;?-,J%?-3-$?3-3-?.-2+%-, /3-=%?-<J$-$JJ<, 8-;?-,J%?-3-$?3-3-3-?.,
%-/%-%-,R/-<J$-$JJ<, 29:-MA-9R-|R<-9-3-9-$A-2.-?R%-$9A$ %-/%-%-,R/-<J$-$J<, 29:-3A-9R-|R<-?R%-3J.,
aR2-9-/?-3,<-KA/-<J$-$J<, %?-.0J-(-$*A?-1=-2+%-, aR2-9-/?-3,<-KA/-<J$-$J<, %?-.0J-(-VA?-3-5<,
•396•
Verb in PRT+ *J. is a morpheme and, combined with verbs in PRT or with adjectives,
*J. expresses the cause of or reason for an occurrence.
With *J. New

denotation
Tibetan English
*3?--*J. cause of
degradation
A<-&A?-i-5S<-*3?--*J.-$9A$-<J., Headphones are a cause
of hearing loss.
#A$-*J. reason for being
scolded
#A$-*J.-#R:C-3-<2?-$A-,R.-0-<J., The reason for being
scolded is his
misbehavior.
o?--*J. reason for
development
o=-#2-:.A-o?--*J.-=$-l=-<J., The reason for this
country's development is
technology.
@%--*J. reason for being
cocky
#R-@%--*J.-|R<-3R-+$-+$-<J., The reason for him being
cocky is only his money.
z%-%-:2.-*J. reason for
standing out
#<-$J-z%--%-:2.-*J.-MA%-P$?-(J-/R-<J., The reason for him being
conspicuous is his fame.
{R3-*J. reason for being
thirsty
%-{R3-*J.-.J-<A%-$A-5-$.$-<J., The reason for me being
thirsty is today's heat.
>A-*J. cause of death )R-3R-.J->A-*J.-(/-;A/-9J<, The cause of the nun's
death is allegedly a
medicine.
5-*J. cause of being
hot
5-*J.-3J-<-P%--*J.-(-;A/, The cause of heat is fire
and the cause of coldness
is water.
*J/-#-(J-*J. reason for being
risky
.R/-.$-:.A-212?-/, *J/-#-(J-*J.-&%-3J., We won't risk anything if
we do this.
/3--^-,%--*J. reason for the
sky to become
/3-^-,%--*J.-_%-(J-$9A$-<J., A storm is the reason for
the clear sky.
clear
1%-2R-Z-*J. reason of being
healthy
#<-$J-1%-2R-Z-*J.-l=-.R%-;A/, The reason for him being
healthy is physical
exercise.
•397•
,--~.-..%-55B$-PRR$?,, aR2-5/--2&&-$??3--0,
=3-0-.%-*-3A,
*-3A rider (horse) :VR$-?-/-*-3A-}R/-(.-@R%-$A?-3%-,
mR%-,R$ county seat mR%-,R$-/?-&-=$-3%-%-*R?,
=-# mountaintop; pass *A-3-=-#<-lJ2?-:.$
/2 west; (sun) to set /2-/-*A-3-/2-$R-$A
:.<-?A$-?A$ shaking 8-;?-$9A$-4$-/%-/-:.<-?A$-?A$
_%-:52 storm _%-:52-$A-/%-/?-3-:.$ HR.-P%-$A
2!$ to bend t$?-|R-_%-$A?-2!$?-2+%-,
#%?-%%? pile of snow #%-,R$-/-#%?-%%?-3%-,
P%->-9R? to shake out of a chill .-&A-%-P%->-9R?-2+%-,
($ darkness ($-/%-/?-%?-(R.-4B$-<-3A-<A$
=3-:I3 roadside =3-:I3-/-MA-$.-$A-;R.,
>R$-zJ sheet of paper lR3-;A$-:.A->R$-zJ-$?3-$A-!J%-3A->R%-,
~A%-eJ->R< to feel sympathy MA-=?-#$-.J<-%?-~A%-eJ->R<-$A-;R.,
:, to collect C-:,-3#/-9R-8A-3R-+$-+$-<J.,
$;R/-$A-$;R/-$A staggering; wobbling c/-3R-$9A$-$;R/-$A?-$;R/-$A?-,R/,
=?-8J% physical width =?-8J%-(J-/-1R-5$?-;R.,
>3->3->J. droopy :VR$-0-9R?-2R.-H->3->3->J.-$R/,
,< down; downward ,<-<-3-:IR, IJ/-/-?R%-,
$R-3-$R half heard; half understood %?-#<-$J:A-{.-(-$R-3-$R-<J.,
2R$?-$-2+% to lease #-=R-2-$A?-_%?-:#R<-2R$?-$-2+%-,
3$R-/?-d-3-2< from beginning to end %?-.0J-(-:.A-3$R-/?-d-3-2<-3-2v?,
9<-# corner 8A-=A-.J?-3A$-$A-9<-#-$A?-8A-3R<-2v?,
$RR%-# collar 2R.-H-$R%-#-3A-3,R,
•398•
P-28A-\A%-28A square MA-5S/-0R-:.A-P-28A-\A%-28A-$9A$-<J.,
5$?-! appearance; shape MA-5S/-0R-;A/-/-5$?-!-3A-;$
%-&/ hairy YR$-($?-:.A-%-&/-$9A$-3-<J.,
>A% to become rigid %-(<-2-$A-/%-/?->A%-,=,
GA-=A turn-around; circle %?-2R?-/A-<, 3<-$J-GA-=A-:#R<-2+%-,
:$-2+2? to scream 8-;?-9R?-:$-2+2?-/, %-?/-$A
2}%? to be startled 2R:-{.-$R-/A-<-#<-$J-2}%?-?R%-,
.2$?-=R/ to be able to breathe %?-(-/%-/?-.2$?-3A-=R/,
S%->.-?J direct; straight =3-S%->.-?J-@R%-$A?-2.J-3R-<J.,
3,:-# edge V$-$A-3,:-#<-3-:IR, 3$R-;-:#R<-<,
0%-%-]%? to put on the lap A-3-$A?-HJ:-0%-%-]%?,
!-<J ax #R%-2R-$&R.-/-!-<J-$9A$-.$R?-o-<J.,
# blade PA-#-iR-/->-$42-#$-3J.,
O$-,A$ blood drop; bloodstain k?-3-$A-!J%-/?-O$-,A$-:6<-$A-;R.,
:.<-<-< shaking .3$-9R-:.<-<-<-0$-$R-$A
5J% to sob A-3-8A-=A:A-.R/-/-5J%-?R%-,
.R/-3J. meaningless; useless #<-$J:A-#-+-5%-3-.R/-3J.-<-2.-,=,
$>R2 lie $>R2-3-$+3, S%-$+3->R.,
o-($ brown $R?-o-($-$R/-3#/-A-3.R-/-3%-,
?R-3-?R-n% brand new #R-5%-$A-#%-2-?R-3-?R-n%-<J.,
$R-(R. to be useful; to be effective #-=2-$A?-$R-3A-(R., =$-=?-.$R?,
<J:-3A$ table <J:-3A$-$A-/%-%-HR.-<A%-$A-MA%-UA?,
#-{R%-;? to fill in (blank) $><-.%-$A-!R%-(-#-{R%-LR?,
#J/ to lean; to depend on $8/-/-3-#J/, <%-3$R-,R/-$A-($?,
$?% to keep secret; to conceal 3<-$J?-.R/-.$-5%-3-$?%-$A-;R.,
29:-3$R the number of people in a family %J.-5%-%-29:-3$R-2./-;R.,
#$-$-,$ to face a difficult situation / problem #$-$-,$-/-<-%-?J3?-3A->A
•399•
.0J<-:)R$ example #<-$J:A-.0J<-:)R$-$-MA-=.-5K-<A%-<J.,
OA$?-?J exact; exactly $R/-o-:.A-%:A-A-8%-%-OA$?-?J-<J.,
$>R2-n= liar $>R2-n=-.J-,A<-$A?-MA-.$:-$9A$-;A/,
>-5 concerned; caring #<-$J-MA-$8/-/->-3A-5,
$+A%-$A? deeply; completely .R/-.$-.J-%?-$+A%-$A?-2eJ.-?R%-,
%R?-:6B/ recognition; to recognize A-1?-8-;?-<-%R?-:6B/-;?-$A-3J.,
=3-PR/ travel cost =3-PR/-/-|R<-3R-3%-%-$9A$-.$R?-o-<J.,
3.R-3J. without principle; empty-headed MA-3.R-3J.-<-#-3-\R%-,
$>A/-eJ King of Hell; cruel person .$J-c/-9J<-/R-$>A/-eJ-$9A$-<J.,
;<-:)R$ management; respect HA3-2.$-3<-;<-:)R$-2-$A?-3J.,
(%-?-2o2 to become betrothed 8A-3R-:.A-=R-(%-.?-(%-?-2o2-?R%-,
$4S-:6B/ chief leader o=-#2-:.A:A-$4S-:6B/-8A-3R-$9A$-;A/,
2>A$ to destroy #%-2-:.A-.-2R-3-2>A$
?-$/? address; location %?-.!R/-3(R$-$A-?-$/?-3A-fJ.-$A
3A%-L% business card HR?-vR?-<, ?-$/?-3A%-L%-,R$-/-;R.-$A
2*$? to vomit 8-;?-#R$-0-3-2.J, 9-3-2*$?-?R%-,
z$-3 remaining |R<-3R-z$-3-KA<-A-1<-!J<-.$R?,
:O to wash $R/-o-*$-24S$-9R-%?-I2?-$A?-:O.,
\R$-|R socket; switch \R$-|R-3-:LJ., .J-<-:IR-|R-<J.,
3$R-3J.-=$?-3J. slip-shod; wayward HR.-:.A-3$R-3J.-=$?-3J., ;<-<-=R%?,
>A-2R the dead >A-2R-$A-.R/-/-HA3-5%-$A?-2!A3?-2+%-,
L-.$: reward L-.$:-,R2-/A-<-3<-$J-.$:-2+%-,
8A2-:VA description 8A2-:VA-;?-/-*A/-3-:$R<-o-<J.,
0J-$A? completely 3R-5S$?-$A-!J%-/?-%-0J-$A?-29A-?R%-,
#3? good for (emotionally / physically) }R-5S.-%-=-3A-#3?-$A .3<-9?-3A/-.,
l-:$$ to have constipation .3<-9?-+$-+$-9R?-/-l-:$$-:IR,
)-{= meal %?-*A/-<J<-)-{=-$?3-:,%-$A-;R.,
•400•
8J/-=R$ to get tired of >-2?3?-/-%-8J/-=R$
8J-#% hatred 8J-#%-$A?-MA-2.J-$A-3A-:)$
2!.-<? continuously 2!.-<?-=R-$?3-3-%-KA-o=-/?-2#.,
>/-0$? skin #R%-2R-$A->/-0$?-3-2>, .J-3A/-#R%-2R->A-o-<J.,
(R$-3(/-;A-$J permit (R$-3(/-;A-$J-3J.-/-<-%?-=?-o-;A/,
=%-#R$ valley =%-#R$-/-=$-H-$9A$-2N3?-;R.,
<A-|% mountaintop <A-|%-/-L-cR.-$?3-22?-;R.,
8.-(J characterized by; contaminated $?J<-:.A-a.-8.-(J,
^-1R$? monthly salary %:A-^-1R$?-3A-3,R-/-<-:.%-$A
{R3-( drinks; water {R3-(-;R.-/-&A-3-<%-, #-{3-,=,
2$. to get injured z3-$A?-%:A-b%-2-2$.-,=,
;A.-.2%-:(R< to be engrossed; to be attracted 36K?-3-$/-/-%:A-;A.-.2%-:(R<-$A
>$-#R% juniper tree >$-#R%-SA-3-8A3, <J.-S->A%-(<-3A-Z,
$?R/-*3? vividness $?R/-*3?-3J.-/-<A-3R-.J-%?-3A-*R,
2.-5S.-$A? at one's best aR2-3-9R?-2.-5S.-$A?-aR2-.R%-;?,
]R-$&A$-?J3?-$&A$ single-minded %?-]R-$&A$-?J3?-$&A$-$A?-=?,
2&R?-! solution $/.-.R/-HR?-2a%?-/, %-=-2&R?-!-3J.,
}/-2&. to take over; to block one's way _%-/$-$9A$-$A?-9R$-H-$A-}/-2&.,
:#%-< complaint :#%-<-3-;?, .J-HR.-<%-$A?-=/-$A
o/-3A-(.-< without stop; incessantly #<-$J?-o/-3A-(.-<-.-2-b%-$?3-:,J/,
d=-/$ heavy sweat 8-;?-d=-/$-4-<-<, #<-2R-H$-$A-3J.,
4-<-< streaming (of liquid) /-5-$A-.2%-$A?, d=-(-%R-/-4-<-<,
)-n%-$R-n% simple food /.-0-#-:6B-3#/-$A?-)-n%-$R-n%-9,
2hA2? to collapse #%-fA%-.J-/-/A%-2hA2?-?R%-,
:LR< to get rich 3J.-0R-;<-;R%-9R-)J-:LR<-<-)J-YJ.,
*J?-0-(J sinful 24S/-3-*J?-0-(J, 24S/-#%-%-2&$
IR.-$+$? law-suit OA3?-#%-%-IR.-$+$?-;?-/-<2-<J.,
•401•
+$-3R mother-in-law +$-3R:C-=R$?-/?-3/:-3-#$
~A.-3R sister-in-law %:A-~A.-3R-=R-?3-&:A-,R$-/?-$/?-<-?R%-,
#R$-%/ malevolent ]-3-9J<-/R-MA-#R$-%/-A-K-3-$9A$-<J.,
3/< to suppress; to torture (3-0-$A?-%-^-2-$&A$-$-3/<-?R%-,
:$= to break (regulations) HR:A-L-,R.-OA3?-3-:$=-;R.,
(.-0 fine; punishment .-<J2-(.-0-3-$&R., %?-2&R?-+<-;?,
=?-#$ unlucky >A-2R-=?-#$-<J., $?R/-.?-*A.-3-2o2,
o/-.-A<-&A?-2!R=-/,
,A-5S$?-5/-<A$-#% Academy of Social Science %?-,A-5S$?-5/-<A$-#%-/?-L-2-=?,
%J= to launch; to issue 5/-<A$-0-:.A?-/-/A%-8A2-:)$-%J=,
i-&R$ ear #<-$J:A-i-&R$-4J%-;R.,
<J. to get infected k-#-<J.-?R%-,
A<-&A? earphone A<-&A?-o/-.-2!R=-/-3A-Z,
.2%-2R organ; feature 3A$-<-$-.2%-2R-;A/,
i-2<-3 middle ear i-2<-3-9J<-/-%?-3A->J?,
$*/-5. infection $*/-5.-o?-/-k-#-3A-S$
.LJ-8A2 analysis .LJ-8A2-3J.-/, $/.-.R/-?J=-3A-,2,
5/-#$ section; unit 5/-#$-28A-2-*A?-,R$-/-;R.,
,/-0-(J dry (drought) 2R.-$A-?-(-9R-,/-0-(J,
]R-,% short-minded 3R-]R-,%-<-1R-$-.R$-&%-%-3A-*/,
=R-<2? history; chronicle ;%-#<-$J?-#$-3,R%-/R:C-=R-<2?-2>.,
OA3?-#% court OA3?-#%-%-:IR-3-.$R?-/-<2-<J.,
2<-:.3 mediation 2<-:.3-;?-3#/-$9-2R-3-<J.,
4-$J-4B$-$J a bit; a few 9-3-4-$J-4B$-$J?-%-3A-o$
2>.-# talkative .R/-:P2-$A-c/-3R-2>.-#-$9A$-<J.,
$?<-2eJ revolution $?<-2eJ-3J.-/-fA%-2-3A-=.,
•402•
aR2-5/-2&-28A-2,
2h-3R.,
Comparative …3*3-;R. vs. …3*3-3J.

Superlative Similarity
Superlative Forms :S-3-$9A$ and .J-3R-$9A$
Comparative Forms $*A?-!?.../…
$A-;/; $A?-3A-5.; vR?-/
A thang kha featuring Tibetan emperor Srong btsan sgam po and his Chinese wife,
Rgya bza' gong jo (Wencheng Gongzhu ᭛៤݀Џ), Reb gong County (2011).
Text One: comparative forms
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, :VR$-0-8A$-$A-(%-.?-S/-$8A,
hR-#%-?-(-%?-A-+-$A?-2eJ.-3A-,2-/R-<J., $&A$-/?-.J-%?-(%-.?-$A-.?-5S.-3%-(J->R?-2+%-?-<J., $*A?-/?, hR-#%-

?-(-$8/-0-9R-vR?-/-z$-+-*A.-$A C-,%-(J-/R, #-#R<-/-K$?-9R$-3%-/R, .J:-:2<-<J:A-3$R-/-9R$-mA-=$-mA-;R.-/R-.-2R-<-
%:A-3A$-=3-/-$?=-$A $?3-/?-%J.-5%-$A-.!:-#$-$A-:5S-2-<-hR-#%-$*A?-!-:V=-,2?-3J., /%-|R?-?-2N->A?-5%-
%-:V=-,2?-3J.,
hR-#%-,A<-$A?-3.R-<A$?-g-2R-:.<-?, $;%-.!<-=$-H-:1J=-?, SJ.-<A$?-YR$-($?-o-?-$9A$-;A/, ;A/-/-<, $;%-

?-$R<-3R-.J-/?-A-3-<-%J.-$*A?-!?-#$-$A-:5S-2-M%?, :5S-2-.!:-#$-(J-/R-2N->A?-$A-.R/-.$-2?3?-/-)J-$?=-<J.,
2N->A?-o-$A?-!R2?-(J->R?, MA-.0%-$A?-A-+-$A?-@%-;R.-/R-;A/, *A/-3-$9A$-$-#<-$J:A-2-.R3-$9A$-$A?-:(R?-2+%-,

.J-$A-<?-29%-, 2N->A?-$A?-<A-?$?-;R.-;R.-5%-3<-8J-#%-29%-, :#R<-$;R$-$-)J-#%-, MA-#A$-+R-A-K-3-$9A$-$-*/-
?R%-, OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-#<-$J?-%-<A-?$?-$9A$-$-2?3?-;R.-/-,%-,
%-#R-5%-$A-:#R<-$;R$-=R-A-+-$A?-(%-%R-;A/, %?-/$-9R$-2o-$A?-3A-5.-:5S-.$R?, =?-!-.J:A-;/-/-l-3R-$9A$-3J.-/-<,

<A-3$R-/?-<A-?$?-9R-*J/-#-(J, /%?-3R-$9A$-$ %:A-A-3, 2N->A?-$A-$;R$-3R-5K-<A%-35S-$A?-l3-#$-$9A$-<-:R-)->J=-
.3-$%-#-<R$-$J<-%:A-<3-3-24%?, 8R<-<".$R%-3R-:KA-$A-3-:)$"9J<, .L<-#:A-/%?-3R-.J<, %:A-?J3?-z$-+-SR, <A-
8R=-/-:.2-($?-$%-?-$%-/-<J., <A-3$R-/-(A$-0-:,A2?-;R., ;A/-/-<-*A-z%-2o2-/A-<, (A$-0-.J%?-?R%-, 3):-5S/-
$9A$-9R$-H-$A-3./-/?-><-?R%-,
{2?-.J<-%:A-5K-,R$-/?-%-:.%-(J-?-HA-c/-o-2R-<-A-3-;A/, *A/-$%-HA-c/-o-2R-<-vR$?-$A-;R.-#-<J., %?-<3-$A-VR-#-

=J/-.?, .%R?-2R-A-3-$A?-%:A-<3-.-24%?-/R-S/-?R%-, A-3-$A?-*J/-#-3-:6K3?-3->-=R$-$9A$-2N->A?-5%-/?-2b?-
;R., >-.J-3R-$9A$-$A-.R/-/, A-3-$A?-*J/-#<-3-:6K3?, 2N->A?-$A?->J?-?R%-/, 3<-$J<-(.-0-tA-3R-$&R.-o-<J., .R/-
:.A-2?3?-/-%-.-2R-%-o-;R%-$A KA-SR:A-2<-353?-$9A$-$ (<-2-)J-(J-<-)J-(J-<J., /R<-9R$-5%-3-<A-3$R-$A-(A$-0-$A-/%-%-
8R$?-?R%-, :V$-1-.A-<A-<A, %-=-8J.-$%-(J-$9A$-*J?-?R%-, %?-K$?-9R$-$A-eJ?-:.J.-2?3?-/-<, =?-$A?-3-tR$?,
(<-<-$;R=-?-$9A$-:5S=-$A-;R.-.?, %?-#%-.-hR-$A?-=?-/R-$9A$-fJ.-,=, #%-.-$A-/%-/?-$&A$-<-3A-<A$-$A <J.-S-|R-
/?-:.$-oR-$*A?-!?, #%-.-$A-/%-/?-2#.-/-29%-$A %-hR-$9A$-$-#J/-/?-$*A.-?R%-, ?.-.?, hR-(J-$9A$-$A?-#%-.-
#-2!2?-;R., %?-hR-1-2R%-.J-|=-lA?-;?-/-<-|=-3-,2, {2?-.J<, #%-.-.J:A-[.-/-.%R?-2R-$9A$-:$=-$A-;R., */-
•404•
/-<A-?$?-$9A$-;A/-#-<J., %-#%-.-.J:A-/%-$A-24S/-3-*/-?R%-,
%-)J-*$-)J-*$-<J., ~A%-;J-<J-<J, %-#%-.-$A-/%->J.-<-:L<-<?-2#., {2?-.J<-%?-:I3-/?-!J%-<?-$9A$-<A$-,=,

OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-2N->A?-$A-8A-=A-;A/-o-<J., %:A-~A%-z$-+-wA%-,=, .2$?-)J-:5%?-<J., $%-v<-/-<-,<-?-3J.-
:.R.-<?, <A-?$?-.J<-1<-cR=-;?-o:A-(R.-?J3?-2&%?, <A-?$?-)J-*J-<J., %?-H-.$-1.-<?, =$-$-PA-29%-, {2?-
.J<-%-<-<A-?$?-$*A?-$A-2<-/?-#%-.-(%-(%-$9A$-$>R?-?R%-, %?-<A-?$?-.J-=$-0-/?-29%-, PA-$A?-,J%?-3%-%-
$9A$-$-2$/-/A-<, <A-?$?-%:A-=$-/?->R<-?R%-, <J.-S-?$-+-%:A-=$-/-;R.-$A <A-?$?-@=-8R<-<-,$-<A%-%-2.-,=,
%-<-]R-)J-2.J-2.-,=, <J.-S-%-|R<-3-2.-/, A-3-?J3?-2.J-$A-3J., K$?-9R$-9R<-*J/-#-;R.-o-<J.-2?3?,
%?-K$?-9R$-9R-KA<-<-:.J.-.?, ?-l-2-/?-<2-;R., A-3-$A?-)-5/-.J-2{R=-<?-|R-#-/-2#.-;R., %?-.R/-.$-5%-3-

3<-$J<-2>.-/, %-vR?-/, 3<-$J-*$-$A-;R.-#-<J., A-3-$A?-.R/-.$-2N->A?-=-2>., #<-$J?-MA-!R2?-&/-S$-\?-
/?-<A-?$?-.J-24=, %-<-MA-S$-0R-$A?-KA-*A/-$%-2R<-24=, O$-eJ?-.J.-<?, %J.-(-2R?-<A-?$?-.J-V$-hR-$9A$-$A-o2-
/?-fJ.-?R%-, .R3->A-;R.-$A {2?-.J<-%:A-;/-/-.$:-3#/-$9A$-;R.-o-3-<J., 2N->A?-$A?-%R-$9A$-!R/-/A-<J.-2?3?,
<J.-S, 2N->A?-$A-#R$-#$-)J-24S$-$-?R%-, *A/-3-$9A$-$-2N->A?-$A?-%-2R?-/?, "HR.-<-%:A-8A-=A-$*A?-!<-=R-(J-(%-

3J., HR.-<A$-/, %?-8A-=A-S/-$A /%?-!-$A-<?, HR.-<-HR:A-A-3-$*A?-!-?-:.A-/?-:.$-3A-(R$"9J<, %-<-%:A-A-3-
$*A?-.J->J.-*J?-?-*J?-;:-2-#-V=-?R%-, .-2<-:5S-2-}R/-(.-<-vR?-/-*A.-$A .-KA<-<-:IR-o-/, 1-;:-$A-$/?-5=-(A-3R-
$9A$-;A/-/%-,
14.1 --Comparative forms
Comparative conjunction )JJ + monosyllabic adjective § more / less

Comparison English Note
A-3-=R-c?-$A-c?-$A ?J3?-)JJ-(%%-<J., The older my mother gets, the
more concerned she becomes.
)J is used with
monosyllabic adjectives
^-2-28A-2-,R/-/-2R.-$A-?-(-)J-}RR-;A/, Tibetan places get greener in
April. to compare tendency
:63-\A%-$A-$/3-$>A?-)J-SRR-<J.-9J<, The world climate has allegedly
been getting warmer.
and frequency, but not
/.-0-)J-.$:--3-<J., (/-0-$A?-(A-;?-oR- The patient does not get better. in a pair.

His doctor does not know what
>J?-$A-3J., to do.
8A-3R-:.A-(%-.?-<-;$ <J.-S-.-)J-;$-<J., This girl was beautiful when

she was young, but now she has
become more beautiful.
•405•
Comparative conjunction )J + verb in PRT§PRUHOHVV
Comparison English Note
KA-\A%-2-#-%-&/-0R-:.A?-2R.-{.-)J->J?-<J., This bearded foreigner
understands more and more
)J is used with verbs in
Tibetan. PRT to compare in
#<-$J-)J-2>.--<J., <J.-S-%?-*/-/-)J-3A- He talks more and more. I want
to listen less. (The more he
tendency and frequency,
but not in pairs.
:.RR., talks, the less I want to listen.)
%-?-:.A-/?-)J-?/-<J., %-?-$8/-$9A$-$- I get more bored in this place; I

want to move to another place.
%R-o-;A/,
g-:.A-(.-/-)J-:IRR-;A/, 8J-,$-$A?-:IR-3- This horse walks faster when it
is tired. It is a real fine horse.
$9A$-;A/,
%%-2R-:.A-#-3-.G, .J-3A/-#R-)J-;R%-;A/, Don't pay attention to the
beggar! or he will come more
often.
Notes-1
)J: nIt describes a tendency changing in quality, quantity, extent, frequency, etc. oIt is not
used before disyllabic adjectives. An incorrect example is <A-.J-)J-3,R/-0R-<J., A correct example
is <A-.J-)J-3,R-<J., / <A-.J-3,R/-0R-)J-;A/-<J.,. pIt is not used with verbs in PAT. Incorrect example: g-
:.A-)J-?R%-<J., A correct example: g-:.A-)J-:PR-<J.. This horse goes ever faster.
Exercise 1 Describes changes in yourself using the phrases and . )J
.0J<-2eR., % / >-2o$?, %->-)J-2o$?-<J.,
1. 1%-2R-tA / ;% _________________ 8. $9$?-<A% / ,%___________________

2. ?J3?-(J / ?J3?-(%_________________ 9. ;$-3-;A/ / 3A/___________________
3. .-2-:,J/________________________ 10. /R$?-3R-;A/______________________
4. $9$?-3,R______________________ 11. |R<-3R-*%_______________________
5. 2R.-;A$->J?______________________ 12. <A$-0-g=_______________________
6. =?-.2%-;R._____________________ 13. :5S-2-.!: / l___________________
7. <J-2-3,R________________________ 14. 2R.-<-?R%-/-:.R. ___________________
•406•
Exercise 2 Complete the paragraphs using the phrases and words in parentheses and
)J. Add verbs and Ladon case variants if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, /-/A%-.R-5B$?-.L<-#-)J-SR-<, (SR) .$/-#-)J-:H$?-<J., (:H$?)

#-2, .J-%J.-9R?-hR-$3-<-hR-?R=-)J-2!R=, (2!R=) #R%-2R-)J-$&R.-<-:VJ=-2-;R., (#R%-2R-$&R.)
}R/-(.-$9A$-$ \A%-U/-$9A$-$A-!J%-/-MA-!R%-$9A$-;R.-/A-<J., =R-<J<-MA-P%?-_____________, (3%) ,R/-m?-

_____________, (3%) #R-9R-KA-<R=-$A-#R<-;$-$-:PR-:R%-$&A$-<-3J., #R-9R?-(<-LA/-/?-.%R?-2R-*R?-/A-<J., <J.-
S-(<-#-;?-*R-3#/-/-.$R?-/R-3A/-/-,%-, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-MA-9R?-MA-5%-3-.$:-/R-$?J<-.%=-$A?-.%R?-2R-*R?, .%R?-0R-2eJ-

<J?-_____________2.-?R%-, (!2?-2.J) $?J<-.%=-<-_____________<J., (2!R=) <J.-S-$?J<-.%=-<-
9.-o-;R., :HJ<-oR-<-!2?-3A-2.J, .%R?-0R-2eJ-<J?-_____________;A/-/, (3%) $?J<-.%=-<__________
___, (!2?-3A-2.J) $/.-.R/-:.A-,$-$&R.-oR:A-(J.-<, MA-<A$?-$A?-2!R.-0-:,J/, \A%-U/-.2%-+<-2-$A?-$?J<-
.%=-$A-.R.-<-.%R?-2R-$9A$-.0<-/A-<J., .%R?-2R-.J<-.J%-?%-"|R<-3R"9J<-$A-;R.,
.J%-:$R<, |R<-3R-KA<-<-$?J<-.%=-<-2eJ-oR-l-3R-<J., .J:A-!2?-$A?, MA-<A$?-$A?-|R<-3R-?J3?-2.J-3R->J.-2!R=-/A-<J.,

<J.-S-\A%-U/-!J%-$A-5S%-=?-_____________<, (o?) MA-<A$?-_____________<J., (:.R.-0-(J) |R<-3R-$A-
3#R-5.-____________*/-?R%-, (3,R) <J.-S, \A%-U/-!J%-$A-$?J<-.%=-$A-I%?-!-_____________.J-3R-
$9A$-:IR-3-,2, (3%) .J:A-nJ/-$A?-|R<-3R-$A?- __________________, (3A-:.%) 5S%-=?-2eJ-<J?-.J->J.-
353?-28$-?R%-, .%R?-2R-2eJ-3A-,2-/, .%R?-2R-,R/-*J.-;?-3#/-<-_____________2.-?R%-,(*%) {2?-.J<-MA-
<A$?-$A?-;%-2!R.-0-.$:-$9A$-:,J/, |R<-3R-$A-vJ-2-$9A$-24$?-?R%-, vJ-2-#J-2-$8%-%-.2%-, .J?-|R<-3R-.0<-/A-
<J., |R<-3R-2!R=-:.R.-3#/-9R?-vJ-2-/?-|R<-3R-$;R<-,2, #R-9R-|R<-3R-_____________<-?R%-/, (;R.) |R<-3R-$A-
*A/-0-!J<-.$R?, .%=-#%-:.A->J.-L%-?R%-, .%=-#%-L%-/A-<, 5S%-=?-2eJ-<J?-;?-#-___________, (a) MA-
<A$?-$J-<-____________*/-?R%-, (=?-=-2lR/) \A%-U/-!J%-$A-.%R?-2R-_____________<J., (3%) 5S%-
=?-o/-3,.-;R%-oR:A-(J.-<, .%=-#%-$A?-,R/-m?-$A-I%?-!-v<-<-|R<-3R-_____________.0<-/A-<J., (3%)
$8$-/?, 5S%-=?-2eJ-<J?-__________*/, (@<) .%=-#%-$&A$-$A?-L-2-5%-3-=?-3-,2, .J-/?-.%=-#%-$A-

I%?-!-<-________?R%-, (3%) .J:A-nJ/-$A?-.%=-#%-$9A$-.%=-#%-$8/-0-9R-.R-.3-;?-3#/-/-*/-?R%-, .%=-
#%-:.A?-|R<-3R-.0<, .%=-#%-$8/-0-2o.-<?, |R<-3R-.0<-/R-|R<-3R-3#R-/R-$A-=$-$-3.-/A-<J., .%=-#%-vJ-2-:.A-
>J.-L%-/A-<J.,
•407•
14.2 --Superlative forms
Superlative form: A-+-$A? §most

With adverb: A-+-$A? English Note
%J.-MA%-Z%-9R:C-/%-/?-$9$?-A-+-$A?-3,RR-/R-/-2R- My younger brother is the tallest

among our siblings.
nThis adverb
is put before
;A/, adjectives or
verbs.
.J-<A%-/3-^-A-+-$A?-SR-$A %-(-n=-g$-$A-:IR, It is warmest today. I go
swimming. oIt
occasionally
0A?-AJ<-!J-5B-MA-A-+-$A?-K$-0R-<J., Bill Gates is the richest man.
means so
much.
N%-$R-?-o-$A-,R$-/?-o=-#2-A-+-$A?-(J-/R-3-<J., China is not the biggest country
in terms of territory.
#<-$J-:.R.-0-(J, <J.-S-A-+-$A?-(J-/R-#R-3-<J., He is demanding, but the most
demanding one is not him.
#<-$J-vR-(J, <J.-S-#<-$J?-=?-!-<--A-+-$A?-=?--$A He has a big appetite. However,
he is also the one who works the
most.
aR2-OA.-<-A-+-$A?-o/-.-;R%-/R-5K-<A%-35S-<J., Tshe ring mtsho is the person
who most often comes to class.
$+3-A-+-$A?-3A-2>.-/R-#R-<J., He is the one who talks the least.
Superlative form: >R?§most

With adverb: >R? English Note
:63-\A%-$A-!J%-/?-YR$-($?-(J->R?-(-YA/-;A/, The biggest animal in the world is

the whale.
It is used with
monosyllabic
=$-:.A-#-3,R, <J.-S-=$-H-:.A:A-/%-$A-#-3,RR->R?- This sheep is old, but is not the adjectives and
oldest in this flock. be verb.
3A/,
2R.-3%->R?-2R.-uR%?-/-3J., #3?-<-A-3.R-/-;R., Most Tibetans are not in the TAR
but in Khams and Amdo.
#-;?-$9A$-$A?-2R.-{.-$=-3A-(J-9J<, <J.-S-9J<- Some say Tibetan is not an
important language, but these
3#/-9R-*%->R?-<J., people are the minority.
.J-<A%-$A-aR2-OA.-<-aR2-3-*%->R?-;R%-;R., Less than half the students came

to class today.
Notes-2
1. A-+-$A?: nThis adverb signifies a superlative form. oIt occasionally means very much or
so much, e.g., {.-(-24S$-/R-A-+-$A?-3-2>., Don't make so many harsh statements! / #<-
$J?-L-2-A-+-$A?-=?-3J., He has not done very much of the job. pIt is used with other
adverbs to emphasize the degree in superlative form, e.g., o=-#2-3%-%-$9A$-:1J=-o?-<-:IR-
$A-;R., <J.-S-N%-$R-A-+-$A?-3IR$?-3R->J.-:1J=-o?-<-:IR-$A-;R., Many countries are developing,
•408•
but China is developing fastest.
2. >R?: nIt signifies a superlative form if it is used with monosyllabic adjectives, e.g., )R-3R-]-
<A-<A-3,R->R?-<J., Everest is the highest mountain. oIt, together with 3% and *%,
respectively, means the majority and the minority, e.g., :63-\A%-%-MA-P%?-.%-K<-s-2&-z$-
;R., 3%->R?-A->J-;-/-;R., The world has over five billion people; the majority are in Asia. /
2R.-$A-?-(-*%->R?-<R%-3-:VR$-;A/, Less than the 50 percent of Tibetan ethnic areas is agro-
pastoral.
3. >? + (J / (%: These two phrasal adjectives respectively express likely and unlikely, e.g., %-
KA-=R<-KA-o=-<-:IR->?-(J, I will likely go abroad. / )R-3R-]-<A-<A-A-+-$A?-3,R/-0R-;A/->?-(J, Everest
is likely the highest mountain.
Exercise 3 Complete the statements using superlative forms, and the words and
phrases in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., 0E-(J/-<A/-0R-(J_________________________ (]-3, $R-?, 3,R/-0R,)

0E-(J/-<A/-0R-(J-]-3-$R-?-A-+-$A?-3,R/-0R-3A/,
1. ]R- 29%- P$?- 0-__________________________________(.$J-=$?- 0, YR=-$+R.-3#/, :$R-3,)

2. OA-YR%-wJ-24/___________________________________________(24/-0R, .2%-(J, 2R.-$A)
3. ,%-!R%-o=-2R_____________________________________ (:6$?-0/-$A-,R$-/?, L?-eJ?-(J,)
4. .$J-:./-(R?-:1J=_________________________________________(3#?-0, :I<-wR$-(J,)
5. A-#-!R/-0_______________________________________($+3-o.-/%-$A I$?-&/, 3A-$,)
6. 3A-=-<?-0__________________________________________(i=-:LR<-2, .!:-=?, MR%-,)
7. o=-2-<A/-0R-(J_____________________________________________(]-3, 3,R/-0R, 2lA,)
8. ,R/-3A_____________________________________________(2R.-MA-9R?, $R%-2!<-;?-?,)
9. 5K-+/-82?-S%____________________________ (.?-<2?-}R/-3, 3#?-0-I$?-&/, A-3.R-/?,)
10. .R/-:P2-o=_____________________________________(.J%-<2?-$A lR3-0-0R, >/->$?-(J,)
•409•
Exercise 4 Complete the statements with various superlative forms and, the words
and phrases in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, 2R.-/?-9-3-A-+-$A?-9-/R-l3-0-;A/-o-<J., (9-3, 9,)

#-2, <J.-S-MA-#-;?-$A?-A-+-$A?-3A-9-/R-l3-0-<J., (MA-#-;?, 9,)
1. !-2, 2R.-$A-MA-$A?-______________1=-(J<-/R<->-;A/-o-<J., A-+-$A?-3A-9-/R-$%-;A/-o-<J., (> 9,)

#-2, %?-2v?-/, 2R.-$A-MA-$A?-___________________HA->-;A/-o-<J., (> 9,)
2. !-2, 2R.-/?-___________________:VR$-0-<J., (MA, 3%-,)
#-2, <J.-S, MA-%?-________________:VR$-0-<J., (<A$ *%-,) %?-1=-(J<-<R%-2-+$-+$-<A$-,=,
3. !-2, 2R.-$A-?-(-/?-o-H- ___________________, =R-2&-,3-0-$A-}R/-/-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J., ($R/)
#-2, <J.-S-MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?- ___________________2R.-H-;A/, ($R/)
4. !-2, 2R.-$A-?-(-___________________$9A-l-#J-.$-<J., HR?-2v?-/, (;$)
#-2, %?-2v?-/-3-<J., $9A-5-#J-.$-___________________3-<J.,
5. !-2, 2R.-$A-MA-$A?-___________________#A$-0-;?-oR-<J., (:6K3)
#-2, %?-2v?-/, .J-3-<J., #R-9R?-__________#A$-0-;?-oR-<J., #R-9R?-o/-.-=$-<-/R<-2>:-$A-;R.,
6. !-2, A-3.R-/?-<A-___________________A-MJ?-k-(J/-;A/-o-<J., HR?-2v?-/, (3,R/-0R)
#-2, %?-2v?-/, ________________A-MJ?-k-(J/-;A/-o-3-<J., <A-$8/-0-$9A$-;A/-o-<J., (3,R)
7. !-2, A-3.R-/?-?-(-___________________35S-}R/-0R-$A-#-#R<-;A/-o-<J., (K$)
#-2, ;A/-o-3-<J., %?-2v?-/, ___________________?-.J-9R-;A/-o-<J., (3J.-0R)
8. !-2, 2R.-/?-?-(-aR2-$?R-___________________#3?-$A-?-(-;A/-o-<J., (Z)
#-2, %?-2v?-/, #3?-(R=-#-$?3-$A-/%-/?-aR2-$?R___________________<J., (%/)
9. !-2, 2R.-/?-o-/R<___________________K$?-9R$-;A/-o-<J., (3%)
#-2, %?-2v?-/-<-K$?-9R$-o-/R<___________________, ($=-(J)
10. !-2, 2R.-9R-___________________PR%-HJ<-<J., (:5S-/-:.R.)
#-2, .J-3-<J., 2R.-9R-___________________PR%-HJ<-;A/-o-<J.,
11. !-2, 2R.-/?-?___________________!R.-3%:-<A?-<J., (:H$?)
#-2, %?-2v?-/-3$R-=R$-$A-?-(-#-;?-$9A$-z$-+-:H$?-$A
•410•
Exercise 5 Make superlative statements with the superlative form >R?, >?-(J, and the
words in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., most: A->J-;-/?-o=-#2-?-(J->R?-N%-$R-<J., <J.-S-.0=-:LR<-!R2?-(J->R?-3A/, (?-(J) (!R2?-(J)

most likely: N%-$R-*3?->?-(J, (*3?) .0=-:LR<-1A$-$8A-)J-=J$?-$-3-2+%-/,
most likely
1. :6B/-9-:.A:A-/%-/?-35S-3R__________(<A$-0-iR) 1. $/3-%R-:,A2?-,=, (<-___________(:22)

2. ?-o-$A-,R$-/?-A-<-?-___________(o=-#2-(J) 2. |R<-3R-;R.-/, %?-$R/-o-.J-____________(*R)
3. )R-3R-]-<A-:63-\A%-!J%-$A-_____________(3,R) 3. $/?-5=-:.A-$R-/, @-3-$*A?-!_______(.$:)
4. .$J-c/-$A-/%-/?-5K-2g/-____________(29%) 4. .R-5B$?-%-KA-o=-<-______(:IR), $R-{2?-;R.-/,
5. .?-5B$?-$A-/%-/?-.$/-#-_________(:H$?) 5. .-,J%?-aR2-3-:.A?-__________(o$?-:UR.),
6. 8-;?-$?3-0R:C-/%-/?- (J-2R__________(:)R/) 6. MA-:.A-(-;R.-(-;R., %?-<A$-MR%-/R-$9A$-___(;A/)
7. A-3.R-/?-.$J-=$?-0-P2-3,:__________((J) 7. .-%-@R%-$A?-vR$?-$A %?-9-3-5%-3-_______(9)
8. 2R.-/?-35S____________((J)-!%-@R-mR%-/-;R., 8. :.A-SJ=-$9A$-____, g-$9A$-;A/-#-3-<J., (;A/)
9. $%-,%-5%-]-3-______________(MA%-P$?-(J) 9. .R-8$-$/3-3%-%-22?-,=, .L<-C-3%-%-__(*J)
10. .3J-2-/?-K$?-9R$-_______(3%) $/$-9R$-<J., 10. 8A-=A-.J-m/-n=-$9A$-;A/, 2>.-/R-m/___(;A/)
Exercise 6 Write superlative forms, comparative forms, and >?-(J in the blanks using
the words and phrases in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., #R-:6B/-9-;R%?-$A-aR2-3-A-+-$A?-3A-Z-/R-<J., (3A-Z) <J.-S-#<-$J-)J-.$:-<J., (.$:) aR2-{2?-}R/-3-

$A-/%-%-, #<-$J:A-{<-:V?-)J-Z-<J., (Z) :.A->J.-?R%-/-#<-$J-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R-;A/->?-(J, (.$:-2R)
.?-<2?-}R/-3-$A-=R-<2?- 2o.-&- $A- !R.-<, N%-$R-$A?-2&R?-+<-|R-:LJ.-;?-/A-<J., .J%-?%-MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-N%- $R-

<J3-3-o=-#2-___________*/-o-<J.-9J<, (!R2?-(J)
1=- (J<- =R-?3- &- $A- }R/- /, N%- $R- o=- #2- ______________ $9A$- <J., (3J.- 0R) =R- *A- >- ?3-&-<A%-$A-*3?-*J?-<-
($- |R- 2o.- <?, N%- $R- 3,:- 3)$- ____________, (!R2?- (J) ___________$A- =3- 3- 2.- ?R%- , (o- ;R.)
o=- #2- $A- /R<- YA.- $A- ______________, (;R%- |R- (J) ,A- .3%?- $A- =$- $A- |R<-3R-______________<J., (3%)
2&R?-+<-|R-:LJ.-3- ;?-$R%- %-, MA-$9A$-$A-^-1R$?-|R<-3R-2o- ;?-3?-<J., <J.-S-.J%- ?%-|R<-3R-!R%- $?3- 28A-<J., ^-
•411•
2-<J-<J-$A-;R%-|R-w2-?3-&-z$-$A?-_________<J., (3%) <J.-S-,A-5S$?-:1J=-o?-$A-#J-1/-=J/-,2-/R-MA-5%-3-3-<J.,
N%- $R- /?- ,A- .3%?- =?- #3?- 2.J- Y% - $A- :IR- |R- ,A- $A?- o=- .3%?-,R/- *J.- :2R<- P%?- $A- 4.5%9A/- ;R., :.A:A- ,R$- /?-
N%- $R-1=- (J<- ______________<J., (.3:- 3R) ,A:A- MA- P%?- $A- 70%8A%- 2- <J., <J.- S- 8A%- 2-$A- (/- ;R/- $A?- o=-
;R%?-(/- ;R/--20%+$-+$-9A/-;R., :.A:A-KR$?-/?-N%-$R-:63-\A%-$A-o=-#2-______________2:-!/-+-<-3A-
.R, (.2=-2R) 8A%-2-.%-K<- .$-z$-$-(/-;R/-#$-,J$- ;R.-$A-3J., $/.- .R/-______________;R%-|R- $A-2<- H.-
<J., (52?- (J) 8A% - 2- $A- ;R%- |R- (J- $9A$-______________;R%- $A- 3J., (3,R) N%- $R- /- =R- $&A$- <J<- $8% - 9?- 9-
3#/-$A?-|R<-3R-.%-K<-!R%-5S-$?3-;?-3?-2!R=-$A-;R.-9J<, $8%-KR$?-$A-_%?-:#R<-<-.J:A-:VJ=-;R.-$A-:IR-|R-|R<-3R-
.% - K<-!R%- $*A?- $A- ;/- <J., I%?- !- :.A- $*A?- !?- ,A- .3%?- ;R%?- $A- (/- ;R/- #J2?- :IR- 9J<, :.A:A- ,R$- /?- 2v?- /,
N%-$R-YA.-$8%-$A-=?-(R.-:63-\A%-$A-,R$-/?-.3:-3R-;A/______________,
N%-$R:A-YA.-$8%-$A?-/-/A%-.R-5B$?-$/.-.R/-:.A-9R-?J=-oR<_______@-8J/-;?-$A-;R., <J.-S-.0=-:LR<-)J-o?-<-
:2%?-3A-_______/R:C-{2?-:.A<, (K$) $/.-.R/-3%-%-?J=-oR-______<J., (.!:) MA-=-=-$A?, =R-*A->-$A-
$8$-/?-N%-$R-:63-\A%-$A-o=-#2-______ ;A/-o-<J.-9J<, (!R2?-(J) <J.-S-$/.-.R/-:.A-<A$?-2+%-28$-;?-/,
N%-$R-$A-=?-.2%-:.A-3R-$9A$-$A-#-/-AJ-;R., ,A-5S$?-(-~R3?-$A?-_____ (K$) ;R%-oR-_____($/.-:$$-(J-2R) <J.,
Exercise 7 Talk about things that change in frequency, intensity, and quantity.
.0J<-2eR., #J-2 / MA-P%? / *%-, #J-2-$A-MA-P%?-)J-*%-)J-*%-<J., MA-5%-3-PR%-HJ<-/?-:.$-:.R.-$A-;R.,
1. %J.-9R:C-o=-#2-/? / K$ / 3%-5S$?____________________________________________,
2. aR2-$?R / .!: / /-/A%-.R-5B$?_______________________________________________,
3. #R<-;$-$A-$/.-.R/ / (J____________________________________________________,
4. L-2 / .$R? / MA-5%-3_____________________________________________________,
5. PR%-HJ<-/? / MA-:.$ / 3%__________________________________________________,
6. 29R-=? / $=-(J ________________________________________________________,
7. .%R?-2R / o-%?________________________________________________________,
8. %:A-L-2-uA.-3R / ;R%-:22-*%_________________________________________________,
•412•
Exercise 8 Make superlative statements with the given words and phrases.
.0J<-2eR., L-2-:.A / .!: L-2-:.A-.!:->R?-<J., MA-$&A$-$A?-<-=?->J?-$A-3J.,
1. L-2 / =?-/-:.R. _____________________________________________________,

2. %?-2v?-/ / 2-3R / ;$-3__________________________________________________,
3. 2R.-{. / .!:-3R / .R%____________________________________________________,
4. 3R$-3R$ / %-.$: / 2R.-$A-9-3_______________________________________________,
5. %:A-<R$?-0 / .$:-2R / 2R.-<A$?-3A/____________________________________________,
6. #<-$J / MA / $9$?-(J_____________________________________________________,
7. .!R/-3(R$ / ?J3?-29%-/ %?-<A$-/R____________________________________________,
8. .3J-2 / 2R.-$A-?-( / *A.-?__________________________________________________,
9. %?-3A-2eJ.-/R / 1R=-3-$A-L.-$9$?_____________________________________________,
10. PR%-HJ<-:.A / (% / N%-$R-$A-PR%-HJ<_____________________________________________,
Exercise 9 Make a conclusion from each statement with superlative forms.
.0J<-2eR., .R-5B$?-.L<-#-$A-(<-:.A-3R-$9A$-22?-3-MR%-, .R-5B$?-.L<-#-(<-A-+-$A?-22?-/R:A-.?-5B$?-<J.,
1. #<-$J-?R%-/-.=-$A %?-#<-$J-:S-3-$9A$-<A$-3-MR%-, ___________________________________

2. aR2-3-$8/-0-$A?-aR2-5/-:.R/-:$R-lR3-$A-;R.-.?, (R?-:1$?-$A?-o/-.-1=-(J<-2+R/-5<-;R., __________
3. 2R.-/?-$/3-3#:-8J-,$-$A?-}R/-0R-<J., ?-(-$8/-/-$/3-}R/-0R-.J-3R-$9A$-;R.-o-3-<J., _____________
4. $9A-5-#J-.$-?-(-;$-$A 2?3-IA?-3A-H2-$A_________________________________________
5. 35S-*A.-$A?-%-;A.-.2%-S%?-,=, %?-MA-$9A$-$-?J3?-.J-3R-$9A$->R<-3-MR%-,____________________
6. MA-$A-/%-/-MA, ;R/-+/-/-22-$A?-;A.-(J?-3A-*/, ______________________________________
7. 2R.-$A?-HA->-<-g->-$+/-/?-3A-9, 2R.-$A-?-(-$A-o-#-;?-$A?-9-/-<, _________________________
8. 2R.-/-Y%-3-3%-, <J.-S-.0=-w/-z-3R-LA%?-$A?-2!J/, __________________________________
9. #<-$J-2!/-0-<-A-/-3-/-<J., 2!/-0-$A-%/-;A/-o-<J.-0, ________________________________
10. 3<-$J-aR2-.R%-%-Z-$A MA%-YA%-$?3-0R:C-/%-/?-3<-$J-<J-2-;R.-/R-;A/-o-<J., ______________________
•413•
Text Two: comparative forms
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, c.-0R-=R-2o.-&-&/-8A$-$A-S/-0-,R<-2,
%-*J?-.?-.?-<2?-*A->-2-$A-=R-<2?-*A->-2-$A-/%-<J., {2?-.J<-A-3.R-$A-?-3%-(J->R?-3-0:-n%-$A-3%:-<A?-<J., %-
<R%-/?-<-2#.-:VR$-/?-<-2#., :5S-2-hR$-$R-%J?-%J?-:I<-wR$-(J-$A {2?-.J:A-:5S-2-.J%-?%-$A-:5S-2-<-2#<-/-8J-,$-
$A?-#$-/A-<J.,
3-0:-n%-$A-<A%-%-, <R%-/?-8A%-O=, :VR$-/?-g-O=->-O=-0$?-O=-2#?-/A-<J., MA-5%-3-$A?-.J-<A%-$A-:5S-2-.J-<A%-,
/%?-!-$A-:5S-2-/%?-!->J.-2*=, 9-o-$R/-o-5%-3-.J%-?%-$A-:.A-3R-$9A$-$%-/?-Z-o?, 9-o->-<-KJ-<J., }R-1=-(J<-
;R.-/A-3-<J., >-HA3-5%-*%->R?-$A?-3A/-.-9-,2-/A-3-<J., OA3?-<-,A-5S$?-$A-1A$-=3-$+/-/?-3J., .J-<A%-MA-2?.-
<?, /%?-!-?-$8/-$9A$-$-,R/-/-OA3?-(.-:#<-3A-.$R?, MA-$8A-l-=$-3J.-/, MA-$9A$-,A-5S$?-.J-3R-$A-/%-/?-:5S-
oR-A-+-$A?-.!:-3R-<J., <J.-S-=?-!-=?-3A-=?-<%-$A-=$-/-;R., ;<-:IR-3<-:IR-;?-oR:A-,R$-/?-.J%-?%-%-vR?-/-<%-
.2%-(J-$A =?-3-2?3?-/, 3-=?-/-(R$ .J%-?%-3A-=?-<%-=?-<J., .J-3A/-$8/-$A-$8$-$-(R.-$A-3J.,
3-0:-n%-$A-$8$-/?, $%-O/-+%-;R%-,=, *A/-3-$9AA$-$-_%?-:#R<-(-4B$-,R/-,=, .J:A-}R/-/-_%?-:#R<-<A$-3-MR%-,

$8$-/?-MA-$9A$-$A?, &%-3-:$R<-<-#J-2-/%-$A-:R%-=A<-vR?-/-_%?-:#R<-3%-o-<J.-9J<, o-/R<-,3?-&., ?-8A%-:VR$-
=?-5%-3-$8%-%-=%?, MA-<-MA-:S-3*3-;A/-9J<, 5%-3-$A-=$-/-$&A$-<-3J.-?R%-/, 3J.-/R:C-,R$-/?-5%-3-:S-3*3-
;R%-,=, .J:A-$8$-/?-28A-$4%-, s-2o., 3./-*R.-(J/-3R-$A-=?-:$=-,R/-2+%-, MA-3%-%-3-$J-$A?->A-?R%-, $/3-
c/-3, =R-2&-#-$9A$-$-MA-<A$?-$J?-<%-tR$?-3-,2, .J->J.-=R-2&-,3-0-$A-;/-2.-,=, :5S-2-9R-{2?-.J<-vR?-/-z$-
$A?-.!:-o-;R.-3A-.0J, *A/-3-?3-2o-<-S$-2&, =?-!-3J.-/R:C-*A/-3-$&A$-<-3J., ;A/-/-<, {2?-.J<-.%R?-2R-$?<-
2-$&A$-<J-$*A?-<J-,R/-,=, \R$-<-?A=-+R$-#-;?, }R-5S.-3%-%-$9A$-,R/-,=,
=R-<2?-2o.-&-2-$A-!R.-$A-<?, ?-8A%-<-:VR$-?-5%-3-KA<-<-LA/-,=, <%-.2%-)J-;R.-<-:5S-2-)J-*A.-<J., {2?-.J<-9-
3-$A-@/-/-$8/-2?3-o-3J., aR2-3-}R/-/-vR?-/-3%-%-aR2-9-/%-%-(.-,=, %:A-8A-=A-<-:.A->J.-o=-#2-$A-=?-LJ.-0-
*/-?R%-, .J%-?%-%:A-5-2R-5-3R-9R<-%J.-9R-3J.-/R-5%-3-;R.-$A <J.-S-$&A$-$A?-<-:.%-$A-3J., ;R.-3J.-5%-3-=R%?-,R.-;?-
$A-;R., <J.-S-:5S-2-(A-3R-$9A$-*A.-/, #R-9R-=J/-0-.J:A-5S.-$A?-(J-$A %:A-5-2R-$9A$-$A?-.-2R-;R.-/-;R.-0R-%R-3-$9A$ 3J.-/-
3J.-0R-%-:S-3-$9A$-2&:-o?-9J<, :5S-2-:.A:A-;/-/-*A.-,2-o-3-<J., .J%-?%-$A-MA-9R-%J.-9R<-vR?-/-2?R.-/3?-(J, %-<-
=R-(%-o-/, %-<-:.R.-0-)J-(J-;A/-/-,%-,
•414•
vR?-/ / 2#<-/…adjective / verb §more / less…than

N%-$R<-vR?-/-A-3J-<A-#-!R2?-:LR<-(J, The USA is more powerful ncomparison
than China.
oA Ladon variant
%:A-1-;:-2-vR?-/--:.A-/?-?-<2-oR-}, It gets dark earlier here
than in my home. precedes the
PR%-$?J2-/?-PR%-HJ<-<-vRR?-/-.%R?-2R-$R%-l, Things are cheaper in the
countryside than in a city.
comparative term.
%--<--2#<<-/--5K-<A%-$A?-=?-!-@R%-$A?-=?, Tshe ring works much pvR?-/ means if

more than I do. compared to.
35S-3R-3<-$J:A-A-3-<-2##<--/-24/-0R-<J., Mtsho mo is even stricter
than her mother. q2#<-/ means if
g-:.A-g-.!<-0R-.J<-vRR?-/-<-:IR, This horse prances even
faster than the white one.
compared.
rvR?-/ and 2#<-/
%:A-Z%-3R-\-3-9J<-/R-.J<-vRR?-/-\-]%?-/-Z, My sister sings better than
the so-called singer. are alternative.
z$--$A? / z$--+…adjective / verb §more
#<-$J?-8R%-$A?-(%-:,%-, .J%-?%-z$--$A?-:,%-$A-;R., He usually drinks alcohol z$-$A? and z$-+
but now drinks more.
are synonyms and
K$-0R-2R-)J-K$--)J-K$ z$-$A?-@%-$A-;R., The rich man becomes
richer and richer, and both convey the
more arrogant. comparative form
/-/A%-2R.-/?-<-/3-^-z$--$A?-SR-$A .J-(A-$9A$-;A/-/%-, It was even warmer in
Tibet last year. Why was it more than…
so?
%-L-2-:.A<-z$-$AA?-3A-.$:-$A ,A<-$A?-L-2-%-.$:-/R- I don't like this job more
(than others), although
*%-/-<, there are not many jobs
that I like.
#<-$J-.-2R-z$-$AA?-5S/-0R<-*/-/-/.-:L%-o-<J., He will become ill if he
gets fatter.
Genitive case marker $AA + ;/ / 3/ §PRUHWKDQOHVVWKDQ
:.A-/?-<?-aR2-9:A-/%-%-,A-=J-$*A?-$A-;/--3A/, It is not more than two

kilometers from here to the
nGenitive case
school. + ;/: It
%?-.-,J%?-.?-5S.-$?3--$AA-;/--/-#-0<-2+%-;R., This time I made a phone expresses
call for more than three something is
hours.
more than...
c.-0R-:.A-=R-2./-&-$A-;/-<J., This old man is more than
seventy years old.
|R<-3R-?3-&-$A-3/-$A?-$R/-o-:.A-3A-#$ One cannot buy this garment
for less than thirty yuan
oGenitive case
+ 3/: It
9-#%-/?-9-3-9R?-/-:IR-|R-|R<-3R-2o-$A-3/-3A/, It wouldn't cost less than 100
yuan to have a meal in a expresses
restaurant. something less
^-1R$?-3J-|R<-!R%-$A-3/-;A/-/, %?-L-2-:.A-3A-=J/, If the salary is less than one
thousand US dollars, I would than…
not take the job.
•415•
Notes-3
1. A latent Ladon case + vR?-/ / 2#<-/+ adjective / verb expresses something is more
compared to something else, e.g., %-#<-$J<-vR?-/-=R-(J, I am older than him. In negative
statements, it expresses something is not more if compared to something else, e.g., %-#<-
$J-vR?-/-=R-3A-(J, I am not older than him. It implies either same-aged or younger.
2. z$-$A? / z$-+ + adjective / verb expresses something is more than, e.g., #<-$J-z$-$A?-
2?R.-?R%-, He was more delighted. These adverbs mean in extra or in addition as well. 3<-
$J-(-nJ/-8/-$A <J.-S-\-24:-\-24:-<J., z$-$A?-!J<-3A-*/, She is poor. But remuneration is as
it is and so extra should not be paid.
3. Genitive case + ;/ renders the notion: more than or over, e.g., aR2-3-?3-&-$A-;/-aR2-#%-
/%-%-3A->R%-, The classroom cannot hold more than 30 students.
4. Genitive case + 3/ renders the notion: less than, e.g., %-:)<-3/-/?-=R-$?3-$A-3/-2#., I
have stayed in Germany less than three years.
Exercise 10 Complete the statements using comparative forms vR?-/ / 2#<-/…adjective

/ verb.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-/?-l3-0-.-2R-9-3-$4S-2R-$9A$-<J., <J.-S-l3-0-9-3#/-}R/-/-vR?-/-*%-$A
1. #3?-$A-?-(-______________A-3.R-/-$4%-2R-______________, $4%-2R-3%-%-#3?-/-28<-$A-;R.,
2. 2R.-$A-MA-P%?-.2?-$4%-%-______________#3?-/-_________________, #3?-/-2R.-8J-$A?-3%-,
3. 2R.-/?-1$->________________=$->___________________, =$->->-$A-;R%-#%?-$4S-2R-;A/,
4. 2R.-/?-8A%-=?__________:VR$-=?-____________, <J.-S-A-3.R-?-(-/?-8A%-=?-<-@R%-$A?->$?-(J,
5. .J%-?%-2R.-$A-?-(-/-o-<-3%-%-;R., <J.-S-2R.-$A-MA-P%?-o-$A-MA-P%?-_______.-2R-________________,
6. #-;?-$A?-2v?-/, 2R.-{.-2>.-3#/-)J-*%-<J., <J.-S-2R.-{.-2>.-3#/-$A-,A:A-MA-I%?-}R/-_____.-2<-3%-,
7. .J%-3-aR2-9<-:IR-:.R.-/-<-:IR-?-3J., .J%-?%-____________aR2-9-.J%-3-___________________,
8. .$R/-0-/?-9-2-2&:-:.R.-3#/-_______________aR2-9<-:PR-:.R.-3#/-________________,
9. 2R.-$A-@-3-9R-8A-3R_____________.$:-/A-<J., <J.-S, %?-2v?-/, 8A-=A________________8A-3R-Z-$A
10. MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-2R.-$A-?-(-:H$?-/A-<J.-9J<-$A-;R., <J.-S-%:A-;:-.$/-#-0J-&A/__________________,
11. #J-2-$A-/%-/-2f/-:UA/-)J-3%-)J-3%-<J., MA-9R-3*3-0?-:6S3-oR-.J%-?%-________}R/-(.____________,
12. ,A<-$A?-<R%-2-9R-____________:VR$-0-9R?->-________________ <R%-2-$A-/%-/->-9-3#/-3%-/-<,
•416•
Exercise 11 Make statements with the given phrases using comparative forms $A-;/
and $A-3/.
.0J<-2eR., ,-3 / t$?-L3? / <J. / MA-5%-3 / #<-$J

t$?-L3?-MA-,-3-$9A$-<J., MA-5%-3-#<-$J:A-3/-;A/-o-3-<J.,
1. .L<-$/%-*A/-3-?3-& / % / :.$ / ;:-/?_______________________________________,

2. #%-\ / |R<-3R / !J< / ;/ / % / 3J.-0R___________________________________________,
3. ($?-$;A? / ZA/ / ?3-& / .J-3A/ / _%?-:#R<-3A-,R/___________________________________,
4. =?-3A->J?-/ / l-3R / .!:-3R-3J. / =?-!_________________________________________,
5. K-n / 3J. / Z / aR2-9-5%-3________________________________________________,
6. 8-;? / aR2-9-:.R/ / A-3.R-/? / =R-2o._______________________________________,
7. :.A / ? / % / *A/-3-$?3 / *A. / 3A-:.$_______________________________________,
8. aR2-3 / 5K-<A%- / =R-(% / $9$? / 1-2R_________________________________________,
9. 5K-<A% / <A$-0-$A-,R$-/? / 1-2R / 3-<J.__________________________________________,
10. ?-(-#-;? / #3? / 3?-!R%-$*A? / ?-3$R / <J.____________________________________,
Exercise 12 Make statements with the comparative adverb z$-$A? or z$-+ and the
given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., $R-/A-< / 8-;?-$A-%-{. / #$-$A-;R. / A-3 8-;?-$A-%-{.-$R-/A-<-A-3-z$-$A?-#$-$A-;R.,
1. #%-2lJ$?-9R / PR%-HJ<-/? / 3,R / }R/-(. / .J%-?%___________________________________,

2. .!:-3R / o-{. / 2R.-{. / <J._______________________________________________,
3. ?:A-$R-= / ^-2 / $A-<? / ,$-<A% / $9:-3A$-.3<____________________________________,
4. \R$-2f/ / A-3J-<A-#:A / % / .$: / :)<-0/-$A______________________________________,
5. =R-c?-/ / :5S-2 / ?-3,: / 3-<J. / l-3R__________________________________________,
6. 29:-^ / <R$?-0 / <A% / KA-,$_______________________________________________,
7. L-2-:.A / <J. / OA$?-?J / .!:-3R / %?-3A-H$_______________________________________,
8. /%-/? / |R-/? / 3A-:H$?-$A________________________________________________,
•417•
9. 9-3 / {R3-$A / % / D-# / #-3R / <J. / 9R?-/A-<_______________________________________,
10. A-3-<A$ / 8-;? / 2?R.-,=________________________________________________,
Comparative adverb: :S--3-$9AA$...verb / adjective § as …as

With comparative adverb English Note
<?-z3-:.A-o-2-$R-z3-:S--3-$9AA$-Z, The cloth shoes are as equally
good quality as the leather ones.
conveys
comparative
lA?-<A$-%?-#<-$J-:S--3-$9AA$-3A->J?, I do not know mathematics as form: as..as...
well as he does.
The twins are very similar, but
35K-3-:.A-$*A?-!-@R%-$A?-<A$-$A <J.-S-(%-%R-(J-2R-
the younger one is not as lovely as
:S--3-$9AA$-3A-;$ the older one.
:.A-/?-<?-#R-5%-%-%J.-5%-:S--3-$9AA$-,$-<A%-, His home and my home are

equally far from here.
(R?-35S-$A?-}R/-(.-:S--3-$9AA$-aR2-.R%-3A-;?, Chos mtsho does not study as
much as she used to.
#<-$J?-=?-/R-2>.-/R-:S--3-$9AA$-3-<J., What he did is not the same as
what he said.
Genitive case + .J-3R-$9AA$... verb / adjective § as … as
t$?-L3?-$A-/-2R-$9$?-3,R, t$?-L3?-#<- Lcags byams' younger brother is

tall, but Lcags byams is not that
nso or so much
as
$J:A-.J-3R-$9AA$-3A-3,R, tall.
oan adverbial
%?-*A/-3-$9A$-$-HR:A-*A/-3-$*A?-$A-.J-3R-$9AA$- Imucham unable to write in one day as phrase
as you do in two days.
:VA-3A-,2,
%-8R$-#R$-$-}R/-(.-$A-.J-3R-$9AA$-3A-.$:-$A I do not like potatoes as much as
I used to.
HR?-L-2-P2-/R:A-.J-3R-$9AA$-$8/-$A?-;A.-=-<-S/- The others even cannot imagine
doing so much work as you have
,2-o-3-<J., completed.
%?-2>.-/R:A-.J-3R-$9AA$-aR2-3-9R?-@-$R-;R., The students understood as much

as I taught.
Notes-4
1. :S-3-$9A$…adjective / verb: nEnglish comparative form as…as is similar to this

structure, e.g., %?-L-2-#<-$J?-=?-/R-:S-3-$9A$-=?-2+%-, I did as much work as he did. / 8-
;?-$/-:.A-:S-3-$9A$-]R<-3A-:22, That child is not as adorable as this one. / %-$R/-o-.3<-<R-
:.A-:S-3-$9A$-.$R?, I need a garment that is as red as this one. oBased on the context, it
could also mean like, e.g., %-%:A-A-1-:S-3-$9A$-3A/, %-%:A-A-3-:S-3-$9A$-;A/, I am not like
my father but like my mother. pThe adverbial convertor >J. is added to this adverbial
•418•
phrase to describe how one does something, e.g., #<-$J<-3A-:IR-?-3J., :SJ-:S-3-$9A$->J., He
goes everywhere, just as a ghost goes. / A-2R-$9A$-$A?-3/-/J-3/-/J-$9A$-=2-,=, ]/-0R-:S-3-
$9A$->J., A man murmured, like a moron.
2. .J-3R-$9A$: It usually means so or as…as…(with genitive case) nWhen it means so, it
describes degree, e.g., 3<-$J-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-29%-, She is not so good. oWhen it compares, a
genitive case is put in front, e.g., 3<-$J-(R?-.<-$A-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-29%-, She is not as nice as Chos
dar.
3. $A-;/-/ + 3J. vs. $A-3/-/+ 3J.: This structure expresses the idea that there is not something
more / less than something else, e.g., K-n-$A-;/-/-aR2-9-.$:-$9A$-3J., There is no better
school than Harvard University. / aR2-3-:.A:A-3/-/-.-aR2-3-3J., There is not a worse student
than this one. Refer to the supplementary grammar in this chapter for more information.
Exercise 13 Complete sentences with the various comparative forms we have learned.
.0J<-2eR., A-1-=R-)J-(J-<J., (=R-(J) A-3-z$-$A?-=R-3,R, (=R-3,R) .J:A-5S.-$A?-#R-$*A?-!-?J3?-z$-$A?-c?-3J.,

(?J3?-c?)
1. .$/-#-2R.-/?-*A/-.!<-&-/-+-_________, (<A%) <J.-S-.L<-#-2R.-/?-*A/-.!<-_______, (.?-5S.-,%)

2. =R-$&A$-$A-/%-%-^-2-.%-2R-^-2-____________(:H$?) 2R.-<A$?-$A?-.$-$?3-0-$A-/%-%-t$?-:$.-9J<,
3. ,A<-2+%-$A?-2R.-/?-:VR$-0-9R-<R%-2-9R-_____________________, (..-0-(J)
4. 9-2-$A-MA-P%?-,A-5S$?-fA%-2-$A-/%-%-____________, (*%) .J?-3A-5.-.-2<-____________<J., (*%)
5. ]-3-$A-$R-?-$A-,R$-/?, o=-2-<A/-0R-(J-____________]-3-3,R/-0R-$9A$-3J.,
6. .J%-?%-:VR$-?-3%-%-/-K$?-9R$-__________, (3%) C-?-$A?-3-H$-$-?-/$-$A-o-HR/-_______<J., ((J)
7. o=-#2-,A-$A-.0=-:LR<-:1J=-o?-<-:IR-$A-;R., <J.-S-3%-5S$?-$A-;R%-|R-____________, (3A-3,R)
8. 2R.-$A-:VR$-HA-__________<J., (MA%-(J) 2R.-$A-?-<%-/?-.-2<-:VR$-HA-fJ.-oR-__________<J., (.!:-3R)
9. 2R.-/?-YR$-($?-____________:VR%-;A/, ((J-2R) :VR%-:.$-?-?-3$R-____________<J., (3,R/-0R)
10. A-3.R-/-]-V%-2N->A?-:HA=_______1=-(J<-3J., (.$R/-0-(J) IR-5%-hR-eJ-:(%-=R-o?________/-<, (<A%)
•419•
Exercise 14 Make comparative statements with the words and phrases given,
respectively, for comparative forms :S-3-$9A$ and .J-3R-$9A$.
.0J<-2eR., :S-3-$9A$: @3-0 / (J .!R/-3(R$-5K-2g/-:S-3-$9A$-@3-0-3A-(J, #<-$J-:.R.-0-(%-,

.J-3R-$9A$: 2.J/-2>. / l-3R .!R/-3(R$-$-2.J/-2>.-oR-5K-2g/-/-2>.-oR:A-.J-3R-$9A$-l-3R-3A/,
:S--3-$9AA$ .JJ-3RR-$9AA$
*A. / ?J3?, $8/-?J3? / (J, (J / :)R/-,%-, =-*J / ;R., ;<-3<-< / :IR, 3PR/-lA? / (J,
5S/-0R / ;A/, 2?J< / |R<-3R, aR2-$?R / ,R2, #-;$ / (J, 5B$-,R$ / ;A/, (J / :I<-wR$
*= / .$:, {. / ;$ ;A.-:5K%?-# / .!:, :2R.-oR / .!:-3R,
1. _____________________________ 1. ______________________________
2. _____________________________ 2. ______________________________
3. ____________________________ 3. ______________________________
4. _____________________________ 4. ______________________________
5. _____________________________ 5. ______________________________
6. _____________________________ 6. ______________________________
7. _____________________________ 7. ______________________________
8. ____________________________ 8. ______________________________
Exercise 15 Make comparative statements with :S-3-$9A$ and .J-3R-$9A$.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, %?-.%R?-2R-$R%-.!:-3R-:.A-:S-3-$9A$-3A-*R, .J?-1R-2o$?-oR:A-$R-3A-(R.,

#-2, .%R?-2R-:.A-HR?-.J%-3-*R?-/R:C-.J-3R-$9A$-$R%-3A-.!:-$A .J-.?-HR.-1R-2o$?-;R.-/A-AJ-<J.,
5KK-<AA% z-3R, HR?-:.A-/-(A-$9A$-;?-$A-;R.,

z--3R %-:.A-/-\R$-2f/-/-|$-$A-;R., \R$-2f/-<%-$:A-\R$-2f/-____________3A/-9J<, .-%-:.A-/?-;/-
$9A$-$-2|$?-2+%-,
5KK-<AA% HR.-}R/-(.-\R$-2f/-$9A$-$-.?-5S.-$?3-3-2|$?-/R-%?-$R-MR%-, .-,J%?-__________2|$?-AJ-;R.,
z--3R .-,J%?-%-.?-5S.-$?3-__________2|$?-3J., <J.-S-.-.?-5S.-5=-2-$9A$-:$R<-/, .?-5S.-$?3-
2|$?-;?-=R/-o-<J.,
•420•
5K-<A% HR?-<%-$A-HA3-/?-\R$-2f/-.J<-2v?-/-3A-(R$-/?, HR.-:.A,
z-3R HA3-/?-2v?-/-\R$-2f/-#%-____________$%-2-*A.-0R-3-<J., .J?-3A-5., 8-;?-$*A?-!?-<-:.$-
$A-3A-:)$ %?-0-?J-.J%-3-$9A$-/?-*R?-;R.,
5KK-<AA% \R$-2f/-/-v-3#/-$+A-,$-HR.-____________%?-<A$-3-MR%-, HR:A-}/-/-.-2R-MA_________3%-$A
.-KA<-<-HA3-3-:IR,
z--3R 3A/-3A/-3A/, %?-0-?J-$R%-.!:-3R-____________*R?-3-MR%-, .-:.A-(.-9R?-$+R%-3A-*/, %?-<%-$A-%R-
24S%?-;?-.-0-?J-:.A-=$-$-=R/-,=, MA-=-=-$A?-.-2R-$R%-w2-$9A$-!J<-$A-;R.,
5KK-<AA% %:A-c/-3R-HR.-____________3A/, %?-|R<-S.-/-<, 3<-$J-\R$-2f/-/-v-$A-:IR-#-3A-*/, <J.-S-\R$-
2f/-/-v-oR<-.$:-3#/-HR.-____________;A/,
z--3R 3<-$J?-%:A____________|R<-3R-!A3-3A-,2-/, ;:-/?-2v?-/-<-(R$-$A <J.-S-.J->J.-%?-5S<-2-3A-fJ.-$A
5KK-<AA% .J?-/, HR?-\R$-2f/-/-vR?, /%?-!-o-35/-%-$?=-2R<->R.-S,
Exercise 16 Compare with comparative phrases :S-3-$9A$, .J-3R-$9A$, and the given words
and phrases.
.0J<-2eR., % / aR2-OA. / 3<-$J / 3J. %-aR2-OA.-3<-$J:A-.J-3R-$9A$-3J.,

<R%-? / :VR$-? / :H$?-3R 3A/, <R%-?-:H$?-3R-:VR$-?-:S-3-$9A$-3A/,
1. HA3-=? / 2R.-$A-*J?-0 / *J?-3 / 3A-=?__________________________________________,

2. 2R.-/? / 8A-3R-9R / 8A-=A-9R / aR2-9<-3A-:IR_________________________________________,
3. =$ / 2Y/-3R / <-3 / 3A/__________________________________________________,
4. <R%-2-9R / :VR$-0-9R / K$?-9R$-3%-% / 3J. ________________________________________,
5. 2R.-3A-$A? / o-3A / }R-5S. / 9-$A-3J. _____________________________________________,
6. :VR$-?-/? / _%?-:#R< / PR%-HJ< / o$-3A-(J_______________________________________,
7. 2R.-$A-4-/$ / .J%-?% / .J%-3 / <A$-o-3J. _________________________________________,
8. A-3.R-/? / /? / #3? / =R%?-,R.-;? __________________________________________,
9. A-3.R / .2?-$4% / 3,R / ?-3$R______________________________________________,
10. o-3A / 2R.-3A / > / 3A-9 ____________________________________________________,
•421•
Exercise 17 Convert into comparative statements by replacing :S-3-$9A$ with .J-3R-$9A$.
.0J<-2eR., With :S-3-$9A$: %?-o-{.-#<-$J-:S-3-$9A$-2>.-3A->J?,

With .J-3R-$9A$: %?-o-{.-#<-$J:A-.J-3R-$9A$-2>.-3A->J?,
:S--3-$9AA$--as much / many as .JJ-3RR-$9AA$--as many as / as much as

1. %-aR2-(%-$A-aR2-$?R-:S-3-$9A$-,R2-;R., 1. __________________________
2. %?-*A/-P%?-%-.?-5S.-$?3-:S-3-$9A$-$-=?-!-=?-$A-;R., 2. _________________________
3. %-\R$-2f/-/-(R?-P$?-:S-3-$9A$-3A-.$:, 3. _________________________
4. %:A-[.-0-%:A-/-2R-:S-3-$9A$-3A-3IR$?, 4. _________________________
5. #<-$J-MA-*A.-0R-$9A$-<J., #<-$J:A-Z%-3R-:S-3-$9A$-<J., 5. _________________________
6. %:A-=?-.J%-3-:S-3-$9A$-3A-Z-$A 6. _________________________
7. %?-2R.-$A-9-3-.J%-3-:S-3-$9A$-3A-S/-$A 7. _________________________
8. %?-2>.-/R-#<-$J?-2>.-/R-:S-3-$9A$-3A-Z-$A 8. _________________________
Exercise 18 Rewrite the complete statements by replacing vR?-/ with :S-3-$9A$ or

.J-3R-$9A$.
.0J<-2eR., With vR?-/…adjective / verb: A-3J-<A-#-vR?-/-N%-$R-/?-.%R?-2R-$R%-2.J,

With .J-3R-$9A$ / :S-3-$9A$: N%-$R-/?-.%R?-2R-A-3J-<A-#-:S-3-$9A$-$R%-3A-.!:, / A-3J-<A-#-/?-
.%R?-2R-N%-$R-$A-.J-3R-$9A$-$R%-3A-2.J,
vRR?-/…adjective / verb .JJ-3RR-$9AA$; :S-3--$9A$ as …as
1. 2R.-{.-<-vR?-/-.LA/-{.-l-3R-<J., 1. __________________________
2. KA-o=-$A-#%-\-2R.-<-vR?-/-@R%-$A?-3,R, 2. _________________________
3. KA-o=-2-$A?-2R.-3A-<-vR?-/-<-:R-9?-9-$A 3. _________________________
4. {3?-><-vR?-/-=$->-5S/-0R-<J., 4. _________________________
5. #<-$J-lA?-<A$-$-vR?-/-.LA/-;A$-.R%-oR<-.$:, 5. _________________________
6. <R%-/?-SJ=-g-=-vR?-/-$R-(R.-<J., 6. _________________________
7. z-?-PR%-HJ<-/-2R.-<-vR?-/-o-3%-o-<J., 7. _________________________
•422•
8. A-3.R-/?-.N$?-)-=-vR?-/-<%-$:A-:R-)-:,%-$A-;R., 8. _________________________
Exercise 19 Rewrite the statements into comparative ones by replacing z$-$A? with
vR?-/.
.0J<-2eR., z$-$A?…adjective / verb /2-$A-o-35S-(J/-3R-@R%-$A?-(J, 8A-2.J-o-35S-(J/-3R-z$-$A?-(J,

vR?-/…adjective /2-$A-o-35S-(J/-3R<-vR?-/-8A-2.J-o-35S-(J/-3R-(J,
z$--$A?…adjective / verb vRR?-/…adjective / verb

1. .LA/-)A-o=-#2-?-o-(%-, @R-=/-z$-$A?-(%-, 1. __________________________
2. A-3J-<A-#-5/-<A$-=$-l=-3,R, A-<-?-z$-$A?-3A-3,R, 2. _________________________
3. N%-$R:A-<A$-$/?-H2-(J, A-3J-<A-#-$A-<A$-$/?-z$-$A?-H2-(J, 3. _________________________
4. HR.-$%-%-z$-$A?-.$:, :.A<-.$:-$A $/-/-.$:-$A 4. _________________________
5. 2R.-$A-@/-(.-/?-%-z$-$A?-:IR-:.R.-?-$9A$-3J., 5. _________________________
6. MA-<=-3-$9A$-$A?-"=?-oR-$=-(J, :.$-oR-z$-$A?-$=-(J,"9J<, 6. _________________________
7. 8A-3R-:.A?-8-;?-:.R.-$A-;R., 2-$9A$-z$-$A?-:.R.-$A-;R., 7. _________________________
8. MA-=-=-$A?-5K-KA-3-z$-$A?-$=-(J-9J<, 5K-:.A-$=-3A-(J-9J<, 8. _________________________
Comparative adverbial phrase: $AA?-3A-5. § more than

$?3-$A-,R$-$-$*A?-2$/-/-28A-$A?-3A-5., Three plus two is more than
four.
$AA?-3A-5.: more
%:A-^-1R$?-|R<-3R-!R%-$?3-$A?-3A-5., My salary is more than three than (in quantity)
thousand yuan.
o-$<-$A-MA-P%?-.%-K<-2&-$A?-3A-5., India's population is more
than one billion.
%-A-3J-<A-#<-,J%?-$?3-$A?-3AA-5.--?R%-;R., I've been to the USA more
than three times.
%-:.A-/?-=R-?3-&-$$A?-3A-5.-:$R<-?R%-, I've lived here for more than
thirty years.
lR3-;A$-;A$-:V-s-2o-$A?-3A-5.-UA?, Please write an essay of more
than 500 words!
•423•
Comparative adverbial phrase: adjective / verb + 3*3 + 3J. §HTXDOO\
.J-2-5%-$*A?-!<-KK$-3*3--3J., Those two families are equally
rich.
The things
compared are the
aR2-3-:.A-$*A?-!<-aR2-.R%-;?--3*3--3J., These two students study equally subject, therefore,
hard. the subject refers
to something more
.0=-w/-<-5K-<A%-%-:)RR/-3*3--3J., Dpal ldan and Tshe ring are
equally capable. than one.
:.A-$A-<?-;=->=-<-35S-zR<-,$--<A%-3*3--3J., Mtsho lho and Yushu are equally
distant from here. as…as or equally…
A-&J-<-/-3R-$*A?-!<-;$--3*3--3J., Elder and younger sisters are

equally beautiful.
$A + adjective / verb + 3*3 + ;R. §DV«DV

aR2-9-:.A<-aR2-9-(J/-3R-.$:-$9A$-$A-Z-3*3--;R., This school is as good as a
good university.
$A
n is a
genitive case
#<-$J<-#<-$J:A-%/-$A-$R-(R.-3*3--;R., He is as helpful as his
brother.
marker.
oas…as…;
.J%-3-$A-|R<-3R-$&A$-$-.-$A-|R<-3R-*A->-$A-#$-3*3--;R., One yuan previously had the
same purchasing power as the
twenty yuan does now.
same…as…
8A-3R-:.A<-:O2-!R/-3-;$-3-$9A$-$A-;$--3*3--;R., This girl is as beautiful as a
beautiful actress.
8-;?-:.A:A-=?-0R<-MA-.<-3-$9A$-$A-(J-3*3--;R., This young child is as big as
an adult.
$A + adjective / verb + 3*3 + 3J. §QRWDV«DV

$R/-o-:.A<-3.R$-$/--$A-;$--3*3--3J., This garment is not as beautiful
in color as that.
In this form, a
Ladon case
$;$-$-\%-2R-(J-$A-(J-3*3--3J., A yak is not as big as an elephant. follows the
subject.
,R.-0<<-.!R/-3(R$-$A-=?--3*3--3J., Spyod pa doesn't do as much
work as Dkon mchog does. …as…as…; as
much…as…; or
.J%-?%-$A-:5S-2<<-$/:-$A-:5S-2-$A-#$-3*3--3J., Life today is not as hard as life
before. the same…as…
o-{.-3<-$J<-#<-$JJ:A-2>.--3*3--3J., She does not speak Chinese as
well as he does.
Notes-5
1. $A?-3A-5.: This phrase conveys the comparative form more than, comparing number,
quality, size, length, etc., e.g., %:A-A-1-=R-2./-&-$A?-3A-5., My father is more than seventy
years old. / .J-<A%-%?->R$-P%?-$?3-$A?-3A-5.-VA?, I wrote more than three pages today. In
this phrase, $A? is an instrumental case marker that conveys the notion by or than, e.g.,
N%-$R-$A-MA-P%?-A-3J-<A-#-$A-MA-P%?-%-vR?-/-w2-$?3-$A?-(J, China's population is three times
that of the USA. / %:A-^-1R$?-|R<-3R-!R%-$*A?-$A?-3A-5., My salary is more than 2,000 yuan.
2. $A + adjective / verb + 3*3 + ;R. / 3J. expresses difference in its negative form,
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whereas similarity in positive form, e.g., 35S-3R<-3<-$J:A-/-3R-$A-;$-3*3-3J., Mtsho mo is not
as beautiful as her younger sister. / 35S-3R<-3<-$J:A-/-3R-$A-;$-3*3-;R., Mtho mo is as
beautiful as her sister.
3. Adjective / verb + 3*3 + ;R. / 3J., in negation, expresses similarity and, in
affirmation, expresses difference, e.g., 35S-3R-<-3<-$J:A-/-3R<-;$-3*3-3J., Mtsho mo and her
sister are equally beautiful. / 35S-3R-<-3<-$J:A-/-3R<-;$-3*3-;R., Mtsho mo and her sister are
not equally beautiful.
Exercise 20 Convert the statements into comparative ones by replacing $A-;/ with
$A?-3A-5..
.0J<-2eR., With $A-;/: %?-=?-/R-3<-$J?-=?-/R-$A-;/-;A/, With $A?-3A-5.: %?-=?-/R-3<-$J?-=?-/R-$A?-3A-5.,
$AA-;/ $AA?-3A-5.
1. 8A-3R-3R-|R-&/-.J-$9$?-3?-$*A?-$A-;/-<J., 1. __________________________
2. 8A-=A-1R-|R-&/-.J-=R-?3-&-$A-;/-<J., 2. _________________________
3. .R-5B$?-%:A-;R%-|R-/-/A%-$A-;R%-|R-$A-3/-3-<J., 3. _________________________
4. \-3-.J:A-{.-~/-3R-.J%-3-$A-<-;/-<J., 4. _________________________
5. #R-5%-2&:-.$-;A/-/R-$A-;/-<J., .-2R-$4%-3-<-<J., 5. _________________________
6. $/3-P-.J:A-$R%-|R<-3R-LJ-2-$9A$-$A-;/-<J., 6. _________________________
7. 3<-$J-8J-29%-/R-3<-$J:A-A-&J-$A-;/-<J., 7. _________________________
8. %-*$-/R-1=-(J<-]-:H3?-/R-$A-;/-<J., 8. _________________________
Exercise 21 Make statements about yourself with comparative form adjectives / verb
+ 3*3 + ;R. / 3J. , using the given phrases and words.
.0J<-2eR., $R-$/? / $=-(J %-<-#<-$J<-$R-$/?-$=-(J-3*3-3J.,
1. *A.-0R-;?-oR / .0J-(-:.R/-oR / $=-(J____________________________________________,

2. #-/%-%-9-oR / =?-!-=?-oR / .$:_____________________________________________,
3. $R/-o-;$-0R-$R/-oR / ;=-{R<-<-:IR-oR / ?J3?-:#R< ___________________________________,
4. 3$R-{R<-2+%-/R / %/-2&R?-/R / 29% ___________________________________________,
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5. .$/-# / .L<-# / } / aR2-9<-:IR ____________________________________________,
6. %:A-A-# / %:A-A-1 / =?-!<-.$:_____________________________________________,
7. %:A-/-2R / %:A-Z%-3R / $9$?-(J ______________________________________________,
8. %:A-A-3 / A-1 / =R-(J ____________________________________________________,
9. % / %:A-A-o / A-5$?-(J___________________________________________________,
10. %:A-A-&J / %:A-/-3R / aR2-$?R-,R2-;R.____________________________________________,
Exercise 22 Complete the statements with comparative form $A + adjective / verb +

3*3 + ;R. / 3J., based on the context.
.0J<-2eR., 2>.-/, :#R<-:2%?-9R<-:$R-OA.-9R-$A-3,R-3*3-;R.-9J<, =?-/, :#R<-:2%?-%-:$R-OA.-$A-3,R-3*3-3J.,
1. 2R.-/?-35S-A-+-$A?-(J-2R-35S-}R/-0R-;A/, 3-13-$;-35S_________________________, <J.-S-3-13-

$;-35S-$/?-3(R$-A-+-$A?-$4S-2R-$9A$-;A/, :.A:A-,R$-/?-35S-}R/-0R________________________,
2. IR-5%-hR-eJ-:(%-A-3.R-/?-.$R/-0-A-+-$A?-}-3R-;A/, {-:23-.$R/-0__________________________,
<J.-S-.J%-?%-{-:23-.$R/-0-MA%-P$?-(J->R?-<J., :.A:A-,R$-/?_________________{-:23-.$R/-0
_____________,
3. A-3.R-?-(-/?-A-MJ?-k-(J/-<A-A-+-$A?-3,R/-0R-<J., A-MJ?-L-H%-______________________, $/?-

3(R$-;A/-3A/-$A-,R$-/?, <A-:.A-$*A?-!-$=-(J-3*3-3J.,
4. 8A%-=?-A-+-$A?-.<-?-IR-5%-?-(-<J., :.A:A-,R$-/?-3$R-=R$_____________, K$?-=?-$A-,R$-/?, IR-5%-
____________,
5. A-3.R-/?-!/-zR-#=-2R.-$A-#=-MA-P%?-A-+-$A?-(J-2R-<J., :.A:A-,R$-/?-A-3.R-$A-2R.-<%-*R%-#=-$8/-0-
_________________, <J.-S-MA-3$R-$A-;R%-|R:A-,R$-/?, #=-5%-3-$&A$-:S-<J.,
6. .$R/-0-3%-(J->R?-<R%-/-;R., .J-9R-:VR$-$A-.$R/-9R< ________________,

7. 2R.-$A-aR2-3-3%-(J->R?-<R%-/-;R%-$A-;R., :VR$-$A-aR2-3-MA-P%?-______________________,
8. .L<-$8%-%-<R%-<-:VR$-$-SR-3*3-3J.-/-<, .$/-#-:VR$-?<-<R%-?-_______________________3J.,
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Exercise 23 Complete the travel plan with comparative and superlative forms.
.0J<-2eR., %-.J-<A%-$A-;/-.$:-3-MR%-, .J-<A%-%:A-$R-$/?-)J-3,R<-$+.-2+%-, /%?-!-$A-<?-%:A-*A/-1R$?-|R<-3R-

2o-$A?-z$-$A?-3%-9J<, .J?-3A-5., $8%-12-#%-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R-<-%-LA/-2+%-, %:A-:$R-2-$A-;/-
/-MA-.$:-$9A$-.-;R.-o-3-<J.,
5KK-<AA% %-2R.-<-:IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R.,
z--3R HR.-2R.-/?-*A.-0R-;R%-#R-,$-;A/, /-/A%-.L<-#-%-<-?R%-%-, %-z-?-<-?R%-%-, %?-2v?-/-z-?- _______
*A.-0R-<J.,
5KK-<AA% z-?-2R.-$A-PR%-HJ<-_________$4S-2R-AJ-<J.,
z--3R (2-YA.-$A-,R$-/?-_________$4S-2R-<J., <J.-S-KR$?-#-;?-/?-2R.-$A-?-(-$8/-0-z-?-$A-________
<J., .0J<-28$-/-d-2-<-.3J-2-?-(-9R-z-?- _________K$-$A ;=-uR%?-<-_________;$-$A
5KK-<AA% HR?-2v?-/, %-?-(-$%-$%-%-?R%-/-:PA$-o-<J.,
z--3R HR.-A-3.R-$A-zR-KR$?-$A-<?-L%-KR$?-$-?R%-/-<2-<J., =3-#-/?-/$?, C-,%-<A$-o-<J., N%-$R-/?-2_/-
?-MA%-(J_______<-=3-#-/-;R., %?-C-?-(J-2R________<A$-3-MR%-, /3-^-Z-/, HR?-K$?-9R$-$%-?-
$%-/-;R.-/R-<A$-,2, *A/-3-$*A?-$A-/%-%-, HR.-!/-zR-$A-PR%-HJ<-_________$4S-2R-$4S.-<-,R/-:IR, .J-
$A-<?-HR.-35S-}R/-$A-PR%-HJ<-$=-(J-_______9A-=A%-%-?R%-/-(R$
5KK-<AA% HR.-:IR-.?-/3-^-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
z--3R ^-2-s-2:A-/%-;A/, /3-^-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J., <J.-S-HR.-^-2o.-0:A-/%-%-:IR-/, /3-^-_______29%-,
(<-<-_______*%-;A/, $%-v<-/-<-.J-.?-_________*A.-/R-#R-,$-;A/,
5KK-<AA% %-^-2-2./-0:A-/%-%-:IR-$A-3J., ^-2-2./-0-%:A-=?-#%?-/_________3A-#R3-.?-<J., %-:IR-$A-3A-
:)$ 1=-(J<-%-^-2-2o.-0:A-/%-%-:IR-o?,
z--3R A-=J, .J-;A/-/-<2-<J., :VR$-$-35S/-/-^-2-2o.-0-_________Z-.?-<J., <R%-/?-353?-353?-3-
/3-^-_______5-/-<, {2?-.J<-<J2-$R%-?-(-/-1=-(J<-^-2-$&A$-$-[-<R=-9J<-/R:C-.?-(J/-$9A$-;R.,
5KK-<AA% A-3.R-/?-=3-2.J-3R-AJ-;A/, MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-2R.-/?-:PA3-:P=-3A-2.J-9J<,
z--3R :PA3-:P=-:.A-/?-_________3A-2.J, <J.-S-$%-%-?R%-/-!2?-2.J-<J., _%?-:#R<-3A-,R/-?-<-_%?-
:#R<-3J.-?-1=-(J<-3J.,
5KK-<AA% 2R.-/?-?-3$R-3,R, 3#:-.2$?-$A?-3A-:.%-9J<, HR?-2v?-/-.J-3R-$9A$-AJ-<J.,
z--3R _______$+/-/?-3-<J., ,A<-$A?-2R.-$A-?-(-?-3$R-3,R-/R-2.J/-$A <J.-S-%-*R/-$&A$-<-3J.-,=, A-3J-<A-
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#-_________%-.-2R-2R.-/?-#3?-?%?-,=,
5K-<A% .L<-#-SR.-P%-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., %?-$R/-o-3,$-0R-:HJ<-AJ-.$R?,
z-3R SR.-P%-K-ZA-+:-*A->-$A-_________;A/, .$R%-3R-<-2&-,3-0-$A_________3A/, ?-(-=-=-/?-+:-?3-
&-_________, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-$R/-o-3,$-0R-:HJ<-3A-.$R?,
5KK-<AA% HR?-2v?-/, %-?-(-$%-$%-%-?R%-/-:PA$
z--3R HR.-d-2-$A-$9A-5-#J-.$<-?R%-, N%-$R-/?-?-(-;$- _________$9A$-$-2lA-$A-;R., .J-/?-<?-HR.-b-#R$-
<-36S.-.$J<-?R%-, =3-#-/?-HR?-.-2R-!$-5%-z-3R-<-<A$-,2, ?-(-:.A-/-.$R/-0R-$*A?-;R., $&A$-.$J-
=$?-0-<-$8/-0-2R-2R/-$A-.$R/-0-<J., HR.-$4S.-<-,R/-/, $4S.-2?J-3#<-.$-,R$-$-&A$-vR?, 2R.-$A-.$R/-
0-$A-/%-/?-2%-<A3-_________3%-/R-<J.,
5KK-<AA% ?-:.A-<A$?-$J<-$/3-P-:1<-$A-AJ-;R.,
z--3R $/3-P-:1<-$A-3J., _%?-:#R<-<-2#.-/-_________*A.-0R-<J., ;=-uR%?-<-_______3%-%-<A$-$A
5KK-<AA% :.$-#%-$A-$R%-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., ?-$/?-$A-MA-3PR/-lA?-(J-$A-3A-(J-$A
z--3R :.$-#%-N%-$R-$A-/%-/?-_________$R%-2.J-3R-<J., 8$-3-$&A$-$-|R<-3R-2o-_________!J<-3A-
.$R?, 3PR/-lA?-(J-3A-(J-2>.-/, MA-?R-?R-3A-$&A$-/-<, :VR$-0-<-<R%-2-$*A?-!<-3PR/-lA?-(J-_______,
%?-2v?-/, <R%-2-9R<-:VR$-0-9R-____3PR/-lA?-(J_______, .J-%-<%-$A-KR$?-<A?-;A/-/-<-,%-,
5KK-<AA% 2R.-/?-3*3-:)R$-;?-.$R?-?-(A-(A-;R.,
z--3R AA/, :VR$-/?-MA-#J<-<R-?R%-/-*J/-#-(J, :VR$-HA-24/-0R-_________%?-<A$-3-MR%-, MA-9R-:(:-=-#.-
;?-$A .J?-3A-5., HR.-<-.$:-<R$?-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-:IR-/, 2R.-/?-MA-$A-MA$-$.R%-/%-/?-:R-LJ.-3A-*/,
5KK-<AA% :R, .-2R-{-:23-.$R/-0,
z--3R {-:23-.$R/-0<-HR.-;A/-$&A$-3A/-$*A?-?R%-, .-o-3-2R.-$A-.$R/-0-$9A$-$-*/-;R., 9-2-*%-(J-
_______$A?-o-{.-<-2>.-$A-;R.-/-<, 2R.-$A-H.-(R?-.-2R-z%-%J-;R.,
Text Three: comparison and similarity
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 2R/-(R?-.%-/%-(R?-=%-#R$-$&A$-/,
2R/-(R?-<-/%-(R?-$*A?-!-$&A$-:S-3A/-/R-o/-.-$R-o-;R., P2-3,:-$*A?-!-H.-0<-(A-3R-$9A$-\J%-/-.J-3R-$9A$-)J-(J-
;A/-#-<J., .R/-.%R?-$A-,R$ 2<-H.-(J-$9A$-AJ-;R., *%-3,:-<-MA-<A$?-$A?-2?3?-/R-.J-3R-$9A$-2<-H.-(J-o-3-<J.,
$%-v<-/-<, 2R/-(R?-<-/%-(R?-$*A?-!-lR.-0-$A-#-;-*/-;R.,
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%-2R/-0R-<-.$J-=$?-0-<-fA%-3-2-5%-3-;R.-/R:A-#J-2-$9A$-/?-*J?, %:A-A-1-2R/-0R-$A-HA3-$9A$-/?-%:A-A-3-5%-}$?-
5%-$9A$-$-3$-0<-;R%-/A-<J., .J:A-8R<-<-#<-$J-<-}$?-3-2R/-$9A$-$-*/-?R%-, (A-$9A$-<J.-9J<-/, #<-$J?-}$?-#J-
$A-#J-3A-9R-v<-<-:5S-2-<R=-$A-;R., #<-$J?-}$?-0-9R:A-:IR-=$?-5%-3-2lA-=J/-;?-$A-;R., .J-%:A-A-3-5%-}$?-5%-
;A/-/R-$A?-<J., #<-$J?-2R/-0R-$A-:IR-=$?-<-2lA, .J-*J?-?-*J?-;:-2R/-$A-#J-2-;A/-/R-$A?-<J., .J-;A/-/-<, 2<-H.-
$9A$-;R.-o-<J., .J-3A/-.-:.A-<-$/-9J<-YR=-$9A$-;R.-o-3-<J.-:.R.-/-,%-, <J.-S-%?-(%-.?-$A-<?-.-<J$-2<-2<-H.-
(J-$9A$-3-<A$-,=,
.J%-,R$ 2R/-0R-$9A$-<-fA%-3-2-$9A$-$A?-=?-/R-$&A$-<-$&A$-<J., #-2+R/-$A-/%-4B?-4-$9A$-3A-$&A$-/-<, $?=-2R-
>J.-2v?-/-#-2+R/-/%-$A-z-$A-MA%-$&A$-:S-3A/-/R-<J., 5S$?-$A-*A/-3-<-5S$?-?-3A-$&A$ <J.-S-~A%-2R-<A$-$A *%-3,:-
<-$*A?-!-HR/-/?-$&A$-:S-3-<J.-9J<-3A-*/, :5S-2-$A-:IR-!%?-;%-$*A?-!-A-/-3-/-<J., 2R/-5%-1/-5/-2<-$A-o/-
w/-$A-,A-5S$?-:IR-:R%-, .0=-:LR<-$A-:PR-:R%-, $*J/-*J-$A-:PR-:R%-5%-3-}$?-5%-2<-$A-.J-9R-<-$&A$-+$-+$-<J., .J-3R-
$9A$-;A/-/, 2<-H.-o/-.-\J%-$A-;R.-/R-.J-$%-/-;R., OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-P2-3,:-3A-$&A$-/R:C-.$R/-0-$A-2<-/-;R.-/-
,%-, *-?-/?-2<-H.-.J-3J.-?R%-/-,%-,
,R$-3<-KR$?-$*A?-!-$A-:5S-$/?-$A-,R$-$-;A/-.-3A/-.-2?3-]R-$+R%-.$R?-$A P2-3,:-:.A-$*A?-!-$R.-$A-2!R.-0-#J-
2-$&A$-<J., :IR-!%?, :.->J?, 3A-5K:A-v-!%?-:6B/-KR$?-5%-3-$&A$-<-$&A$-<J., KR$?-$*A?-$A-2<-H., ;R.-/R:C-
.2%-.-2+%-/-<, =R-o?-$A-OR.-/?-3J.-?R%-/-,%-, v-KR$?-$8/-8A$-/?, ,A-5S$?-$A-(-nJ/-<A$-:S-;A/-/R:C-k%-$8A-
,R$ 2<-H.-.J-3R-(J-$9A$-;R%-YR=-3J.-:.R.-$A
=->?-$A?, P2-3,:-$*A?-$A-.$R/-0:A-2<-/-2<-H.-;R.-9J<-/-,%-, <J.-S-2<-H.-.J?-P2-3,:-3A-$&A$-/R:C-*-?-2<-
$A-2<-H.-3A-35S/-$A %?-2v?-/, :5S-2-$A-:.-:$R.-$A-,R$-/?-, ?J<-*-$*A?-$-3A-$&A$-$A .J-;A/-/-*-?-$A-3%-5S$?-<-
.$R/-$A-9-?J<-.-$&A$-o-3-<J., P2-3,:-$8/-0-<-.J-.%-.J-35%?-<J., P2-3,:-3A-$&A$-/R:A-9-2-<-.$R/-0-1/-5/-
/-3A-:S-/-,%-, P2-3,:-$&A$-/R-$A-?J<-*-$*A?-!-<-o/-.-$&A$-<-$&A$-;R%-$A-3J., <J.-S-P2-3,:-3A-$&A$-/R:C-PR%-0-
<A$?-$J-@R%-$A?-:S-$A
.J:A-nJ/-$A?, =R-2&-2./-/-:2.-<J$-2<, %?-%-<%-$J<-P2-3,:-$%-%-$+R$?-/R-$?=-2R->J.-3->J?, fA%-3-2-<-.$J-
=$?-0-2<-$A-H.-<-3->J?, o-nJ/-%-<%-$J-=$-($?-?-$A-#J-2-/-\J%-$8A-.J-3R-l-2-/?-3J., $8$-/?-aR2-$?R-,R2, ,A-
5S$?-:PA3?, ;%-$A?-;%-$A?, P2-3,:-$*A?-!-3A-$&A$-/R-MA-$%-3%-$9A$-$A?-\J%-$A-;R., .3%?-OR.-<A$-$/?,
;%-/-.3%?-OR.-(R?-=$?-$A-=?-$8A-$&A$-$A-!J%-/, P2-3,:-KA-/?-2<-H.-(J-/R-:.A-$*A?-!-.R/-$A?-1/-5/-:SJ?-
/?-:SJ?-;$-<J., %?-2v?-/,
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14.6 --Similarity
$&AA$ / $&AA$-:S § the same…as

Comparative Adj. English Note
(R?-P$?-1R-|R-/-2R-<-$&AA$-<J., Chos grags is as handsome as
his younger brother.
$&AA$ and $&AA$-:S
both mean the
#<-$J-aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-%-<-$&AA$-;A/, His studies are as good as mine.
same in
%:A-c/-3R-%-<-=R-$&AA$-3A/, My wife is not the same age as I
am.
comparison.
<?-:.A-5S?-#-$/-<-4B?-4-$9A$-$&AA$-<J., This cloth's color is somewhat

similar to that one's.
$&AA$-<-$&AA$ / $&AA$-+$--+$ §exactly the same…as

d-2-$A-A3-{.-lJ-#R$-$A-A3-{.-<-$&AA$-<-$&AA$- Amdo dialect spoken in Rnga
ba is exactly the same as the
n $&AA$-<-$&AA$
means exactly the
<J., one spoken in Rtse khog.
same…as…
:S-0<-!J%-/-HR.-HR:A-35K-3-<-$&AA$-+$-+$--<J., You are exactly the same as
your twin in the picture.
A-3.R-$A-MA-2v?-/-#3?-0-<-$&A$-+$--+$-3A/, People from Amdo do not look
exactly the same as people from
o $&A$-+$-+$
means exactly the
Khams.
same.
2R/-0R-<-fA%-3-2-:S-/-<, $&A$-<--$&A$-3AA/, Bon followers are not the same
as lay tantric specialists,
although they are similar.
Notes-6
1. $&A$: This cardinal number means the same in comparison, e.g., 0.-3-<-!$-$9A$-3J-+R$-
$*A?-!-3.R$-$&A$-3A/, The lotus and lily are not the same in color. / 0.-3-!$-$9A$-3J-<R$-$-
3.R$-3A-$&A$ Lotuses are not the same color as lilies.
2. $&A$-<-$&A$ expresses something doesn't make any difference, e.g., (/-:.A?-$R-3A-(R., :,%?
-/-3-:,%?-/-$&A$-<-$&A$-<J., This drug is ineffective. It wouldn't make any difference
whether it is taken or not.
Exercise 24 Change the statements with comparative form the same…as. Use negative
forms if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., =?-l=-0-:.A-z$-$A?-3IR$?, =?-l=-0-:.A-2o$?-/-=?-l=-0-$8/-0-<-3A-$&A$ #<-$J-3IR$?,
In other comparative forms the same…as…
1. .J%-?%-2R.-$A-?-(-.J%-3-$A-2R.-$A-?-(<-vR?-/-:I<-wR$-(J, 1. _________________________
2. %-%:A-%/-(%-%R<-vR?-/-:6B/-9-$?3-$A?-3,R, 2. _________________________
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3. .LA/-{.-.%?-/-.!:-3R-<J., 2R.-{.-z$-$A?-.!:-3R-<J., 3. _________________________
4. \-3-:.A:A-{.-)J-;$-<J., 4. _________________________
5. aR2-PR$?-5%-3-#<-$J:A-;/-<J., aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?, 5. _________________________
6. .J%-?%-:5S-2-)J-*A.-<, ?J3?-)J-.=-<J., 6. _________________________
7. >-$$-$-vR?-/, KJ-$A?-MA-)J-5S<-$+R%-/A-<J., 7. _________________________
8. 8A%-=?-.!:-3R-;A/-/R-K$?-=?-$A-;/-<J., 8. _________________________
Exercise 25 Make true statements about you and your relatives using the given words
and comparative forms the same…as…
.0J<-2eR., %:A-8A-=A / 3,R / %:A-8A-3R %:A-8A-=A-.-%:A-8A-3R-<-$9$?-3,R-3*3-$&A$-<J., /-/A%-#<-$J-.3:-/-<,
1. lA?-<A$ / .%R?-=$? / .$: ____________________________________________
2. PR%-HJ<-/? / PR%-#J-/? / :.$ ____________________________________________
3. %<-35S/-/ / $=-(J / o-=R / 2R.-=R ____________________________________________
4. @-3-$*A?-!? / %:A-/-2R / % / $&J?_____________________________________________
5. %:A-A-1 / A-3 / 3A-<A$? _________________________________________________
6. aR2-$?R-,R2 / %:A-c/-3R / %__________________________________________________
7. %J.-5% / HA3-35K? / MA-3$R-3%________________________________________________
8. % / tA-;% / .J%-3________________________________________________________
9. $9$?-3,R / r%-=A-lJ.-3#/ / %______________________________________________
10. %J.-5%-$A-A-;? / A-MJ? / c?________________________________________________
14.7 --Similarity
Comparative adj.: <AA$ § similar / alike

Comparative English Note
o-;A$-<-:)<-0/-$A-;A-$J-4B?-4-$9A$-<A$-$A Chinese and Japanese (writing
systems) are a bit similar.
It expresses
similarity, not in
8-;?-:.A-<-#<-$J:A-A-1-<A$-$A This child and his father are characteristics or
alike. quality, but in
These two foods look similar, appearance.
9-3-:.A-$*A?-!-2v?-/-<A$-$A 9R?-/-3A-:S, but taste different.
:S-0<-!J%-$A-HR.-<-HR.-%R-3-$*A?-!-3A-<A$-$A You look different in the
picture.
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Comparative adj.: :S §similar / alike
.J-<A%-2a2?-/R-<-#-l%-2a2?-/R-:S, What (was studied today) and It expresses
what (was studied) yesterday similarity and
are similar. dissimilarity in
wJ-$-:.A-$?3-0R-SA-3-3A-:S--$A These three perfumes smell appearance, quality,
different. feature, etc.
\-3-:.A-$*A?-!-{.-:S, 3*3-=J/-;?-/-~/-$A These two singers have similar
voices. They sing melodiously
together.
HA-<-,%-!A-:S--$A <J.-S-<A$?-#-#-<J., Dogs and wolves are alike but
they are separate in category.
Comparative adverb: <A$-:S-->J. §alike / like
%J.-$*A?-!?-<<A$-:S-->J.-:.%-3A-o$ We two do not think alike.

<A$-:S->J.: This
3<-$J?-$R/-o-%-<-<A$-:S->JJ.-$R/-$A She always wears clothes like
me.
phrasal adverb
suggests this notion:
.$J-c/-:.A?-*A/-I%?-%-<A$-:S-->J.-:(.-$A This teacher teaches the same
way every day. in the same way or
8A-=A, A-1-<-<A$-:S-->J.-(%-:,%-3A-*/, Boy! (You) should not drink
like your father! like.
Comparative adverb: v<-< §OLNH

0J-&A/-*A$-;R-$A-v<-<--o=-,A:A-PR%-HJ<-$9A$-;A/, Beijing is an international city
like New York. v<-<: It means like
3<-$J?-#-=R-2-fA%-2-$9A$-$A-v<--<-{R<-$A She drives like an old driver. or according to,
HR.-:)R/-/, MA-:)R/-0R-$9A$-$A-v<--<-=?-<, If you are capable, please do as preceded by a

a capable person does.
genitive case.
3J.-0R-$A?-K$-0R-$A-v<--<-:5S-2-<R=-/-5K-3A-KA., Poor men cannot eke out a
living if they live like the rich.
Notes-7
1. <A$ means similar and compares similarity in appearance.

2. :S compares similarity and equality in characteristic, quality, function, etc.
3. <A$-:S is used to express similarity and dissimilarity only in appearance, e.g., 8A-=A-<-1-c/-
$*A?-!-<A$-:S-<J., The son and his father look alike.
4. :S-:S describes appearance, characteristic, function, value, etc., e.g., A-|R<-$&A$-<-3A-
.3%?->R$-|R<-S$-<A/-,%-:S-:S-<J.,
5. :S-:S->J.: This phrasal adverb means equally, similarly, evenly, expressing similarity in
characteristic, nature, portion, etc., e.g., ?A=-+R$-:S-:S->J.-2$R?-;?-8-;?-9R<-LA/, The fruit
was divided evenly and given to the children.
6. <A$-:S->J.: This phrasal adverb means like, and similarly in appearance or in manner,
e.g., Z%-3R-$?3-0R-$A?-$R/-o-<A$-:S->J.-$R/-$A The three sisters wear clothes similarly.
7. $A-v<-< and v<->J. both mean according to (regarding regulation, policies, instructions,
etc.) or like (in comparative concept), e.g., L-2-(A-$9A$-;A/-/-<, OA3?-=$?-$A-v<-<-=?-.$R?,
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All work needs to be done according to the law, no matter what it is. / #<-$J-V$-$A-v<-<-z/-
($?-?J-;R., He is as steadfast as a mountain.
Exercise 26 Complete sentences with :S, :S-:S, <A$, and <A$-:S and the given phrases.
.0J<-2eR., $>A?-! / %J.-%/-;-$*A?-! / 5$?-! %J.-%/-;-$*A?-!-:S-$A <J.-S-5$?-!-<A$-:S-3A/,
:S / :S-:S
!R-$A-z3-:.A / <?-$A-z3-$/ / Z-3R 1. ______________________________
.J%-?%-$A-,A-5S$? / .J%-3-$A-,A-5S$? / z$-$A?-.<-;R. 2. ______________________________
2R.-;A$-$A-2h-3R. / .LA/-;A$-$A-2h-3R. / .!:-3R 3. ______________________________
%:A-A-&J / %:A-/-3R / %R-(% 4. ______________________________
o=-#2-.<-o?-&/ / o=-#2-3J.-0R / aR2-$?R-Z 5. ______________________________
KA-o=-$A-MA / 2R.-$A-MA / $*A?-!-2lA-2!<-(J 6. ______________________________
N%-$R-/? / 5%-3-A<-:.3-<J. / PR%-HJ<-9R 7. ______________________________
YR$-($? / MA / 3#:-.2$?-.$R?, 8. ______________________________
<AA$ / <AA$-:S
%:A-_%?-:#R<-< / #<-$J:A-_%?-:#R< / (J-$A 1. ______________________________
o=-#2-?R-?R:C-o=-.< / 3.R$ / .LA2? 2. ______________________________
$;$ / 36S / 5$?-! 3. ______________________________
35K-3-$*A?-! / $&A$-(J / $&A$-(% 4. ______________________________
%:A-.0J-( / #<-$J:A / 3,$-$A 5. ______________________________
:S-0<-:.A-$*A?-! / /-/A%-$AA / .R-5B$?-$A 6. ______________________________
:)<-0/-$A-MA / N%-$R-2 / A->J-;-$A-MA 7. ______________________________
o-35S-$A-3.R$ / $/3-3#:-$A-3.R$ / }R/-0R 8. ______________________________
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Exercise 27 Fill in words and phrases that express similarity. There may be more than
one correct choice.
.0J<-2eR., ?%?-o?-$A-A-1-}$?-0-$9A$-;A/, <J.-S-?%?-o?-$A?-A-1-$A-v<-<-=?-$A-3J., #<-$J-2R/-0R-$A-#J-

2-$9A$-$-3$-0-2.-?R%-, o/-w/-$A-:5S-2-<, ;=-YR=, $R3?-:SA?-$&A$-;A/-2+%-/, #<-$J?-2R/-
0R-<-}$?-0-$*A?-!-<A$-/R?-3A-5., .-2R-v-5=-$A-,R$-/?-<-:S-:S-<J.-9J<,
;AA-.3 %?-$R-/R-;A/-/, HR.-9R:C-#J-2:A-/%-/-2R/-0R-<-fA%-3-2-$*A?-!-;R.-9J<,

<--o/ ;R.-/R-2.J/, <-{R<-$&A$-2R/-0R-;A/, <-{R<-$8/-0-S$-0R-/-}$?-0-3%-%-;R.,
;AA-.3 2R/-0R-<-fA%-3-2-__________;A/-/A-AJ-<J.,
<--o/ 2R/-0R-<-fA%-3-2-__________l-2-/?-3A/,
;AA-.3 <J.-S, %?-2<-H.-$&A$-<-3A-<A$-$A
<--o/ 2R/-0R-<-}$?-0-$*A?-!-P2-3,:-3A-$&A$ %J.-9R-#J-2-$&A$-/?-;A/-/-<, 3A-<A$?-__________;A/-/-
<, !R/-0-__________, ..-0-;?-?-$A-z-<-__________,
;AA-.3 <J.-S-2R/-0R-<-}$?-0-$*A?-!-2v?-/-@R%-$A?-__________<J., .J-(A-$9A$-<J.,
<--o/ __________(A-$9A$->J.-<J., #R-9R?-<=-2-$;?-KR$?-$-.NA-$A }$?-0-9R?-$;R/-KR$?-$-.NA-$A
2R/-0R-9R?-:.R/-oR-}$?-0-9R?-:.R/-oR-<-$+/-/?-__________, #R-9R?-!R/-0-$>J/-<2-2-..-/A-<J.,
%J.-9R?-<-o/-/-..-$A ..-?-__________#-#-<J., 5$?-!-_________;A/-/R-$A?-&%-!R/-3A-,2,
;AA-.3 :#R<-2-:6B/-/R:C-,R$-/?, $*A?-!-______<J., 2R/-0R-<-}$?-0-$*A?-!?-c/-3R-]%?-/-(R$-/A-AJ-<J.,
<--o/ (R$-o-<J.-0, .-<J$-2<, 2R/-0R-<-}$?-0-$*A?-!-HA3-5%-2&:-$A-;R., %-<%-$J-<-HA3-5%-;R.-3#/-
$9A$-;A/, .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/-<, P2-3,:-:.A-$*A?-!-22-$A?-__________,
;AA-.3 .J?-/-HR?-}$?-0-9R:A-H.-(R?-$9A$->R.-S,
<--o/ }$?-0-$A-2!J/-?-$4S-2R-<-o/-;A/, <-o/-<-!R/-0-$>J/-<2-$*A?-!-z-_______3-<J., }$?-0-9R?-
YR$-3A-$&R., <J.-S-2R/-0R-9R?-.3R.-#-$+R%-/A-<J., }$?-0-9R?-<%-$J<-:)A$-gJ/-:.A:A-.2%-%-:IR-$A-3A-
:)$ :.A:A-,R$-/?-2R/-0R-<-}$?-0R-$*A?-!-__________,
;AA-.3 2R/-0R-9R?-HR:A-.J-3R->J.-<%-$A-P2-3,:-Z-YR=-2>.-$A $%-v<-G%-, %?-2v?-/-HR.-9R:C-=?-YR=-@R%-$A?-
_______, .J?-/-#J-2:A-/%-$A-=?-:$=-$A-,R$-/?, 2R/-0R-<-}$?-0-$*A?-!-________$%-$%-;R.,
<--o/ .J-2>.-#-.!:-3R-<J., ,A<-2+%-$A?, =2-4K-$+R.-.?, 2R/-0R-$A?-<-}$?-0-_______z-=-3(R.-2!R.-

;?-/A-<J., .$J-=$?-0-$A-]-3-P2-3,:-$*A?-!?-2!J/-$A :.A:A-,R$-/?-$*A?-!-__________<J.,
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<J.-S-2R/-0R<-<%-$A-l-2:A-]-3-#J-<->J.-;R.,
;A-.3 .J-(A-$9A$-$A?-<J.,
<--o/ }$?-0-<-2R/-0R-$*A?-!?-.J-:)A$-gJ/-0-$A-2&:-YR=-=?-YR=-<J.-9J<-$A-;R.,
;AA-.3 .J-;A/-/, 2R/-0R-$A?-<-HR.-9R-__________:)A$-gJ/-$A-.2%-%-:IR-$A-:)$-$A-3J.-$R
<--o/ ,A<-2+%-$A-:5S-2-$A-,R$-/?, P2-3,:-$*A?-!-:IR-=$?-:.$-!%?-5%-3-__________;A/,
;AA-.3 .J:A-nJ/-$A?, HR.-<%-$A-Z%-c/-3-2R/-0R-$A-#J-2<-$/?-LA/-/A-AJ-;A/,
<--o/ (/->-<-:IR-?-$/?-<, !$->-<-:IR-?-)$-9J<, #J-2-$A-/%-%-$/?-=-?R%-/-Z-$A-3R, %?-3<-$J-HA3-/?-
29%-;?-(A-$9A$-;?-o?,
;AA-.3 .-2R, oR-:1J/-oR<-HR.-}$?-0-<-$/-2R/-0R-$*A?-!-($?-/R-__________<J.,
Exercise 28 Complete statements with <A$-:S->J., :S-:S->J., and v<-<. Use the given
words and phrases.
.0J<-2eR., :(3 / VR-$< / !J$ .J%-?%-$?<-2-9R-:(3-<-VR-$<-<A$-:S->J.-!J$-$A-;R.,
<AA$-:S->JJ. / :S--:S->JJ.
A-1 / 8A-=A / :IR 1. _______________________________
YR$-($?-#-;? / MA / 3%=-<-($? 2. _______________________________
% / (-n=-2g$ / .R/-:P2 3. _______________________________
%J.-$*A? / .?-5S. / aR2-OA.-<-,R/ 4. _______________________________
%/-;-$*A?-!? / .LA/-{.-A-m-$9A$ / 2>. 5. _______________________________
HA3-:.A-/? / MA-?R-?R / =?-!-=? 6. _______________________________
35K-3-$*A?-!? / $R/ / $R/-o 7. _______________________________
|R<-3R-5%-3 / =?-!-2-9R / 2$R?-2+% 8. _______________________________
v<--< / v<-->J.
?%?-o? / #<-$J:A-A-1 / }$?-0 1. _______________________________
.LA/-)A / .LA/-{.-2!R= / A-3J-<A-#-$A? 2. _______________________________
%:A-%/-; / % / =?-l=-2 / 2&:-:.R. 3. _______________________________
3<-$JJ / @%-n= / MA-3$R-!R% 4. _______________________________
%:A-%/-; / %R-(% / #<-$J:A-/-^-3%-%-$9A$ 5. _______________________________

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#<-$J / $8A-2.$ / $%-?-$%-%-:IR 6. _______________________________
(/ / $?J< / $R%-(J-$A 7. _______________________________
MA / <?-&= / 5K-,$-3A-<A% 8. _______________________________
Exercise 29 Fill in comparative forms and similarity phrases.
.0J<-2eR., 9-2-$9A$-$A?-PR%-2-$9A$-$A-v<->J.-.-(%-%-<R=-3A-*/,
1. (R?-1R/-8A-3R-;$-3-$9A$-<J.-9J<, <J.-S-3<-$J:A-A-3-3<-$J<-vR?-/-<-;$ (R?-1R/-3<-$J:A-__________3J.,

2. %-KA-o=-/?-=R-2./-/-2#.-;R., %:A-c/-3R-/-/A%-?R-3-KA-o=-<-;R%-/A-<J., %-___________________<A%-,
3. %:A-KA-o=-$A-<R$?-0-$A-8A-3R<-MA$-}R/-0R-,R$?-;R., <J.-S-%:A-8A-=A-$A-MA$-/$-0R-<J., #R-$*A?-!___________,
4. #3?-0-<-A-3.R-2-5$?-!-_________/-<, 3A-<A$?_________________________________,
5. %:A-A-1-uA.-5.-o-3-*A?-2o-;A/, %-o-3-2o-<-S$-&-;A/, %-uA.-5.-_________________________,
6. %/-;-$*A?-!-A-/-3-/-<J., 35K-3-3A/-/-<, #R-$*A?-!-_________________________________,
7. HR:C-<R$?-0-.!R/-3(R$-O3-0-$9A$-<J., HR?-_______________________________________,
8. -2R.-$A-:5S-2-*A/-3-<J-<J<-:I<-$A-;R., #-;?-$A?-.J%-3-<-_____*A.-9J<, #-;?-$A?-.J%-?%-<-_____#$-9J<,
Exercise 30 Fill in comparative, superlative, and similarity forms.
.0J<-2eR., %?-2R.-;A$-.%?-;?-=R-$*A?-$A-;/-:$R<-?R%-, %-2R.-;A$-$-)J-.$:-<J., <J.-S, aR2-PR$?-#-;?-=-

2v?-/-%-.-2R-(.-$A #-;?-$A?-=R-3%-$9A$-$-.%?-?R%-/-<, aR2-3-$?<-2-$9A$-$A-v<-<-$&A$-<-
>J?-$A-3J.,
1RR=-3 HR.-5K-,R$-:.A<-_____________*A.-.?-/3-<J.,
35SS-3RR .J-2>.-#-.!:-3R-<J., <J.-S-%-8-;?-3J.-.?-<-29:-5%-3J.-.?- _____________#$-.?-<J.,
1RR=-3 %-.-2<-…, <J.-S-%-@-3-$*A?-$A-lA2-/-;R.-.?-_____________*A.-,=,
35SS-3RR <J.-S, :5S-2-#$-/R-2>.-/, %:A-.-2<-$A-:5S-2-_____________&%-;R.-o-3-<J.,
1RR=-3 .J-(A-$9A$-<J., HR.-.J-3R-$9A$-#$-.R/-(A-$9A$-;A/,
35SS-3RR %-=R-2&-S$-_____________;A/-.?, %-HA3-5%-:.A<-$/?-;R%-, {2?-.J<-HA3-5%-#$-3R-%J.-5%-$A-
_____________#J-2-;R%?-/-3J., $/?-=-;R%-$A-<?, %-$;R$-3R-<-_____________<J.,
1RR=-3 2R.-$A-2>.-YR=-<, " +$-3R-24/-0R-lA2-$A-3/:-3-" 9J<, <J.-S-HR:A-+$-3R-_____.-2R-%:A-+$-3R-24/-$A

35SS-3RR .J-%:A-~A%-/.-____________(J-2R-3-<J., -HA3-5%-:.A-/?-1=-(J<-=R-*A->-:$R<-?R%-, 8-;?-<-$?3-
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___________ ;R., .-:.$-3A-.$R?-2.:-2+%-/?-9J<-/, .J:A-__________#$-$9A$-$%-/-;R.,
1R=-3 %J.-9R-3/:-3-9R:C-=?-.2%-___________<J., %J.-$*A?-!-=?-#$-/R-___________<J., <J.-S-
c.-0R-.-2R-%-Z-$A <J.-S-8-;?-3J.-<-$/?-/?-2#.-/, A-MJ?-<-A-/J-$A?-5B$-=R$-o$-$A MA-?<-3A-:)R$-$A
35SS-3RR HR.-=-$/?-5=-%-_____________Z-$A %:A-c.-0R-<-%-22-$A?-,$-$A-3J., ,J%?-}R/-3-<-=R-$?3-$A-
}R/-/-%R-,$-/A-<J., <J.-S-8$-3-$&A$-$A-$8$-/?-;%-2.-,=, .J-/?-.-<J$-2<-=R-$?3-_________
____:$R<-,=, $R-/R-;A/-/, #<-$J<-z-?-/-<-c/-3R-$9A$-;R.-9J<, %:A-?J3? ___________#$-$A
=?-.2%_____________24S$-$A 1R=-3,
1RR=-3 AR-=R?, :.A:A-,R$-/?-HR.-<-%-=?-.2%-<-4B?-4-$9A$-__________ %-#$-$+3-2>.-?-c.-0R-;R.-$A
35SS-3RR A-MJ?-<-A-;?-$A?-%R-3A-!R/, c.-0R-$A?-<R-3-2!/-/, %-HA3-5%-.J-/?-:.$-:.R.-_____________
3J., )R-3R-$A-:5S-2-%:A-:5S-2_____________;A/-o-3-<J., <J.-S-8-;?-28A-2R-#$-o-<J., 8-;?-(%-
%R-_____________#$-o-<J.,
1RR=-3 A-+-$A?-(%-%R-(A-$9A$-$-#$-o-<J., HR?-2?3-0_____________3-:6B/,
35SS-3RR %:A-c.-0R-$A-8-;?-%R-3-3A/-9J<-$A-;R., <J.-S, 8A-=A-A-1-<-_____________<J., %-8A-3R-=?-#$-
$9A$-$ 8A-=A-$8/-0-9R-v-oR:A-=?-2?R.-$%-/-;R.,
1RR=-3 35S-3R, A-MJ?-<-A-;?-$*A?-!-~R<-/R-HR.-<J., #R-$*A?-!-=R-2./-&-__________<J., 3J.-?R%-/,
>=-#-HR.-=-,J3?-/A-<J.,
35SS-3RR %?-<-.J-2?3?-/?, #-l%-.J-<A%-HR.-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
1RR=-3 .?-5S.-.J-3R-$9A$-3J., <R%-:VR$-=?-$*A?-!-n-2o2-/-*?-3A-1R$-$A <J.-S-%:A-/-5-
_____________;%-%-?R%-;R., HR:A-c.-0R-$A?-8-;?-9R<-|R<-3R-{<-$A-AJ-;R.,
35SS-3RR {<-$A-;R., ,J%?-$&A$-$-|R<-3R-!R%-$*A?__________3A-{<, 8A-=A-(J-2R-$A?-.-<%-8R<-=?-;?-,2-$A

1RR=-3 %?-2v?-/, .-HR?-HA3-5%-.J-/?-Z-=-LR?, HR.-_____________:5S-2-$A-(-nJ/-Z-3#/-3A-3%-, $4S-
2R<-HR?-;$?-?-$9A$-$A-_____________:.%-3-o$ /3-8A$ HR:A-c.-0R-<-#-KA<-:#R<-/A-<J.,8-;?-
9R<-3A-#J/-/, #<-$J-<-:IR-?-;R.-/A-3-<J.,
35SS-3RR ;-;-;, HR.-<%-$A?-<-<%-3$R-,R/-,2?-LR?,
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$A-;/ / $A-3/ This phrase conveys the comparative notion: more than…
Comparative form
2R.-$A-=R-o?-=-=R-!R%-$&A$-<-?3-2o-$A-;/-;R., Tibet has a history of more than 1,300 years.
3$R/-0R-35S-=R-?3-&:AA-;/-;A/, Mgon po mtsho is more than thirty years old.
aR2-3:A-I%?-!-s-2&:AA-;/--3A/, The number of students is not more than fifty.
HA3-5%-.J:A-(-nJ/-%J.-5%-$A-;/--<J., That family is better off than my family.
lA?-<A$-$A-,R$-/?-#R-%::A-;/--;A/, He is better than me in mathematics.
Note: ;/ alone means above or over.

Comparative form: $AA-;/ vs. $AA-3/
3$R/-0R-35S-=R-?3-&:AA-;/--;A/, 3$R/-0R-*A.-=R-?3-&:AA-3/--;A/,
Mgon po mtsho is more than thirty years old. Mgon po skyid is less than thirty years old.
aR2-3:A-I%?-!-s-2&:AA-;/--3A/, aR2-3:A-I%?-!-s-2&:AA-3/--3A/,
The students number less than fifty. The students number more than fifty.
HA3-5%-.J-(-nJ/-%J.-5%-$A-;/-<J., HA3-5%-.J-(-nJ/-%J.-5%-$A-3/--<J.,
That family is better-off than my family. That family is less well-off than my family.
lA?-<A$-$A-,R$-/?-#R-%::A-;/--;A/, lA?-<A$-$A-,R$-/?-#R-%::A-3/--3A/,
He is better than me at mathematics. He is not worse than me at math.
Note: 3/ alone means below.
$A-;/-/--3J. / $A-3/-/--3J. This phrase conveys the superlative concept: nothing is more… than…
Superlative form: $AA-;/--/-…3JJ.

.!R/-3(R$-$A-;/--/-MA-29%-%-3J., Nobody is nicer than Dkon mchog.
A-3J-<A-#::A-;/--/--o=-#2-!R2?-&/-3J., No country is more powerful than the USA.
=$->-$A-;/--/-9-3-8A3-0R-3J., No food is tastier than mutton.
5K-$9%?-$A-;/--/-MA-$;J<-3R-3J., Nobody is more clever than Tshe gzungs.
•438•
Superlative form: $A-;/--/-…3J. vs. $A-3/--/-…3J.
.!R/-3(R$-$A-;/--/-MA-29%-%-3J., .!R/-3(R$-$A-3/--/-MA-%/-3J.,
Nobody is nicer than Dkon mchog. Nobody is worse than Dkon mchog.
A-3J-<A-#::A-;/--/-o=-#2-!R2?-&/-3J., O:R-8/-$A-3/--/-o=-#2-3J.-0R-3J.,
No country is more powerful than the USA. No country is poorer than North Korea.
=$->-$A-;/--/-9-3-8A3-0R-3J., =$->-$A-3/--/-9-3-%/-0-3J.,
No food is tastier than mutton. No food is worse than mutton.
)J vs. z$-$A? / z$-+ z$-$A? is used to compare in pairs while )J is used to express a tendency.
With )JJ With z$--$A? / z$--+

.J-2-5%-)J-K$$-<J., .J-2-5%-z$--$A?-K$$
That family is getting richer. That family is richer. (compared to another
family)
/3-^-.-2R-)J-:H$?-3-<J., .J-<A%-/3-^-z$-$AA?-3A-:H$?-$A
The weather is not yet getting colder. The weather is not colder today. (compared to a
given day)
#%?-)J-:22-;A/-/-_%?-:#R<-:IR-3A-,2, #%?-z$--+-:22-/, 9R$-=$-$A?-.!:-o-<J.,
If it snows more, the car will not be able to If it snows more (than before), livestock will
move. have a hard time.
%?-8A-=A-<-c/-3R-)J-S/-<J., %?-8A-=A-<-c/-3R-z$--$A?-S/--$A
I miss my son and wife ever more. I miss my son and wife more (than any other).
.JA.-!-*A/-)J-<AA%-, 8$-)J-,%--;A/, .-*A/-3-z$--$A?-<AA%-$A .L<-#-,R/-/,
Daytime gets longer and nighttime gets shorter Now, daytime is longer (than before) when the
in spring. summer comes.
A-m--2RR This adjective means the good one in non-comparative statements and, in comparison, the
best one.
A--m-2RR
.$J-c/-$A-/%-/?-%:A-.$J-c/-AA-m-2RR-;A/, My teacher is the best one among all the
teachers.
o-%?-$A-,R$-/?-2>.-/, .%R?-2R-:.A-A-m--2R-3-<J., Speaking of quality, this thing is not the best
one.
=J$?-*J?-$?3-0R-$A-/%-/?-, A-m--2R-$%-<J., Which is the best among the three presents?
=?-!%?-A-m-2R-:$R-2-$A-:.R.-<-3-3,/, The best approach was not in the boss's favor.
•439•
Polar-adjective Polar-adjective compounds are used with E-v to compare.
compounds
Two antonymous Non-comparative Comparative statements

adjectives statements
+
;$ 24S$ appearance 8A-3R-:.A?-;$-24S$-$-:.%-3A-o$ 8A-3R-;$-3-:.A-$*A?-!<-;$--24SS$-3J.-$A
This girl does not care about These two pretty girls are equally
how she looks. beautiful.
.= + 3IR$? speed _%?-:#R<-$A-29%-%/-.=-3IR$?- g-&$-&$-$A-.=--3IRR$?--AJ-;R.,
$A-#-/-3J., If a car is good or Does a horse run as fast as a
motorcycle?
not doesn't depend on its
speed.
<A% + ,% length b%-$3-<A%-,%-3?-$*A?-&/-;R.-o- %-=-=?-l=-2-.J:A-<A%-,%-3J.,
3-<J., There wouldn't be pants I am not as tall as the athlete.
two meters long.
(J + (% size %:A-z3-(J-(%-8J-$?3-;A/, $?3-$A-,R$-$-$*A?-2$/-/-s-<-(J-(%-
My shoes are size 43. 3J.,
Three plus two equals five.
3,R + .3: height $R%-$A-3,R-.3:-$A?-.%R?-2R-$A-o- .0R/-0R-$*A?-!<-3,RR-3*3--;R., $&A$-mR%-
%?-35S/, .0R/, $&A$-#=-.0R/-<J.,
(The amount of the) price tells The two leaders are different in
the quality of things. position; one is a county leader and
the other is a prefecture leader.
:.AA-;R.-:.AA-3JJ. vs. $%-;RR.-$%-3JJ. These two alternative phrases express something available in
extremely large quantity or variety.
:.AA-;R.-:.AA-3JJ. $%--;R.-$%--3J.
MA-K$-0R-:.A<-|R<-3R-hR$-$R-:.AA-;RR.-:.A-3J.-;A/, 2R.-/-P2-3,:-$%--;R.-$%--3J.-<J.,
This rich man is extremely rich. All Buddhist sects are present in Tibet.
.J%-?%-5S%-<-/-.%R?-2R-:.AA-;RR.-:.A-3J.-<J., 0J-&A/-/-v.-3R-$%--;R.-$%--3J.-<J.,
All kinds of things are available in the markets All kinds of entertainment are to be enjoyed in
nowadays. Beijing.
2R.-/-YR$-($?-:.AA-;RR.-:.A-3J.-;A/, :.R$?-(-hR$-$R-$%--;R.-$%--3J.-<J., (A-$9A$-*R-oR-<-3A-
>J?-$A
There are all kinds of wildlife in Tibet. There are so many different ornaments that I do
not know what to buy.
:)<-3/-/-#R%-2R-:.AA-;RR.-:.A-3J.-<J., #<-$J-o-.-$%-;RR.-$%-3JJ.-;A/, <J.-S-MA-!R2?-3J.,
There are all kinds of trees in Germany. He is materially as rich as possible but is short
of manpower.
•440•
4-;-2R This adjective means the best one.
4-;-2R
#R-8-;?-4-;-2R-;A/, ;-<2?-;A/, $?-2!<-(J, He is the best child, polite and well-mannered.
2>.-3#/-4-;-2R-#R-;A/, <J.-S-#R-%-o=-<-(J, He is the best speaker, though very arrogant.
=J$?-*J?-4-;-2R-PA-(%-:.A-<J., %:A-]R<-@R%-$A?-:22-$A This dagger is the best present. I like it very

much.
A-<-/?-aR2-9-(J/-3R-4-;-2R-K-n-AJ-;A/, Is Harvard the best university in the USA?
>?--(J / (% These phrasal adjectives, with a preceding verb or an adjective,

respectively, mean likely and unlikely.
>?--(J / (%
8A-=A-:.A-5K-<A%-;A/->?--(J, This boy is likely Tshe ring.
.J-<A%-*A/-3-$?3-0-<J., %:A-A-1-,R/->?--(J, Today is the third day; my father will likely

come.
#-l%-(<-3%-%-3-22?, .J-<A%-.L<-C-3%-%-;R.->?--(%%-, It did not rain heavily yesterday. It is unlikely
that there will be a lot of caterpillar fungi
today.
.$/-#-2R.-$A-?-(-3A-SR, %-.$/-#-2R.-<-:IRR->?--(%%-, Tibetan ethnic territories are not warm in
winter. It is unlikely I will go there in winter.
$% + This structure expresses much or a lot of in extent, quantity, or quality,

monosyllabic adj. often in an extreme.
$% + monosyllabic adj.
.J-<A%-$A-!R/-,R$-/-3PR/-0R-$%--3%-<JJ., There are a lot of guests at the celebration
party.
$R/-o-$%--;$-0R-:.A-3-<J., $/-<J., The most beautiful garment is not this, but
that.
8A-3R-$?3-0R-;$-$A <J.-S-$%-;$--0R-=R-(%-.J-<J., The three girls are pretty, but the youngest one
is the prettiest.
9-3-$%-29%-9R, $R/-o-$%-;$-#R/, Enjoy the best food and wear the most
beautiful clothes!
Comparison in The features of things are extolled with metaphors, conveying such
exaggeration comparative notions as … as…
As…as…
8A-3R-:.A-;$--z-3RR-<J., This girl is like a goddess in beauty.
$?<-2-:.A-2eAA.-0R-V$-;A/, This young man is as majestic as a mountain.
#-l%-.J-<A%-:H$?--.$//-#--<J., These days are as cold as winter.
]-3-:.A-L3?-?%?--o?-;A/, This lama is as compassionate as Buddha.
•441•
oR-$*AA?-!? This is used to express rather than… or instead of…
Tibetan English
HR.-:.$-oR-$*AA?-!?--.$%-)-2{R=-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., How about you cook supper rather than
fooling around?
%-0R-=A/-/?-:.$--oR-$*AA?-!?--=R/-+/-/?-:.$-:.R., I would rather live in London than in Berlin.
%J.-9R-OA3?-#%-%-:IR, lR.-0-;?--oR-$*AA?-!?, Rather than arguing, let's just go to court.
%?-)-:H$?-::,%-oR-$*AA?-!?--(-5/-.J-:,%-o?, I will take the hot water rather than the cold
tea.
HR?-=$-<R$?-(A-$9A$-$-3A-24=-/?, #J<-<R-$A?-=?-oR- Why didn't you ask for help, rather than doing
it on your own?
$*AA?-!?,
(A-3R-$9AA$.../….J-3R-$9AA$... This structure conveys the comparative notion: the more…the more.
With adjective
Tibetan English
MA-3%-%-$A?-|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9AA$-3%--/-.J-3R-$9AA$-*A.-9J<,Many people think "The more money, the
happier."
5.-0-(A-3R-$9AA$-(J-/, C-.J-3R-$9A$-{3--0R-<J., The hotter the weather gets, the drier grass
becomes.
@<-2lR/-(A-3R-$9AA$-(J-/, ;<-,R/-.J-3R-$9AA$-(J, The more diligent one is, the more he
progresses.
1-;:-2-#-,$-(A-3R-$9AA$-<A%-/-%-.J-3R-$9AA$-?/-$A The more distant I am from my hometown, the
more homesick I become.
MA-=R-(A-3R-$9AA$-(J-/-S/-0-.J-3R-$9AA$-#$-$A The older people get, the worse (their memory)
gets.
%-<-c/-3R-(A-3R-$9AA$-3,/-/-HA3-5%-<-.J-3R-$9AA$-*A.-$A The more harmonious I and my wife are, the
happier the whole family becomes.
With verbs
\-2-<A$?-$A?-(A-3R-$9AA$-=?--/-:$R-2-$A?-:2.-.J-3R- The more the employees work, the more the
employer gets.
$9AA$-=J/-$A-;R.,
%J.-9R-(A-3R-$9AA$-?R%-/-=3-,$-.J-3R-$9AA$-)J-,%-<J., The further we go, the closer we get.
2>.-/R:C-.?-5S.-(A-3R-$9AA$-:$RR<-/-*/-3#/-9R-.J-3R- The longer the speech lingers on, the more

bored the audience becomes.
$9AA$-?/-$A-;R.,
(%-(A-3R-$9AA$-:,%?--/-.J-3R-$9A$-29AA-/A-<J., The more alcohol one drinks, the more drunk
one becomes.
%-(A-3R-$9AA$-*=--/-.J-3R-$9AA$-*=--/-:.R., The more I sleep, the more I want to sleep.
.-2-(A-3R-$9AA$-:,JJ/-/-.J-3R-$9AA$-:,JJ/-/-:.R.-$A The more I smoke, the more I want to smoke.
•442•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-22&--28A-2,
:VR$-0-8A$-$A-(%-.?-S/-$8A,
S/-$8A nostalgia; memory S/-$8A-$9A$-$A?-#R-,$-<A%-%-OA.-,=,
.J:-:2< hill .J:-:2<-$9A$-$A-,R$-/-=$-mA-$9A$-;R.,
:V=-,2?-3J. to be inseparable $?<-2-$?<-3R-.J-$*A?-=-:V=-,2?-3J.,
g-2R horse g-2R-.J%-?%-2!R=-3#/-*%-,
:.< to prance g-2R-:.<-:.<-<?-?-,A-,J<-<-2+%-,
MA-$8A-l-=$ relatives MA-$8A-l-=$-o?-/-o2-l-2!/,
.R3 bear (animal) <R%-2-9R?-8A%-#-/?-.R3-3A-<A$
#A$-+R ill-behaved; ill-intentioned 8A-=A-#$-+R-&/-/-3-?J3?-:#R<,
:#R<-$;R$ servant %-:#R<-$;R$-\-*J.-$A-|R<-3R-3J.,
$;R$-3R maid .J%-3-$A-$;R$-3R-.J%-?%-$A-o=-3R-<J.,
#-<R$-$J< quietly; secretly #<-$J-?J3?-#$#-<R$-$J<-2#.-2+%-,
24%? to jostle in; to push HA3-2.$-3-$A?-%:A-=$-$-VR-#-24%?,
*A-z% sunray *A/-$%-*A-z%-$9A$-2o2-2+%-,
(A$-0 mist (A$-0-$A-OR.-/?-K$?-9R$-2R<-:IR,
.J%? to clear up <A-3$R-$A-(A$-0-.J%?-?R%-,
o-2R brown (dog) HA-c/-o-2R-9$-;?, *J/-2h-2+%-?R%-,
>-=R$ a chunk of meat >-=R$-.J<-,A-o-28A-;R.-o-<J.,
:6K3? to shy away %?-}R/-(.->-fA%-2<-@R%-$A?-:6K3?,
8R$? to be eager; to be zealous o-$A-.R/-/-.J-3R-$9A$-3-8R$?,
:V$-1 thunder :V$-1-$R-/, ~A%-:.<-<-<,
.A-<A-<A thunderous :V$-1-.A-<A-<A, ,%-#J2?-,=,
8J.-$% fear 8J.-$%-$A-.2%-$A?-#R-.2%-2R->R<,
eJ?-:.J. to follow <%-5$?-9%?, $8/-$A-eJ?-3-:.J.,
•443•
tR$? to be able to stand %?-=?-:$/-:.A-3A-tR$?,
$;R= to avoid .!:-#$-MR%-.$R?, $;R=-3A-*/,
2!2 to cover %?-(-9R-<?-zJ2-$9A$-$A?-2!2?,
|= to move hR-$3-:2<-<?-_%?-:#R<-|=,
.%R?-2R things; objects .%R?-2R-3%-%-3-:HJ<, HR?-3A-H$
:$= to move /.-0-.J-<A%-:$=-,2-$A-;R.,
/%->J. innermost #%-2-$A-/%->J.-/-A-1-$A-*=-?-;R.,
!J%-<? skeleton !J%-<?-:.A-=R-!R%-$?3-:$R<-;R.-$A
.2$?-:5%? to pant %-<A-3$R<-:$R-8R<-<-.2$?-:5%?,
(R.-?J3? resolution (R.-?J3?-;R.-/-L-2-:P2-o-<J.,
H-.$ ragged clothes H-.$-$9A$-$R/-/?-4$-3A-H$
$>R? to become eroded (-V$-;?-?-|%-$>R?-?R%-,
?$-+ limb 9R$-<A$?-$J<-?$-+-28A-;R.,
@= to wheeze; to pant =-$9<-3R<-:$R?-/-\R-@=-:PR,
%R-!R/ to give face; to respect one's dignity 8A-=A-T-5$-$-%?-%R-!R/-$A-3J.,
*J?-?-*J?-;: hometown *J?-?-*J?-;:-2eJ.-/-%R-5-;A/-9J<,

<A$-0-g= stupid %:A-A-3-<A$-0-)J-g=-<-?J3?-)J-(%-<J.,
<J-2-3,R demanding; ambitious #<-$J-<%-?-/?-3A-:.$ <J-2-3,R,
hR-$3 petrol hR-$3-$R%-)J-3,R-)J-3,R-<J.,
hR-?R= coal hR-?R=-,R/-#%?-%-2*<-$?R-3J.,
KA-<R= outside S-3-$A-KA-<R=-/-#%?-=.-$A-;R.,
:PR-:R% exchange; contact $8/-/-:PR-:R%-3J.-/-KA-$A-$/?-5=-3A-$R
(< goods; cash #%-<A/-|R<-3R-OA-$?3-(<->J.-LA/,
!2?-2.J convenient !2?-2.J-;A/-/, %-HR.-?%-*A/-v-$A-;R%-,
9. to be worn out $R/-o-:.A-=?-!-=?-/?-9.-,=,
2eJ-<J? exchange 2eJ-<J?-3J.-/-*R-5S%-;R.-3A-.0J,
2!R.-0-:,J/ to make a plan; to plan .R-.$R%-$A-.$R%-)-%?-2!R.-0-:,J/,
.2%-+<-3#/ ruler .2%-2+<-3#/-9R-o-;/-/-$+R%-3A-*/,
•444•
.R.-0R substitute #<-$J?-%:A-.?-5S.-2R<, .R.-0R-:.A-<J.,
3#R to be needed; to be required =?-<R$?-.-3#R, /%?-!-3A-3#R,
$8% public; official #J-2-$8%-$A-.R/-/-#R-#R3-$A-3J.,
$;R< to borrow #<-$J<-#-3=-3J., |R<-3R-$;R<-3A-*/,
*A/-0 compensation =R-+R$-$A-*A/-0<-%?-|R<-3R-!J<-o-;A/,
.%=-#% bank .%=-#%-/?-|R<-3R-2*A-o-.!:,
$R-? position; rank .0R/-0R-$R-?-&/-.J-#J-2-/%-%-?R%-3-MR%-,
YR=-$+R.-3#/ founder .$J-=$?-0-YR=-$+R.-3#/-4S%-#-2-<J.,
:$R-3 first; initial %J.-5%-$A-8-;?-:$R-3-8A-=A-$9A$-;A/,
i=-:LR<-2 yogi i=-:LR<-2-$9A$-;A/-/-PR%-/?-3A-:.$
/R<-> yak meat {3?->-9-oR-3%-/-:L%-$8A-3A-2.J,
(R=-#-$?3 three regions of Tibet A-3.R-(R=-#-$?3-$A-/%-$A-$&A$-;A/,
$/3-%R-:,A2? to become cloudy $/3-%R-:,A2?-;R., .-(<-:22-o-<J.,
!R. upper =%-!R.-/-3A/-/$-:OA$-$A-;R.,
($-|R accident; catastrophe #<-$J-k?-2+%-/R-($-|R-<J.,
,A-.3%? civilian; citizen ,A-.3%?-$9A$-;A/-/-:.J3-.2%-<-;R.,
w2 multiple; times %-#<-$J<-vR?-/-w2-$9A$-$A?-tA,
#J-1/ benefit #J-1/-3J.-/-5S%-$*J<-.R/-3J.,
=?-#3?-2.J-Y% healthcare #<-$J-=?-#3?-2.J-Y%-$A-$R-gR$?-3,R,
o=-.3%? citizen o=-.3%?-;R%?-,R2-,%-:S-3*3-;A/,
:2R<-P%? amount; quantity o=-.3%?-,R/-*J.-:2R<-P%?-)J-3,R-<J.,
.R to be able to compete N%-$R-.-2R-A-3J-<A-#<-.0%-3A-.R,
#$-,J$ guarantee HR:A-2.J-:)$?-$-%?-#$-,J$-;?-3A-,2,
2<-H. difference $?3-<-28A-353?-353?-3-2<-H.-(J,
#J2? to cover <?-:.A?-3?-P-28A-$9A$-#J2?-o-<J.,
=?-(R. efficiency =?-(R.-3J.-/-!%-9A-$?R/-3A-,2,
?J= to solve; to card (wool) :VR$-3R-$A?-2=-?J=-$A-;R.,
;R%-:22 income ;R%-:22-.3:-/R-$A?, #<-$J-*A.-$A-3J.,
•445•
L.-$9$? physical appearance; look L.-$9$?-;$-/-<%-$A-o/-;A/,
c.-0R-=R-2o.-&-&/-8A$-$A-S/-0-,R<-2,
3%:-<A? territory A-3J-<A-#-3%:-<A?-(J,
<A%-% during *J?-2-:.A?-<%-$A-<A%-%-.0J-(-VA?,
O= tax 8A%-=?-$A-O=-3J.-0<-2+%-;R.,
$%-O/-+% Communist Party $%-O/-+%-N%-$R:C-YA.-:6B/-+%-;A/,
:R%-=A donkey :R%-=A-3J.-/-=?-!-3%-%-=?-oR-.!:,
$8%-%-=%? to be owned publicly; to confiscate HA3-5%-:.A:A-o-5%-3-$8%-%-=%?,
:S-3*3 equal; equality .0=-:LR<-$A-,R$-/?-5%-3-:S-3*3-3A/,
3./-*R.-(J/-3R Great Leap Forward 3./-*R.-(J/-3R-:$=-*R.-$9A$-$-$R
=?-:$= campaign =?-:$=-$A-OR.-/?-MA-3%-%->A-?R%-,
(. to be able to get in MA-28A-#%-2-:.A:A-/%-%-3-(.-,=,
=?-LJ.-0 civil servant; cadre =?-LJ.-0-:.A-L-2-v-gR$-;?-$A-;R%-,
o-/ if only… %?-.J-<A%->-$9A$-9-,2-o-/,
8J-$A? really; virtually .J-<A%-%-8J-$A?-?J3?-.$:-$A
:VR% wild yak :VR%-3%:-<A?-/-3%-,
3PR/-lA?-(J hospitable :VR$-0-9R-3PR/-lA?-(J,
;A.-5B3 to be satisfied 29R-2-9R-\-1R$?-$-;A.-3-5B3?,
%R-24S%? to have a political contact %?-%R-24S%?-;?-.%R?-2R-:.A-=R/,
=R%?-,R. consumption; enjoyment =R%?-,R.-3-o?-/-#J-5S%-3A-o$
SJ= mule SJ=-$A?-:R%-=A:A-#=-H$-$A
H2-(J widespread .LA/-{.-o-{.-<-vR?-/-H2-(J,
<=-3 spoiled; lazy 3-<=-3-:.A?-HA3-=?-<-3A-H$
8J-29% good-natured (/-2-3R-9J<-/R-8J-,$-$A?-8J-29%-<J.,
]-:H3? without a soul #R-*$-;?-]-:H3?-;R.,
A-5$?-(J stubborn =/-.?-#<-$J-A-5$?-(J,
3A-?J< common people 3A-?J<-$A-,R$-$-#%-/-eJ-2R-%/,
•446•
.L<-$8% mid-summer .L<-$8%-!R/-=?-=%?-$A-;R.,
<2 best HR.-.-?R%-/-<2-<J.,
SR.-P% temperature ?-:.A:A-SR.-P%-.L<-.$/-$*A?-!-$&A$-;A/,
2%-<A3 layer; story #%-2-2%-<A3-&/-:.A-/-/A%-=?,
8$-3 night 3PR/-0R-8$-3-$?3-3-2#.,
:(: to gnaw; to eat (hard thing) <?-0-3-:(:, ?R<-3A-Z,
2R/-(R?-.%-/%-(R?
2R/-(R? Bon 2R/-(R?-9J<-/-P2-3,:-$9A$-<J.,
/%-(R? Buddhism /%-(R?-$A-/%-/-P2-3,:-3%-,
.R-; match %-#<-$J:A-.R-;-$+/-/?-3A-;R%-,
fA%-3-2 a religious school of Buddhism :.A-/?-3%-(J->R?-fA%-3-2-<J.,
}$?-HA3 a family of tantric practitioners %-}$?-HA3-$9A$-/?-*J?,
2lA-=J/-;? to respect; to abide by :$R-2-$A?-2?3-:(<-2lA-=J/-;?-$A
.%-=J/-;? to accept; to abide by %?-L-2-.!:-3R-.J-.%-=J/-3-;?,
#-2+R/ scripture chanted daily MA-..-0-&/-/-#-2+R/-:.R/-o-;R.,
5S$? assembly; meeting 5S$?-,R$-/?-#J-.0R/-$A?-$+3-2>.,
~A%-2R essence; gist */-*/-/?-#<-$J?-$+3-$A-~A%-2R-$R-?R%-,
*-? lay-world 9-2-A-m-2R-/-/A%-*-?<-22?-2+%-,
2?3-]R-$+R% to think #<-$J-2?3-]R-$+R%-oR<-.$:,
v-KR$? view; discrimination #<-$J?-?-$8/-/-v-KR$?-:6B/-$A
:.-:$R. activity; engagement 5S%-=?-:.-:$R.-3J.-/-,A-5S$?-3A-o?,
9-?J< monk 9-?J<-9R-=R-(%-+$-+$-<J.,
H. difference 1-/-$*A?-!-$9$?-H.-(J,
,A-5S$?-:PA3? to experience in social life #R-,A-5S$?-:PA3?-3?-2?3->J?,
.3%?-OR. folk .3%?-OR.-lR3-;A$-<A/-,%-(J,
=?-$8A body =?-$8A-o?-/->J.->$?-;R%-,
:SJ? to become mixed A-3.R-/-3A-<A$?-3%-%-:SJ?-;R.,
•447•
>-$$ lean meat >-$$-9R?-/-5S/-0R<-3A-*/,
A<-:.3 cement PR%-HJ<-:.A-A<-:.3-3A/-/-$8/-3-<J.,
.NA to wrap (/-0-$A?-k-,R$-$-<?-.NA-$A
.. to worship %?-(R?-=$?-$&A$-$-<-3A-..,
.3R.-# curse .3R.-#-2+%-/-8R%-$A?-3A-<%-,
=2-4K mountain deity altar #J-2-:.A?-=2-4K-=R-<J<-2!R.-$A-;R.,
)$ robbery .0:-2R-)$-$-?R%-/->J?-9J<,
<?-&= turtle <?-&=-5K-,$-<A%-/R-%R-3-<J.,
5B$-=R$ offensive words 1-3<-5B$-=R$-o$-3A-*/,
#$-$+3 complaint #$-$+3-2+R/-/?-$R-3A-(R.,
;$?-? widower ;$?-?-.J?-:R<-$A?-29:-5%-3-2&R?,
O3-0 hooligan; rogue O3-0-9R?-?-(-:.A-#$-$-2{=-;R.,
*?-1R$ to be able to manage / maintain aR2-OA.-=J/-3%-/-*?-3A-1R$
•448•
aR2-5/-2&R-s-2,
2h-3R.,
Passive Voice vs. Active Voice Passive Voice in PRT

Passive Voice in FUT /? in Passive Sentences
A thang kha featuring the Kalachakra deity, Reb gong County, Rma lho Prefecture,
Mtsho sngon Province (2011).
Text One: passive voice
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, U$-.R$
MA-$8/-/-?J3?->R<-MR%-3#/-$9A$-$A?-U$-.R$->J?-/A-<J., U$-.R$-9J<-/R-<J$-3A-,2-/-<, >J?-,2, .J-?J3?-:5B$-<,

;A-3$ #R%-OR, $.J%-3J.-/R-:SJ?-3-$9A$-<J., U$-.R$-$A?-3$R-/$-3A-#$-$-{=-$A-;R., U$-.R$-$A-#$-$-(A->J.-$;R=-
oR-<A$-$/?-$-<$-=?-$A-;R., U$-.R$-9J<-/-8A-=A-<-8A-3R:A-2<-$A-:VJ=-2-+$-+$-2!/-/A-$9A$-22-$A?-3-<J., /-2R-<-
/-3R-$4S-2R<-28$-/, 8-;?-$9A$-$A?-<-#$-$A-5S<-2-.J->J?-:IR, ,-/-#$-*J.-3#/-.J-?J3?-&/-$9A$-<-;A/-3A-.$R?,
_%?-:#R<-:.$-<R$?-$A?-*A/-I%?-%-$&J?-3?-;?-/, ;%-3A/-.-\R$-[.-$A-lJ.-3R-,R$-$-:.$-<R$?-$A?-#R3-0-;R.-
5.-$+R%-?-$9A$-<-U$-.R$-$A-o-<-*/-/-,%-,
MA-?-;A/-/-<-5K-,R$-$-.3A$?-;=-3%-%-P2-/-:.R.-/A-<J., .3A$?-;=-:.A-9R-MA-$9A$-$-35S/-/-;/-<A%-$A-=?-:$/-;A/-
/-<-,%-, :.$-<R$?-$A-.?-;/-,%-,%-$9A$-$A-3*3-:)R$-,R2-oR-;A/-/-<-,%-, .3A$?-0-:.A-.$-$A-,R$-/?-:P/-lR.-
2a%?-/, %J.-9R:C-i-&R$-2lJ%?-:PR, U$-.R$-9J<-/R-?J3?-:5B$-<-;%-3A/-/-5-$A-v<-<-*J/-2h-$9A$-<-<J., MA-<A$?-
$J<-*J/-2h-2o2-/, #R-9R?-/?->$?-&A-;R.-$A?-lR.-0-2*J.-<?, <%-$A-.3A$?-:2J/-:P2-$%-,2-;?-/A-<J., 2lJ-
.%?-$A-:VJ=-2-$A-,R$-/?, <%-$A-.$:-<R$?-=?-?J3?-$*A?-$A?-<%-$J<-#J<-<R-$+R$?-oR-3A-2-$9A$-$A-.3A$?-0-<J.,
o-nJ/-:.A:A-:R$-/?, 8-;?-9R:C-A-3-<%-;A/-/R-8A-3R-<A$?-$A?-.R$?-0-9-.$R?-$A-3J., 8A-=A-<A$?-$J-:.A:A-,R$-/?-,$-

(R.-;A/-$A-3J., 8A-=A-=?-3J.-$9A$-$A?-=R-.-3%-%-8A-=A-$8/-0-$9A$-$A-8-;?-$A-!J%-%-=?-<-?J3?-$A-:IR-|R-$+R%-:IR-/-
,%-, U$-.R$-9J<-/R, *J-#3?-$A-2!R.-0-OJ=-=R$-$;R=-,2?-$9A$-<J., 2!R.-0-:.A?-*J?-@R-3R-$*A?-!<-$R-(R.-$A-;R.,
$.R.-3-$A-5S<-2-:.A-.J%-?%-<-%J.-9R:C-?J3?-!J%-/-8-;R.-/R?-3A-5., OJ=-=R$-$-.R$?-0-2a%?-;?-%J.-9R-%<-=%?-$A-
:)$-$A-;R., %J.-9R:C-1-3J?-#J<-<R-?J3?-#3?-$A-*J/-2h-:.A<-2gJ/-/?-:5<-=R%?-L%-/A-22-$A?-3-<J., .J%-?%-;A/-/-
<, U$-.R$-$A?-%J.-9R:A-#J-1/-Y%-oR<-<R$?-;?-,2-$A-;R., U$-.R$-$A?-o/-.-3$R-3//-/, .R-2.$-<-<%-$A-5K-<R$?-
$*A?-!-#$-.R%-%-$+R.-/R?-3A-5., :VJ=-2-<-$+R<-:PR, <%-#$-<%-*R-:.A-<%-<%-%-lA?-,%-3J.-/R-/?-,R/-/A-<J.,
<A$-$/?-3A-:S-/R:C-#R<-;$-3%-%-/, OJ=-3J.-$A-c/-3R-2?.-/-=$-.3<-<-OA3?-,$-3//-3R-$&R.-$A-3J., A-3J-<A-#:A-

o=-U/-=-=-/?-.?-<2?-}R/-3-$A-=R-<2?-2./-&:A-3$R-2<-<J$-$ .3J-2R-.-2R-2.J/-*R%-3#/-$9A$-$-2lA?-/A-<J.,
U$-.R$-$A-#$-.R%-,J2?-3#/-$9A$-$A?-?J3?-/?-#$-MR%-/R?-3A-5., <%-$A-=?-,%-<-8/-:IR, U$-.R$-$A?-*A-0$?-$A-
/.-:SJ/-,2-/R<-.J%-?%-;A.-(J?-;?-$A-;R., U$-.R$-/.-$A-L<-:SJ/-;A/-/-<, /.-$%-$%-:SJ/-/R-%R?-=J/-;?-,2-$A-
•450•
3J., <J.-S, U$-.R$-$A-3/<-$&R.-;%-<-;%-$A?-MR%-3#/-$9A$-$A?-<%-$A-?J3?-3-2.$-LJ.-oR-$=-(J,
U$-.R$-9J<-/R-$A?, $/?-5=-(A-3R-$9A$-$A-:R$-/?-<, /-9$-)J-#$-)J-(J<-*/-,2-$A-3J., 8A2-:)$-$A-/%-/, 8A-=A-<-8A-

3R-$*A?-!-U$-.R$-;R.-3J.-$A-,R$-/?-$&A$-:S-;A/-/R-2!/-;R., A-3J-<A-#-$A-8A2-:)$-0-$9A$-$A?, 8A-=A-<-8A-3R-$*A?-
!<-U$-.R$-(J-3*3-;R.-/R->J?-;R., .J?-3A-5., U$-.R$-3J.-/-2lJ-.%?-3J.-/R-;%->J?-;R., $=-+J->$-3R-}R/-(.-$A-
>$-0R-<-;%-|2-3,/-L%-/, ;%-3A/-., >$-0R-}R/-3-$A-,R$-$-.-2R-2lJ-?J3?-92-3R-$9A$-2&%?-/, 3A-2-$9A$-$A?-#-
;-(A-3R-$9A$-;?-o-<J., :SA-5B$-:.A-o=-#2-$%-3%-$A-MA-{R<-$9A$-$-SA?, 8A-=A-$A-/%-$A-2o-(:A-<J-2./-/-35S/-/,
|2-3,/-;R%-/-*R-#$-z$-$A?-*J-$A-;R., 8A-3R:C-/%-/?-2o-(:A-8J-28A-:S-3-$9A$-z$-$A?-*R-$A-;R., .J-/?-5S.-v-.%-
=J/-;?-3#/-9R-#%-2-$9A$-$A-/%-%-2&$-/?-*J?-1R-3R-$*A?-$A-OJ=-3J.-$A-L-,R.-<A$-$A-2&$ 5S.-v:A-{2?-2, #R-9R?-
%R-$*J<-/R, $.R%-/?-d=-(-:6<-/R-2.J/-/-3,R%-, =?-,R$-/?-fJ.-/R-:.A?-$R%-$A-#R3-5B$-.J-<-3R.-;?-?R%-,
15.1 --Passive voice
Passive voice vs. active voice

In passive voice In active voice Note
/.--0-(//-2&RR?-;?-/-<, S$-o-3J.-?R%-, (/-0-$A?-/.-0-(/-2&R?-;?, nIn
passive
The patient did not recover although The doctor treated the patient. voice, the
he was treated. main verb
is active.
>JJ=-|R-KA?-/?-)J-$?=-<J., %?->J=-|R-KA?-/?-)J-$?=-<-2+%-,
The glasses were cleaned and thus I cleaned the glass and made it brighter. oThe
became brighter. subject is
patientive.
aRR2-9-:.A-=R-2./-$A-}R/-/-24$$?, .A/-2.$-$A?-=R-2./-$A-}R/-/-aR2-9-:.A-24$?,
This school was built seven years ago. A donor built this school seven years ago.
=R-3%-%-$A-#$-<?-2o.-<?-P22-:V?--(J- %?-#$-<?-2o.-<?-P2-:V?-=R/,
=RR/,
A great achievement was made after I have achieved success after many years'
many years' hardship. hardship.
24SS/-3-2GAA$?, $&<-h%%-;?, .3$-$A?-24S/-3<-$&<-h%-;?,
The prisoner was tied up and beaten. The soldiers beat the prisoner
Notes-1
1. In passive voice, the main verb is active and no ergative case marker is needed, e.g., lR3-
;A$-VA?, The essay was written. Such a passive sentence is put in an active sentence by
adding an ergative case indicating the agent, e.g., lR3-0-0R-$A?-lR3-;A$-VA?, The author
wrote an essay.
•451•
2. Inactive or spontaneous verbs are not able to form the passive voice since they do not
imply an agent, e.g., 3-EA-:#R<-=R-.J-<A%-:#R<-$A-3J., The prayer wheel does not rotate today. If
the prayer wheel is turned by someone, then the main verb should be active, e.g., 3-EA-
:#R<-=R-.J-<A%-2{R<-$A-3J., The prayer wheel is not being turned today (by anyone). The first
example is not in passive voice since the main verb is spontaneous. In the second
example, the main active verb implies an agent.
Exercise 1 Convert into passive statements.
.0J<-2eR., Active voice:A-3J-<A-#-$A?-=R-I%?-%-$/3-P-3%-%-,R/-*J.-;?-$A-;R.,

Passive voice: $/3-P-3%-%-=R-I%?-%-A-3J-<A-#-/-,R/-*J.-;?-$A-;R.,
In active voice In passive voice
1. .?-5S.-2./-0-$A-!J%-%?-aR2-OA.-;?-$A-;R., 1. _____________________________
2. %?-.%R?-2R-l-(J/-:.A-3A-*R, 2. _____________________________
3. aR2-3-$?3-0R-$A?-o$?-3R.-5<-$A-;R., 3. _____________________________
4. MA:A-<A$?-$A?-.J%-?%-.%R?-2R-;-35<-3%-%-=?-$A-;R., 4. _____________________________
5. HR?-$R/-o-3,$-0R-:HJ<-.$R?-o-<J., 5. _____________________________
6. HR?-2>.-/R-%?-3A-$R-$A :.A-/?-:<-1-(J-$A 6. _____________________________
7. %?-.0J-(-:.A-.0<-$A-:HJ<-$A-;R., 7. _____________________________
8. :)<-3/-$A?-.%R?-2R-o-%?-&/-=?-$A-;R., 8. _____________________________
Exercise 2 Read the statements and check if they are passive. If they are not in
passive voice, explain why.
.0J<-2eR., 3J-:#R<-.?-5S.-$?3-:$R<-,=, Not in passive voice because the verb is not active.
MA-24S$-$9A$-%:A-3*3-0?-28$-,=, ¥
1. 8-;?-=R-(%-:.A-*A/-I%?-%-aR2-9-/%-%-HA.-.$R?, __________________________________
2. L-$>R$-,R$?-5%-3-:1<-3A-,2, __________________________________
3. .0J-(-:.A-KA-o=-/?-.0<-/A-<J., o-%?-@R%-$A?-.$-$A __________________________________

4. %-{.-<A$?-$A-aR2-9-$9A$-/-;R., %-{.-<A$?-.R%-3#/-$9A$-;A/, ___________________________
5. #-<R$-$J<-#R., 8-;?-5%-3-$*A.-;R., __________________________________
•452•
6. $+3-2>., \-]%?, VR-lJ?, MA-5%-3-*A.-0R<-2+%-;R.,_________________________________
7. %-N%-$R-$A-/2-KR$?-/?-:.$-/-3A-:.R., .L<-#-5.-0-(J,________________________________
8. .$R%-5S$?-$-:P=-2-3%-%-;R%-$A-;R., __________________________________
9. %-=-,$-0-.!<-;R=-$%-.$R?, .J-3A/-.-&%-3A-.$R?, __________________________________
10. 1J:R-$*A?-#<-$J:A-=$-/-29%-;R., __________________________________
15.2 --Passive voice vs. active voice
Tense Passive Active Note

.J-<A%-#%-2-$?<-2-$9A$-lJ%-$A-;R., HA3-35K?-$A?-#%-2-$9A$-lJ%-$A-;R., Active verbs
are in PRT.
Simple
present
?-:.A-/?-LA-2<-Y%-*R2-3A-;?, ?-:.A?-LA-2<-Y%-*R2-3A-;?,
=?-L-5%-3-.J-<A%-:VAA, %?-=?-L-5%-3-.J-<A%-:VA,
/-/A%-%:A-Z%-3R-$/?--=-2*=, /-/A%-%?-Z%-3R-$/?-=-2*=, nActive verbs
are in PAT.
3J-+R$-5%-3-2&RR3?--2+%--, ?.-$A?-3J-+R$-5%-3-2&R3?-2+%-, o An auxiliary
Past
verb can be
tense
used to
.%R?-2R-5%-3-:URR$?--?R%-, )$-0-$A?-.%R?-2R-5%-3-:UR$?-?R%-, indicate the
tense.
?-(-:.A-.<-o?-?-$+RR%-o-<J., YA.-$8%-$A?-?-:.A-.<-o?-?-$+R%-o-<J., Active verbs
are in FUT.
Future
tense
$+J<-#-5%-3-2}RR$-o?-9J<, !%-9A?-$+J<-#-5%-3-2}R$-o?-9J<,
2R.-/?-.LA/-;A$-.R%-o-<J., 2R.-0-9R?-.LA/-{.-.R%-o-<J.,
8A%-%-?-2R/-2+2?--;R., 8A%-2-9R?-8A%-%-?-2R/-2+2?-;R., Active verbs
are in PAT and
Present
perfect
P-1A$-$A-L-2-5%-3-=?--;R., :P=-2-9R?-P-1A$-$A-L-2-5%-3-=?-;R.,
followed by the
8A-=A-.J-:$R-2<-2.3?--;R., #J-3A-$A?-8A-=A-.J-:$R-2<-2.3?-;R., auxiliary ;R..
$8$-/?-.%R?-2R-$?<-2-<A$-o-<JJ., %?-$8$-/?-.%R?-2R-$?<-2-<A$-o-<J., Active verbs
are in FUT.
With
o-<J. 5S$?-,R$-$-MA-3%-%-:2R.-o--<J., l-:6$?-$A?-5S$?-$-MA-3%-:2R.-o-<J.,
PR%-HJ<-:.A-)J-(J<-$+R%-o--<J., YA.-$8%-$A?-PR%-HJ<-)J-(J<-$+R%-o-<J.,
With /.-0-tA-3R-:.A-$?RR-3AA-,22, (/-0-$A?-/.-0-tA-3R-:.A-$?R-3-,2, Active verbs
are in PRT if
modals:
K$?-9R$-5%-3-OR3-3-:.JJ.-.$R?, 5S%-2-$A?-K$?-9R$-OR3-3-:.J.-.$R?, they appear
.$R?; with modals.
,22 $?%-$+3-(J-$9A$-$?%--3-,22, %?-$?%-$+3-(J-$9A$-$?%-3-,2,
•453•
Notes-2
1. One puts what is emphasized before the subject, e.g., .0J-(-:.R/-oR<-#<-$J-22-$A?-3A-.$:, He

does not like reading books at all. / =3-/?-.0J-(-v-3A-,2, One cannot read on the way.
Reading and on the way are emphasized.
2. With such modals as ,2 and .$R?, auxiliaries are added to clarify the tense if necessary,
e.g., .3$-3A-9R-:,2-:O$-$-$+R%-.$R?-?R%-, The soldiers had to be sent to war. / .3$-3A-9R-
:,2-:O$-$-$+R%-.$R?-,=, The soldiers had to be sent to war.
Exercise 3 Convert active sentences into passive ones. Pay attention to tense forms.
.0J<-2eR., Active voice:%?-HR:A-$?%-2-$8/-/-3A-2>.-oR-#?-=J/,

Passive voice: HR:A-$?%-2-$8/-/-3A-2>.-oR-#?-=J/,
Active voice Passive voice
1. ___________________________
1. aR2-OA.-$A-$8$-/?-%?-\R$-2f/-/-2v-o-;A/,
2. %-z-?-/-;R.-.?, %?-HR:A-<R$?-0-#-0<-2+%-%-, 2. ___________________________
3. :-9R?-.0=-:LR<-#J<-<R-2?3?-/?, #R<-;$-2m.-2+%-, 3. ___________________________
4. .L<-$/%-$A-{2?-2-%?-(A-$9A$-=?-oR-3A->J?, 4. ___________________________
5. %?-2v?-/, HR?-#<-$J<-3-2>.-/, #<-$J-K-3A-,%-, 5. ___________________________
6. A-3-$A?-9-3-2{R=-;R., <J.-S-A-1-.-2R-3A-,R/-$A 6. ___________________________
7. HR?-MA-%/-0-.J-#-3-.G, #<-$J:A-3*3-0?-:IR-<-3-:IR, 7. ___________________________
8. 3<-$J-*A.-$A-3J., 3<-$J?-L-2-:1J/-o-<J., 8. ___________________________
Exercise 4 Convert the active sentences into passive sentences.
.0J<-2eR., Active voice:MA-$&A$-$A?-<-]-3-.J-22-$A?-#?-3A-=J/, #<-$J-5S%-2-3$R-/$-$9A$-;A/,

Passive voice: ]-3-.J-22-$A?-#?-3A-=J/, #<-$J-5S%-2-3$R-/$-$9A$-;A/,
Active voice Passive voice
1. 8A%-2-9R?-^-2-2./-0-$A-/%-%-=R-+R$-:VJ$-o-<J., 1. ________________________
2. %?-HR.-=-.R/-.$-5%-3-$8$-/?-2>., .-2>.-/-}-?R%-, 2. ________________________
3. %?-#<-$J<-|R<-3R-LA/-LA/-2+%-, .-2R-3$R-3A-,R/-/-2!R.-0-3J., 3. ________________________
•454•
4. 9-3-5%-3-%?-*R?-;R., .-%-.%R?-2R-$8/-0-&%-3A-.$R?, 4. ________________________
5. 1R=-3-$A?-2>.-/, _%?-:#R<-$A-0-?J-5%-3-3<-$J?-*R-o-<J., 5. ________________________
6. /%?-!-:-(:R-;=-{R<-<-?R%-/-:PA$-$A /3-^-29%-/, 6. ________________________
7. %?-8-;?-9R-;=-{R<-<-3A-HA., #R-9R-#$-+$-+$-<J., 7. ________________________
8. %-HR:A-}R/-/-HA3-3-,R/-/, 9-3-%?-2{R=-;, 8. ________________________
Exercise 5 Put in appropriate tense forms of the verbs in parentheses using modals
and, if necessary, auxiliaries.
.0J<-2eR., /- /A% - .R- 5B$?- :VR$- ?- #%?- ($- $A?- $/R.- ,=, /- /A%-9- 3- 3%- %- 2*=- /A- <J., (*J=) .R- 5B$?- .J? - 3A-
5.-:VR$-0-9R<-|R<-3R-<-!J<-o-<J., (!J<)
5KK-<AA%-*A. L-2-5<-/A-<, =3-/?-}R-5S.-<->-_____/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., (*R) .J-3A/-., .R-.$R%-9-o-(J-$9A$-3J.,

.RR/-:P22-oo= 9- 3- {R=- /, 9- o-________, (*R) <J.- S- %- <J3- 3- HA3- 3- 3A- ,R/, =3- # - /?- .- 2R- .%R?- 2R- (- <J-
________, (=J/)
5KK-<AA%-*A. (R$- $A <J.- S- .?- 5S.- 2./- 0- $A- }R/- /- ,R/- $A- ($?, HR.- 1- 2- $*A?- !- ______.?- 5S.- 3%- %-
_____<J., (9-3-{R=) (.$R?)
,RR.-0 %J.-$*A?-!-5S%-<<-,R/-.?, 5S%-#%-5%-3-__________, (|R-o$)

.RR/-:P22-oo= ?J3?-#<-3-;?, %:A-Z%-3R- 9-3-*R-$A- __________, (:)$) HR.-HA3-3-,R/-.?, .%R?-2R-5%-3-
:5$-;R.-/A-<J., .J?-3A-5.-HR.-$*A?-!-.$:-/R-=$->-<-__________, (*R)
,RR.-0 HR:A-Z%-3R-__________.!:-$A(fJ.) #R-3R-5%-%-:IR-YR=-________, (2>.)
.RR/-:P22-oo= =R?-(R$ HR.-3-VJ=, <J.-S-3<-$J-HR.-=J/-$A-;R%-$A-__________/-(R$ (:)$)
A--1 .$/->-___________, (P-1A$-;?) .R/-.$-$8/-0-3J.-/, /%?-!-.$/->-________, (*R)

8AA-=AA 5$->-3%-%-__________, (*R) <J.-S-.-2R-4B?-4-$9A$-*R-.$R?, <J.-S-#-l%-.J-<A%-$R%-3A-2.J,
A--1 /%?- !- $R%- 2.J- /, /%?- !- >- .$R?- /R- 5%- 3- _________ , (=J/) $R%- 3A- 2.J-/- <, =$- >- 4B?-4-
$9A$-_________, (*R)
8AA-=AA <J.-S, $8$-/?-$R%-)J-2.J<-;R%-/, HR.-:IR.-0-3-*J,
•455•
John .L<-$/%-$A-{2?-2-HR.-$%-%-:IR-o-;A/,
Donald 3$R-=R$-/?-:5S-2-__________, (*3?-=J/-;?) HR.-<-%:A-3*3-0?-:IR-<?,
John %- :IR- 3A- ,2, %:A- .$:- <R$?- A- 3J- <A- #- /?- ;R%- $A- ;R., 3<- $J- 2R.- /?- ;<- 3<- <-
HA.__________, (.$R?) ^-2-.$-2:A-/%-%-3<-$J-KA<-<-__________, (:IR)
Donald ^-2-2o.-0-<-.$-2:A-/%-%-%-.-2R-3$R-=R$-/-;R.-o-<J., %?-HR:A-.$:-<R$?-________, (<A$)
John %?-<A$-,2-$A-:)$ <J.-S-HR.-]R-:$=-3A-*/, ;$-3-<A$-/,
c/--3R .-,J%?-HR.-KA-o=-<-?R%-/-HR.__________, (S/)

c.--0R ,R/- <%- $A?- HR.- __________ , (#- 0<- $+R%) *A/- I%?- %-__________ , (;A- $J- $+R%) %- ?R%-
>=-/?, 1-3-$*A?-!-A-m->J.-__________, (v-*R%-;?)
c/--3R ;, <J.-S-HR.-<%-$A?-#?-]%?-;R.-/R-3-2eJ., =R-$*A?-$A-@/-/-KA-o=-/?-2#.-/-3A-(R$
c.--0R .J:A-,R$-/?-2>.-o-3J., 1R-<2-5B$-,R$-<-:1<-2-eJ?-,R$-;A/,
15.3 /? in passive sentence

--
/?
9R$-24SS%?--/?-:V-<A$?-*R, Livestock are sold to buy
wheat.
nThe active verb
Infinitive before /? is in PAT,
case: :SA-5B$-SA?-/?--=/-=J/, Questions are raised to get the
answers.
(so…as to) telling how one
.0J-(-2+R/-/?--;R/-+/-.R%-, Books are read to get
knowledge.
does. o /? can be
$R/-o-*R?-/?-|R<-3R-5<-,=, The clothes were bought and treated as causative
(thus the) money ran out. conjunction and,
Conjunction:
and 3JJ-2??-/?-#%-2-)J-SR<-2.-?R%-, Fire was made and (thus) the
house became warmer. revealing the
(causative)
9-3-9R?-/?-1R-2-2o$?-?R%-, (One) had food and felt full. reason.
Notes-3
/?: It is dealt with here as a causative conjunction, which expresses either the reason for a
result or the method of doing something, e.g., nReason: #<-$J-MA-%/-/?-5K-$%-2R<-.R/-.$-$&A$-<-
3-P2, He is a bad person and (thus) did not achieve anything in his whole life. / _%?-:#R<-
3IR$?-/?-($-|R-L%-, An accident happened because the car went fast. oMethod: 3J-2|R%?-/?-
#%-2-)J-SR<-$+R%-, The fire is made to make the room warmer. / 8A-=A-$A?-=?-L-VA?-/?-@-3-.$:-$A-
:)$ The son pleases his parents by doing his homework. The verbs preceding the
conjunction are always in PAT regardless of the whole statement's tense mood. Refer to
Notes 3 and 4, Chapter Seven for more.
•456•
Exercise 6 Convert the active sentences into passive sentences using correct tense
forms of the verbs and /?
to suggest purpose.
.0J<-2eR., Active voice:<R$?-0-9R?-\-=J/, VR-lJ, .$:-.$:-*A.-*A.-;?-o-<J.,

Passive voice with /?: \-]%?, VR-lJ?-/?-.$:-.$:-*A.-*A.-;?-o-<J.,
1. %?-,A/-,$-$9A$-$-*/-$A-;R., %?-.LA/-{.-.R%-.$R?, 1. ____________________
2. /.-0-$A?-(/-#-3R-3A-:,%-<%-:,%-<J., /.-2&:-.$R?-/, 2. ____________________
3. 1R=-3-$A?-|R<-3R-$?R$-.$R?, 3<-$J:A-A-3-(/-0<-!R/-.$R?, 3. ____________________
4. %?-:P=-2-9R-(%-3%-%-w., %?-#R-5S-29A-$A-2&$-/-:.R., 4. ____________________
5. %?-;A-$J-2{<-.$R?, %:A-A-3<-%:A-$/?-5=-2>.-o?, 5. ____________________
6. %:A-8A-3R-$A?-#-;$-2>.-$A 3<-$J<-|R<-3R-.$R?-.?, 6. ____________________
7. .A/-2.$-$A?-|R<-3R-!J<-o-<J., aR2-9-=?-</-;R., 7. ____________________
8. 8A%-2-9R-$A?-8A%-%-(-$+R%-$A-;R., .J-3A/-.-=R-+R$-{3-$A-;R., 8. ____________________
Exercise 7 Convert the active sentences into passive sentences using /? to express
reason.
.0J<-2eR., Active voice:8-;?-=R-(%-$*A?-$A?-MA-%/-$A-#<-2o$?, #R-$*A?-!-%/-0-=%->R<-<-*/-;R.,

Passive voice with /?: MA-%/-$A-#<-2o$?-/?-8-;?-=R-(%-$*A?-!-%/-0-=%->R<-<-*/-;R.,
1. 29R-9-$A?-$+J<-#-2bR?, #R<-;$-)J-24S$-<J., 1. ____________________
2. %?-(%-:,%?-:,%?-2+%-, KA-*A/-.R/-.$-9R-3-S/, 2. ____________________
3. %?-=R-o?-2>., 3,:-3<-3<-$J?-aR2-9<-:IR-oR-#?-]%?, 3. ____________________
4. #<-$J-MA-%/-0-$A?-3$R-{R<-2+%-, #<-$J<-%<-=%?-$A-;R., 4. ____________________
5. HA3-2.$-$A?-3%-2R-#-.G?, .-3%-2R-:IR-#-3A-*/, 5. ____________________
6. A-3-$A?-8-;?-$>J-$>J-2+%-, 8-;?-MA-$-,%-$9A$-$-*/-;R., 6. ____________________
7. /.-0-$A?-(/-#-3R-:,%?, (/-.J<-#<-$J-#-3)J.-$A-;R., 7. ____________________
8. #<-$J?-MA-#-+$-+$-$+R%-, #-=?-.$J-$A-3J., 8. ____________________
•457•
Exercise 8 Put in appropriate tense forms of the verbs in parentheses to express
passive voice.
.0J<-2eR., Present tense: 9R$->-5%-3-/$-(<-*J=-$A-;R., (*J=) .J:A-/%-/?-3%-(J->R?-:5S%-$A-;R., (:5S%)

Past tense: |R<-3R-2b?, h%-<J?-2o2, $/R.-:5K-2+%-, ($+R%) 3,:-:)$-$+J-%/-.J-24S/-/-
2&$(:)$)
Present tense Past tense
1. aR2-(%-$A-.0J-(-5%-3-<%-<%-$A-?<-_____({<), 1. _________( #-0<-$+R%), <J.-S-#-0<-3-?R%-,=,

2. 8-;?-=R-2./-/-3-2.-/-aR2-9<-______(*J=), 2. .J%-3-%:A-MA%-%-5K-<A%-___(9J<), $8$-/?-__(2eJ),
3. 9-2-$?3-:VR$-KR$?-$-PR%-(R$-$_____($+R%) 3. +J/-ZA-$?<-2-$9A$_______(*R)/A-<, $R%-($-,=,
4. HA->-2R.-/-_____(9), g->-<-.J-.%-.J-28A/-<J., 4. .!:-#$__o$), 3/<-$&R.__(MR%), .J-:5S-2-<J.,
5. .$/->:A-.R/-/-=$-3%-%-.$/-#<-_____(2>:) 5. $R/-o_________(2N) /?-3.R$-$-;=-?R%-,
6. $8A-2.$-$-__ (..-0-LJ.), .J-PR%-$A-:IR-YR=-<J., 6. A-1-$A________ (#-fR%) /?-=?-!-;R.-3J.-SA?,
7. .->-_________(.$:), .J%-3-$+/-/?-3A-9, 7. %-:SA-5B$-3%-%___(:SA), <J.-S-=/-_____(>J?),
8. .J-<A%-#J-.0R/-___(:.J3), .J:A-,R$-/?-lR.-0-(J, 8. .%R?-2R-.$R?-/R-___(!J<), 3A-.$R?-/R_____(=J/),
Exercise 9 Mark spontaneous verbs with "×" and active verbs in passive voice with
"¥".
5KK-<AA%-*A. HR?-|R<-#$-fJ.-/R-$A?-(A-$9A$-;?-2+%-/?,
.RR/-:P22-oo= fJ.-<%-$A?-%?-2.$-0R-24=-<, <J.-S-|R<-#$-%R?-=J/-;?-/R-MA-$&A$-<-3J.-$A
5KK-<AA%-*A. $8/-$A-o-m?-2.$-:6B/-;?-/-8J-,$-$A?-=?-=3-3-:IR-o-3-<J., |R<-#$-KA<-<-LA/-/-:PA$-$A
.RR/-:P22-oo= ?-<-!J<-o?, *J/-gR$-0, *J/-gR$-0-$A?-<-<%-$A?-:6B/-o-<J., .J<-vR?-/-%?-29%-/-:PA$-$A
5KK-<AA%-*A. <%-$A?-:6B/-/-<, 8-;?-$*A?-!->J?-$A-3-:)$ /%-/-|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-;R.-$A
.RR/-:P22-oo= !R%-$?3-<-&A$-;R.-$A HR?-2v?-/, |R<-3R-$%-%-$+R%-o?, HA3-5%-%-.%R?-2R-<J-*R-o-/,
5KK-<AA%-*A. |R<-3R-.-.-.-2!R=-.$R?-/A-3-<J., .-KA<-<-HA3-3-:IR, .R-.$R%-%-.-2R-/.-0-$9A$-$-v-$A-:IR-.$R?,
.RR/-:P22-oo= AR, <J., A- #- =R- 2, |R<- 3R-#<- $J- LA/- /- :PA$- $A #R- 5%- ,A<- $A?- 3J.- 0R- <J., .J? - 3A- 5., .- <J2- (/-
#%-/%-/?-|R<-3R-3%-%-$9A$-2!R=-2+%-9J<, .J-;A/-/, %-<-?J3?-$/R%-o-3-<J.,
5KK-<AA%-*A. %?- #<- $J<- !J<- /- 3A- :.R., }R/- (.- |R<- 3R- 3%- % - LA/- /, <J.- S- %R- 3J.- $A .J%- 3- #<- $J?-5S$?- {R=- $A-
;R.- .?, :- $*A?!?- |R<- 3R- !R% - $*A?- LA/- /, $8$- /?- $R- /R- ;A/- /, A- #- =R- 2- .- 2R- .$:- $A- 3J.- 9J<,
•458•
.J? - 3A- 5., |R<- 3R- !R%- $*A?- !?-1/- ,R$?- /, .$J-2:A-LA/-_2?- $A?- :- $*A?- !<- 1/- ,R$?- /A- <J.,
#<-$J<-:VJ=-2-3J.-9J<-$A-;R., 8J-,$-$A?-~A%-=%?-$A
.R/-:P2-o= .J?-/-.-v-$A-<-3-:IR, .J-3R-$9A$-3A-.$:-/, 24/-0R->J.-v-$A-:IR-.$R?-/A-3-<J.,
5K-<A%-*A. =R-2-HR:A-A-#-;A/-/R-2.J/-$A %?-%R-!R/-.$R?-/A-<J., <J.-S-#<-$J<-(A-$9A$-:22-/R-%?->J?-/A-<J.,
.R/-:P2-o= .J?- /- /- /A%- HR:A- MA% -2R- (/- #%- /%- /- ;R.-.?, #<- $J- ]- 3- $A- v<- <-2~R< - <, .J:A-,R$- $ |R<- 3R- OA-
$9A$-$A-(/-;R/-#?-]%?-%-, .R/-.$-:.A-3R-$A-,R$-/?, HR?-HR.-<-%-9J<-/-3A-:PA$-$A
5K-<A%-*A. .- :PA$- ?R%- , %J.- $*A?- !?- .- 2R- |R<- 3R- !R%- $?3- (.- ;R., |R<- 3R- !R% - $?3- 0R-#/- /- 28$- /-.- OA-
$9A$-=R%?-:IR,
Exercise 11 Select an active or inactive verb to complete each statement using
auxiliaries if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., With spontaneous verbs: %:C-.?-5S.-=R-$?3-$A-$8$-/?-($-,=,

With active verbs: 8A-=A, .?-5S.-$A-!J%-%->J.-$A?-3-o$ HR?-.J-$&R$-o-<J., (:($ / $&R$)
Active Inactive Verbs to select

1. 3-EA-:#R<-=R-.J-($-;R., 3-_____, 1. 3-EA-:#R<-=R-.J-($-;R., ______, {R< / :#R<
2. A-3-$A?-.-2R-/%?-)-________, 2. )-3-$A-/%?-)-.-2R-_________, #R= / {R=
3. /%-.3J-$A-/%-/?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-__, 3. /%-.3J-$A-/%-/?-MA-3%-%-$9A$-__, >A / $?R.
4. \-2-$A?-<A-3$R-/?-_________, 4. <A-3$R-/?-______________, \-=J/ / \-P$?
5. %:A-/-2R-.?-5S.-2o.-$A-!J%-/-___, 5. %:A-/-2R-.?-5S.-2o.-$A-!J%-/-___, *= / ~=
6. %?-2R.-/?-=R-$?3-________, 6. %-2R.-/?-=R-$?3-_________, :$R< / $+R%
7. YA.-$8%-$A?-1A$-YR=-3%-%->J.- _, 7. ,A-5S$?-$A-1A$-YR=-3%-%->J.-___, +< / :I<
8. #<-$J-,%-%-______<?-/-$A-;R., 8. #<-$J-,%-%-______<?-/-$A-;R., +J= / :IJ=
•459•
=$$? / YRR= They are used with verbs in PRT to express the way, how, or why something is so.
With verbs With adjectives

%?-#$-3,RR%-=$?--2>.-/, HR:A-i<-:IR-o-3-<J., #R-%/-YRR=-3-2>., 29%-YYR=->R.,
If how I suffered is mentioned, you would not Don't talk about how he is bad but how he is
believe it. nice!
YJ.-0-(J-/R-3<-$J-1R=-3-;A/-=$$?-<J., 2R.-$A-?-(-3,R-YRR=-??-<->J?-/A-<J.,
She would not be Sgrol ma if she weren't Everyone knows how Tibet is high (in
greedy. elevation).
YA.-$8%-:.J3-YR=-:)<-3/-.3%?-$4S-;A/-=$?--<J., L-,R.-.J<-vR?-/-%/--YR=-;R.-o-3-<J.,
How the government is elected tells how There are no ways to behave worse than that.
Germany is democratic.
8J-/$-/R-#R-MA-/$-;A/-=$$?-<J., 8A-3R-.J-;$-YRR=-2>.-/-3J-+R$-:S-3R-<J.,
Being evil-minded is why he is a bad person. Speaking of how beautiful she is, she is like a
flower.
.RR/ This noun combined with a verb or an adjective conveys the reason for or purpose of doing
something.
Tibetan English
aR2-9<-:IRR-.RR/-L-2-:5S=-oR:A-(J.-.-;A/, One goes to school to find a job.
%?-;A-$J-:.A-:VAA-.RR/-?%?-o?-3PR/-/-:2R.-oR-;A/, I write this letter to invite Sang rgyas.
:VA-3R-:.A-5K-,<--<-$+RR%-.R/-9R$-:.A-SA/-(J-/R-$A?-<J., This female yak is freed from slaughter because it

has benefited (the owner) very much.
%-=-$>JJ-$>JJ-$+RR%-.R/-%?-L-2-3-P2-/R:C-nJ/-<J., I was scolded for having failed to finish my work.
8A%-%-(--$+R%-.RR/-=R-+R$-*J-oR:A-(J.-<J., The field is irrigated so as to foster the growth of

crops.
#$$ This noun, compounded with verbs in PRT or with monosyllabic adjectives, conveys
something is easy to do, together with the negative adverb 3J..
Tibetan English
.J%-?%-KA-o=-<-:IRR-#$$-3JJ., It is easy to go abroad nowadays.
2R.-;A$-aR2-#$$-.J-3R-3A-(J, Tibetan is not so difficult to study.
.-2-:,J/-/-=?-,%-%-*3?--#$--3J., Smoking can easily deteriorate one's health.
#%?-($-;R%-/-K$?-9R$-$->A-#$$-3JJ., Livestock can easily die in the wake of snow storms.
@2-3%-%-:,%?-/-5S/-0R<-*/-#$$-3JJ., One gets fat easily if one eats a lot of noodles.
•460•
:.RR. This word is combined with verbs in PRT or with monosyllabic adjectives to derive nouns.
Such nouns denote desire / want to do something.
With verbs With adjectives

MA-3%-%-$9A$-=J/-:.RR.-(J, <J.-S-=?--:.RR.-3J., #$-3,R%-/, %-*A.-:.RR.-(J,
Many people want to take but not to I want to be happy when I suffer.
contribute.
.R/-.$-:.A-%-MA-$8/-/-2>.--:.RR.-3J., o-:.RR.-(J-/-L<-$-;A/-/-,%-,
I do not want to tell this thing to other The ambition to be rich might be a source of ruin.
people.
=R-:$R<-/-#R-KA<-<-1-;:-2-=R$-:.RR.-)J-(J-<J., ;$--:.RR.-3J.-/, 3<-$J?-$R/-o-$R%-.!:-3R-.J-3R-*R-o-3-<J.,
As time passes, he wants more strongly to She would not buy such expensive clothes if she
return home. did not want to be beautiful.
9-:.RR.-3J.-/, /.-0-)J-#$-;A/-o-<J., L-2-=?-/-3IRR$?--:.RR.-3-(J, 8A2-3R->J.-=?-.$R?,
The patient will get worse if he does not Don't be so hasty doing (one's) job! One should do
want to eat. it carefully.
,2? This noun combined with verbs in PRT conveys the way or method of doing something.
Tibetan English
2R.-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-=?-.2%-%-$;RR=-,2?--3J.-:.R., Many Tibetans think there is no way to avoid
karma.
.?-5S.-3J.-/R-$A?, %?-L-2-:.A-=?--,2?--3J., There is no way for me to do this work because
I have no time.
.0J-(-:.A-.J-<A%-:.RR/-5<--,2?--3J., There is no way to read the whole book today.
.J%-?%-/.-$%-3%-$9A$-$-2&RR?-,2?--;R., There are now treatments for many diseases.
8-;?-:.A?-.%R?-2R-uA.-3R-.J-H$--,2?--3J., There is no way for this child to carry this

heavy thing.
lA? This noun is used with E-v to express someone plans to do something.
Tibetan English
\R$-2f/-$?<-2-$9A$-*A/-3-$*A?-$A-$8$-/?-!RR/-lA?-;R., A new film is going to be shown in
two days.
o=-#2-:.A<-=?-$8A-(J-$9A$-aR%-lA?-;R., This country is going to launch a big
project.
2R.-<-:IRR-lA?-3J.-/, #<-$J?-2R.-{.-.%?-;?-(A-$9A$-;?-o?, What would he do by learning
Tibetan if not go to Tibet?
3.%-.$R%-%-=-(%-::,%-lA?-3J., <J.-S-3-:,%?-!-3J.-<J., I had no plan to drink last night, but
I had no choice.
%?-A-3-(/-0<-!R/-lA?-;R., 3<-$J-@R%-$A?-2.J-$A-3J., I am going to take my mother to a
doctor. She is not so well.
•461•
#R3 / =R% They are alternatively combined with verbs in PRT to express there is / is not time to do
something.
Tibetan English
#<-$J-*A/-$%-%R-2#.-2#.-,=, <J.-S-9-3-{R=-#R3-3J.-9J<, He was fooling around all day and said he
had no time to cook.
:PRR-#R3-:.$-#R3-3J.-<, *A/-3-$&A$-;%-2.-,=, Another day went by without time to rest.
.-.$/-#-,R/-2+%-, z-#%-.J-*3?--$?RR-;?--=R%-3J., The winter has come; there is no time to

rehabilitate the temple.
.J%-?%-:5S-2-*A.-$A <J.-S-MA-<A$?-$J<-:.$-=R%-22-$A?-3J., Life is good today, but people do not have
free time.
/.-0-:.A<-:.$-#R3-;R.-o-3-<J., #<-$J-*3?-;R.-$A This patient is very weak; his days are
numbered.
•462•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-22&R-s-2,,
U$-.R$
?J3?->R< to fall in love; to be concerned A-3-2-(%-%-?J3?-$+A%-/?->R<-;R.,
<J$ to touch t$?-,2-%<-3R-.J<-3-<J$
?J3?-:5B$ to get anxious .J-<A%-%-o-35/-3J.-<-?J3?-:5B$-$A
#R%-OR anger #R%-OR-$A?-MA-2.J-$A-3A-:)$
$.J% confidence $.J%-3J.-/-%?-L-2-.J-=?-o-3-<J.,
2!/ to show; to indicate %?-<%-$A-:S-0<-.$:-2R-3<-$J<-2!/,
:.$-<R$? companion %:A-:.$-<R$?-/%?-!-KA<-;R%-o-<J.,
$&J?-3? care $8%-$A-o-m?-$&J?-3?-A-m-;?-.$R?,
o cause; property .R/-nJ/-.J:A-o-#R-<J.,
5K-,R$-$ in one's life 5K-,R$-$-L?-eJ?-:)R$-oR-%:A-2?3-0-;A/,
.3A$?-;= target; purpose .3A$?-;=-3J.-/-.R/-.$-3-12,
3*3-:)R$ attention L-2-(A-$9A$-;A/-/-<-3*3-:)R$-LR?,
:P/-lR. competition :P/-lR.-(J-/-|=->$?-<-(J,
2lJ%? to be erected |R-@<-?J-KJ?-/A-<-#<-$J?-i-&R$-2lJ%?-?R%-,
*J/-2h alarm *J/-2h-2+%-/-<-#<-$J?-3-*/,
&A-;R.-$A? at one's best .P-2R?-!R2?->$?-&A-;R.-$A?-:,2,
lR.-0 argument; endeavor lR.-0-2*J.-/-P2-:V?-;%-$A?-,R/-;R%-,
,$-(R. sure; to be able to solve aR2-3-9R:C-$/.-.R/-%?-,$-3A-(R.,
OJ=-=R$ shamelessness; ingratitude *J-2R<-OJ=-=R$-;?-3A-*/,
*J-#3? ecology; ecological environment *J-#3?-$A-2.J-,%-%-.R-$%-;?-.$R?,
2!R.-0 arrangement &-=$-28$-/R-#<-$J:A-2!R.-0-;A/,
$.R.-3 primitive U$-.R$-3$R-/$-MA:A-$.R.-3-$A-5S<-2-<J.,
8 to be latent b-:.R.-b/-3-$A-o.-/-8-;R.,
•463•
.R$?-0-2a%? to cause suspicion 8A-=A-.J?-%-=-.R$?-0-(J-$9A$-2a%?-?R%-,
.R-2.$ person or party concerned %-.R/-nJ/-:.A:A-.R-2.$-3A/,
5K-PR$? companion in one's life span 5K-PR$?-9J<-/R-29:-2-:.A-$*A?-!-<J.,
#$-.R% hardship; torture #$-.R%-,R2-2?-#<-$J?-2?3->J?-;R.,
lA?-,% value; respect MA-$8/-$A-lA?-,%-%-3,R%-(J/-LR?,
OJ=-3J. ungrateful; shameless MA-OJ=-3J.-<-<R$?-0-3-2&:,
/$-*J? crime; sin MA-/$-*J?-&/-/-OA3?-(.-$&R.,
2.J/-*R% to uphold justice 2.J/-*R%-/-$9-2R-;A/-.$R?,
=?-,% health condition =?-,%-2.J-/-K$-0R-;A/-9J<,
8/ worse HA3-5%-:.A:A-(-nJ/-)J-8/-<J.,
*A-0$? skin *A-0$?-.!<-<R-;A/-/-%?-Z-$A-3A-:.R.,
L<-:SJ/ culprit .-,J%?-.R/-nJ/-$A-L<-:SJ/-MA-#-/$-$/-<J.,
?J3?-3-2.$-;? to control one's mind *A.-.$R?-/-?J3?-3-2.$-;?-.$R?,
|2-3,/ sexual intercourse #R-=R-2&-2./-!J%-,R$-3<-|2-3,/-L%-,
2lJ-?J3? love; affection 8-;?-2lJ-?J3?-$A?-*R%-.$R?,
92-3R deep .0J-(-:.A:A-~A%-.R/-92-3R-<J.,
#-; response %?-#-;-3-;?-/-#R-.$:-$A-3J.,
*R-#$ sadness *R-#$-$A-:5S-2-.J-/?-3)$-PA=-?R%-,
z$-$A? even more; more MA-=?-3J.-$A?-*A.-/-*A.-$-3A-H$
5S.-v test; experiment L-2-:.A-.!:-/-<-%?-5S.-v-;?-o?,
%R-$*J< to grimace; wry face b/-3-%R-5-;?-%R-$*J<-$A-;R.,
#R3-5B$ conclusion .0J-(-$A-#R3-5B$-VA?-/R-@R%-$A?-3A-Z,
<-3R.-;? to prove 3,:-3<-%-:PA$-/R-<-3R.-;?-?R%-,
>J=-|R glass >J=-|R-KA?-/-<-.-2R-$4%-3-3-<J.,
KA? to wipe ,%-c/-3R-$A?-KA?-/?-:R.-GA$-?J,
2GA$? to tie up 24S/-0-$A-=$-0-o2-/-2GA$?-;R.,
$&<-h%-;? to beat; to lash $&<-h%-;?-oR-MA-/$-:.A:A-=?-!-<J.,
•464•
:<-1-(J noisy \R$-2f/-#%-:.A-/?-:<-1-(J,
MA-24S$ bad person MA-24S$-$/-/-.$:-3#/-*%-,
$>R$-,R$? having feathers / wings L-5%-3-$>R$-,R$?-+$-+$-;A/,
.$ pure; good .J%-?%-,R/-m?-9R-o-%?-.$-$A
2&R3 to destroy ?.-$A?-3J-+R$-5%-3-2&R3?-?R%-,
:UR$? to rob; to snatch )$-0-$A?-9R$-=$-5%-3-:UR$?-?R%-,
2}R$ to exploit $+J<-#%?-2}R$-/-:U=-(?-*R-.$R?,
OR3 market OR3-/-.%R?-m?-$R%-)J-.3:-3-<J.,
>A%-+R$ fruit #R%-3$R-/->A%-+R$-&%-,R$?-3J.-$A
#R<-;$ environment #R<-;$-29%-/-%?-#%-2-*R-o-;A/,
2m. to contaminate; to pollute /$-,A$-$A?-$R/-o-?R-3-;%-2m.-2+%-,
#-.G to entice MA-OJ=-3J.-#-3-.G,
L-2-:1J/ to quit one's job MA-3%-$A?-YA.-$8%-$A-L-2-:1J/-:.R.,
#%?-($ snow disaster #%?-($-$A-OR.-/?-MA-3%-%->A-?R%-,
$/R. to hurt; to get injured =?-!-=?-/-=?-<-3A-$/R., =?-<-1/,
|R-o$ to close a door %-,R/-.?-5S%-#%-$A-|R-o$-$A-;R.,
:5$ to have all together .-2R-|$?-<, MA-5%-3-:5$-3J.,
*3?-=J/-;? to experience %-2R.-<-:5S-2-*3?-=J/-;?-$A-:IR,
<%-$A? no sooner than; as soon as :P=-2-,R/-<%-$A?-9-3-9-:$R-lR3,
v-*R% care; supervision 8-;?-9R<-v-*R%-.$:-29%-LR?,
1R-<2 virtuous man 1R-<2-$9A$-;A/-/-MA-#<-3-o$
:1<-2 jackal :1<-2-<-,%-!A-:PR$?-:SA?-(J,
3J-2|R%? to make a fire 3J-2|R%?-/A-<-#%-2-SR.-$A?-2!%-,
;A.-<-:6B/ to keep in mind MA-#R$-o-&/-$A?-8J-#%-;A.-<-3A-:6B/,
w. to feed vR-w.-.?-HA-$A?-vR-!J<-3#/-/-?R-2+2?,
#-;$ sweet talk; honeyed tongue #-;$-%R-.$:-;?-/-%-<-.$:-$A
3$R-{R<-2+% to cheat 3$R-{R<-2+%-/-#R-]R-<A$-cR.,
•465•
#% to hate .R/-.J-%-3A-=/, %-=-3-#%-,
#-3R bitter (/-#-3R-/.-0-$A?-:,%-/-3A-:.R.,
#-=?-.$J to have a good reputation 8A-=A-;-<2?-.J-#-=?-.$J
$+J-%/ mastermind $+J-%/-.J?-MA-/$-3%-%-\?-;R.,
#-fR% to solicit #-2f%?-$A?-2f%?-$A?-$/?-5=->J?,
2.$-:6B/ ownership; to control MA-2.$-:6B/-&/-/-o-#-v,
.-<J2 this time .-<J2-5S%-o$-$A-:IR-/R-%:A-/-2R-;A/,
$/R%-2 hesitation; guilt <%-?J3?-/-$/R%-2-3J.-/-0$-.R/-<-3J.,
%R-3J. without appreciation %?-=?-/R-5%-3-%R-3J.-<-*/-?R%-,
5S$?-{R= to host a religious ritual 5S$?-2{R=-/-:IR-|R-A-K-$9A$-(J,
#-$?2 add |R<-3R-$A-#-$?2-2-g-$9A$-LA/,
=R%? to reach a certain number / amount :P=-2-?3-&-.-2R-=R%?-$A-3J.,
•466•
aR2-5/-2&-S$-0,
2h-3R.,
$8/-0-2R; $8/-$9A$; $&A$-$R $/-hR$-$R; :.A-hR$-$R; .J-hR$-$R

$/; .J; :.A Definite Articles
$/-<A$?-$J / $/-9R; :.A-<A$?-$J / :.A- (-<J; #-;?; =-=; &%; $9A$; $&A$
9R; .J-<A$?-$J / .J-9R 5%-3; *%-*%-$9A$; 3%-(J->R?; *%->R?
A thang kha featuring the Buddhas of the three eras - past, present, and future - Reb
gong County, Rma lho Prefecture, Mtsho sngon Province (2011).
Text One: various pronouns and articles
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
$R?-29R-A-&J-.L%?-&/,
A %?-29R-#%-:.A-=R-$?3-$A-}R/-$&A$-.$-$R-.$-=R-$A-^-2-$*A?-2-$A-5K?-$?3-0-$A-*A/-|R-KJ?-/A-;A/, .J%-,R$-
5S%-@R%-$A?-3-2o$?-,=, ^-2-$*A?-$?3-$9A$-$ :.A<-;R%-3#/-@R%-$A?-.!R/-$A ;R.-/-<-$R/-o-29R-$A-:)$-3#/-
z$-$A?-*%-, %-$R?-29R-$A-:)$-3#/-:$R-3-2R-A-#-5K-2g/-<J., .J%-?%-2v?-/-#<-$J-;R%-.R/-$R?-29R-oR-3-<J., #<-
$J?-%-.$:-$A-:)$-:.R.-/A-<J., ;%-3A/-.-#<-$J?-%-~A%-3-eJ-:.R.-/A-<J., ;A/-/-<-%?-#<-$J<-$R/-o-2>.-o-3J.-/R-
$9A$-29R?, 5S%-,R$-3-$A-/%-/-g-$9A$-;R.-9J<, $8$-/?-$R/-o-29R-$A-;R%-3#/-)J-3%-<-)J-3%-<J.,
.J-<A%-$R/-o-29R-$A-:)$-:.R.-3#/-$?3-,R/-,=, $&A$-$-2R.-H-.$R?-$A-;R., $&A$-$-o-H-$&A$-.$R?-$A-;R., $8/-

0-2R-.J-$A?-b%-$3-$9A$-29R-$A-2&$-,=, }R/-(.-$A-:P=-2-<A$?-$J-;A.-5B3?-?R%-/R-$A?, %:A-$R/-o-Z-YR=-<-29%-
YR=-;<-3<-<-2>.-/A-<J., .-%-=$-<R$?-28A-;R., <J.-S-3A-#R3-3-353?-353?-3-%-9-3-9-#R3-<-3J.-$A MA-=-=-$A?-
%:A-$R/-o-$R%-@R%-$A?-$R%-.!:-9J<, .J-2.J/-$A <J.-S-%:A-$R/-o-=?-,R$-$-:22-/R, 29R?-/R-Z-/R-<-%R-3-<J., %?-.-2R-
.$R/-0-3%-%-$A-9-2-9R:C-9-H-<-29R-$A-;R., ^-2-}R/-3-$A-/%-%-*2?-3$R/-5%-%-3/2?-29:-$9A$-<-29R?-?R%-,
B A-&J-.L%?-&/-<-:P=-2-$9A$-$A?-#-2h-LJ.-$A-;R.,
.L%?--&/ HR?-$R/-o-(A-3R-$9A$-29R-$A-2&$-/-:.R.,
:PP=--2 %-.$R?-o-2RR-<?-H-$9A$-;A/, <?-:.A-<A$?-$JJ-3A/-.-$8/-0-AJ-;R.,
.L%?--&/ <?-.-2R-#%-2-$A-/%-/-3%-%-;R., 3.R$-<-$%-3%-;R.-$A
:PP=--2 <?-:.AA-<AA$?--$J-2R.-H-29R?-/-3A-Z-$A %?-2v?-/-3.R$-#-24/-?R%-,
.L%?--&/ :.AA- hRR$- $R- (A- 3R- $9A$- <J., .J%- ?%- 2R.- H- 3.R$- o-($- $R/- 3#/- )J- 3%- <J., $?<- 2- HR.- :S- 3-
$9A$-$A?-$R/-/-3.R$-#-/-;$-o-<J.,
:PP=--2 <J.-S-.J:A-o-2-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-/%-, $/-hRR$-$R-<-:.AA-hRR$-$R-$*A?-!:A-/%-/?-$R%-.!:-3R-$%-<J.,
.L%?--&/ :.A- $R%- .!:- 3R- 2R-<J., <J.-S- o- 2-Z-/R- <- <J., $R%- $A- 5S.- $A- <?, MA- $A- 5S.- $A- $R?, :.A- <A$?- $JJ:A-
/%-/?-A-+-$A?-.$:-2R-:.AA-<J.,
:PP=--2 %?-$R/-o-.J-3R-$9A$-$R/-/-@-3-$*A?-!-%R-5-o-<J., .J-]-3-$9A$-$A-$R/-o-<J.-3A-9J<-/?,
.L%?--&/ .JJ-;A/-/-(A-<J., HR.-<%-$J-.$:-/, $8/-0--$A-#-3-0$
•468•
:P=-2 HR?-/3-5S.-$9A$-$-:P2-o-<J.,
.L%?--&/ 29R-\-|R<-3R-s-2&-;A/-/, *A/-3-s-<, 29R-\-|R<-3R-2./-&-;A/-/, *A/-3-$&A$-$A-/%-%-:P2-2,
:P=-2 .J?-/-.-*A/-3-s-$A-/%-%-:P2-$A-($?,
.L%?--&/ 2#R3?-0?-|R<-3R-*A?-2o-<-2o.-&-<J., |R<-3R-*A->-2R-:UR-3-<J.,
16.1 --Review: definite articles
Definite Tibetan English Notes

articles
8-;?-$*A?-$A-/%-/?-=R-(JJ-2R-#R-<J., He is the old one among the
two children.
nafter
adjectives
$R-<J-Z-3R-2R-.J-/?-*A/-3-$?3-:$R<-,=, The hard bread has already
been there for three days. onot used
after a
2R =?-!-l-3R-2R-=?-5<-?R%-, .!:-3R-2R-=?-3-5<, The easy work has been done
but the difficult work has not. noun
.%R?-2R-;%--3R-2R-:.A-<J., 2v?-/-(J-/-<, This is the light one although
it looks big.
%-8A-3R-;$--3-2RR<-.$:-$A I like the beautiful girl.
/RR vs. 2RR

/RR 2RR
9-3-3A-8AA3-/R<-.$:- Few people like foods that are not
tasty.
9-3-8A3-0R-2R-A-3-$A?- Mother cooked
the tasty food.
3#/-*%-, 2{R=,
;$-/-3A-:.RR.-/R-?- Who does not want to be beautiful?
(Who is the person who does not
aR2-3-;$--3-2RR-#3?- The good-
looking student
<J., want to be beautiful?) /?-;A/, is from Khams.
#$$-/RR-8A%-2-<J., Farmers are the people who suffer;

civil servants are the people who
*AA.-0RR-2RR-=?-LJ.-0-<J., The happy ones
are civil
*AA.-/R-=?-LJ.-0-<J., enjoy. 8A%-2-3-<J., servants, not
farmers.
=R-(J-/RR-<R-<-(%--/R-iR- The old one is not capable but the
younger one is capable.
=R-(J-2R-&%-%-<-3A-*/, The elder one is
good for
<J., nothing.
/3-^-SR-/R-2R.-3A/, The warm place is not Tibet but

India.
/3-^-SR/-0R-2R-^-2- The warm
weather is in
o-$<-<J., :.A:A-/%-<J., this month.
Notes-1
1. 2R / 2R / %R: These particles are discussed in Chapter Three and are only reviewed here.
nWith a definite article implied, something is singled out, e.g., =?-l=-2-3 3IR$?-3-2R-A-nJ-<A-#-
•469•
zR-3-/?-<J., The fast athlete is from South Africa or (or, the fastest athlete is from South
Africa). In this sentence, a man is singled out from a group of athletes. / MA-3,R/-0R-2R-{=-
29%-3-<J., Skal bzang is not the tall one (or the tallest one). oThey are used with verbs in
PAT as definite articles (inclusive), e.g., #<-$J?-*R?-*R?-2R-\R$-(?-<J., All the things he
%R
bought are electronic. p , as a definite article, is put after a syllable ending with the suffix
%, e.g., =?-#%?-:.A:A-/%-/?-^-1R$?-*%-%R-|R<-3R-!R%-$9A$-;A/, The lowest salary is 1,000 yuan
in this work unit. / #J-2-(%-%R-o-$A-#J-2-$9A$-;A/, #J-2-(J-2R-2R.-$A-#J-2-$9A$-;A/, The small village is
a Chinese village and the bigger one is Tibetan.
2. Statements with the foregoing particles may form both comparative and superlative forms
depending on context, for example: .!R/-3(R$-A-m-2R-<J., HR.-<R$?-0-.$R?-/, Dkon mchog is
better if you need an assistant. (If there are only two people, one may take it as
comparative.) / #R-$?3-0R:A-/%-/?-#R-3,R/-0R-2R-<J., He is the tallest among those three.
Exercise 1 A waitress offers several food and drink choices. Use , 0R 2R , %R , and /R to
single out what you like. If necessary, add adjectives and verbs.
.0J<-2eR., 82?-8-2, HR?-)-(A-$9A$-:,%-o-;A/, %:A-:.A-/-.N$-)-<-o-$A-)-$*A?-!-;R.,

HR., %-)-u%-#-2R-.$R?, .N$-)-$A-/%-/-!-<-;R.-$A
82?--8-2 #%- 2- :.A:A- /%- /- &R$- 4K- $?3- ;R., $&A$- S- 3- $A- l- /- ;R., $&A$- #%- 2- $A- /%- >J.- /- ;R., $8/- 0-
____|R-:I3-/-;R., HR.-&R$-4K-$%-.$R?,
HRR. &R$-4K-____$%-<J., %J.-5%-$A-29:-MA-5%-3-%:A-$8$-/-;R%-$A-;R., &R$-4K-:.A-1=-(J<-o-<J.,

82?--8-2 ____ /%- >J.- $A- .J- <J., <J.- S- .J- /- $?=- ;%?-(J- $9A$- 3J., ;%- $&A$- 2>.- /, &R$- 4K-$?=- ;%?-
(J_____S-3-$A-l-$A-.J-<J.,
HRR. *R/-3J., &R$-4K-_____.$R?, &R$-4K-(J-/-29%-$A
82?--8-2 9-3-$A-<A$?-3%-%-$9A$-;R., o/-w/-$A-,$-0-<-3R$-3R$-;R., ,$-0-$A-/%-/->-<-}R-$*A?-!-;R., 3R$-
3R$-#-;?-$A-/%-/->-3J., #-;?->-+$-+$-;A/, HR.-=-$%-.$R?,
HRR. %-3R$- 3R$- >-&/______.$R?, <J.-S-%:A-Z%-3R-<-A-3- $A?- >-3A-9, 3R$-3R$->-3J.- _____<-.$R?-
o-<J., .J-3A/-.-@2-<A%->-&/-______.!<-;R=-28A-.$R?, HR:A-:.A-/-:,%-o-(A-$9A$-;R.,
82?--8-2 :.A-/-:,%-o-<A$?-$A-:S-0<-3%-%-$9A$-;R., HR?-2.3?-/-(A-3R-<J.,
HRR. ?J<-<R-____-(A-$9A$-<J., 8A3-3.R$-(J-$A
•470•
82?--8-2 ______?A=-$A-#-2-<J., *<-<-*<, 3%<-3R-<-;A/, .J:A-$R.-<-(J-(%-;R.,
HR. .J?-/-%-?A=-$A-#-2-?J<-<R-$R.-(J-____-$&A$-.$R?,
82?--8-2 $8/-0-____<-?A=-$A-#-2-<J., HR?-MA-$8/-0-<A$?-$J<-:,%-o-3A-=J/-/?,
HRR. #R-9R-<%-<%-,R/-/-.-v,
16.2 --Review: indefinite articles
Indefinite Tibetan English

articles
(R?-o=-/R<-29%-2R.-$A-1%-$+3-$9AA$-;A/, Chos rgyal nor bzang is a Tibetan
epic.
1R=-3-,A<-2+%-$A?-8A-3R-$A-MA%-$9AA$-;A/, Sgrol ma is usually a name for
women.
$9A$ %:C-:$R-2-MA-=-*J-&/-$9AA$-;A/, My boss is a capable person.
.$R/-0-MA-3%-%-:IR-?-$9AA$-;A/, A monastery is a place where many

people go.
#<-$J-9-3#/-$9AA$-<-<J., =?-3#/-$9AA$-<-<J., He is a voracious eater as well as a
real doer.
Numeral adverbs and pronouns

=--= #--;? (--<J / (--4B$ &%
aR2-3-=-=-.J-<A%-3-;R%-, aR2-3-#-;?-3-?R%-, aR2-3-(-4B$-3-;R%-, .J-<A%-aR2-3-&%-
3-;R%-,
Some students did Some students did A few of the Not many
not come today. not come. students did not students
Negative
come. came today.
=$-=-=--<A-3$R-/-3J., =$-#-;?-<-/%-/-3J., =$-(-4BB$-KA<-<-3-;R%-, %-=$-&%-3J.,
Some sheep are not Some sheep are not Several sheep did I do not have
on the mountain. in the shed. not return. many sheep.

=--= #--;? (--<J / (--4B$ &%
?-(-=-=-}R/-,R/-3-<J., ?-(-#-;?-3A-:H$?, ?-(-(-<J-(-3J.-<J., ?-(-&%-%-3-
:IR,
Affirmative Some places are not Some places are not Several places are Do not go
developed. cold. not familiar. anywhere!
}R/-,R/-&/-?-(-=-=-<J., ?-(-#-;?-eJ?-=?-<J., ?-(-(-4BB$-%?-<A$-MR%-,
Only some places are Some places are I have seen several
developed. underdeveloped. places.
•471•
=-= #-;? (-<J / (-4B$ &%
MA-;R%-/R-aR2-3-=-=-<J., aR2-3-#-;?-2.-,=, aR2-3-(-<JJ-:.A-/-;R.-$A It is not used
Only some students Some students have Several students are in positive
came. gone. here. statements.
?-(-=-=-}R/-,R/-<J., ?-(-#-;?-:H$?, ?-(-(-<JJ-(-3J.-<J., ?-(-&%-%-3-:IR,
Some places are Some places are Several places are Do not go
Affirmative developed. cold. not familiar. anywhere!
MA-;R%-/R-aR2-3-=-=-<J., aR2-3-#-;?-2.-,=, aR2-3-(-<JJ-:.A-/-;R.-$A It is not used
Only some students Some students have Several students are in positive
came. gone. here. statements.
=$-<-/-=$-=-=-;R., =$-#-;?-.-2o$?- 9R$-(-4B$->J.-)J-29%-
;R., <J.,
Some sheep are in the Some sheep are now A few of the animals
shed. full. are getting stronger.
aR2-3-=-=-.J-<A%-AJ-;R%-, aR2-3-#-;?-.J-<A%-AJ- aR2-3-(-4B$-.J-<A%-AJ- It refers to
;R%-, ;R%-, inanimate
Didn't some students Didn't some students Did a few of the things in
come today? come today? students come question.
today?
=$-=-=-<A-3$R-/-;R.-/?, =$-#-;?-<A-3$R-/-3J.- aR2-3-(-4B$-aR2-#%-/-
Question
/?, 3J.-/?,
Are some sheep on Aren't some sheep Aren’t there a few
the mountain? on the mountain? students in the
classroom?
.%R?-2R-=-=-3-2*J=-/?, .%R?-2R-#-;?-3-2*J=- .%R?-2R-(-4B$-AJ-2{<, .%R?-2R-&%-AJ-
/?, 2{<,
Have some goods not Have some goods Have a few of the Has anything
been transported? not been sent? things been sent? been sent?
Exercise 2 Tell which one you do / do not like to do and why. Use indefinite articles.
.0J<-2eR., H$-o, H$-o-%-.$:-?-$9A$-3A/, H$-o-2v?-/-:)A$?-(J-$A
List of things Statements with indefinite articles Reasons
z-? 1. _________________________ ___________________________

2R.-$A-3< 2. _________________________ ___________________________
l3-0 3. _________________________ ___________________________
•472•
<J2-$R%-$A-$R-<J 4. _________________________ ___________________________
A-3.R-$A-,$-0 5. _________________________ ___________________________
?A=-+R$ 6. _________________________ ___________________________

=$-> 7. _________________________ ___________________________
{3?-> 8. _________________________ ___________________________
%:A-.$J-c/ 9. _________________________ ___________________________
Exercise 3 Describe these places and what Tibetans do at such places.
.0J<-2eR., ?J-<-.$R/-0, ?J-<-.$R/-0-z-?-$A-.$R/-0-(J-$9A$-;A/, 2R.-3%-%-=R-I%?-%-:)=-$A-:IR-?-$9A$-;A/,
List of places Statements with indefinite article Type of place

$%?-<A/-0R-(J 1. ________________________ _________________________
)R-3R-]-<A 2. ________________________ _________________________
35S-}R/-0R 3. ________________________ _________________________
$/3-35S 4. ________________________ _________________________
0R-+-= 5. ________________________ _________________________
$9A-5-#J-.$ 6. ________________________ _________________________
]-V%-2N->A?-:HA= 7. ________________________ _________________________
)R-#% 8. ________________________ _________________________
A-MJ?-k-(J/ 9. ________________________ _________________________
Exercise 4 Complete the dialogue in pairs using =-=, #-;?, (-4B$, (-<J, &%, .J, $9A$, and
(J-2R.
.0J<-2eR., aR2-3-!-2, HR.-aR2-3-$?<-2-$9A$-AJ-;A/, %-aR2-9-:.A-/?-=R-(-4B$-:$R<-?R%-,

aR2-3-#-2, %-aR2-3-$?<-2-$9A$-3A/, %-<-:.A-/?-=R-(-<J-:$R<-;R.,
.!RR/-3(R$ 5K-<A%-, HR.-#$-3-(J-______AJ-;R., %?-.%R?-2R-______aR2-#%-/%-%-:HJ<-.$R?-$A

5KK-<AA% ;R.-oR-;R., <J.-S-=-*J-&/-______3A/,
•473•
1R=-3 3%-2R-:.A-~A%-3-eJ, HR:A-=$-/-|R<-3R-______AJ-;R.,
.!RR/-3(R$ %:A-=$-/-|R<-3R-______3J., <J.-S-.%=-#%-/-|R<-3R-______=J/-o-;R.,
A--1 8A-=A, /%?-!-}-3R?-=$-______:5S-$A-3-:.J., =$-3-24S%?-/-|R<-3R-______3J.-$A

8AA-=AA <J.-S, =$-______24S%?-/, .-=$-H-:5S-<A/-;R.-o-3-<J.,
KAA-o=--2 :.A-(A-$9A$-<J., MA-#-;?-:.A:A-.R/-/-#R3-$A-3J.-$A

35SS-3RR :.A-.L<-C-.$/-:2-<J., HR?-______>J?-$A-3J., :.A-.%R?-2R-l-(J/-______<J.,
.!RR/-3(R$ aR2- 3-______$A?- aR2- #%- 2&:- .$- 2&:, aR2- 3- ______ $A?- #R<- ;$- 2&:- .$- 2&:, .$J- c/-
$A?-2v?-/-(A-3R-<J.,
.$JJ-c/ %-2>.-o-______3J., <J.-S-aR2-3-______.-2R-,R/-3J.,
=3--0 ?-:.A:A-5S%-#%-A-+-$A?-______$%-/-;R., %?-.%R?-2R-3%-%-*R-.$R?,
?--$/?-00 :.A-/?-@<-<-?R%-/, .GR$?-.%-2R-$A-$;?-KR$?-/-;R., HR.-=3-,$-<A%-%-______:IR-3A-.$R?,
16.3 -- ;
.J $/; :.A
Demonstrative pronouns
.JJ $/ :.AA
;=-{R<-.J-%R-3?-*A.-,=, MA-$/-24/-0R-$9A$-;A/, MA-:.A-$*R3-(%-A-K-3-$9A$-;A/,
The trip was real fun. That person is very strict. This person is extremely
humble.
3.%-.$R%-$A-MA-.JJ-(-3J.-$9A$-<J., H-$/-%-<%-$A?-29R?, H-:.A-29R?-3-$9A$-3A/,
As pronoun
The man (seen) last night is a I made that garment. This garment is not tailored.
stranger.
_%?-:#R<-.J-($-;R.-$A g-$/-/-/A%-A%-.%-0R-=J/- g-:.AA-.R-5B$?-g-o$-$-8$?-o-<J.,
3#/-<J.,
The car was broken. That horse won the This horse will take part in the
championship last year. horse-race this year.
•474•
Demonstrative pronouns
?-.J-/?--%?-.!:-#$-M%?-?R%-, #%-.-$/--/?-:2-$9A$-2.- o=-#2-:.AA-/?-MA-5%-3-K$-0R-<J.,
2+%-,
I had a difficult time in that A worm came out of that Everyone is rich in this
/?
place. hole. country.

#<-$J-?-.J-/?-;%-$/?-%<-2+%-, HA3-5%-$/-/?-]-3-$9A$- :.AA-/?-$/-/-,$-3A-<A%-,
With postposition
*J?,
He moved from that place A lama was born in that It is not far from here to there.
again. family.
.JJ-/?--3-:.$ :H$?-$A C-?-$/--/?-K$?-#-3A-.<, :.AA-/?-3-:IR, $/-/?-?R%-,
Do not stay there! It is cold. Animal husbandry does Do not go from here but from
not thrive on that there!
grassland.
.JJ-/-MA-{R<-$9A$-;R.-$A $/--/-MA-{R<-$9A$-;R%-$A-;R., :.AA-/-MA-3%-%-:5S$-$A-;R.,
A group of people is there. A group of people are Many people are gathering
/
coming over there. here.

With postposition
35S-#-.JJ-/-L-<A$?-:6S3?-$A 35S-#-$/-/-MA-:.-$A 35S-#-:.A-/-:.2-($?-;R.,

Various birds come to that Many people come to Birds are on this beach.
beach. gather on that beach.
V$-wJ2?-.JJ-/-3(R.-gJ/-$9A$-;R., V$-wJ2?-$/-/-3(R.-gJ/-;R., V$-wJ2?-:.A-/-3(R.-gJ/-3J.,
There is a stupa on the rocky A stupa is on the rocky A stupa is not on this rocky
platform. platform over there. platform.
Notes-2
1. .J: It is used as both a definite article and demonstrative pronoun, e.g., #<-$J<-=?-!-.!:-
3R-$9A$-,R2-;R., %:A-.J-3A-.!:, He got a difficult work task; mine is easy. / MA-/$-0R-.J-?-:.A-
/?-3A/, The dark person is not from this region.
2. .J vs. $/: The former points out something, no matter visible or invisible, while the latter
indicates something over there (in the commentator's view), e.g., >R$-2-.J-3-$>$ %-. .J -
.$R?, Don't tear the paper! I need it. >R$-2-$/-3-$>$ %-$/-.$R?, Do not tear the paper
(over there)! I need it. In the first example, the paper might be in the person's hand or, in
contrast, not in view at all. In the second example, however, the paper might be a little
far-off, but still in view. Therefore, $/ specifies something that is present while .J may
not, e.g., #%-2-$/-%J?-%J?-;$-$A That house is really beautiful. / #%-2-.J-%J?-%J?-;$-$A The
house is really beautiful. In the first example, the speaker might be near the house; in the
second example, the speaker talks about a house he has already seen.
•475•
Exercise 5 Use $9A$, 2R, .J, $/, =-=, (-4B$, #-;?, and &% to complete the dialogue.
.!RR/-3(R$ $/:->A-2R, %:A-|R<-3R-?3-&-______$%-/-;R.-/?, :R, .-2R-%:A-wJ-3A$

#--2 %?-3->J?, %:A-=$-/-<-|R<-3R-______;R., HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-o-;A/, HR?-2>.-/, %?-|R<-3R-5%-
3-HR.-=-LA/-/-(R$
.!RR/-3(R$ %?-8A-3R-______$-.?-(.-;?-;R., %J.-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-82?-VR-o$-$A-:IR-o-;A/,
#--2 8A-3R-______?-;A/, :R, HR:A-wJ-3A$-______$/-/-;R.-$A &R$-4K-______$A-,R$-/,
.!RR/-3(R$ .-Z-?R%-, wJ-3A$-<-fJ.-,=, |R<-3R-<-;R.-,=, .-%-:IR-o?,
#--2 #R.-S, HR?-8A-3R-______?-;A/-3A-2>.-/, %?-|R<-3R-3A-!J<-,
.!RR/-3(R$ %?-2>.-/, HR.-<-?J3?-:$=-o-<J., 3<-$J-1R=-3-<J., :6B/-9:A-/%-$A-8A-3R-;$-3-______,
#--2 aR2- 3- ____<- 3<- $J:A- ,R$- $-?J3?- :(R< - $A- ;R., %- <- #R- 9R:C- /%- /?- $&A$- ;A/, %J.- $*A?- !- 3*3-
0?-?R%-/-(A-3R-<J.,
.!RR/-3(R$ .J-3A-(R$ %:A-#-/%-/?-HR?-HJ<-YR=-$%-/-;R.,
#--2 HR:A-=$-/-|R<-3R-______3J., .J?-3A-5., 1R=-3-$A?-3<-$J-%:A-,R$-$-.$:-$A-9J<, HR?-2v?-/-
(A-3A-$9A$-<J.,
$8$-/?,
#--2 A-<R, 1R=-3, HR?-(A-$9A$-9R?-/-:.R.-$A
1RR=-3 %-.-2R-3A-vR$?-$A :.A-/-#-=-;R.-/, %?-#-=______:,%?-/-:.R.-$A %-{R3-;?->A-,=,
#--2 HR.-<-#-=-:,%-3#/-______;A/-/?, .J%-?%-MA-______$A?-#-=-:,%-$A-3J., #-=-:,%?-/-=?-
1%-%-3A-Z-9J<,
1RR=-3 %?-o/-.-#-=-:,%-$A- ;R., <J.-S-%:A-=?-1%-%-______3-$/R.-,=, 9-o-3%-/, MA-<A$?- $J<- 2>.-
o-3%-$A ______3A-Z, ______3A-Z-9J<,
#--2 %?-@2-______:,%-o-;A/, }R-5S.-#J<-3-______]%?-/-(A-3R-<J.,
1RR=-3 (R$-$A .!R/-3(R$-;R%-$A-3J.-/A-AJ-<J., *A/-3-______$A-}R/-/-%J.-$*A?-!-%R-,$-oR-;?-;R.,
#--2 :R, #<-$J-;R%-o-3-<J., :.A:A-$8$-/?-%J.-$*A?-!-$%-%-:IR,
•476•
16.4 --Review: /R in adjective clause
/R in adjective clause vs. demonstrative pronoun .J
.%R?-2R-%?-*RR-.$RR?-/R-3%-%-$9A$-3A/, .??-5SS.-:#R<-=RR-.JJ-<R?-ZA-/?-<J.,
The things I need to buy are not The watch is made in Switzerland.
many.
As subject
|R<-3R-HRR?-2{<<-/RR-.-2R-3-,R/-$9A$ ;AA-$JJ-.J-%:A-<R$?-0-$9A$-$A?-VA?-/R-<J.,
The money you sent has not yet been That letter is the one written by a
received. friend of mine.
.%R?-2R-#$--3-/%--/-;RR.-/R-5%-3-%:A-;A/, \RR$-2f/-.J-o-3A-5%-$9A$-$A-{R<-<J.,
The things in the bag are all mine. The movie is about a Chinese family.
:.A-9R-.%R?-2R-%?-*RR?-/R-<J., <R?-ZA-/?-;A/-/R-.??-5SS.-:#R<-=RR-.J-<J.,
These are the things I bought. What is from Switzerland is the watch.
HR:A-=$-$-:UR.-/R-|R<-3RR-%?--2{<<-/RR-;A/, <R$?-0-$A?-VA?-/R-;AA-$JJ-.J-<J.,
What you received is the money I What (my) friend wrote is that letter.
In complement
sent.
t$?-|3-:.A-#$--3-.JJ:A-/%--/-;RR.-/R-3-<J., o-3A-5%-$9A$-$A-{R<-\R$-2f/--.J-<J.,
This metal container is not the one That is the movie about a Chinese
which is in that bag. family.
Notes-3
1. /R suggests a latent definite article in adjective clause, modifying a specific noun, while .J
can be treated as the pronouns that and it as well as a definite article, e.g., =3-/-/A%-=?-/R-
.-:R<-$A?-=?-$A-;R., The road built last year is now under construction again. / =3-.J-/-/A%-
=?-2+%-, .J-.-:R<-$A?-=?-$A-;R., That road was built last year and now it is under
construction again.
2. The indefinite article $9A$ may follow /R, e.g., .LA/-)A-%?-}R/-(.-.%?-MR%-/R-$9A$-;A/, .-%?-l-
2-/?-2eJ.-?R%-/-<, English is something that I once learned although I have entirely
forgotten it now. In this case, the article means something.
Exercise 6 Complete the dialogue with $9A$, /R, .J, 2R, (-<J, and &%.
!--2 %-HA-____.$R?-$A HR?-2!R.-0-____:,J/-AJ-,2, HA3-/-HA-3J.-/, b/-3-<A$?-$J?-:.$-$A-3A-:)$-$A

#--2 b/-3-:$R$-/-HA-$A?-$R-(R.-o-3-<J., %?-2v?-/, HR.-.$R?-___<-{R<-3,R/-0R-___<-|R-24/-0R-___<J.,
!--2 HR?-2>.-/R-2.J/-/-,%-, <J.-S-HA-____$A?-____$/R.-o-3-<J., ____$*R<-oR-.!:-3R-<-3-<J.,
•477•
#-2 .J?-/, %?-HR.-=-:VR$-/?-HA-U$-____:HJ<-;R%-,
!-2 HA-%-.$R?____24/-0R-$9A$-;A/-.$R?, 2R.-$A-:VR$-HA-%R-3-____3A-.$R?, ____%?-#$-o-<-3-<J.,
#-2 HA-.J-3R-$9A$-$-|R<-3R-:23-____.$R?-9J<, %?-$R-____;A/-/, HA-.J-3R-%?-=$-$-<-;R%-o-3-<J.,
!-2 HA-U$-%?-/-/A%-*R?-____$*R3-?R%-$9A$ HR?-.J-3R-$9A$-:R<-$A?-:HJ<-3-;R%-,
#-2 HA-U$-__:5S%-/R-$8$-/?-:IR.-0-*J-$R-$A $R%-%?-LA/-____.3:-?R%-9J<, .-,J%?-HR?-(A-3R-$9A$-!J<-o?,
!-2 HA-U$-=-|R<-3R-!J<-3A-.$R?-____:HA.->R$ HR?-%:A-,R$-/?-#J-29%-=J/-o:A-2?3-0-3-:,J/,
16.5 -- $/-<A$?-$J; :.A-<A$?-$J; .J-<A$?-$J
Demonstrative pronouns--plural
.J-<A$?--$J / .J-9R $/--<A$?-$JJ / $/--9R :.AA-<A$?-$JJ / :.AA-9RR
KA-\A%-2-.J-<A$?-$JJ-#-l%-<-;R%-,=, :2-YA/-$/-<AA$?--$J-.3J-2R-<J., |R<-3R-:.A-<A$?-$JJ-%:A-3A/,
Those foreigners came here Those worms are These coins and bills are not
yesterday as well. disgusting. mine.
As subject
.0J-(-.JJ-9RR-.J-<A%-3A-.$R?, 3J-+R$-$/-99R-;$-$A-/%-, MA-:.A-<A$?-$JJ-HA3-5%-$&A$-$A-;A/,

Those books are not needed How beautiful those These people are from one
today. flowers are! family.
.%R?-2R-.J-9R-:.A-/?-3-:)R$ 3)=-2-$/-9RR-,$-<A%-/?-<J., 5S%-9R$-:.A-9R-N%-$R-/?-3-<J.,
Do not leave those things here! Those pilgrims are from a These products are not from
far-off place. China.
%:A-A-3-$A?-}R-.J-<A$?-$JJ-*R?, *->-3A-9-/R-:VR$-0-$/--9R-<J., %?-;A-$J-:.A-<A$?-$JJ-%R-3A-(R.-$A
My mother bought those People who do not eat fish I do not recognize those
In complement
vegetables. are those herders. letters.

%-?-(-.J-<A$?-$JJ<-?R%-3-MR%-, ;A-$J-$/--<A$?-$J-3-:.R/, #<-$J?-L-2-:.A-<A$?-$JJ-3-P2,
I have never been to those places. Do not read those letters! He did not finish those tasks.
=?-LJ.-0-.J-9RR-8%-,R$-/?-<J., #<-$J:A-=J$?-*J?-$/-9RR-<J., #-l%-$A-:P=-2-=R-(%-:.A-9R-<J.,
The cadres come from the His presents are those. Yesterday's guests are these
township government. young people.
Notes-4
1. These plural pronouns describes something or people at least more than two in quantity.
2. <J means some, e.g., D-<J-;R.-/, )-)J-8A3-;A/, Tea tastes better with some salt.
3. <A$?-$J is an inclusive plural pronoun categorizing variety, ethnicity, etc., e.g., 3A-$-<A$?-$J-
5S$?-,R$-$-,R/, All participants came to the meeting.
4. .J-<A$?-$J and $/-<A$?-$J are different in the same way as .J and $/ described above.
•478•
Exercise 7 Complete the dialogue with =-=, (-4B$, #-;?, &% , .J, 2R, and .J-<A$?-$J.
.0J<-2eR., 8A-=A, A-3, /%?-!-%-<-MA-(-4B$-35S-}R/-0R-#<-lJ-$A-:IR-o-;A/, AJ-(R$

A-3, (R$-$A HR:A-:IR-<R$?-.J-<A$?-$J-?-?-;A/,
1. 5K-*A., %-.-OR3-3-:IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R., HR.-*R-o-______AJ-;R.,
(R?-.0=, *R-o______3J., %:A-:.A-/-|3-(%-$*A?-;R., 8R<-<-HR?-______2{<-,2-o-AJ-<J.,
2. 5K-*A., (R?-.0=, HR.-<-%:A-3*3-0?-:IR, %?-#J<-<R-$A?-.%R?-2R-______3A-H$-$A
(R?-.0=, .%R?-2R-______?:A-;A/, \-24:-|R<-3R-____LA/-/, %?-2v?-/, 8A-=A-:IR-#-*/-o-<J.,
3. (R?-.0=, 5K-*A., /%-$A-.%R?-2R-______(A-$9A$-;A/-/?, :.A-3R-uA.-3R-+$-+$
5K-*A., .J-28A-______$A-/%-$A-_____2{<-oR:A-.0J-(-;A/, 3%-(J->R?-2R.-;A$-$A-<, _____o-;A$-$A-<J.,
4. 5K-*A., %-=?-!-:.A-3R-3%-%-$9A$-=?-o-;R., HR?-______3A-=?-/, %-%J?-%J?-$A?-:5B$-0-9-$A
(R?-.0=, =?-!-______HR:A-=?-!-<J., /%-$A-=?-!-HR:A-<, KA-$A-=?-!-%:A-3A/-/?,
5. 5K-*A., 8A-=A-aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-;<-;R%______3J., HR?-#<-$J-<R$?-;?-/-=R?-(R$
(R?-.0=, .J-(R$-$A #<-$J:A-:IR-<R$?-____3-<2?-<J., #<-$J-8-;?-____:PR$?-$A-3-2&$-/-<J.,
6. (R?-.0=, %J.-$*A?-!-=R-2&-,3-$A-}R/-/-29:-5%-2&R?, =R-____$A-/%-%-%?-HR:A-#$-$+3-3-*/,
5K-*A., HR?-;%-.J%-3-$A-.$:-<R$?-S/-$A-;R.-$A-0, .J-3R-;A/-/, 8A-3R-______.-2R-<-3R-n%-<J.-9J<,
Exercise 8 Complete the dialogue with , .J $9A$, (-4B$, and <A$?-$J.
!--2 A-#-.0R/, HR?-.$R%-)-(A-$9A$-:,%?-/-:.R.-$A .-/2-5-2&:-</-<J.,

#--2 #- l%- .J- <A%-$A- 9- 3- ______$3- +$- +$- <J., .J:A- ,R$- $ 3.%- .$R%- $A- 9- 3- ______ $A?- $/R.- 2+%- , .R-
.$R%-, >-3J.-<-9-3-2{R=-/-(A-3R-<J.,
!--2 >- 3J.- /, %- :VR$- 3R- ______$A?- 9- 3- $9A$- {R=- >J?- o- 3- <J., A- #- .0R/, .- (A- $9A$- ;?- /%- , 4S%-
______<-}R-$&A$-$*A?-2!R=-/-AJ-(R$
#--2 .J- (R$- $A <J.- S, 3.%- .$R%- $A- 9- 3- $A- /%- $A- .%R?- 2R- $&A$- <- 3- 2!R=, :R, 5S.- .!<- _____ 3- 2!R=, %-
_____<-.R$?-0-9-$A-;R.,
4K-$<-$9A$-$A-$8$-/?,
!--2 A-#-.0R/, .-HR:A-.$R%-)-P-1A$-;?-;R.,
#--2 ;, 4K-$<-$9A$-$-|$?, %?-.-2R-:.R/-0-______2+R/-5<-3J., .-2R-$+R<-3-$9A$-<-=?-.$R?,
•479•
!-2 *R/-3J.-$A ,$-0-$A-/%-%-&%-;A$-]$?-/-(A-3R-<J.,
#-2 (R$-$A (R$-$A ;%-3A/, HR:A-c.-0-<-8-;? ______,R/-/, %J.-(-2R?-9-3-3*3-0?-9,
16.6 --Quantity words
General
5%--3 *%-*%-$9AA$ 3%--(J->R? / 3%-->R? *%%->RR?
*3?-MR%-5%--3->J?-L-;A/, *%--*%--$9A$-2R.-;A$-$A-<J., =$-3%-((J->R?-.!<-<R-;A/, 3A-*%%->RR?-$A?-o-{.-2>.,
All experiences are A few (books) are in Most sheep are white. A minority of people
knowledge. Tibetan. speaks Chinese.
2R.-MA-5%-3--/%-2!/-0- o-*%-*%--$9A$-$A?-2R.-{.- 2R.-$A-?-(-3%--(J->R?-?-3$R- #%-2-*%->R?-$?<-2-<J.,
<J., >J?, 3,R,
All Tibetans are A few Chinese speak Most places are high in Less than fifty percent
Buddhist. Tibetan. altitude in Tibet. of the houses are new.
.LA/-)A-$A-MA-5%-3--.LA/-)A- |R<-3R-!R%-$?3--*%--*%-- N%-$R:A-(-3%--(J->R?-2R.- o=-#2-*%->R?-.3%?-
2-3A/, $9AA$-3-<J., /?-,R/, $4R-<J.,
All the people in 3,000 RMB is not a Most rivers in China The democratic
Britain are not small amount. originate from Tibet. countries are in a
British. minority.
Specific
5%--3 *%%-*%%-$99A$ 3%--(J->R? / 3%-->R? *%%->RR?
:.2-($?-:.A-5%-3-%:A- #J-2-:.A:A-MA-*%--*%--$9A$- .J-2-5%-$A-MA-3%--(J->R?-8A-=A- 5S$?-,R$-/?-PR?-$8A<-
;=-KR$?-/-3J., 8A%-2-;A/, <J., *%->R?-3-:,.,
None of these birds A few people in this Most people in that Less than half the
are seen in my village are farmers. family are male. participants didn't
hometown. agree on the proposal.
#<-$J?-|R<-3R-5%--3- &R$-4K-,R/-/R-*%--*%--$9A$- #<-$J?-2>.-/R-3%--(J->R?- :.A:A-*%-->R?-HR:A-;A/, 3%-
2!A3?-2+%-, >A%-$A?-=?, =-o-35/-3J., >R?-(R?-.<-<-LA/,
He squandered all the A few of the tables that What he said is mostly Give most of this to
money. have arrived are made groundless. Chos dar and you take
of wood. the rest!
%-;R.-/R-5%--3-A-3-$A?- lR3-;A$-*%--*%--$9A$-VA?-/R- 3<-$J:A-o-3%-(J->R?-9R$- ?A=-<A$?-2R.-/-*%-->R?-
LA/, Z-$A ;A/, ;R.,
A few of the articles are Most of her property is A few varieties of
Everything I have is
well written. livestock. fruits are available in
from my mother.
Tibet.
•480•
Notes-5
1. Quantity words are put after nouns.

2. 3%-(J->R?, the antonym of *%-(J->R?, means the most, the majority, or more than a half,
?3-&-%:A-aR2-3:A-P%?-!-3%-(J->R?-;A/, Thirty is the largest number of my students. / .-
e.g.,
,J%?-5S$?-,R$-=-8$?-3#/-*%->R?-<J., Less than half of the people participated in the
meeting. / aR2-3-3%-(J->R?-:)<-3/-/?-<J., Most of the students are from Germany.
Exercise 9 Make true statements about Amdo and Amdo people with 5%-3, *%-*%,
3%-(J->R?, *%->R?, and &%.
.0J<-2eR., A-3.R-/-_%?-:#R<-&%-3J.,
1. HA3-5%-______>A%-#%-$A-/%-/-2#.-;R.,
2. 8-;?______;A/-/-3A/-.-aR2-9<-:IR-.$R?,
3. $?<-2______.J%-?%-L-2-;R.-$A-3J.,
4. c/-cR/-______8-;?-9R:C-=R$?-/-2#.-;R.,
5. %J.-9R:C-#J-2-/-8A%-=?______3J., ?-(-______/$?-;A/,
6. 2R.-{.-2>.-3#/-______;A/, ______$A?-o-{.-2>.-$A-;R.,
7. A-3.R-/?-9-o______#-3(J-$A-9-3-;A/,
8. :VR$-0-______:VR$-/-;R., :VR$-0-_____$9A$-<-PR%-HJ<-/-3J.,
9. MA-____$A?-#%-2-*R?-/-:.R., <J.-S-____#$-$A-3J.,
10. ^-2-______/3-^-SR, /3-^-:H$?-.?-^-2-.%-0R-<-$*A?-2-<J.,
11. MA_____=?-LJ.-0-3A/, ______=?-LJ.-0-;A/,
12. >-3A-9-3#/-______3J., ______>-$9/-;A/,
Exercise 10 Make the statements complete with quantity words.
.0J<-2eR., %:A-:5S-2-&%-3A/, #<-$J:A-:5S-2<-vR?-/,
1. %:A-<R$?-0-_______KA-\A%-2-3A/, %-2R.-$A-<R$?-0_______;R.,
2. .-%-=R-_______3A/, <J.-S-%?-aR2-9-/?-=R-_______3-2+%-,
3. %:A-aR2-PR$?-_______$A?-.LA/-{.-2>.-$A-;R., A-3.R:C-{.-2>.-3#/_______<J.,
•481•
4. %?-=R-o?-$A-.0J-(-3%-%-$9A$-$-2v?-MR%-, _______o-$A-=R-o?-$A-{R<-<J.,
5. %:A-*J-2R-_______o=-#2-:.A-/-_______;R., #R-9R-_______o=-#2-:.A-/?-3A/,
6. %-<-A-1-$*A?-!-3,/-?_______3J., 3A-3,/-?-______<%-.2%-$A-{R<-<J.,
7. %:A-A-3-$A?-.?-5S.-_______%-S/-$A-;R., <J.-S-%?-3<-$J-_______S/-$A-3J.,
8. %:A-:6B/-9:A-/%-/?-aR2-3-______:)<-3/-/?-;A/, _______KA-o=-/?-<J.,
9. aR2-9-:.A:A-.$J-c/-_______2R.-/?-<J., .R/-.%R?-,R$ #<-$J-3-$+R$?-KA-\A%-2-?-3J.,
Text Two: the other, another, that one, this one, which one, and indefinite pronouns
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, .0J-(-$?J<-VA?-.%-.%=-VA?,
2R.-/-$?J<-.%=-$A?-.0J-(-:VA-YR=-;R., $R%-$A-.0J-(-$%-hR$-$R-$?J<-VA?-<-$%-hR$-$R-.%=-VA?-<J.-9J<-/, $;R/-$A-.J-

%?-2v?-/-$?J<-VA?-;A/-o-<J., $&A$-$R-hR$-$R-.%=-VA?-;A/-o-<J., }R/-(.-2R.-$A-(R?-$A-.0J-(-,A<-2+%-$A?-:.A-3R-$-
<A%-+$-+$-;A/, <J.-S-2&A%?-:PR=-$A-$8$-/?, :VA-YR=-.J-<A$?-$J-:I<-$A-;R., .0J-(-$?J<-<-.%=-$A?-VA?-/R-)J-*%-
<, .0J-(-t$?-0<-$A?-.0<-/R-)J-3%-<J.,
.J%-3-.0J-(-$-<A%-9R-2R.-?-(-<%-$A?-29R?-/R:C->R$-2:C-!J%-%-;%-3A/-/-.0<, ;%-3A/-/-VA?-/A-<J., $?J<-VA?-<-.%=-

VA?-;A/-/, >R$-2R-$A-3.R$-,A<-2+%-$A?-/$-0R, }R/-0R-<-u%-#-<J., .J:A-/%-/?-o$-(J-2R-/$-0R-<J., .0J-(->A%-.0<-
;A/-/, >R$-2R-.!<-<R-;A/, .0J-(-C-(J/-<A$?-$J-;%-3A/-.-.%=-VA?, ;%-3A/-.-$?J<-VA?-<J., <%-$:A-.0J-(-$9A$-5<-
$&A$-<J-.$R?-/, o/-w/-$A?-$$-5-$A?-VA?-;R., .J%-3-$A-.0J-(-3%-(J->R?-(R?-=$?-$A-{R<-;A/-/R-$A?, >R$-P%?-<J-
<J:A-:I3-$*A?-/-z-{-;R.-/R-@R%-$A?-3%-, 35=-.0J-(-:VA-,.-$A-#-3.R$-$8/-$9A$-<J., .0J<-28$-/, $R%-$A-.0J-(-
$;R/-3-$A-!J%-/?, .3<-<R-35=, /$-0R-$$-5-<-?J<-<R-$?J<-<J.,
#3?-$A-?-(-;?-Z:-$A-HA3-o.-$9A$-$A?-2!:-2!/-:I<-$9A$-*<-5$?-;?-;R.-9J<, .0J-(-.J-hR$-$R-$?J<-.%=-
35=-$$-5-?R$?-$A?-!R-2-<-#R%->/-<->R$-2R-!J%-%-VA?-;R., .J:A-/%-/-$?J<-.%=-VA?-3-23-0R-*A?-2o-$A?-3A-5.-;R.-
9J<, \J$?->A%-$A-!J%-/-{-2f/-3%-%-2bR?-;R., /%-.R/-$A-(-/?-.R/-(J, :2R<-P%?-$A-(-/?-#$-3-2o-<-S$-&-z$-
•482•
=R%?-9J<, (R?-=$?-$A-(-/?-.R/-(J-/R?-3A-5., 2R.-$A-<A$?-$8%-!/-:.?-3-$9A$-<J.-9J<-$A-;R., (J.-3#?-0-$A?-
2v?-/, .0J-(-.J-<A$?-$J-2R.-<-0<-=?-3-L%-$R%-%-L%-/R-$A?, =R-%R-!R%-$&A$-$A?-3A-5.-:$R<-;R.-9J<,
2R.-$A-}R/-L%-$A-=R-o?-.0J-(-:.A-<A$?-$J?-2>.-$A-;R., .J%-?%-<-3-:R%?-2-$A-=R-o?-2>.-oR-1=-(J<-t$?-.0<-$A-
U$-$-:22-$A-;R., ;%-$&A$-2>.-/, :.A-$*A?-2<-IA-:I<-wR$-<%-$J-<-,A-5S$?-$A-=R-o?-<-:I<-wR$-<J.,
16.7 --$8/-0-2R; $8/-$9A$; $8/-0-9R
$8/--0-2RR--definite $8/--$9A$--indefinite $8/--0-9RR--definite plural

:.A-1R=-3-<J., 8A-3R-$8/-0-2R-%:A-8A- :.A-(R?-1R/-3-<J., 3<-$J-MA-$8/-$9A$- .R/-.$-$8/-0-9R-/%?-!-=?-
3R-;A/, <J., o-<J.,
This is Sgrol ma and the other This is not Chos sgron. She is The other things will be
girl is my daughter. another person. done tomorrow.
%?-!-<-:.A-9, $8/-0-2R-HR:A-{=- %-:.A-/?-3A-:.$ ?-(-$8/-$9A$-$-:IR, aR2-3-$8/-0-9R-o/-.-;R%-$A-
;A/, 3J.,
I'll take this candy. The other I am not going to stay here. I will The other students do not
one is yours. move to another place. come very often.
%?-#%-2-$8/-$9A$-*R-o?, :.A-(%-?R%-, #<-$J-2R.-<J., $8/-0-9R-o-
.%R?-2R-:.A<-$8/-0-2R:A-Z-3*3-3J.,
<J.,
This thing is not as good as the I will buy another apartment. This He is Tibetan; the others
other one. is too small. are Han Chinese.
Notes-6
1. $8/-0-2R means the other one, e.g., HA3-5%-$8/-0-2R-:.A-2-5%-%-vR?-/-K$-#-<J., The other

.J
family seems richer than this one. is commonly added to this phrasal pronoun without
changing the meaning, e.g., MA-$8/-0-2R-.J-%:A-1-2R-;A/, The other person is my brother.
2. $&A$-$R is equivalent to $8/-0-2R, e.g., <?-$&A$-$R-$R/-o-29R?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., / <?-$8/-0-2R-
$R/-o-29R?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., What about using the other cloth to make clothes?
3. $8/-0-9R means the others, pointing out all the remaining ones. :.A-3A/-., $R/-o-$8/-0-9R-
:O.-3A-.$R?, All the other clothes do not need to be washed except for this.
4. $8/-$9A$ means another. %-.!<-;R=-$8/-$9A$-LA/, :.A-$4%-3-3-<J., Give me another cup!
This one is not clean.
•483•
Exercise 11 Complete the dialogue with $&A$-$R, $8/-0-9R, 2R, 0R, .J-<A$?-$J, $9A$, :.A-<A$?-$J,
and &%. They may be used more than once.
.0J<-2eR., A-#-.!R/-3(R$-5%-$A?-$J-=J/-3-;?, HA3-5%-$&A$-$R-3PR/-lA?-(J-$A
c/--3R HR:A-=$-$A-______(A-$9A$-;A/-/?, 8-;?-9R:C-=R-?<-$A-=J$?-*J?-3A/-/,

c.--0R :.A-3A/-., ________=J$?-*J?-;A/, =J$?-*J?-$A-/%-/?______%-<%-$J<-*R?-/A-;A/,
c/--3R HR?-<%-$A-8A-=A-$&J?-0-______=J$?-*J?-*R?-;R.-#R-,$-;A/-o-<J., 8-;?-______HR?-3-2eJ.-<,
c.--0R 8-;?-$&A$-<-2eJ.-3J., <J.-S-%?-%:A-MA-A-+-$A?-:.%-&/-______2eJ.-?R%-$9A$
c/--3R HR:A-:.%-&/-0R-?-$9A$-;A/-/?, HR.-MA_________$-:.%-(J-AJ-,2,
c.--0R %?-HR.-2eJ.-?R%-, HR.-______*R?-3J., .R/-,R$-/?-2>.-/, (A-$9A$-*R-oR-3A->J?-$A }R/-(.-%?-*R?-*R?-
_____HR.-3A-.$:-$A
c/--3R HR?-*R-:.R.-$A-3J.-/R-3A-2>.-<, .-2R-o-35/-3%-%-$9A$-2>.-$A HR:A-=$-0-______/%-$A-.J-(A-$9A$-;A/,

c.--0R .J-(%-$A->J=-.3-______<J., =R-?<-$A-{2?-2-(%-:,%-o-3J.-/, =R-?<-$A-g$?-$%-/-;R.-/?,
c/--3R HR:A-#-/%-%-$&A/-oR2?,
c.--0R HR.-,$?-2o=-3-28J%?, !-<J-;A/, HR.-.-%?-$%-/?-2eJ.-o?, %?-HR.-5K-+:-iR/-0R-______*R?-;R.,
c/--3R A-A-A, %-(A-3R-$9A$-*A.-$A
16.8 -- $/-hR$-$R; :.A-hR$-$R; .J-hR$-$R

$/--hR$-$RR .JJ-hRR$-$R :.AA-hRR$-$R
$/--hR$-$RR-?-(-:.A-$A-MA-$9A$-3-<J., k-(-?-O-$A-!J%-/?-.J-hRR$-$R-<J., :.AA-hRR$-$R-.0J-(-#<-$J?-LA/-/R-<J.,
That one is not a person from The Yellow River is that one on the This one is the book he gave
this area. map. me.
.%R?-2R-$/--hR$-$RR-3.R$-(A-$9A$- MA-.J-hR$-$RR-@%-;R.-$A MA-3A$-/%-%-3A-:)R$ ?-(-:.AA-hRR$-$R-(A-3R-$9A$-;$-$A
<J.,
What color is that thing? That person is really arrogant. He How beautiful this one
just looks down upon others. (place) is!
MA-$/-hRR$-$R-o-$9A$-<J.-0, .JJ-hRR$-$R-3-*R, :.A-hR$-$R-*R?, :.AA-hRR$-$R-2R.-$A-$;$-AJ-<J.,
That person is a Chinese, I Do not buy that one but this one! Is this one a Tibetan yak?
guess.
•484•
Notes-7
1. hR$-$R may be translated as so-called, e.g., A-3J-<A-#-hR$-$R-A-3J-<A-#-L%-3:A-o=-#2-$9A$-<J., So-

called America is a country in North America.
2. .J-hR$-$R means that one, e.g., 9-#%-3.%-.$R%-:-9R?-/%-/?-.$R%-)-:,%?-?-.J-hR$-$R-8J-,$-$A?-Z-$A
The restaurant where we had supper last night is really good. / HR:A-=$-$A-:S-0<-.J-hR$-$R-?:A-
<J., Who is in the picture you have in your hand?
3. $/-hR$-$R means that one, referring to something visible.
4. $/-hR$-$R and .J-hR$-$R are different in the same way as .J and $/.
5. :.A-hR$-$R means this one.
Exercise 12 Complete the dialogue with $/-hR$-$R :.A-hR$-$R $&A$-$R, .J-hR$-$R, $8/-0-9R, $8/-0-
$9A$, (-4B$, :.A-<A$?-$J, .J-<A$?-$J, $/-<A$?-$J, :.A-9R, 2R, and &%.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, 5S.-3-:.A-9R-$%-/?-*R?, :.A-<A$?-$J-$?<-2-$?<-n%-<J.,

#-2, .J-<A$?-$J-*R?-/A-3A/, %?-8A%-/%-/?-VJ$?-/A-;A/,
1. !-2, %:A-=$-$A-:.A-,J<-3-.$:-$9A$-;A/, 5S%-#%-:.A:A-/%-/?-<?-A-+-$A?-4-;-______<J.,

#-2, ______3.R$-3A-Z-$A HR:A-:.A-/-3.R$-______AJ-;R.,
2. !-2, 8A-=A-______?-<J., #<-$J-%R-3-$A?-1R-|R-&/-$9A$-<J.,

#-2, <J.-S-%-8A-=A-______.$:-$A 8A-=A-1R-|R-&/-0R-2v?-/-$9$?-(%-$A
3. !-2, .J-2-5%-$A-8A-=A-(J-2R-P2-o$?-A-K-3-$9A$-<J., ______MA-5%-3-$A-#-:2.-$A-;R.,
#-2, #<-$J-#J<-<R-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J., .J-2-5%-$A-8A-=A-______<-.J-3R-<J.,
4. !-2, .-%:A-=$-/-|R<-3R-______3J., HR?-%-|R<-3R-(-4B$-2*A?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
#-2, HR?-%-.R3-(.-;R., .J:A-,R$-$ %-=-|R<-3R-2*A-o-______3J.,
5. !-2, 8A-=A-______?-<J., %?-}R/-(.-#<-$J-<A$-3-MR%-$9A$
#-2, #R-8A-=A-______3-<J., #<-$J-.J%-3-$A-n=-!R%-(R?-P$?-<J., HR.-$*A?-!-<R$?-0-3A/-/?,
6. !-2, A-4B, =$-______3A-5%-$A .J-9R-$%-/-;R.-/%-,
#-2, $&A$-(R?-:1$?-5%-$A-=$-H-/-;R.-$A ______%J.-5%-$A-=$-H-/-;R.-$A
7. !-2, (-:I3-$A-______(A-$9A$-<J., /$-9R$-+$-+$-AJ-<J.,
#-2, 9R$-H-______/$-9R$-+$-+$-<J., <J.-S-%J.-5%-$A-3-<J.,
•485•
8. !-2, HR:A-=$-$A-______(A-$9A$-;A/-/?, %?-5S.-v-;?-/-AJ-(R$
#-2, :.A-9R-9-o-+$-+$-;A/, :.A-3A/-.-______9R?-/-(R$
9. !-2, HR?-z-?-/?-=J$?-*J?______*R-o-AJ-;A/, %?-(A-$9A$-*R-oR-3A->J?-$A
#-2, %?-____3A-*R, %?-3%-%-$9A$-*R?-2+%-, HR.-,R$-.%-2R-<J., <2-;A/-/-=J$?-*J?-____*R?-
/-<J.,
16.9 --Review: &% vs. $&A$

Indefinite pronoun
&% $&AA$
%?-HA3-/?-&%-3A-=?, HA3-=?-c.-3R-$A-<J., %-3<-$J:A-:S-0<-$9A$-;R., #<-$J<-$&A$-3J.,
In negative
I do not do any chores at home but my I have a picture of her, but he does not.
statements
wife does.
Indefinite pronoun
&%--< $&AA$-<
#<-$J-3#?-2-;A/-9J<, <J.-S-#<-$J?-&%-<- o-$<-/-4/-./-$A-#R%-2R-;R., :)<-3/-/-$&A$-<-
3A->J?-$A 3J.,
He is supposed to be a scholar, but he There are sandalwoods in India but not in
Anything;
does not know anything. Germany.
nothing
=$-/-&%-<<-3J.-/, %-/.-0<-v-$A-3A-:IR, %-:VA-.J2-:.A-.$R?, <J.-S-#<-$J-$&AA$-<-3A-.$R?,
I'll not visit the patient without any I need this notebook. But he doesn't need
presents. one.
#-<R$-$J<-#R., HR?-&%-AJ-$R-,=, %-.$J-2>J?-(R?-P$?--$9A$-;R., HR.-$&A$-AJ-;R.,
Quiet! Did you hear anything? I have a Dge bshes chos grags' dictionary.
Do you have one?
Any;
HR?-&%-3A-2>.-/?, o/-.-HR.-2>.-oR<- %?-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-\J%-2+%-, HR?-$&A$-AJ-\J%-,
something;
.$:,
much;
Will you say anything? Usually you Did you mention any? I talked about many
one
like to talk. things.
(without ) <
.J-<A%-HR?-&%->J?-AJ-,=, 3<-$J<-;A-$J-$9A$-:VA-/, #<-$J<-$&A$-AJ-:VA,
Have you learned anything today? If we write her a letter, shall we write him a
letter as well?
•486•
Notes-8
1. &%: nIn negation, it means any, few, much, or many, e.g., %-=J$?-*J?-&%-3A-.$R?, I do not
need any presents. / 3<-$J-8-;?-&%-3J., *A.-$A-3J., She has few children and so she is not
happy. / .J-&%-3-<J., :.A<-vR?-<, :.A-hR$-$R-(A-3R-$9A$-Z-$A-/%-, That is nothing. Look at this
one! This one is so good. / %?-(%-&%-3-:,%?, <J.-S-%:A-%/-;-$A?-3%-%-:,%?-,=, I did not
drink very much alcohol but my brother did. oIt is not used in a positive statement. pIt
is used in negative imperatives, e.g.,
*=-?:A-/%-/?-&%-3-9, Do not eat anything in bed!
2. &%-< is used in a negative statement, corresponding to anything. %?-.J-<A%-&%-<-3-.%?-, I
did not study anything today.
3. $&A$ is used to avoid repeating a singular noun, equivalent to the English pronoun one,
e.g., #<-$J<-\R$-[.-$9A$-;R., %-<-$&A$-.$R?, He has a computer. I also need one.
4. $&A$-< either means even one or anything in negative statements and questions. $9:-
:#R<-:.A:A-/%-2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-$&A$-<-3J., There is not even a single Tibetan class this week.
/ /.-0-:.A-|R-#<-,J%?-$&A$-<-3-?R%-, This patient did not go out even one single time.
Exercise 13 Two children boast about what they have. Use &%, $&A$, $&A$-<, $9A$, and the
demonstrative pronouns , .J (-4B$, and .J-9R.
.0J<-2eR., !- 2, HR.- %:A- :VA- .J2- :.A- 3R- &%- 3J.- 3R, #- 2, .- %- 3J.- /- <, /%?- !- %?-$&A$-*R-o?, HR?-*R?-/-:.R.-
/-<-|R<-3R-3J.-3R,
8--;?--!-2 A, %%-2R-HR., HR.-(A-$9A$-;R.-/?, HR.-5%-%-3:R-,:R-;R.-/?,
8--;?-#--2 %J.-5%-%-3J.-/-<, %:A-A-#- _______;R., A, &%- 3J.- 5%-, HR.-:S-3R- $9A$- $A?-%J.-5%-% -%R-35%-
:V-/?, .J%-3-HR.-5%-%-_______3J.-.?, %:A-A-1-$A?-<R$?-;?-/R-2eJ.-AJ-?R%-,
8--;?--!-2 .J%-3-.J%-3-<J., .J%-?%-%J.-5%-%-_%?-:#R<-<-;R., HR.-5%-%-_______3J.-3R,
8--;?-#--2 %J.-5%-%-_%?-:#R<_______3J.-/-<, _______|R<-3R-3J.-/R-$A?-3A/, HR?-vR?-<, :.A-5%-3-%J.-
5%-$A-K$?-9R$-<J.,
8--;?--!-2 HR.- 5%- %- o- ;R.- /- <, HR.- <- HR:A- %/- ;- <A$?- $J- .$/- #- z3- $R/- o- _____3J.- 3R, %:A- b%- $A- z3-
_____(A-3R-<J.,
8--;?-#--2 .J<-3%R/-o-(A-$9A$-;R.-$A %:A-A-3-$A?-%-o-H-?R-3-_______*R?-;R.,
8--;?--!-2 %-.-2R-lJ.-,.-3%-%-;R., HR.-_______3J.-3R,
•487•
8-;?--#-2 %?-A-1<-t$?-L-$9A$-*R-$A-:)$-o?, HR:A-@-3-$A?-_______$%-/?-*R-,2-o?,
8-;?--!-2 HR?-%:A-=$-/?-.%R?-2R-_______:HJ<-?R%-, HR?-_______%-.-KA<-<-LA/,
8-;?--#-2 %?-_______3A-!J<, HR.-<-%-$*A?-!-$+R%-=J/-/-$&A$-<-$&A$-;A/, 8A-=A,
Exercise 14 Infer a conclusion from each statement and say it using &%, &%-<, $9A$, $&A$,
and $&A$-<.
.0J<-2eR., 1R=-3-$A?-/3-;A/-/-<-aR2-.R%-;?, 1R=-3-2lR/-:P?-(J-3#/-$9A$-;A/,

Statements Conclusion
1. .J-2-5%-$A-K$?-9R$-5%-3-#-.$-,=, _____________________________
2. /.-0-(/-#%-/%-/?-:$R<-:$R<-<?-HA3-5%-!R%-2<-*/-,=, _____________________________
3. #<-$J?-3%-%-3-2>., %R-3-$A?-#<-$J-#-<R$-$J<-2#.-,=, _____________________________
4. %-,J<-3-;$-$9A$-.$R?-$A-;R., _____________________________
5. (-b-$A-/%-/-(-{3-;R., _____________________________
6. #<-$J-*A/-$%-%R-2#.-2+%-, =?-!-5%-3-.-2R-28$-;R., _____________________________
7. (/-0-$A?-/.-0-.J<-2v?-2+%-$9A$ /.-0-.J-2.J-,%-<J.-9J<, _____________________________
8. %:A-8A-=A-PR%-HJ<-/?-2#.-/?, #<-$J?-g-<-%R->J?-$A-3J., _____________________________
9. A-3.R-$A-3)=-2-:.A?-.-,J%?-*R-(-3A-o$-9J<, ____________________________
Exercise 15 Complete the conversation between a Tibetan father and his son using (-<J,
&%, $&A$-<, ?, $9A$, .J-9R, 5%-3, and .J. More than one correct choice is possible.
8AA-=AA A-1, %-|R<-3R-_______.$R?-$A HR?-|R<-3R-$A?-.!:-$A-;R.-/-<,

A--1 ;%-|R<-3R, HR?- _______-$A?-(A-$9A$-;?-o?, ;%-\R$-[.-lJ-AJ-:.R.,
8AA-=AA %?-lA?-<A$-$A-.0J-(-_______*R-.$R?, .$J-c/-$A?-$9:-:#R<-eJ?-3-$A-<?-_______2!R=-o-;A/-9J<,
A--1 A-8%-$A?-HR.-|R<-3R-3%-%-LA/-,=, HR?- _______$%-%-2!R=-2+%-/?,
8AA-=AA |R<- 3R-_______%?- A- 3<- LA/- 2+%- , 3<- $J?- *A/- I%?- %- |R<- 3R-_______ $A- .R/- /- 8R<- =?- ;?- /, %-
?J3?-/-$A
•488•
A-1 .R-5B$?-$A-<?, =R-.$-$A-<A%-%-, aR2-;R/-<-.0J-<A/-_____!J<-3A-.$R?-9J<-$A <J.-S-HR.-9R:C-aR2-9<-(A-$9A$-
L%-2+%-,
8A-=A YA.-)?-$A-,R$-/?-.J-3R-<J., <J.-S-.R/-.%R?-$A-,R$-/?-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J., A-1, .-HR?-%-=-|R<-3R-_______
LA/-/-(A-3R-<J.,
A-1 8A- =A, HR.- aR2- .R%- $A- ,R$- /?- _______*/- o- 3- <J., HR?- vR?- <, .-HR.- aR2- 9<- 3- ?R%- /- (A- 3R- $9A$- <J.,
$%-v<-/-<, aR2-9<-:PA3?-5<-/A-<, L-2-_______fJ.-o-3-<J.,
8A-=A %?-}R/-(.-<J-2-_______2+R/-3-MR%-, <J.-S-aR2-9<-:IR-oR:A-@/-(.-/?, %-(R/-0-_______3J.,
A-1 HR:A- %/- ;- (J- 2R- $A?- HA3- 5%- $A- o-9R$- _______ 24S%?- 2+%- , |R<- 3R- 5%- 3- #<- $J?- :HJ<- ?R%- , HA3- 5%- %-
_______28$-3J., .J:A-,R$-$ HR:A-%/-;-(%-%R-$A?-%J.-c/-cR/-$*A?-!-_______3-2?3?, #R-<%-$J?-
,2-29%-, HR:A-A-3-<-%J.-$*A?-!?-.!:-$A
8A-=A A-1, HR?-.-#$-$+3-3-2>., %?-_______=R?->J?, HR.-=R-S$-&-<-A-3-=R-<J-$?3-<J., HR.-$*A?-!?-
.-2R-=R-2&-$*A?-&/-$A-=?-!-=?-$A-;R., HR.-$*A?-!?-*A.-_______2o2-3-MR%-, <J.-S…,
A-1 %:A- =$- /- |R<- 3R-_______- 3J., .- %- |R<- 3R- _______ 2*A- $A- :IR, <J.- S- ^- 2- 28A- 2:A- /%- %- |R<- 3R- 2*A- oR-
%J?-%J?-.!:-/A-<J., #J-MA-?-;A/-/-<-=$-.%=-*%-/A-<J.,
8A-=A A-1, .J?-/-%?-.-,J%?-|R<-3R-3A-:HJ<, 353?-353?-3-aR2-9-$A-/%-/-.0J-(-fA%-%-!J<-o-;R., .0J-(-fA%-%-
_______3J.-2+%-/-.-$9:-:#R<-eJ?-3-%?-|R<-3R-:HJ<, HR?-2v?-/, _____(A-3R-<J.,
A-1 aR2-3-3J.-0R:C-/%-/-.0J-(-fA%-%-3A-.$R?-/R-_______;R.-o-3-<J., HR.-2?3-0-.J-3R-;R.-/-Z-$A
8A-=A ;%-3A/, HA3-35K?-5%-$A?-.J-<A%-=?-<R$?-\-$A-;R., %-=R-(%-/-<, =?-!-(%-(%-_____=?-,2-o-<J.-0,
A-1 AR, _______%:A-;A.-=-3-><, *A/-\-|R<-3R-?3-&-<J., HR:A-=$-$-=?-!-______;R%-/, .-%?-;%-|R<-
3R-2*A-3-.$R?-/A-<J.,
Exercise 16 A student makes his plan. Put in pronouns and indefinite articles learned
in this chapter.
:6B/-9-:.A:A-/%-aR2-3-3A-<A$?-?R-?R-;R., _____/%-*%-*%-$9A$-o-;A/-/-<, _____2R.-<J., o-$A-aR2-

PR$?-_____$A?-2R.-{.-P=-.$-$9A$-2>.-$A-;R., %?-2v?-/-#R-9R-2R.-$A-#J-2-/?-=$-($?-$9A$ /%?-!-
:6B/-9-:.A-5%-3-3R-$?J%-%-:IR-9J<-$A-;R., o-<A$?-aR2-3-_____}R-5S.-:HJ<-;R%-.$R?, .$J-c/-$A?-aR2-3-
_____(.-/-3A-(R$-9J<, 9-o-<-:,%-o-$8%-/-;R., %J.-9R?-_____*R-3A-.$R?,
•489•
%J.-9R-/%?-!-?-(-,$-<A%-_____/-;R.-o-<J., .$J-c/-$A?-.-2R-%-)-3-;A/-9J<, :6B/-9:A-/%-/?-=R-(J-___%-
<J.-9J<, %?-aR2-3-_____=?-<R$?-$-2.3?-2+%-%-, <J.-S-_____$8$-/?-#R-;R%-,2-o-3-<J.-9J<,
aR2-PR$?-8A-3R-_____$A?-3<-$J-%:A-=?-<R$?-2&:-9J<, aR2-PR$?-_____%J?-%J?-~A%-eJ-$9A$-<J., %-)-
3-2&:-oR-o/-.-3A-.$:-/-<, .-%?-L-2-_____=?-/-:.R.-$A-;R., {.-(-3<-$J?-2>.-2>._____.-2R-
%:A-i-=3-/-;R.-$A .-%?-____2?3-$A-3J., 8A-3R-_____3A/-., /%?-!-<J3-3-,R/-o-/,
%?- $R/- o- _____- $R/- /% - _____ $R/- /%- , %- $R/- o- .!<- <R- _____ $R/- oR<- 3A- .$:, <J.- S-
3<- $J?- o/- .- .!<- <R- $R/- $A- ;R., AR, %- /- /A%- :6B/- 9- :.A:A- /% - /- ;R. - $A .- 2R- <- :6B/- 9- :.A:A- /%-/- ;R.- $A 3<-
$J?-.J->J.-2>.-/, %?-(A-$9A$-9J<, :R, %?-":6B/-9-/%-/?-=R-(J-_____%-<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?, %-$8$-$-
2#.-/A-;A/,"9J<-o-;A/,
•490•
Noun / adjective / verb + 3 This structure commonly expresses such notions as semi-, hybrid
+ Noun / adjective / verb and almost.
Between nouns Between adjectives Between verbs

mR%-:.A-<R%-3-:VR$-$A-?-(-$9A$-<J., (-:.A-SR-3-:)3-<J., :,%?-/-OA$?- :IR-3-:.$-3-;?, .R-.$R%-HR.-:.A-
?J-<J., /?-#R.,
This county is an agro-pastoral This water is not hot or cold. It Stay here tonight! Don't dither
area. is perfect to drink. on leaving or staying!
o-/%-/?-=R-3%-%-:$R<-/A-<, #<-$J- %J.-9R?-.=-3-3IR$?->J.-<%-<%-$A- A-3-.$:-3-.$:->J.-*=-$A-2.-,=,
o--3-2RR.-$9A$-$-*/-;R., L-2-=?,
He became half Chinese after We did our work not quickly, The mother went to bed not so
several years in China. not slowly. happily.
<-3-<-=$-$*A?-$A-o.-0-<<-3-=$- ,$-0-5-3-:H$?->J.-:,%?-/-8A3, 8A-3R-.J?-:,.-3-:,.->J.-29:-5%-
9J<-$A-;R., 21A$?,
The cross between a goat and a Noodles taste good if one eats The girl got married not so
sheep is called ra ma lug. them when they are neither hot willingly.
nor cold.
.J%-?%-#%-2-3%-%-$9A$-?-3-hR-$A?- 8A-=A-A-1-<-3*3-3-3*3-<J., HA3-3-,R/-3-,R/-/, #<-$J<-($-|R-
=?-;R., L%-2+%-,
Nowadays many houses are The boy and his father are He had an accident just before
built partly with stone and almost equally tall. he arrived home.
partly with dirt.
<AA/ It means value or price. When it is combined with a verb in PRT, it expresses worth doing
something.
Tibetan English
Z%-@J-hR$-$R-PR%-HJ<-(J-$9A$-<J., .J<-:IRR-<AA/-3J.-$A Shanghai is a big city. It is not worth
going there.
<R$?-.J-3R<-\J%-<AA/-3J., HR.-%:A-SA/-(J/-;A/, Such a favor is not worth mentioning. I
am grateful to you.
.R/-.$-(%-(%-:.A-3R-$9A$-$A-.R/-/-#-mR.-<AA/-3J., It is not worth asking for a favor
regarding such a small thing.
=$-28A-2&<-:5S-<A/-3J., ;R%-|R-&%-3J., Herding a flock of forty sheep is not
worth the profit.
8A-3R-;$-3-.J<-.$:--<A/-3J., 3<-$J-.R/-.3-0?-8J-$/$-$9A$-<J., The beautiful girl is not worth loving.
She is a truly wicked person.
•491•
(A + verb + :.AA + the This compound is used to express, in a disapproving tone, an extreme
same verb + 3J. (someone does something / something happens).
Tibetan English
8A-=A-3$R-!R%-:.A<-(A-=?--:.AA-=?--3J., The empty-headed man does whatever he
likes.
.J%-?%--(A-$R-:.AA-$R-3J., 8A-3R-<-8A-3R-HA3-5%-2&:-$A-;R.-9J<, One hears all kinds of things: it is said that
women marry women.
%:A-c/-3R<-(A-2>.--:.AA-2>.--3J., .R/-:.A-3<-$J<-3-2>., My wife shoots her mouth off. Don't tell
anything to her!
.J-2-5%-%-(A-;R.-:.AA-;R.-3J., HA3-/-,%-!A-<-$?R-$A-;R., That family has everything; even a wolf is
raised in their home.
z-2-.J<-(A-<A$-:.AA-<A$-3J., :SJ-<-<A$-9J<, The spirit medium sees everything. It is said
that he can even see ghosts.
=-#. It expresses something is about to take place soon when it is used with verbs in PRT,
similar to the English word about.
Tibetan English
<J3, _%?-:#R<-:IRR-=-#.-;R., Hurry! The bus is about to leave.
:P=-2-9R-,R/-=-#.-<J., 9-3-P-1A$-;?-.$R?-o-<J., The guests will come soon. We must prepare

food.
.-%-KA<-<-KA-o=-<-:IRR-=-#.-;R., Now I am about to go back abroad.
\R$-2f/-!R/-=-#.-;R., .-/%-%-:IR, The movie will be shown soon. Let's go in now!
8A%-2-9R-3A-#R3-=-#.-;R., !R/-=?-$A?-$+$?-2+%-, The farmers are about to get busy, with the
impending harvest.
;$ It means completely, entirely, or perfectly when compounded with verbs.
Tibetan English
A-3J-<A-#-/?-3A-<A$?-3%-%-{.-<A$?-$A-,R$-/?-:SJJ?-;$--<J., Many ethnic groups are linguistically
completely integrated in the USA.
5B$-:.A-2+<-/R-:K$?--;$-<J., This sentence is translated completely
wrong.
.J-<A%-$A-L-2-5%-3-P2-;$--;A/, All tasks have been completely finished
today.
MA-5%-3-vR$?-;R.-$A 9-3-5%-3-9R?-;$-<J., All people are hungry. All the food is
completely gone.
3<-$J?-$?%-$+3-5%-3-%-=-2>.--;$-;A/, She told me all (her) secrets entirely.
=?-!-5%-3-.J-<A%-12-;$-LR?, Please finish all the work today!
=R-$&A$-$-{.-<A$?-$9A$->J?-;$-;?-3A-,2, One cannot become fluent in a language in

one year.
•492•
3 This morpheme, compounded with verbs in PAT, derives adjectives. The underlined English
adjectives are derived approximately in the same way: a copied document; the selected
president.
Tibetan English
.0J-(-=$--VA?-3-:.A<-=R-?3-2o-$A-=R-o?-;R., This hand-written book has a history of 300
years.
5B$-36S.-:.A-{.-s->/--.<-3-$9A$-<J., This dictionary contains five different languages
in contrast.
o=-#2-:.A:A-:$R-2-.3%?--2{RR?-3-$9A$-3-<J., The leader of this country is not publicly
selected.
;A-$J-:H$-VA?-3-:.A-2R.-;A$-$A-:VA-YR=-$9A$-<J., The scribbled letters are a kind of Tibetan
calligraphy.
9%?-{-]$?--3-$9A$-%?-<A$-3-MR%-, I have never seen a molded brass statue.
</ It is compounded with verbs in PRT to express the time comes for doing something.
Tibetan English
aR2-9-PR=-?R%-, 8A-=A-.-HA3-3--,R/-</-<J., School is over. It is the time for my son to be at
home.
%-.-2R-$*J/-1A$-</-3J., %-=R-2&-2./-;A/, I am seventeen years old. It is not the time for
me to marry.
.?-5S.-.-2R-$?3-;R.-$A $/3-P-,%-%-:IRR-</-3J., There are still three hours. It is premature for us
to go to the airport.
HR.-.-2R-;A.-(.--</-3J., @<-<?-;?-/-<J-2-;R.-o-<J., It is too early for you to be disappointed. There
is still hope if you try hard.
.?-5S.-$?3-$A-$8$-/?, #R-*=--</-:IR, It will be the time for him to go to bed in three
hours.
•493•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-2&--S$$-0,,
$R?-29R-A-&J-.L%?-&/,
29R-#% tailor shop 29R-#%-:.A:A-2.$-3R-3<-$J-<J.,
:$R-3 first; initial 9R$-$A-:$R-3-=-#<-,R/-;R.,
29R to make; to tailor $<-3#/-.J?-VR-H-$9A$-29R-$A-2&$
,R$-3 first one MA-$A-,R$-3-A-nJ-<A-#-/?-;R%-9J<,
o-H Chinese (style) clothes .J%-?%-2R.-$A?-<-o-H-$R/-$A-;R.,
b%-$3 trousers b%-$3-:.A-%?-$R/-/-:#R2?-(J-?R%-,
=$-<R$? assistant =$-<R$?-$9A$-3J.-/-%?-.!:-o-<J.,
=?-,R$-$-:22 to fit well (clothes) !R.-H-:.A-=?-,R$-$-3A-:22-$A
9-H monk's clothing 9-H-9R-,A<-2+%-$A?-.3<-($-;A/,
3/2?-29: high-rank lama's clothing 3/2?-29:-!J%-%-:$R3-;$-$+R%-3A-*/,
3.R$-#-3R bright; colorful 2R.-0-=R-=R/-9R?-IR/-o-3.R$-#-3R-3A-$R/,
;$ nice; beautiful ;$-/-MA-$A-o/-<J.,
\R$-(? electronic products \R$-(?-9R-$R%-2.J-3R-<J.,
u%-# green C-$A-3.R$-u%-#-;A/-/%-}R/-0R-<J.,
.N$?-) Tibetan butter tea A-3.R-/-.N$?-)-:,%-3#/-*%-,
S-3 window S-3->J=-|R-;A/-/-$?=-3R-;A/,
$?=-;%? space and brightness #%-2-$?=-;%?-(J-/-#3?-?%?-$A
l-/ next to; near V$-l-/-$?R3-#R3-$9A$-*J?-;R.,
,$-0 noodle >-3J.-/-%?-,$-0-3A-{R=,
?J<-<R yellow 2R.-0-9R?-$R/-o-?J<-<R-3A-$R/,
8A3-3.R$-(J seemingly tasty 9-3-8A3-3.R$-(J, <J.-S-%?-9-3A-*/,
#-2 soup #-2-3J.-/R:C-,$-0-%-3A-.$:,
*< sour ?A=-+R$-:.A-*<-$A 3%<-3R-$/-9R-<J.,
•494•
=-*J-&/ capable MA-=-*J-&/-2+=-o-3J.,
}R/-,R/ developed; active; keen :$R-2-:.A-2?3-0-}R/-,R/-<J.,
(-<J several %?-*A/-<J<-,-3$-(-<J-:,J/,
@<-< over there @<-<-3-:IR, :.A-/?-#R.,
$/?-%< to move %-#%-fA%-.J:A-/%-/?-$/?-%<-2+%-,
:.2-($? birds :.2-($?-$A-<A$?-$-Y%-*R2-LR?,
wJ2? platform V$-$A-wJ2?-/-3(R.-gJ/-$9A$-;R.,
.?-(. appointment <R$?-0-$9A$-$A?-%-<-.?-(.-;?-;R.,
82?-VR-o$ to dance; to perform 82?-VR-o$-oR-3<-$J:A-=?-!-<J.,
wJ-3A$ key wJ-3A$-2R<-?R%-/-|R-:LJ.-3A-,2,
#-= soda; soft drink #-=-$A?-%-$*A.-;R%-$A-3A-:)$
<R?-ZA Switzerland <R?-ZA-o=-#2-(%-, K$-0R-;A/,
$*R3 weak; humble 8-;?-:.A-$*R3, $/-24/,
#J-29% benefit #J-29%-3J.-/-#<-$J?-5S%-3A-o$
:2-YA/ worm and insect %:A-A-3-$A?-:2-YA/-3A-9,
.3J-2R disgusting {.-(-.3J-2R-.J-3R-$+/-/?-2>.-3A-*/,
%R-3A-(R. not dare to refuse #<-$J?-c/-3R-$A-%R-3A-(R.,
8R<-< while aR2-.R%-;?-8R<-<, 3<-$J?-|R<-3R-24=,
S/ to miss 8-;?-S/-S/-/?-A-3-*A.-$A-3J.,
3R-n% single woman #<-$J:A-/-3R-.-2R-<-3R-n%-<J.,
$&A$-$*A? a couple of .-2R-:P=-2-$&A$-$*A?-$9A$-?R%-3J.,
.R$?-0-9 to suspect #<-$J<-%?-.R$?-0-9-$A-3J.,
4K-$<-$9A$-$ for a while 4K-$<-$9A$-$-%:A-;A.-<-&%-3-S/,
:.R/-0 something to chant; scripture .J-<A%-$A-5S$?-,R$-/-:.R/-0-3%-,
$+R<-3 a religious offering $+R<-3-=?-oR<-<A3-PR-2-?/-$A-;R.,
&%-;A$ soy sauce &%-;A$-3J.-/-o-$A-9-3-=?-YR=-3J.,
3,/-? consensus; accord %/-$*A?-$A-2<-/-3,/-?-&%-3J.,
•495•
<%-.2% freedom <%-.2%-3J.-/-24S/-3-<J.,
3-$+R$? except MA-$&A$-3-$+R$?-5%-3-;R%-;R.,
.0J-(-$?J<-VA?-3-.%-.%=-VA?-3,
VA?-3 written .0J-(-:.A-VA?-3-$9A$-<J.,
$;R/-3 left one .0J-(-$;R/-3-$?J<-VA?-<J.,
$&A$-$R-hR$-$R the other one :.A-3A-.$R?, $&A$-$R-hR$-$R-.$R?,
$-<A% long horizontally .0J-(-3%-(J->R?-$-<A%-3A/,
*<-5$? maintenance ;A$-(-3%-/-*<-5$?-;?-oR-.!:,
35= cinnabar 35=-$A?-.0J-(-VA?-/-;$
$$-5 ink $$-5-$A?-#<-$J:A-$R/-o-2m.-2+%-,
#R%->/ bark #R%->/-$A?->R$-$-29R-,2,
23-0R volume lR3-0-0R-:.A?-.0J-(-23-0R-2./-2l3?,
\J$?->A% wood cover plates .0J-(-$-<A%-%-\J$?->A%-.$R?,
(-/? in respect to; with regard to o-%?-$A-(-/?-0<-(?-:.A-Z,
.R/-(J meaning; significant .J-<A%-L-2-P2-/R-.R/-(J,
:2R<-P%? amount; number :2R<-P%?-$=-3A-(J, o-%?-$=-(J,
<A$-$8%-!/-:.?-3 encyclopedia CD :.A-<A$-$8%-!/-:.?-3-$9A$-<J.,
.0<-=? publishing <A$-$/?-o?-/-.0<-=?-8R<-<-.<,

$J-=J/-;? to treat; to host $J-=J/-;?-3#/-.-2R-,R/-3J.,
$&J?-0 beloved; favorite 8A-3R-:.A-#R-5%-$A-8-;?-$&J?-0-;A/,
:.%-&/ beloved aR2-3-:.%-&/-0R-.J-<A%-3-,R/-,=,
<2-;A/-/ as the best <2-;A/-/-%J.-5S-3*3-0?-:PR,
4/-./ sandalwood 4/-./->A%-SA-3-8A3-0R-;A/,
3:R-,:R motorcycle 3:R-,:R-8R/-/-*J/-#-@R%-$A?-(J,
%R-35%-:V to insult; to taunt MA-$*R3-(%-%-%R-35%-3-:V,
,J<-3 cloth made of wool ]-3-.J?-o/-.-,J<-3-$R/-$A-;R.,
•496•
A-8% father-in-law; maternal uncle A-8%-$A?-%-.?-5S.-$9A$-*R?,
,2-29% to set up a family 8A-=A-(%-%R-$A?-<-,2-29%-;R.,
#$-$+3 one's woes; grievances #$-$+3-3-2>., %?-*/-/-3A-:.R.,
=$-.%= cash =$-.%=-3J.-/-:.A-/-5S%-3J.,
2&:-.$ fluent; neat o-3R-:.A?-2R.-{.-2&:-.$-2>.-$A-;R.,
$8%-/-;R. to be publicly owned N%-$R-/?-?-8A%-.-2R-$8%-/-;R.,
•497•
•498•
aR2-5/-2&-2./-0,
2h-3R.,
Cases of Conditional Words: / Conjunctions: $%-v<-/-<; .J-3A/-/;

Adverbial Contrast Clauses: /-<; .J?-3A-5. ; /R?-3A-5.…<; ;%-3A/-.;
;A/-/-<; <J.-S; /-$A-< ;%-3A/-.…;%-3A/-. ; <…<;
Adverbial Clauses (reason and .J:A-,R$-$ $A-<?; $A-29%-; $A-<A%-%;
purposive): /R-$A?; nJ/-$A?; (J.-<; .R/-/ {2?-2; 8R<-<; <J$-$J<; }R/-/;
Adverbial Time Clauses: .?; }R/-/?; /A-<
Two characters of the religious drama Mgon po rdo rje, Bla brang Monastery, Bsang
chu County, Gan lho Prefecture, Gansu Province (2011).
Text One: adverbial clauses
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
\A%-$J-?<-o=-2R:C-1%-%R-3R.,
\A%- $J- ?<- o=- 2R:C- 1%-9J<- /R-~/- %$- $A- %$- ,R$- .0:- 2R:C- =R- o?- $9A$- <J., .0:- 2R:C- =R- o?- :.A<- =R- %R- !R%- $A- ;/- ;R.-
:.R.-$A-;R., .J%-?%-;A/-/-<, 1%-3#/-2o-z$-$9A$-$A?-$J-?<-o=-2R-$A-1%-2>.-$A-;R.-/R-$A?, ~/-%$-$A-.0:-2R:C-
=R-o?-$?R/-0R-$9A$-$-2lA-$A-;R., %$-o/-$A-.0:-2R:C-=R-o?-:.A-5%-3-:5$-/, 23-0R-2o-<-*A->-=R%?-$A-;R., =R-o?-
:.A?-$4S-2R<-\A%-$A-o=-2R-.0:-cR.-$J-?<-$A-$/?-5=-2!R.-;R.,
$J- ?<- o=- 2R:C- 1%-L%- $A- <?- 3- *3?- $R%- :1J=- ;R%- /R- 1%- 3#/- <A$?- $J:A- .2%- $A?- <J., 2>.- YR=-v<- /, kA- =3- ;-
35/- $9A$- $A- $8$- /?, 1%-3#/- <A$?- $J- 1%- 2>.- 3#/- /- */- :IR - 9J<, $*A.- ?.- /A- <, #R- 9R- $J- ?<- o=- 2R- $A- 1%-
2>.- oR:A- S/- 0- : ,R2- :IR- 9J<, #R- 9R?- .?- 5S.- (- <J- $A- /%- %- 3$R- /?- 3)$- 2<- <- $J- ?<- $A- 1%- (- 5%- %- 2>.- ,2, 1%-
3#/-3%-(J->R?-:5S-2-$A-(-nJ/-8/-?-:VR$-?-/?-<J.,1949=R<-N%-K-3A-.3%?-,A-3,/-o=-#2-3-24$?-$R%-, #R-9R?-
1%- 2>.- <?- 3$R- ,R/- ,2?- ;?, =- =%-:PA3?, 353?- 353?- 3- 2R.- $A-3)=- 2- 9R:C- 3*3- 0?-3)=- {R<- <- :IR- 8R<-
1%-2>.-/A-<J., 1%-3#/-;A$-%R-3A-(R.-/R-:.A-<A$?-$A?-;A$-:V-?-;-LJ-2->J.-;A.-<-(A-$9A$->J.-29%-/%-, =R-o?-%$-
,R$-/?-:6B/-YR=-:.A-/%-|R?-?-$/:-2R:C-2R/-$A-?-(-/?-.<-H2-(J-/R-$A?, $J-?<-o=-2R:A-1%-:.A<-2R/-(R?-$A-2$-($?-
$+A%-92-3R-$9A$-,J2?-;R.-:.R.-$A-;R.,
%$-o/-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?, $J-?<-$A-1%-<J-<J-2>.-YR=-<-3A-:S, =R-(A-3R-$9A$-:$R<-/-<, $/:-.J%-3-$A-2>.-YR=-<-.J%-
?%-$A-2>.-YR=-$*A?-!-A-/-3-/-3A/-/-<, 1/-5/-$A-2<-/-:S-?-(J-$9A$-;R., 1%-.0J->A%-.0<-3-A-+-$A?-}-3-2R-,A-
=R-1716=R<-(A/-o=-<2?-$A-$R%-3-#%-8A-$A?-8=-:.J2?-2o2-2?-2+R/, .-;R.-$A-1%-lR3-<A$?-$J?-1%-lR3-}R/-/-;R.-
/R-$8A<-29%-;R.-/-,%-/-<-, .J-<A$?-$J-5%-3-.?-<2?-2&R-2o.-0-$A-$8$-/?-<J., .?-<2?-2&-.$-2:A-3)$-/?-*A-
>-2:A-!R.-<->A%-.0<-:.J2?-oR-o-(J->J.-.<-?R%-,
$J-?<-$A-1%-2R.-/?-3A/-.-.-2R-?R$-0R-/-<-.<-H2-(J, /2-/?-o-35S-/%-3- (Caspian Sea)$A-#-#R<-<-H2-;R., :V$-

$A-o=-2R-$*A?-2-$A?-<-$J-?<-1%-2>.-3#/-$9A$-o/-.-\?-;R.-9J<, 1%-2>.-!%?-3A-:S-/R-5%-3-KR$?-$&A$-$-
2#?-/, 1%-:.A-:)A$-gJ/-:.A:A-,R$-$A-2l3?-1%-A-+-$A?-<A%-2R-;A/-/-,%-9J<-$A-;R.,
;A/-/-<, 1%-$A-/%-/?-1%-L%-?-<-L%-.?->J?-oR-.!:-3R-<J., $/:-.J%-3-$A-\A%-$A-?-(-;A/-9J<-?-(-4B$-;R.-$A .J-9R:C-
/%-/?, 2R.-$A-3#?-2-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-#J-.$J-$J-?<-o=-2R-:O%?-?-;A/->?-(J-2?3-$A-;R., ?-(-:.A-%$-o/-$A-o=-
•500•
U/-\A%-5%-$A-?-#R%?-/-;R.-/R?-3A-5., .?-<2?-2&R-s-2:A-/%-%-3.R-#3?-$A-o=-U/-(J-$9A$-<-;A/, 8R<-$A?-&A$-
2>.-/, $J-?<-o=-2R-$A-]-<A-3$R-=R$-#=-$A-A-MJ?-k-(J/-;A/-9J<,
17.1 --Adverbial clauses
Adverbial Tibetan English Type of

Conjunc- clause
tion
(-nJ/-;R.-/, 2R.-<-v-{R<-<-:IR-o?, (I) will travel to Tibet if I have
the financial wherewithal.
/ %:A-c/-3R-<-8A-=A-%:A-3*3-0?-;R.-o--/, If only my wife and son were
with me!
Con-
ditional
#$-3-<A$-/-*A.-3A->J?, One would not feel happy if he
has not experienced hardship.
#<-$J-=R-(%-/R-$AA?, (%-:,%-3A-*/, He should not drink because he
is young.
=R-.-3%-%->-3-9R?-/RR-$AA?, #<-$J?->-S/-$A- He does not miss meat any
more since he has not eaten
/R-$A? reason
3J., meat for many years.
3<-$J-S%-/R-$A?, 3<-$J<-$?%-2-3J., She has no secrets because she

is so straight-forward.
%?-L-2-3-=?-$R%-5$?-0<-[R$-$A-;R., I read the newspaper before
starting work.
3…$R% :.%-3-2o2-$R%-,$-$&R.-3-;?, Do not make decisions before
thinking it over!
Tem-
poral
%-:.A<-3-;R%-$R%-KA-o=-<-;R%-3-MR%-, I had never been abroad before
I came here.
(/-2&R?-;?-oR:A-(J.-<--#R-(/-#%-%-2*=, He was sent to a hospital to get
treated.
genitive
case + (J.-<
2-$A-(JJ.-<, 3<-$J?-$+3-~/-3%-%-2>., She said a lot of good things
about her son.
Pur-
posive
%-<J3-3-,R/-oR:A-(J.-<-:1<-<?-?R%-, I flew so as to arrive quickly.
#<-$J-2R.-;A/-/-<-o-{.-2>.-$A-;R., He speaks Chinese although he

is Tibetan.
/-< L-2-5K$?-(J-/-<, #<-$J-.0:-83-$A-3J., He is not foiled although his job

is very difficult. contrast
1/-5/-/-,$-*J-/-<, #R-9R-22-$A?-,$-$A-3J., They live close to each other,
but they do not see each other
at all.
Notes-1
1. An adverbial clause is usually put before a main clause. An adverbial clause is put after
the main clause only when one wants to emphasize it, e.g., #<-$J-~A%-3-eJ, MA-%/-$9A$-;A/-/-<,
Be kind to him even though he is a bad person.
2. Pronouns may be omitted in main clauses if they are already mentioned in the adverbial
clause, e.g., #<-$J-2R.-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?-/%-2!/-0-$9A$-<-;A/, He is a Tibetan and thus a
Buddhist as well.
•501•
Exercise 1 Rewrite each statement with an adverbial clause.
.0J<-2eR., o=-/%-5.-0-(J, %-3A-:IR, o=-/%-5.-0-(J-/R-$A?-%-3A-:IR,

Conditional clause
1. (<-2-:22-o-<J., %J.-$*A?-!-.?-,R$-$-HA3-3-,R/-o-3-<J., ___________________________
2. %?-=$-HJ<-#-0<-.J-.-2R-3A-#$ %?-|R<-3R-$?R$-.$R?, ___________________________
3. HR.-lJ-$A-3-:IR, .J-3A/-.-%?-HR.-!-<-3A-*R, ___________________________
Contrast clause
1. 3<-$J-2R.-;A/, 3<-$J:A-c.-0R-o-$9A$-;A/, ___________________________
2. 1R=-3-(-nJ/-$A?-3A-:.%-, 3<-$J:A-Z%-3R-(-nJ/-$A?-:.%-,=, ___________________________
3. %/-;-$*A?-!-@R%-$A?-<A$-$A #R-$*A?-!-A-/-3-/-3-<J., ___________________________
Purposive clause
1. c/-3R-=R-2o.-&-&/-0R-:.A-KA-o=-<-5-2R<-v-$A-?R%-MR%-, ___________________________
2. (R?-1R/-$A?-@2-*R?-,=, 3<-$J?-.$R%-)-2{R=-o-<J., ___________________________
3. %-:P=-2-$9A$-=J/-$A-$/3-P-,%-%-:IR-.$R?, ___________________________
Reason clause
1. 3<-$J?-L-2-2*<-2+%-, L-2-.!:-?R%-$9A$ ___________________________
2. %?-29:-3A-9R-S/-$A $9:-:#R<-$8$-3-%-v-$A-:IR-o?, ___________________________
3. !R.-*A-3-z-?-$/?-3(R$-;A/, 2R.-5%-3-3)=-$A-:IR, ___________________________
Temporal clause
1. aR2-OA.-PR=-,=, <J.-S-.-2R-.?-5S.-,R/-3J., ___________________________
2. HR?-:.%-8A2-3R->J.-oR2?, ,$-$&R.-oR<-3-VJ=, ___________________________
3. %?-.$R%-I%?-%-#-/%-:O., .J-/?-*=-$A-:IR, ___________________________
17.2 --Temporal clause
Temporal Tibetan English Equi-

terms valent
$J-?<-*J?-.??, #R-5%-HA3-5%-3J.-0R-$9A$-;A/, When he was born, Gesar's
family was poor.
.? when
%-,R/-.?, 3J-:#R<-2.-?R%-$9A$ The train had left when I
arrived.
Genitive case +
%?-=R-2&R-s-$A-,R$-$A-<?-.LA/-;A$-.%?, I have studied English since
I was fifteen years old.
<? / /?-29% .?-<2?-.$-2-/?-29%-2R.-*3?-?R%-, since
The Tibetan Empire began
falling after the 8th century.
•502•
%-.$J-c/-$9A$-3-;A/-$R%-8A%-2-$9A$-;A/, I was a farmer before
becoming a teacher.
3 … $R% 8A-=A, =?-L-3-5<-$R%-lJ-$A-3-:IR, Son! Don't go playing before
before you finish your
homework!
Genitive case + $J-?<-$A-<AA%-%-, #<-$J?-.3$-:O$-2o2, Gesar was at war his entire
life.
in;
<A%-%- during;
MA-,R$-$*A?-$A-<AA%-%-, HA3-5%-$*A?-!-3-:PA$ The two families had a
dispute for two generations.
for
Genitive case +
aR2-OA.-$A-{2?--2-#-2h-3-;?, Do not talk during class!
during;
{2?-2 $/3-:22-/R:A-{2?-2-|R<-3-:IR, Do not go out when it is when
raining!
9-3-9-8R<-<, %?-#-2h-;?-3A-*/, I'm not allowed to talk while
having food.
8R<-< while
HR.-:IR-8R<-<, HA3-K$?-:.A-:HJ<-0, Please take away this
garbage while leaving!
%?-=R-$?3-3-:2.-<J$-$JJ<-{.-(-3A->J?-9J<, It is said that I did not
speak until I was three.
<J$-$J< until
9-3-3%-<J$-$J<-3-9, Do not continue to eat until
becoming too full!
Genitive case =R-?3-&-$A-}RR/-/-1-;=-/-\R$-3J., There was no electricity in
my hometown thirty years
+}R/-/; ago.
ago
Genitive case + #<-$J-.?-5S.-$?3-$A-}RR/-/?-2.-,=, He left three hours ago.
}RR/-/?
.?-5S.-2./-0-$A-$88$--/?-%-=?->$-/?--3A- I do not stay in my office
after seven o'clock.
Genitive case +
$8$-/? :.$ after; in
*A/-3-$?3-$A-$8$$-/?-%-;=-{R<-<-:IR, I will go traveling in three
days.
%-,R/-/A-<-#-0<-$9A$-,R/-2+%-, Someone phoned me as
soon as I arrived. as soon
/A-< / <%-$A? as
8A-=A-$A?-HA3-3-,R/-<%%-$AA?-9-3-9-:$R-2l3?, My son started to eat as
soon as he came back home.
Notes-2
1. $A-<? / /?-29%: They both mean since or from (ablative), e.g., .-/%?-$A-<?- / .-/%?-/?-
29%-%?-&%-<-3-9R?, I have eaten nothing since this morning. / :.A-$A-<? / :.A-/?-29%-%-
:.$-?-,$-<A%-, My place is far from here.
2. 3…$R%: In such temporal clauses, the verb is always in PAT.
3. Genitive case + {2?-2: A genitive case marker is put before the temporal term, e.g., HR.-
;R%-/R:C-{2?-2-%-2R.-/-;R.-o-3-<J., I won't be in Tibet when you come.
4. Genitive case + <A%-%: It indicates a lingering period of time, e.g., %?-.?-5S.-:#R<-=R-:.A-=R-
2o.-$A-<A%-%-2!R=-2+%-, I have used this watch for ten years.
•503•
Exercise 2 Complete the paragraphs with temporal conjunctions and, if necessary,
genitive case markers.
.-%-2R.-$A-?-(-/?-=R-2&-,3-0-:$R<-$A-;R., %-2R.-<-;R%-________2R.-{.-Z-=->J.-.%?, KA-o=-$A-MA-3%-%-$9A$-

$A?, HR.-2R.-/?-.-________=R-(A-3R-$9A$-$-:.$-o-;A/-9J<, %-<%-$A?-=R-2./-&<-:2.-________KA<-<-:IR-
o-3A/-:.R.-$A-;R.,
=R- *A- >- $A- ________, %- <- %:A- A- 1- $*A?- !- 2R.- $A- ?- (<-v- {R<- <- ;R%- ;?- ^- 2- $?3- 3- 2#., .J:A- ________ ,
%J.-$*A?-!-?-(-3%-%-$9A$- $-?R%-, MA-3%-%-,$ {2?-.J<-%-2R.-<-;R%-________, 2R.-$A- ?-(-3%-%-/?-;=-{R<-
;?, %-2R.-<-________;R%-________, %?-2R.-$A-{R<-/?-$R-/R->J?-/R-5%-3-\R$-2f/-<-.0J-(-2o.-<?->J?-/A-
<J., %:A- aR2- :VA%- $A- aR2- PR$?- $9A$- 2R.- /?- ;R%________, #<- $J- .- 2R- =R- $&A$- <J- $*A?- <J- $A- /%- %- 2R.- <- ,J%?-
$&A$-<J-:IR-$A-;R., #<-$J?-%-2R.-$A-o-35/-3%-%-2>.-MR%-, .J-________, HR.-2R.-<-:IR-:.R.-(J-,=, <J.-S-%:A-
@-3-$*A?-!?-%-:IR-$A-3-2&$ #R-$*A?-!?-2v?-/, 3,R- :VA%-3,<-________KA/-________, %-2R.-<-?R%-/-
3A-:PA$-9J<, <J.-S-%-2R.-<-:IR-:.R.-22-$A?-:$R$-3-,2, *A/-3-$9A$-$-%:A-A-1-$A?-.L<-$/%-________2R.-<-
:IR-9J<, 2R.-<-,R/-________, %?-2R.-hR$-$R-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/- /%- 2?3?, ;=-{R<- ,J%?-.J:A-________, %- ;%-
KA<-<-A-3J-<A-#<-<J3-3-KA<-<-:IR-:.R.-*J?, ^-2-$?3-_______, %?-2R.-/?-A-3J-<A-#-$A-.%R?-2R-<, 9-3, <%-$A-
<R$?-0-3%-%-$9A$-S/-?R%-,
.J-;A/-/-<, =R-2&-,3-$A-________%-KA<-<-2R.-<-<A$-$/?-8A2-:)$-;?-$A-;R%-, %?-8A2-:)$-;?-________

A- 3.R:C- 2R.- {.- <- o- {.- @- 8J/- $A?- .%?, .J%- ,R$- $A- =R- $?3- 28A- $9A$- ______ , %- KA- \A%- 2- $&A$- $- <- ,$- 3- MR%- ,
$8$-/?-%-<%-$A-aR2-3-$%-3%-$9A$-%:A->$-0R<-*/-?R%-, 8A2-:)$-$A-8R<-<, %?-,A-5S$?-;<-o?-$A-=?-$8A-3%-%-
$9A$- $- l- :6$?- 3%- %- $9A$- /?- |R<- 3R- 2a%?, =R- S$-________, .LA/- ;A$- aR2- .R%- $A- .%R?- $8A:A- :6B/- 9-
24$?, .-________%?- 2R.-$A-aR2-3-s- 2o-S$-2o-$9A$-$?R-*R%- ;?-;R., %?-A- 3J-<A-#-$A-:5S-2<-<R=-$A-3J.- /-
<, :5S-2-.R/-~A%-&/-$9A$-$-<R=-$A-;R.-:.R.-$A-;R.,
%?-A-3J-<A-#-$A-9-3-S/-________, %-.-2<-$A-:.$-?-9A-=A%-/-A-3J-<A-#-$A-9-3-<-9-o-;R., A-3J-<A-#-/-;R.-/R-.-9A-

=A%- /?- <- *R- ,2- $A- 9J<- /- (R$- (R$- <J., %- N%- $R- $A- 2R.-$A- ?- (- <- o- $A- ?- (- /?- 2#.- /R:C-________ , %- <%- $J- <- 2R.-
$9A$-$-*/-$A-;R., 353?-353?-3-%-:.A-/?->A-________2#.-/-:.R.-$A-;R.,
•504•
Exercise 3 Complete the statements with temporal conjunctions. There may be more
than one correct answers.
.0J<-2eR., %-KA-o=-<-;R%-<J$-$J<-.LA/-{.-.%?-3-MR%-,
1. .?-<2?-2&-.$-2-_______3A:A-<A$?-$A?-.-2R-t$?-L-3A->J?,
2. A-3J-<A-#-o=-#2-A-+-$A?-!R2?-:LR<-&/-0R-3A/, :63-\A%-:O$-(J/-$*A?-2-_______,
3. ?:-=J/-_______,R<-_______, A-3J-<A-#-<-?:-=J/-$*A?-!-.3$-.R/-$A-,R$-/?- 1/-5/-$A-.R-;-<J.,
4. .?-<2?-2./-0-_______, ;<-[%-$4%-2R:A-:P3-2o.-/?-2R.-(J/-0R-.<-:$R-2l3?,
5. ,%-o=-<2?-!R2?-:LR<-(J-___, 2R.-!R2?->$?-<-(J->J.-o?-;R., o=-#2-$*A?-!-:PA$-8R<-<-:O$-8R<-<J.,
6. YR%-24/-|3-0R-2R.-(J/-0R-$A-24/-0R-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J:A_______, 2R.-(J/-0R-$&A$-I<-;R%-,
7. o-$<-/?-?%?-o?-(R?-=$?-*3?-$A-;R.-_______, 2R.-/?-?%?-o?-(R?-=$?-$-l-2-o?,
8. o=-2R-\%-.<-3-_____2R.-$A-?-(-5%-3-?A=-2<-,R<-?R%-, .?-<2?-3%-%-______<-:R<-$A?-$&A$-I<-3-;R%-,
9. A-3.R-/?-4S%-#-o=-2R-.<-_______, 2R.-$A-?-(-$8/- 0-.-2R-<%-<%-$A-?-/-#J<-(.-<-;R.,
10. 2R.-(J/-0R-_______, 2R.-<-(/-<-;A-$J-.<-:$R-2l3?, 2R.-;A$-$A-YR=-$+R.-3#/-,R/-3A-;A/-9J<-$A-;R.,
Exercise 4 Rewrite each statement with temporal conjunctions. There may be more
than one correct choice.
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J?-.3<-9?-9-$A-3J., #<-$J?-=R-2./-/-.3<-9?-3-9R?,

#<-$J?-=R-2./-$A-}R/-$A-<?-.3<-9?-9-$A-3J.,
Original sentences With temporal conjunctions
1. 3<-$J?-=R-$?3-$A-}R/-/-2R.-;A$-.%?, .-2R-<-.R%-$A-;R., ________________________
2. %-o=-#2-:.A-/?-=R-$?3-:$R<-?R%-, %?-=R-$?3-3-=$->-3-9R?, ________________________
3. %?-o=-#2-$A-L-2-<-=?-$A-;R., 8R<-=?-<-;?-$A-;R., ________________________
4. #R-9R-?-(-:.A-/?-:.$-:.R.-$A-3J., .-=R-$&A$-+$-+$-:.$-o-<J., ________________________
5. #<-$J:A-A-1-3-2.J, #$-$+3-:.A-#<-$J?-,R/-/A-<-.->J?, ________________________
6. 8A-=A-:.A-KA-o=-/?-*J?, {2?-.J<-#<-$J:A-A-1-KA-o=-/-;R., ________________________
7. #%-2-:.A-$4%-3-3-<J., *A/-3-2./-/-2&:-.$-3-2&R?, ________________________
8. .R/-P2-o=-=R-(%->J.->A-?R%-, ________________________
9. 3<-$J-o/-.-%-?.-,%-, c.-0R-$A?-%-{.-:(R<-$A-;R., ________________________
•505•
10. %?-_%?-:#R<-:.A-=R-2./-/-2!R=-?R%-, .-2R-<-*R/-$&A$-<-3J., ________________________
11. .%R?-2R-A-m-2R-/3-;A/-/-<-Z-$A :($-o-:)A$-o-3J., ________________________
12. HR.-1-;:-2-/3-:IR, HR.-:IR-/-%-#-0<-$9A$-,R%?, ________________________
Text Two: adverbial clause
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, $J-?<-1%-$A-/%-.R/-,A-#R$
$J-?<-o=-2R-$A-1%-\J%-/, ,A<-2+%-$A?-:O%?-{R<-:$R-3-<J., .J:A-/%-:)A$-gJ/-($?-YR=-<-2R.-$A-=R-o?-3.R<-2#?-
$9A$-2>.-/A-<, (R?-o=-$?3-$A-<A%-%-(.?-<2?-2./-0-$A-<?-2o.-0-$A-2<), 2R.-$A-3$R-/$-MA-[-[R-$A-<?-/%-
2!/-(R?-=$?-$-2!$?-YR=, /%-|R?-?-AR-o/-0.-3-:L%-$/?-$A?-2!/-3-2&-$*A?-.3-3-2+$?-YR=-\J%-;R., .J-
/?-.-2R.-$A-2..-5%-3-(3-3-12-/R, 2R.-$A-?-(-?A=-2<-,R<-/R-\J%-;R.,
:PR-2-3A-2.J-=-:$R.-oR:A-(J.-<-2..-<A$?-$A-;=-#3?-5%-3-.2%-%-#.-oR:A-(J.-<, z:A-.2%-2R-2o-LA/-<-5%?-2-
.!<-<R, 3#:-:PR-(R?-*R%-Y%-3, [-<-[-3R-3%-%-, A-/J-$R%-3-o=-3R, aR2-.0R/-0.-3-:L%-$/?-<A$?-$J-?J3?-3,/-
/?, z-;=-/?-.0:-2R-$9A$-3A-;=-<-3%$?-oR-,$-$&R.-;?, z-(J/-5%?-2-.!<-<R-$A-2-,-(%-.R/-:P2-2.3?-/A-<,
#<-$J-.J%-,R$-3A-;=-<-;R%-oR<-3-:,., <J.-S, $8$-/?-:,.-0-L%-?R%-9J<, :.A->J., 2-,-(%-.R/-:P2-A-3-:VR$-
29:-$A-HA3-/?-\A%-/?-*J?, z-<-z-3R-<A$?-$J?-#<-$J-2<-$%-/?-*J=-3-;?, #<-$J-*J?-?-1%-3%-%-$9A$-$A-/%-
/?-2v?-/-3.R-#3?-$A-?-(-$9A$-<J., .0:-2R-:.A<-.-2R-1-2R-o-5-9J<-/R-$9A$-;R., o-5-.0=-g=-$9A$-;A/-/R?-3A-
5., $J-?<-1%-$A-/%-/?-3A-$-$4S-2R-$9A$-<-;A/, #<-$J-353?-353?-3-o-$A-$R%-3-$A-5-2R-<-;A/-9J<-$A-;R., o-5-
@R<-\A%-$;=-:IJ.--$J-?<-1%-$A-P2-(-A-+-$A?-$=-(J-2R--$A-/%-/?-2NR%?-?R%-/A-<J.,
2-(%-.R/-:P2-2-A-#-$*A?-;R., $&A$-,A-.0R/-<R%-5-O-c/-<-$8/-0-2R-OR-,%-<J., <%-$A-5-2R-MA-$=-(J/-;A/-/R:A-=%-
2!/-,R2-?R%-/R-$A?, ,A-.0R/-$A?-o/-.-5-2R<-o2-*R<-;?, A-#-OR-,%-~A%-(%-?J<-$-(J, <%-$A-5-2R-*J/-#-$9A$-$-
2?3-/R:-C !2?-$A?, #<-$J?-2.-5S.-$A?-%/-2&R?, $%-v<-/-<, :,2-:6B%-3%-%-$A-$-:SJ/-<-#<-$J-;A/-/R:C-!2?-
$A?, $J-?<-o=-2R:C-1%-$A-/%-/?-OR-,%-3A-$-$=-(J/-$9A$-;A/,
.0:-2R-=R-(%-:.A-<%-$:A-MA-$9A$-3A/-/R->J.-=$-($?, #<-$J?-(%-.?-/?-29%-.P-3%-%-2+=, 8J-cR.-:)A$-o-3J.-

/R-$A?, #<-$J-<-A-3-$*A?-!-\A%-$A-<?-3,<-0R.-2+%-, #R-$*A?-!-k-(:A-!R.-o.-$A-?-(-$9A$-$-?R%-;?-:5S-2-<R=,
8A-=A-:.A-=R-2&-$*A?-2.-.?, \A%-$A-?-(-/-g-o$-:P/-#<-:5S$?-;?-\A%-$A-o=-2R<-?-:)R$-,$-$&R.-;?-$A-;R., g-
o$-$A-,R$-/?-2o=-?R%-/, \A%-$A-2-3R-;$-3-:V$-3R-<-29:-5%-2&:-,2, #<-$J-g-o$-$A-,R$-/?-2o=-?R%-/R:-C nJ/-
$A?, :V$-3R-2$-3<-]%?, \A%-$A-OA-,R$-$-28$?, .J-$A-<?-29%-, #<-$J:A-MA%-%-" $J-?<" -P$?-?R%-,
•506•
o=-2R<-*/-/A-<, #<-$J:A-:UA/-=?-$4S-2R-L%-$A-[-24/-(3-3-:2J2-oR-<J., .J:A-=R-o?-2..-:.=-$A-/%-/-2!R.-;R.,
2..-;=-<-?R%->=-/?, #<-$J:A-24/-3R-:V$-3R-@R<-$A-o=-2R-$<-.!<-$A?-:UR$?-?R%-, [-24/-(3-3-12-/A-
<, :V$-3R-*R2-oR:A-(J.-<-$J-?<-@R<-<-?R%-, $<-.!<-2NR%?, @R<-;=-(3-3-12, :.A-5%-3-@R<-\A%-$;=-:IJ.-$A-/%-
/-2!R.-;R.,
$R%-$A-1%-$*A?-$A-@/-(.-/?, :)%-\A%-$;=-:IJ.-<-3R/-\A%-$;=-:IJ.-$*A?-1%-$4S-2R-$8/-0-$*A?-<J., :)%-

\A%-$;=-:IJ.-L%-?-353?-353?-3-.-$A-;/-//-?-(-<J.-9J<-$A-;R., 3R/-\A%-$;=-:IJ.-L%-?-@A-3-=-;-$A-zR-#-;A/-
#-<J., $J-?<-o=-2R:C-<A%-%-, 2#R3?-0?-mR%-#$-2&R-2o.-.2%-%-2#?, =-=-$A?-mR%-28A-2&-;A/-<-9J<-$A-;R., ,A<-
$A?-mR%-#$-2&R-2o.-9J<-/-<,
$J-?<-o=-2R-=R-2o.-&-=R/-.?, MA-P%?-3J.-2.J-2-&/-/-:SJ/-oR:A-.R/-/, #<-$J-.-2R-.M=-#3?-3-?R%-/A-<J., :.A-#<-

$J-z-;=-<-3-$>J$?-$R%-$A-:UA/-=?-<J., $J-?<-o=-2R:C-1%-A-+-$A?-$8$-3-$A-/%-/-$?=-2R->J.-2!R.-;R.,
17.3 --Adverbial clause: reason and purposive
Conjunc- Tibetan English Equiva-

tion lent
8-;?-%?-/R-$A?-%-<-$*A.-3-,2, I could not sleep because the
child cried. because;
/R-$A?
%-#R3-0-3J.-?R%-/R-$AA?-;R%-3-,2, I failed to come because I had no due to
time.
genitive
A-1-(/-#%-%-2#.-/R:C-!2?--$A?-%-;=-{R<- I could not go traveling since my
case + <-:IR-3-,2, father was hospitalized. due to;
!2?-$A? #R<-.$:-3#/-3J., #R-%/-/R:C-!2?--$A?-<J., Nobody likes him. It is because since
he is a bad person.
genitive .?-5S.-:KA-/R:C-nJ/-$AA?-%J.-9R?-<J3-3-=?-/- Since it is late, we should do it
case + :PA$-$A quickly. due to;
nJ/-$A? :.A-2-5%-(-nJ/-8/-/R-+A.-=$-$A-nJJ/-$A?-<J., This family is poor because of since
laziness.
genitive A-<A<-:IR-oR:A-(J.-<-%?-.LA/-;A$-.%?, I studied English in order to go to in order;
case +
the USA. so as;
(J.-<
8-;?-$9A$-*R2-oR:A-(J.-<--#<-$J-3J.-?R%-, He died in order to save a child. because of
genitive
%::A-.RR/-/-|R<-3R-3-$?R$ A-1-<-A-3, Father and Mother, do not save
in order;
case + money for me!
for; so as;
.R/-/ :6B/-;A$-:.A:A-.R/-/-%-aR2-9-:.A-/?-=R-28A- I've stayed in this school for four
because of
2#., years in order to get this diploma.
•507•
Notes-3
1. /R-$A?: The first syllable of this phrase complementizes a sentence; the second syllable is a
conjunction because or due to, e.g. (in main clauses), n3<-$J<-(3-0-3-L%-, .J-3<-$J?-l=-
.R%-@R%-$A?-;?-/R-$A?-<J., She did not get a cold since she was very athletic. o(in sub-
clause) l=-.R%-@R%-$A?-;?-/R-$A?, 3<-$J<-(3-0-3-L%-, She did not get a cold since she was
very athletic.
2. Genitive case + !2?-$A?and genitive case + nJ/-$A? are alternative.
3. Genitive case + (J.-< and genitive case + .R/-/ are alternatively used to express the
notions for the sake of, in order to, so as to, etc., e.g., %/-(%-%R:C-(J.-<, A-&J-$*A?-2-3R-aR2-
9<-:IR-3-,2, The second elder sister failed to go to school because of the younger
brother.
Exercise 5 Rewrite each statement with reason or purpose conjunctions. You may
find more than one correct choice.
.0J<-2eR., .R-8$-5.-0-(J-$A lA->A%-5%-3-{3-,=, .R-8$-5.-0-(J-/R-$A?-lA->A%-5%-3-{3-,=,

Without reason or purposive conjunctions With reason or purposive
conjunctions
1. #<-$J:A-8A-=A-0J-&A/-/-;R., #<-$J-v-$A-;R%-, ______________________
2. 8A-3R-:.A-<A$-0-3A-iR, lA?-<A$-$&A$-<-3A->J?, ______________________
3. 5K-KA-3-2?3?-3?, 2R.-3%-%-$A?-<A-?$?-3A-$?R., ______________________
4. %-{R3-$A %?-(-<-(-S/-$A ______________________
5. HR?-.-2-3-:,J/-/, \R-:.A-3R-$9A$-24S$-o-3-<J., ______________________
6. HR.-<J3-3-?R%-, .J-3A/-.-HR.-aR2-OA.-$A-$8$-$-=?-o-<J., ______________________
7. 8A-=A-aR2-9<-:IR-3-,2-/, A-1-$A?-8R<-=?-;?-$A-;R., ______________________
8. 24S/-3-:.A?-.%R?-2R-2b?-/A-<J., .-#<-$J-24S/-#%-/%-/-;R., ______________________
9. 9-3-3%-?R%-, %-3A-2.J-$A 1R-2-z$-+-3A-2.J-$A ______________________
10. %?-8A-3R-;$-3-.J-<A$-/-:.R., %?-3R-5%-:.$-?->J?-/-:.R., ______________________
11. (R?-.0=-1R-;$-$9A$-;A/, 8A-3R-3%-%-$A?-#<-$J<-?J3?-:(R<-$A-;R., ______________________
12. |R<-3R-2R<-?R%-/, ?J3?-#<-3-;?, ______________________
•508•
Exercise 6 Write appropriate reason conjunctions in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., 2!R.-0-:.A:A-;/-/-&%-3J., :-9R?-2!R.-0-:.A-v<-<-12-;,

2!R.-0-:.A:C-;/-/-&%-3J.-/R-$A?, :-9R?-2!R.-0-.J-v<-<-12-;,
1. $J-?<-o=-2R-2..-<-?R%-, 2..-[-24/-9J<-/R-:.=-________,
2. A-!$-z-3R-.M=-2-/-;R., 3<-$J-*R2 ________, $J-?<-o=-2R-.M=-#3?-:PA3?,
3. \A%-?J%-t3-:V$-3R-@R<-$<-.!<-$A?-:UR$?-?R%-________, @R<-\A%-$;=-:IJ.-L%-,
4. :V$-3R-@R<-/-;R.-.?-L-O%-O%-$9A$-$J-?<-:2R.-________3%$?,
5. 2..-$A-;:-/?-$J-?<-$A?-?J3?-$;J%-________, .J-/?-=R-3%-%-:$R<-?R%-,
6. $/3-A-/J-$R%-3-o=-3R-$A?-$J-?<-<-<R$?-;?-oR:A-________=%-2!/-$/%?,
7. ?J%-t3-:V$-3R-$J-?<-<-?J3?->R<-;R.________, 3<-$J-$<-.!<-o=-2R<-?J3?-3-:#R<,
8. $J-?<-;R%-/R-:KA, @R<-!R2?->$?-(J________, ?J%-t3-:V$-3R-=R-3%-%-$9A$-$-KA<-=J/-3-,2,
Exercise 7 Fill the blanks below with purposive or reason conjunctions listed in the
table contents above.
1--2R %?-$R-/R-;A/-/, HR?-.$:-<R$?-$9A$-24=-;R.-9J<,

/--2R %?-24=-;R., 3<-$J-.-#J-2-$9A$-$A-/%-/-;R., %-,$-_________, 3<-$J-/%?-!-:.A<-;R%-o?-9J<,
1--2R Z-$A .-HR.-=R-?3-&-<J., HR.-HA3-5%-$9A$-3J.-_____%?-o/-.-?J3?-#<-;?-$A-;R., 3R-MA-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/,
/--2R MA-.$:-$9A$-<J., <J.-S-$8$-/-8-;?-$9A$-;R.-$A 8-;?-.J________3<-$J-.-<J$-$J<-3R-ZJ%-%-=?-?R%-,
1--2R 3<-$J<-8-;?-$9A$-;R.-/R-3A-Z-$A <J.-S-$4S-2R-HR.-$*A?-!-8J-3,/-.$R?-$A HR.-$*A?-!-/3-$*J/-21A$-o?,
/--2R .R-5B$?-$*J/-21A$?-/-(R$-$A <J.-S-!R/-3R-;?-,2-o-3-<J., -A-3-$A-.?-</-.-2R-,R/-3J.-_________,
1--2R 8R%-$A?-2>.-/, %/-(J-2R-;A/-/R_________, %?-HR:A_________#%-2-$9A$-=?-.$R?-/A-<J., <J.-S-
%?-HR.-$8$-KR$?-#J-2-/?-:.$-3A-:.$-3A->J?, HR:A-:(<-$8A-(A-$9A$-;A/,
/--2R #J-2-/%-/-#%-2-$9A$-;R.-/-=R?-Z, <J.-S-HR?-<%-3$R-,R/-$A-3J.-.?-#%-2-=?-/-.!:-o-<J., .J:A-,R$-$ %-
<-3<-$J-{2?-,R$-$A?-PR%-HJ<-/?-:.$-o-;A/-_________, #J-2-/%-/?-#%-2-$9A$-;A/-.-3A/-.-3-<J.,
1--2R $4S-2R<--<%-$A?-vR?, 29:-5%-;R.-/-3$R-$+R%-?-$9A$-=R?-.$R?, (%-?-o$-_______?-?R%-/-Z-o-<J.,
/--2R HA3-#-;-$A-MA-$&A$-<-HR.-?R%-/-=R?-(R$8-;?-#J<-<R-;A/-/-<, %?-2v?-/, 3<-$J:A-A-1-:,.-o-<J.,
1--2R 3<-$J-8-;?-#J<-<R-;A/-______HR.-3$-0<-:IR-.$R?-2+%-/, HR.-<%-$A-?J3?-/?-P-1A$-;?-.$R?-o-<J.,
/--2R %-3$-0<-3A-:IR-#R-,$-;A/,
•509•
1-2R <J.-S-HR?-8A-3R-.$R?, A-1-3A-.$R?-9J<-AJ-,2, 3A-,2-/-8A-3R-3<-$J_________, HR?-:.%-2o2-/-<J.,
/-2R (%-?-3-2o2-$R%-, %J.-$*A?-!?-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-$-:.%-o$-$A-;R.,
1-2R HR.-$*A?-!?-PR%-HJ<-/?-(A-$9A$-=?-o?, 3<-$J?-o-{.-3A->J?-_________o-#R$-/?-.!:-o-<J.,
/-2R 3<-$J?-;%-$A?-;%-$A?->J?-:IR-/A-<J., %-<-.J->J.-=$-($?, :5S-2-____3<-$J?-<-#$-:#<-.$R?-o-<J.,
17.4 --Contrast conjunction and so / such … that
Conjun Tibetan English Equiv-

-ction alent
8-;?-:.A-$*A?-!-=R-/-(J-(%-3J.-/- Although they are same-aged, these two
<--$R-o-3A-$&A$ children are not equally experienced.
#<-$J-$*R3-(%-;A/-/-<-$8/-$A?- Even though he is weak, he should not be
$%-:.R.-<-2f?-2&R?-LJ.-3A-*/, bullied at will. although;

/-< even
MA-$A?-(A-$9A$-2>.-/-<-%?-<%- Although people make comments, I will though
:.R.-=?-o-;A/, do what interests me.
%-vR$?-vR$?-,=, (A-3R-$9A$-9R?- I am very hungry. I don't feel full, no

/--<-3A-2o$?, matter how much (food) I have eaten.
=?-!-.J-.!:-3R-<J., ;A/-/-<, The work is difficult, even so, I will take it.
%?-=?-o-;A/,
#<-$J-K$-0R-;A/, ;A/-/-<, #<-$J- He is rich. Even so, he is not happy.
?J3?-*A.-$A-3J., even so
;A/-/-<
lR3-:.A:A-/%-/-;A$-/R<-3%-%-;R., There are many misspellings in this essay,
;AA/-/-<, lR3-.$:-$9A$-<J., even so, it is still a good essay.
$/3-%R-:O$?-,=, ;A/-/-<, (<- It was very cloudy, even so, it did not rain.
3-22?-,=,
%<-=?-L-3%-/-$A-<-VA?-5<-?-3A- I've so much homework that I cannot
:IR, possibly finish it.
%/-;-$*A?-!-3A-<A$-/-$A-<-@-3- The two brothers are so different that they

$&A$-$A-8-;?-3A/-#-<J., seem the children of different parents. so…that
/-$A-<
2R.-/?-L-<-l-(J-/-$A-<-*R-YR=-3J., Corals are so expensive in Tibet that there such…that
is no way to buy them.
#<-$J-?J<-$-(J-/-$A-<-|R<-3R-22- He is so stingy that he never spends

$A?-3A-2!R=, money.
•510•
Notes-4
1. /-< means although, even though, and in spite of, e.g., 3<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-;A/-/-,%-/-<, %-
3<-$J<-3A-.$:, Although she might be a nice person, I do not like her.
2. <J.-S means but, e.g., 3<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-;A/-/-,%-, <J.-S-%-3<-$J<-3A-.$:, She might be a
nice person, but I do not like her.
3. ;A/-/-< means even though or even so. .0R/-0R-:.A-2v?-/-:)A$?-(J/-;A/-/-<, .R/-%R-3-$A?-MA-8J-
29%-$9A$-<J., The leader is actually a nice person even though he looks terrifying. / %?-
$+3-29%-$R-?R%-, ;A/-/-<, %-.$:-3-?R%-, I heard the good news. Even so, I didn't become
happy.
4. /-$A-<: This phrasal conjunction is used to pass on, in a somewhat exaggerated tone, the
#3?-?-(-(J-/-$A-<-o=-#2-<J., The Khams area is as big as a country.
notion so...that.., e.g.,
(Khams area is so big that it could be a country.) / #<-$J-PA3-0R-;A/-/-$A-<-%J:-:S-3-$9A$-<J.,
He is as nimble as a monkey. / #3?-?-(-(J-/-$A-<-_%?-:#R<-3J.-/-MA-$9A$-:PA3-,2-o-3-<J.,
The Khams area is so big that one cannot travel across it without a car.
Exercise 8 Rewrite the statements with contrast conjunctions. You may use <J.-S to
replace /-<.
.0J<-2eR., $R/-o-o-2-Z-$A <J.-S-$R%-<-3,R-$A o-2-Z-/-<, |R<-3R-.J-3R-$9A$-3A-:22-$A
Without contrast conjunction With contrast conjunction
1. aR2-3-.J?-@-8J/-;?-$A #<-$J?-o$?-=R-I%?-%-3A-:UR., _______________________
2. .$/-#-:VR$-/?-:5S-2-.!:-$A :VR$-0-9R<-?-(-$8/- /-:IR-?-3J., _______________________
3. #<-$J-8A%-2-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J?-8A%-2-9R-MA$-/%-%-3A-:)R$ _______________________
4. %-vR$?-$A HA3-/-9-o-$&A$-<-3J., _______________________
5. ?-(-:.A-,$-@R%-$A?-<A%-, :5S-2-<R=-?-*A.-0R-$9A$-<J., _______________________
6. #<-$J-#J-2-:.A:A-:$R-2-<J., #<-$J-#-eJ-3A-.<, _______________________
7. \-1R$?-3,R-/R-:$R-2-<J., =?-!-=?-/R-#<-$J:A-=$-<R$?-<J., _______________________
8. 5S$?-,R$-/?-.R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-\J%-,=, :V?-2-$&A$-<-3-;R%-, _______________________
9. ;=-P-:.A-?-3$R-3,R, /3-^-.J:A-5S.-$A?-3A-:H$?, _______________________
10. 8A-=A-3$R-!R%-.J-#-.0%?-3,R, <%-3$R-<-,R/-$A-3J., _______________________
11. \-2-:.A-I$?-&/-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J-{.-&/-.J-3R-$9A$-3-<J., _______________________
•511•
12. _%?-:#R<-3IR$?-3R->J.-3-{R<, .J-3R-.=-3R-<-3-;?, _______________________
Exercise 9 Complete each statement with the conjunctions /-<, ;A/-/-<, and <J.-S.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-$A-MA-5%-3-..-0-(J, ;A/-/-<, %:A-<R$?-0-.$:-2R-(R?-P$?-$A?-..-0-22-$A?-3A-;?,
1. 2R.-<A$?-$J?-}R-3%-%-3A-9, _____________________________________________,
2. MA%-ZA%-$A-2<-/?-8A-=A-<-8A-3R-$A-.R/-.$-22-$A?-3A-\J%-______________________________,
3. ]-3-<-.0R/-0R-$A-3./-/?-MA-3%-%-+A.-0-8-8-;A/ _________________________________,
4. 2R.-/?-z-#%-3%-%-$A-/%-%-8A-3R-9R-:IR-3A-*/____________________________________,
5. .$R/-0-3%-(J->R?-#J-2-<-,$-<A%-___________________________________________,
6. ,A<-2+%-$A?-8A-=A-9R?-HA3-=?-(J-$9A$-3A-=?___________________________________,
7. 2R.-3%-(J->R?-$A?-o-{.-3A-2>.___________________________________________,
8. :VR$-$-vR?-/-<R%-/-aR2-$?R-,R2-3#/-3%-____________________________________,
Exercise 10 The statements are in comparative form. Rewrite them to include
so…that… or such…that... structure using the adverbial phrase /-$A-<.
.0J<-2eR., ?-(-:.A-*A.-0R-2.J-2-&/-:S-3-$9A$-<J., ?-(-:.A-*A.-0R-;A/-/-$A-<-2.J-2-&/-<J.,

In comparative form With so / such …that included
1. 8A-3R-.J-;$-z-3R-:S-3-$9A$-<J., ___________________________________
2. 2R.-<-8A-0R-=A-;<-:H$?-3*3-3J., ___________________________________
3. aR2-3-:.A-;R/-+/-0-.$J-2>J?-:S-3-$9A$-;A/, ___________________________________
4. 8-;?-:.A-vR-(J-/R-,%-!A-<-A-3-3-/-<J., ___________________________________
5. ?-:.A-,$-<A%-.2?-:S-3-$9A$-<J., ___________________________________
6. A-1-24/-0R-o=-2R-:S-3-$9A$-;A/, ___________________________________
7. l=-.R%-2-$/-3IR$?-/R-\R$-:S-3-$9A$-<J., ___________________________________
8. A-3-c/-3R-$A-:5S-2-#$-$A-.M=-2-<J., ___________________________________
9. %-.$:-?R%-,%:A-$%-2-8-;?-:S-3-$9A$-<J., ___________________________________
10. A-3-$A-$>J-$>J-iR/-0R-5K<-3-:S-3-<J., ___________________________________
•512•
Exercise 11 Each line consists of two sentences. Combine them with /-$A-< into a single
sentence.
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J-%:A-,R$-$-8J-#%-(J, %-#<-$J:A-.P-2R-;A/-#-<J.,

#<-$J-%:A-,R$-$-8J-#%-(J-/-$A-<-%-#<-$J:A-.P-2R-;A/-#-<J.,
Original statements With so / such …that included
1. KA-o=-/?-9-3-$R%-.!:-$A %?-$R%-.J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/R-;A.-<-3-S/, _________________________
2. 2R.-$A-#-{.-$?3-0R-3A-:S, .J-$?3-0R-{.-<A$?-3A-$&A$-/R-3-<J., _________________________
3. #<-$J-l=-.R%-%-Z, %-#<-$J-:S-3-$9A$-;A/, _________________________
4. ?-(-:.A-5.-0-(J, 5.-0-hR$-$R-3J-<J., _________________________
5. z3-:.A-o-2-8J-,$-$A?-Z-$A %?-:.A-=R-28A<-$R/-2+%-$9A$ _________________________
6. .$%-A-}R/-}R-,A%-%J-, $/3-/-3A/-LJ:-3$R-$9A$-<-3J.-$A _________________________
7. lA?-<A$-.!:-3R-<J., %?-lA?-<A$-22-$A?-.R%-/-3A-:.R., _________________________
8. 3<-$J-~A%-eJ-(J, MA-<A$?-$J?-3<-$J-L3?-?J3?-1R=-3-<J.-9J<, _________________________
9. %:A-%/-;-.LA/-{.-<-L%-;R., .LA/-{.-#<-$J:A-1-{.-;A/-#-;A/, _________________________
10. A-1-$A?-fR$-$+3-3%-%-$9A$-2>.-,=, %?-*/-/-<-3A-:.R.-$A _________________________
Exercise 12 Fill in /-$A-<, ;A/-/-<, /-<, and .J:A-!2?-$A?.
A--1 HR?-9-3-(A-3R-$9A$-9-$A-/%-, HR?-9R?-__________%-%R-5-2+%-,=,

8AA-=AA %?-9-3- .J-3R- 8A3-0R-;.-$9A$- $-3-9R?,__________%?-<-9-5S.-3-9A/-,=, 9-3-.J-9R?- /-|R<-3R- !J<-3A-
.$R?, 3-9R?-/-<%-$A-#$-IR%-<J.,
A--1 MA- .J-3R- 3%- %- $9A$- $A- /%- /?, 9- 3#/- HR.- #J<- <R- <J., HR.- 9- 3- $A- ,R$- $- :#R%-__________ ,%- vR$?-
<J., 5S$?-,R$-$A-9-3-9-YR=-.J-3R-$9A$-$%-/-;R.,
8AA-=AA A- 1, HR.- %R- 3- 5, :$R- 2- HR.- :S- 3- <A$?- $J- o/- .- 1R- $8%- ,R$- <J., HR.- 9R- *A.- __________ *A.- >J?- $A-
3J., %J.-9R-3J.-0R-<A$?-$J?-9?-.J-3R-.!R/-__________=R-(-<J-<A$-$A-3J.,
A--1 HR?-9R?-__________MA-$8/-$9A$-$-2>.-YR=-3J.,
8AA-=AA HR?-MA-$8/-/-2>.-__________, %-%R-3A-5, :5S-2-9J<-/-#-o2-$A-.R/-.$-<J., %R-5-/, %R-5-.$R?-/R-MA-
HR.- :S- 3- <A$?- $J- <J., HR.- :S- 3- <A$?- $J?- 9R?- __________, :,%? - __________ MA- %- :S- 3-
•513•
<A$?-$J-*$-o-<J., /-/A%-$8%-KR$?-$A?-9-3-$A-,R$-$-|R<-3R-.%-K<-!R%-$*A?-$A-;/-2!R=-2+%-$9A$
A-1 HR?-.J- 9J<-/-%R-3-$A?- 2.J/- $A __________.J-,A-5S$?- ,A-$A- $/.- .R/- $9A$- <J., HR:A-<%- $A-36.-0-$A?-
<%-3.R$-!R/-$A-;R., $8$-KR$?-.J:A-,R$-/?-3*3-:)R$-;?-/-<J.,
8A-=A ;%-aR2-$?R-$+R%-o-/?, %?-<-HR.-aR2-$?R-2+%-/-:.R.-$A |R<-3R-.%-K<-!R%-$*A?-2R-(-~R3?-$A?-2$R?-/,
N%- $R- o=- #2- $A- 3A- 3$R- <J<- |R<- 3R- S$- 2o- $A?- 3A- 5.- ,J3?- $A P%?- !- :.A- (J-__________ <%- $:A- MA-
$9A$-$A-^-2-$&A$-$A-^-1R$?-<J.,
A-1 P%?-!-(J-__________%:A-*R/-3-<J., .J-=3-=$?-$A-*R/-<J., %?-:.A-/-HR:A-36.-0-$A-*R/-\J%-$A-;R.,
8A-=A __________, HR?-P%?-!-.J:A-/%-%-L?-eJ?-28$-;R.-<,
A-1 .J- >J.- 2>.- /- HR?- <- L?- eJ?- 28$- ;R.- 3R, HR?- ,J%?- }R/- 3-9R?- /R- 5%- 3- $8%- ,R$- $A- 9- 3- <J., HR.- %R- 5- o-
3J.- __________&%-3-9R?-9J<-/-,%-,
8A-=A %?- <- 9R?- 2+%- , <J.- S- ^- I%?- %-O=- |R<- 3R- !R% - $?3- :2=- /R- HR.- 9R?- 9- 3- .J- 3R- $A- ,R$- $- $+R%- $A- ;R.,
__________, :$R-2-HR.-:S-3-<A$?-$J<-vR?-/, %?-9R?-/-(R$-(R$-<J.,
A-1 ;- 8A- =A, HR.- ,A- ?J3?- (J-__________ ]- 3- <J., __________ %?- .J- <A %- .R/- .$ - (%- (%- $9A$- (J- $A-
$+R%-/-3A-:.R., .-%-.R/-.$-:.A-\J%-/R-:IR.-0-*J?-$A
8A-=A %-<-:IR.-0-*J-$A-;R., HR:A-3*3-0?-9-3-.J-9R?-2+%-/R<, %-:IR.-0-*J-__________$8$-KR$?-HR:A-/%-
/?-9-3-9-oR<-:.%-o$-.$R?-o-<J.,
17.5 --Conditional conjunctions
2R.-$A-MA-P%?-:.A->J.-:1J=-/-)J-(J-<J., The Tibetan population will get

bigger if it grows in this way.
/.-0-=?-.2R?-/-(/-0-2R?, Please call the doctor if the
patient's body becomes swollen.
if
/
(%-:,%?-/R-3IR$?-/-HR.-<J3-3-29A-o-<J., You will be drunk if you drink

alcohol quickly.
HR.-=-.!:-%=-;R.-/, %<-#-0<-,R%?, Please phone me if you have
any problems!
@-3-$A?-|R<-3R-2!A3?--/--<, 8A-=A-3$R-!R%-%R-=3-3-:)$- The parents will not be able to
put their empty-headed son on
,2-o-3-<J., the right track even if they
spend all their money.
%?-Z-=-;?-o-/-<-L-2-5%-3-.J-<A%-:P2-o-.!:, It would be difficult to finish all
/-<
the tasks today even if I make even if

an all-out effort.
HR?-S%-$+3-2>.-/-<, #<-$J?-;A.-(J?-/A-3-<J., He won't trust you even if you
tell him the truth.
%?-:.$-#R3-3J.-<-=?-/-<, #<-$J-:.R.-0-5B3-o-3-<J., He will not be satisfied even if I
work without a break.
•514•
%-=R-$?3-$A?-(J-o-/--<, (%-:,%-oR:A-=R-</-3J., I would not be old enough to
drink even if I were three years
older.
#<-$JJ<-;<-$+R$-2o2-;R.-o--/-<--$R-(R.-/A-3-<J., It will not work even if he is
encouraged.
o-/-<
%?-!R.-H-:.A-*R-o-/--<, A-1-$A?-$R/-#-*/-o-3-<J., My father will not wear it even even if

if I buy the jacket.
o=-#2-:.A-K$-0R-;A/-o--/-<, 3%-5S$?-$A-=$-$-&%- Ordinary people would not get
much even if this country were
,R/-o-3-<J., rich.
%-.$R%-5S$?-$-3A-:IR, HR.-<-:IR-/-3--$+R$?, I will not go to the party unless

you also go.
,A-5S$?-;<-o?-:IR-o-3-<J., 5/-<A$-.<-/-3-$+RR$?,
/-3-$+R$?
A society will not progress

unless science is developed. unless
8A-3R-:.A-&%-%-<-3A-*/, 3<-$J<-:I<-wR$-L%-/-3- This girl will be good for
nothing unless she changes.
$+RR$?,
Notes-5
1. /-< means even though or even if, e.g., #<-$J-3J.-0R-;A/-/-<-?J3?-SR-$A-;R., He is happy even
though he is poor. / 3<-$J-3A-:IR-/-<-%-:IR-#R-,$-;A/, I will certainly go even if she does not.
2. o-/-< is used in the unreal condition. See more in Chapter 19.
3. /-3-$+R$? signifies unless or apart from.
Exercise 13 Combine each line with / and make an 'if' clause.
.0J<-2eR., 8A-=A-:.A-%R-3-$A?-=?-&/-<J., #<-$J:A-*J?-2-}R/-3-MA-5S$?-2?$?-&/-$9A$-;A/-o-<J.,

*J?-2-}R/-3-5S$?-2?$?-&/-$9A$-3A/-/, #<-$J-MA-=?-&/-;A/-o-3-<J.,
Statements without / Statements with /
1. :VR$-0-(%-(%-:.A-aR2-9<-3-?R%-, #R-5%-$A-<-/%-/-aR2-9-3J., __________________________
2. 2R.-/-:VA-<-\%-#J2-$A-;R., .J:A-o.-0-36S-;A/, __________________________
3. 8-;?-#-;?-aR2-9<-3A-*J=, YA.-$8%-$A?-24/-0R-;?-$A-;R., __________________________
4. 3<-$J?-5K-2g/-]R<-:22-$A-3J., #R-$*A?-!-.$:-<R$?-3-*/, __________________________
5. <A-.J-3,R-$A %-.J:A-!J%-%-:$R?-/-:.R., __________________________
6. A-3-$A-3./-/?-#$-$+3-3-2>., 3<-$J-?J3?-#$-:IR, __________________________
7. %?-lA?-<A$-3A-.R%-, lA?-<A$-3$R-/-*J.-$9A$-<J., __________________________
8. #<-$J-(%-;R.-/R->J?-$A-3-:)$ #<-$J-(%-n=-$9A$-;A/, __________________________
•515•
9. (-fR$-:.A-3-:,%-, .J-3A/-.-HR.-1R-2-/-o-<J., __________________________
Exercise 14 Fill the blanks with / and other necessary phrases based on the context.
.0J<-2eR., .J-<A%-$/3-,%-;R., /%?-!-<-$/3-,%-/, %J.-9R-35S-}R/-0R:C-#<-lJ-$A-:IR,
1. #<-$J-_%?-:#R<-<-.$:-3#/-$9A$-;A/, __________________#<-$J?-_%?-:#R<-$9A$-*R-o-<J.,
2. 2R.-3%-%-$9A$-$A-o-/R<-K$?-9R$-<J., _____________________#R-9R?-5K-KA.-?R%-/A-<J.,
3. MA-$9A$->A-/, .J:A-*J-2R-<A$?-$J?->A.-=?-;?-/A-<J., #R-9R-o-!R2?-(J-________, ]-3-$./-8-;?-/A-<J.,
4. 8A-=A-$A?"A-3, HR.-*A.-0R-;A/_______*A.-3.R$-.$R?-/A-<J., HR?-$R/-o-(.-0R-$R/-/?-%%-2R-3-2&:, HR?-$R/-
o-.J-3R-$R/-______%-%R-5-$A"9J<,
5. %J.-5%-$A-8A-=A-$A?-9-3-$8/-0-;R._________$+/-/?-3A-9, $R-<J-________#<-$J-;A.-5B3-:IR,
6. .-*A/-3-(-<J-:$R<_______*A-3-)J-SR<-:IR-o-<J., %?-.L<-H-(-4B$-_______$R/-o-5%-3-.$/-H-;A/,
7. %?-.R%-2-A-m-________%?-o$?-:UR.-o-3-<J., o$?-_______%-=R-<A3-:1<-3A-,2,
8. HR?-#<-$J:A-/R<-:K$-5%-3-?J3?-3-3-:6B/, #<-$J?-$9?-/?-:K$-$A-2&$-_______HR?-(.-0-2&.-/-(R$-$A
Exercise 15 Combine each line with /-< to create even if clauses.
.0J<-2eR., $R-z3-:.A-KA-o=-/?-<J., o-2-Z-$A $R%-.3:-$A $R-z3-.J-z-;=-/?-;A/-/-<-%?-3A-*R,
Original statements With /-<

1. #<-$J-MA-?J<-$-&/-$9A$-3A/, <J.-S-#<-$J?-HR.-|R<-3R-3A-2*A, ________________________
2. HR.-#-.3-$A <J.-S-$?%-$+3-:.A->J?-3A-*/, ________________________
3. .R/-:.A:A-,R$-/?-%-]R-l-2g/, c/-3R-3A-:,.-/-,%-, ________________________
4. #%-2-PR%-HJ<-/?--$R%-3,R-o-<J., <J.-S-#<-$J-*R->-!$-<J., ________________________
5. %?-<R$?-0-$A-=?-{=-=?, <J.-S-#<-$J?-SA/-3A->J?, ________________________
6. 8A-3R-:.A-<-:PR$?-,2-/-%?-YR$-<-$+R%-,2, ________________________
________________________
7. :)A$-gJ/-:#R<-2-:$J%-o-3J., o=-2R:A-36S.-$A?-<-3A-:$J%-,
8. HR?-=R-$?3-3-l3-0-9R?-eJ?- .%R?-2R-:.A-.-2R-3A-H$ ________________________
9. #<-$J-MA-29%-$9A$-<J., <J.-S-%?-#<-$J-#?-3A-=J/, ________________________
________________________
10. %-KA-o=-<-.%?-#-;R., <J.-S-KA-o=-<-.J->J.-:IR-3A-,2,
•516•
Exercise 16 Fill the blanks below with /-< , and other appropriate terms and phrases.
.0J<-2eR., 2R.-$A-?-(-/?-9-3-3A-.$R?-/-<-:1J/-3A-*/, .J-3R-2?R.-/3?-$A?-3A-<%-:.R.-$A-;R.,
1. %?-.$R%-3R<-\-o$-/-3A-:.R., \-24:_______________%?-.$R%-3R-$A-=?-!-=?-o-3A/,
2. %-{R3-/?->A-,=, (-9R-$%-______________%:A-{R3-?J=-,2-o-3-<J.,
3. /%?-!-%-1=-(J<-;R%-o-3-<J., ______________%-4B?-4-$9A$-$8$-$-=?-o-<J.,
4. ".$J-c/, aR2-{2?-:.A:A-/%-%-aR2-OA.-3%-%-$9A$-$-8$?-3-,2, .-,J%?-%?-o$?-3A-3R., _____:UR.-
o-3-<J.,"
5. "HA-:.A-2v?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-.3J-$A HR?-.-2R-|R<-3R-LA/-/A-<J., |R<-3R-!J<-______________%-3A-.$R?,"
6. %-PR%-HJ<-$A-/%-/?-/R-o-<J., PR%-$?J2-/?-:5S-2______________, %-PR%-$?J2-2-:IR-o-;A/,

7. :.R.-(%-(R$->J?-3J.-/, =R%?-,R.-o?_____________%-9R-?J3?-*A.-0R-;R%-,2-o-3-<J.,
8. ^-1R$?-|R<-3R-!R%-$*A?, .J:A-;/-_______3A-.$R?, *A/-<J<-(-5S.-2o.-$A-;/-=?-.$R?-_____3A-=?,
Exercise 17 Convert each statement from an if-clause to unless-clause using /-3-$+R$?
.0J<-2eR., (<-22?-/-%?-_%?-:#R<-2!R=-$A-;R., .J-3A/-%-t$?-g<-8R/-$A-;R.,

%-t$?-g<-8R/-$A-;R., (<-22?-/-3-$+R$?-%?-_%?-:#R<-2!R=-$A-3J.,
With if clause With unless clause

1. aR2-;R/-3-LA/-/-%:A-aR2-OA.-<-8$?-3A-(R$ _______________________
2. (R$-3(/-3J.-/-8A%-2-9R-PR%-HJ<-$A-/%-%-$<-$A-3A-:)$ _______________________
3. $*J/-1A$-$A-;A-$J-3J.-/, 3PR/-#%-=-=-$A?-8$-#R.-;?-$A-3A-:)$ _______________________
4. %:A-8-;?-$*A?-!-|R<-3R-.$R?-/-.-%-;R.-?<-;R%-$A-;R., _______________________
5. 9-3-$4%-3->J.-9R?-/-.-Z, _______________________
6. =$-HJ<-3J.-/-o=-#2-$8/-0<-l-2-/?-:IR-3A-,2, _______________________
7. ,A-5S$?-2.J, .0=-:LR<-o?-/-.-3%-5S$?-*A., _______________________
8. .?-5S.-:.A-$R%-.!:-3R-<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-#<-$J?-*R?-2+%-, _______________________
9. .R-.$R%-$A-\R$-2f/-;$-/-v-$A-:IR, 3A-;$-/-3A-:IR, _______________________
10. %-?-:.A-/?-*A.-$A .J-3A/-.-%-KA<-<-?R%-;R.-o-<J., _______________________
•517•
Exercise 18 Complete each statement with /-3-$+R$? and other appropriate phrases.
.0J<-2eR., %-22-$A?-1J-3A-:.J2?, ~A%-2G$?-/-3-$+R$?,

1. %____________________, %?-=?-L-o/-.-:VA-$A-;R.,
2. %____________________, %?-*A/-I%?-%-9-3-{R=-$A-;R.,
3. %____________________, %:A-<%-$A-1-;:-S/-$A-3J.,
4. aR2-3-:.A-aR2-OA.-<-(.-$A-:.$ KA/-(.-#R-______________, %?-#R-aR2-OA.-<-8$?-$A-:)$-o-3A/,
5. OA3?-#%-$A?-MA-.R/-3J.-<-OA3?-,$-3A-$&R., MA-.J?-/$-*J?____________________,
6. MA-5%-3-$A?-#<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-<J.-:.R.-$A-3J., .J->J.-#<-$J-=3-&%-;R.-o-3-<J., #<-$J_________,
7. HR.-A-1-$A-,R$-$-3-#%-, #<-$J?-HR.-o/-.-\J%-$A-;R., #<-$J-HR:A-,R$-$__________, HR.-\J%-.R/-3J.,
8. "8A-=A, HR?-9-3-5%-3-9-.$R?, HR.-lJ-$A-?R%-/-3A-(R$ HR?-_________________,"
Exercise 19 Write / and .? in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., $%-$?J%-<J-;R.-/, %-o-35S:A-#<-v-{R<-<-:IR-o-;A/, $%-$?J%-;R.-.?, o-35S:A-#<-v-{R<-<-

:IR-$A-;R.,
1. %-L-2-=?-$A-;R%-:KA-_____, %:A-:$R-2-%<-=%?-$A-;R., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-%-o/-.-.?-5S.-v<-<-;R%-$A-;R.,
2. =?-!-PR=-_____, %-=?-l=-.R%-2h<-<-:IR-$A-;R., %?-=?-l=-.R%-2h<-3-;?- _____%:A-1%-2R-<J3-
3-o$?-0-*/-:IR,
3. #<-$J?-9-3-*R-_____, >-<-$3-$A-<A$?-(J-$9A$-3A-*R, #<-$J?-.J-9R-1%-2R<-3A-Z-:.R.-$A-;R.,
4. }R/-(.-#<-$J<-.!:-%=-;R.-_____, #<-$J?-@-3-$*A?-!:A-=$-/?-|R<-3R-=J/-$A-;R., .-#<-$J<-|R<-3R-.$R?-
_____, @-3-$*A?-!?-!J<-$A-3J.,
5. 1R=-3<-#R3-0-<J-;R. ____, 3<-$J?-o/-.-HA3-35K?-A-3-c/-3R<-<R$?-;?-$A-;R., 1R=-3-3J.-__, c.-3R-

$A?-3<-$J-S/-$A-;R.,
6. .0=-(J/-$A-;/-/-%=-lR=-;?-3#/-$9A$-3J., 3<-$J-HA3-/-3J.-_____, 3<-$J:A-MA%-0R-$A?-$&A$-<-=?-$A-3J.,
7. %?-=$->-o/-.-3A-9, %?-=$->-9R?-2+%-_____, >-$$-#J<-<R-$A?-3A-(R$ 5B=-<-3%-%-9-.$R?,
8. %?-o/-.-<R$?-0-9R<-;A-$J-{<-$A-;R., ;A-$J-$9A$-;R%-_____, %?-<J3-3-;A$-=/-:VA, %?-:.A->J.-<R$?-
0-2<-$A-:VJ=-2-o/-:HR%?-;?-$A-;R.,
•518•
Exercise 20 Write , / /-<, and /-3-$+R$? in the blanks and complete the dialogue.
<RR$?--0-!--2 A-<R, .R-5B$?-HR?-(A-$9A$-;?-o?-9J<-$A-;R., .L<-C-bR-$A-:IR-/%-;:-/?-8R<-=?-;?-o-;A/,

<RR$?--0-#--2 .L<-C-$A-$R%-29%-_______:IR-o?, ,A<-$A?-.L<-C-Z-$A <J.-S-…
<RR$?--0-!--2 %-<-c/-3R-$*A?-!-$R%-3A-;R%-_______:IR-o?-9J<-$A-;R.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 %-.-2R-,$-(R.-3A/, .J:A-,R$-$-%?-.-2R-:IR-?-$9A$-<-24=-3J., #%-2-=?-o-=$-$-,R/-_______,
%-1=-(J<-3A-:IR-/-,%-,
<RR$?--0-!--2 #%- 2- =?- oR- =$- $- ;R%- _______, .L<- C- 2bR?- /R- :S- 3- $9A$- ;R%- |R-3A- (J, %?- 2v?- /- %J.- #-
$*A?-!-3*3-0?-?R%-/-<J.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 %-=-35S/-/, .L<-C-<-(J-$9A$-Z-o-3J., %?-3%-%-$9A$-fJ.-____, /-/A%-%?-22-$A?-3-fJ.-,=,
<RR$?--0-!--2 .J- <J., .L<- C- bR- _______*3?- MR%- .$R?- $A %- <- %:A- c.- 3R- .- )J-Z- <J., /- /A%- $A- .J- 3R- $9A$- Z-
_______, %J.-$*A?-!?-|R<-3R-OA-$?3-$A-.L<-C-fJ.-o-<J.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 .J-??->J?-/?, .L<-C-$R%-Z-_______.J-3R-<J., %?-/-/A%-$A-.L<-C-.-2R-<-29%-;R., $R%-Z-.?-

3-24S%?-, .-%?-:5S%-2?3?-_______, $R%-(J-!J<-3#/-3J.-$A
<RR$?--0-!--2 .J?-/-=?-!-=?-oR-$%-/?-:5S=-o-/?, HR?-=?-!-fJ.-_______, HR?-=?-<R$?-fJ.-o-3-<J., MA-
5%-3-.L<-C-bR-$A-2.-:IR, HR?-*A/-\-3,R/-0R-LA/-_______,
<RR$?--0-#--2 <J.-;, .-(A-$9A$-;?-/%-, %?-(A-=?-:.A-=?-.-2R-3A->J?-$A :)A$-gJ/-:5S-2-hR$-$R-l-3R-$9A$-3-<J.,
Text Three: adverbial phrases and conjunctions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, .J%-$A-$J-?<-o=-2R:C-1%-,
.J%-?%-2R.-3%-%-$9A$-$J-?<-o=-2R-$A-1%-%-*/-oR<-.$:, <J.-S-2R.-5%-3-.$:-9J<-oR-.!:-3R-<J., .$:-3#/-9R-MA-

<2?-$A-,R$-/?-2<-H.-(J-/R?-3A-5.-?-KR$?-$A-,R$-/?-<<-H.-0<-(J, 1%-3#/-3%-(J->R?-:VR$-/?-<J.,.J-:VR$-/?-$J-
?<- $A- 1%- .<- /R- $A?- <J., .J- 3A/- /, 1%- 3#/- 9R?- :VR$- /?- 1%- .<- $A- 2&$-/R- $A?- <J., $%- v<- /- <, :VR$- /-$J- ?<-
o=-2R-1%-$A-?-2R/-(J-$9A$-;R.-$A 1%-%-*/-3#/-9R-MA-,R$-/?-H.-0<-(J-9J<-.R/, */-3#/-9R-,A<-2+%-$A?-MA-.<-3-9R-
<J., %?-2v?-/, 1%-2>.-3#/-=R-*A->-$A-3/-@R%-$A?-*%-,
;A/-/- <, .J% - ?%- 1% -2>.- 3#/- 3$R- /$- MA- #J<- <R- 3- <J., .?- <2?- }R/- 3- $A- =R- <2?- 2./- &- 2o.- &- 2-- /?- 29%- , $J-
?<-o=-2R:C-1%-,A/-,$- $A-!J%-%-12-/A- <J., o%- 1R$- =?- #%?-$A?-=J-5/- 21A$?, 2R.-$A-?- (-?R- ?R<-H2- $A- 2&$ .J:A-
•519•
,R$-$ .-2<-2f/-:UA/-$A-!J%-/?-<-1%-:.A-2>.-$A-;R., .J?-3A-5., ;A-$J-2-)J-3%-%-?R%-$A?-?R%-$A?, 1%-$A-.0J-(-<-
z$-+-o$-$A-;R., :.A-5%-3-$A?-$J-?<-o=-2R:A-1%-.3%?-OR.-/?-z$-+-.<-H2-2-2+%-/A-<J.,
MA- =- =- $9A$- $A?, $J- ?<- o=- 2R- 2R.- $A-<A$- $/?- $+J<- 36S.- $9A$- ;A/- 9J<, <J.-S, 1%- :.A- */- 3#/- 2R.- #J<- <R- 3A/- /,
?R$-0-<-@R<, ?-(-=-=-/?-#-3(J-<A$?-<-<J., .J:A-nJ/-$A?, */-3#/-9R:C-,R$-/?-2>.-/, $J-?<-o=-2R:C-1%-2R.-n%-
n%-$A-<J.-9J<-/-AJ-:PA$-2?3,
17.6 --Adverbial conjunctions
Tibetan English Equivalent
%?-8-;?-$*A?-;R.-/-:.R., <J.-S-c/-3R-$A?- I want to have two

children. However, my
however;
<J.-S :.R.-$A-3J., wife does not.
nevertheless;
but
:(<-$8A-Z-$A <J.-S-=$-2!<-;?-oR-.!:-o-<J., The plan is good but
difficult to implement.
%-\-24:-LA/, .J-3A/-/-%-5S%-o$-$A-3A-:IR, "Give me a stipend! Or I
won't go shopping."
.J-3A/-/ or;
HR?-=?-L-UA?, .J-3A/-/-HR.-lJ-$A-3A-HA., "Do your homework!
Otherwise, I won't take
otherwise
you to play."
$%--v<-/-<-%?-L-2-:.A-3A-=?-<%-=?-<J., Anyway, I have no
choice but to do this job.
$%-v<-/-< %?-|R<-3R-3A-!J<, $%-v<--/-<-#<-$J?-%R-3A->J?, I will not give any anyway;
money. Anyway, he in any case
wouldn't feel gratitude
for it.
#<-$J-$>R2-n=-$9A$-;A/, .J?-3A-5.-b/-3-<-;A/, He is a liar.
Furthermore, he is also
.J?-3A-5. Furthermore;
a thief.
in addition
?-.J-,$-<A%-, .J?-3A-5.-/3-^-<-:H$?, That place is far-off. In
addition, it is cold there.
/R?-3A- 3<-$J-\-3-$9A$-;A/-/R?-3AA-5.--lR3-0-0R-$9A$-<-;A/, She is not only a singer
but also a writer.
not
only…but
5.…< #<-$J?-L-2-=?-/R?-3AA-5.-P2-<-,=, He not only did his job
but also finished it.
also…
5S%-2-:.A-#3?-0-$9A$-<J., ;%-3AA/-.-$4%-2- This businessman is

from Khams, or from
$9A$-<J., Gtsang.
or;
;%-3A/-. otherwise
%?-.J-<A%-o-;A$-.R%-o?, ;%-3AA/-.-2R.-;A$-.R%- I will study Chinese or
Tibetan today.
o?,
•520•
Tibetan English Equivalent
;%--3A/-.… ;%--3A/-.-HR.-?R%-, ;%--3A/-.-%-:IR, Either you go or I go.

either…or…
;%--3A/-. :.A-;%--3A/-.->J=-|R-<J., ;%-3AA/-.-(->J=-<J., This is either glass or
crystal.
#<-$J-<A$-0-iR-/R-#J<-<R-3A/-/-2lR/-:P?-<-(J, He is not only
intelligent but also
#J<-<R-3A/- not
diligent.
only…but
/…< %:A-A-1-8A%-2-#J<-<R-3A/-/-:VR$-0-<-;A/, My father is not only a
farmer but also a
also…
herder.
HA3-5%-:.A-K$-0R-<-;A/, *A.-0R-<-;A/, This family is both rich
and happy. both…and…;
<…< as well
%?-:(<-$8A-29R?-<-29R?, :(<-$8A-P2-<-P2, I made the plan and
achieved it as well.
%?-|R<-3R-?3-&-\-24:-=-LA/, .J:A-,R$-$-|R<-3R- I gave thirty yuan as
remuneration. In
.J:A-,R$-$ 2&-,3-0-.$:-g$?-$-LA/, addition, I added ten

yuan as a reward.
in addition;
on top of
HR:A-$+3-<A%-,=, .J:A-,R$-$-/%-.R/-3J.-$A Your speech is too long.
In addition, it is
pointless.
Exercise 21 Write conjunctions listed in the table above in the blanks.
.0J<-2eR., %-2R.-<-<-3A-:IR, o-/$-$-<-3A-:IR, %-:)<-3/-/?-:.$-o?, .L<-#-:)<-3/-$A-;/-/-*A.-

?-$9A$-fJ.-o-.!:,
1. 29:-2-:.A-$*A?-!-}R/-(.-:PA$-/-$A-<-(-<-;-3R-;A/, _________.J%-?%-MJ-<-(-$A-:VJ=-2-<J.,
2. 29:-2-:.A-$*A?-!-.-22-$A?-3A-:PA$ #R-$*A?-!?-o/-.-#-lR.-;?-/A-<J., _________1/-5/-/-#-3A-I$?,
3. 29:-2-:.A-$*A?-!-3*3-0?-:.$-#=-2&:-$A-;R., _________*A/-3-$9A$-$-#R-$*A?-!-:,R<-o-<J.,
4. 29:-2-:.A-$*A?-!-3A-:PA$-/R-#R-$*A?-!-%-?.-,%-/R-_______, $*A?-!-AR%->-;%-3R-;A/-/R-$A?-______<J.,
5. c.-3R-$A?-HA3-/-9-3-<-{R=-$A-3J., _________o/-.->R-o$ .$R%-3R<-HA3-3-<-;R%-$A-3J.,
6. 3<-$J:A-c.-0R-8A-=A-cR.-0R-$9A$-;A/-_________, 353?-353?-3-3<-$J<-$&<-h%-_________;?-$A-;R.,
7. #R-$*A?-!-29:-5%-:,R<-#R-,$-<J., _________#R-$*A?-!-HA3-5%-$&A$-/?-:.$-YR=-3J.,
8. #R-$*A?-!:A-8A-=A-_________A-3-$A?-$*R<-o-<J., _________A-1-$A?-$*R<-o-<J., #R-$*A?-!-8A-=A-$A-
,R$-$-:.%-(J,
9. 3<-$J-c/-3R-%/-0-$9A$________<R$?-0-%/-0-$9A$-_______<J., 3<-$J?-.-2R-<%-$A-<R$?-0-9R:C-c.-0R-
<-=J/-$A-;R.,
10. c.-0R-$A?-U$-.R$-_______;?-$A-3J., ?J3?-3-_______:6B/-$A-3J., #<-$J-<-#<-$J:A-c/-3R-A-/-3-/-<J.,
•521•
11. ______ 3<-$J-c.-0R-$A-/R3-0-$A-,R$-8J/-($?-$A-;R., |R<-3R-3J.-/-3<-$J:A-:5S-2-.!:-o-<J., _____ 3<-$J-
<%-$J<-|R<-3R-&%-3J.,
12. c.-0R-$A?-KA/-(.-3<-$J-HA3-3-;R%-3A-.$R?-9J<, ________3<-$J-.-2R-;R%-$A-;R., _________, HA3-3-
$+R$?-3<-$J<-:IR-?-3J.,
13. _________#R-$*A?-!:A-8A-=A-0-%R-2R-%R-3R-$A?-2~R<-o-<J., %R-2R-%R-3R-$A?-8A-=A-~A%-3-eJ-9J<,
14. _________, =R-2&-,3-0-<A%-$A-:5S-2-$A-!2?-$A?, $*J/-$A-:VJ=-2-$&R.-oR-.-.-.-3-<J., #R-$*A?-!?-$&A$-
$A?-$&A$-$-v-$A-;R.,
Exercise 22 Complete the text using conjunctions and adverbial phrases learned in
this chapter.
(A-$9A$-$/:-$A-=R-o?-;A/-/R-<-(A-$9A$-#%?-3J.-$A-%$-o/-;A/-/R-2>.-oR-/3-;A/-/-<-l-3R-$9A$-3-<J., 2R.-$A-,R$-/?-
<-$/?-5=-.J-.%-.J-28A/-<J., %$-o/-/, 3J:-L%-(%-?J3?-.0:-<-3-V$-YA/-3R-$*A?- ________2R.-$A-=R-o?-:$R-
2l3?-/A-<J., V$-YA/-3R-$A?, %J:-L%-(2-?J3?-.0:-3<-$J-<-29:-5%-2&:-.$R?-9J<-/A-<J., ________, 3<-
$J?-MA-3%-%-:(:-o-;A/-9J<-/A-<J., #R-$*A?-!<-8-;?-S$-L%-/R-2R.-$A-3J?-0R-;-,R$-9R-;A/-:.R.-$A-;R.,
$/:-m?-<A$-0-<-?-$>A?-<A$-0-2-$A?--.%R?-m?-fJ.-/R<-2v?-/, 3A-<A$?-$R3?-YR=-8A2-:)$-0-<A$?-$J?, 2R.-

<A$?-$/:-.J%-3-;=-3A-(%-<A$?-9J<-/R:C-o.-0-<J.-:.R.-$A-;R., $/:-m?-<A$-0-2-9R:C-v-2-v<-/, 2R.-$A-=R-o?-.-
________=R-!R%-5S-28A-$A-}R/-/-:.J.-,2, {2?-.J<, :5S-2-,2?-h$?-;A/-________.J%-?%-$A-MA-*$-:IR-/A-
<J., =R-o?-$A-;A$-(-$A-/%-/, .?-<2?-2o.-0-,R/-________, 2R.-3A-<A$?-$9A$-$-%R?-:6B/-$A-3J., ;<-[%-o=-

#3?-$A?-2R.-.2%-.-2#?-________, 2R.-:.A-<-!R2?->$?-1<-cR=-&/-$9A$-$-*/-?R%-, 2R.-$A-1R-V%-,R$-3-;3-
2-]-|%-2R.-$A-o=-2R-,R$-3-$*:-OA-24/-0R-________=?, 2R.-$A-o=-2R-A-+-$A?-.2%-:.=-&/-0R-YR%-24/-|3-0R-
$A?-2R.-$A-o=-<2?-,R$-3-24$?-/R-________, 2R.-$A-=R-o?, .0=-:LR<, =$-l=-<-<A$-$/?-$A-!J%-%-
________L?-eJ?-(J-28$ 24/-0R-:.A?-2=-29:-OA-24/-<-,%-o=-<2?-(=R-%R-618$A-<?-=R-%R-907<J$-$J<) $A-o-
29:-!R%-)R-24/-3R<-]%?-/A-<J., 2R.-;A$-<-#<-$J:A-_______$?<-$+R.-;?,
YR%-24/-|3-0R-$A?-/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-$-o2-*R<-;?, 2R.-#3?-3-/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-.<-$A-2&$ (R?-=$?-.<-$A-

:)$-________, YR%-24/-|3-0R-$A?-)R-#%-<-<-3R-(J-28J%?, #<-$J-L?-eJ?-(J-________.-2<-<-2R.-5%-3-$A?-
$4$-$-:6B/-$A-;R., #<-$J:A-________, eJ?-*R%-2-$A?-<-/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-%J=-/A-<J., ,A-=R-779=R<-,R/-
________, OA-YR%-wJ-24/-$A?-2R.-$A-/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-$A-.$R/-0-,R$-3-2?3-;?-28J%?, 2R.-$A-!R2?->$?-)J-(J-
<-?-o-)J-(J-?R%-________, /%-2!/-(R?->$?-$A->/->$?-<-)J-(J<-)J-(J<-?R%-,
•522•
/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-2R.-<-______.<_______, 2R/-(R?-2R.-?-$/?-<%-$A-$.R.-3:A-(R?-=$?-;A/, _______,
?%?-o?-(R?-=$?-.<-_______, .J:A-!R2?->$?-*3?-?R%-, ________, 2R/-(R?-*R%-3#/-5S-3-<J%?,
836=R<-OA-<=-2-&/-2NR%?-________, \%-.<-3-o=-2R<-2{R?-?R%-, o-nJ/-$%-3%-$A-________, #<-$J?-
2R/-(R?-<-.., /%-2!/-(R?-=$?-$-$+R<-2_$-2+%-, ,A-=R842$A-=R<, o=-2R-\%-.<-3-<-/%-2!/-(R?-=$?-2-
$9A$-$A?-2NR%?-?R%-, #<-$J-:.?-________, 2R.-24/-0R-,R<-?R%-, ?-$/?-<%-<%-$A-#J-1/-______, $8$-$A-
=R-400-_______.2%-(-=J/-oR:A-(J.-<-:O$-lR.-3%-%-L%-, _______2R.-$A-o=-#3?-$9A$-:R<-$A?-:($-3-,2,
17.7 --Special cases of /
\-.L%?-:.A-*/--/-~/-$A <J.-S-/%-.R/-3A-(J, This music sounds very nice.

However, it is meaningless.
In this
9-3-9R?-/-8A3-0R-<J., )-3-?-;A/, The food tastes good. Who is context, /

With the can be
the cook?
function of a
linking verb MA-.J-2v?--/-:)3-0R-$9A$-<J., That person looks gentle. translated
as if.
#<-$J-?R%-/-3IR$?, 2>.-/-<-3IR$?, He walks fast and speaks
fast.
HR?-%:A-$R/-o-:.A-$R/-/-(R$ HR.-:H$?-/, If you feel cold, you can put What
on this garment of mine.
appears
In if clause
8A%-2-9R:C-;R%-|R-.-2R-3,R-/-<J., Farmers' income should be
higher. before / is
HR?-o/-.-l=-.R%-;?-/-:PA$-$A It is proper that you often do a clause
exercises.
subject.
,A/-,$-:.A-*R?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., How about buying this
cassette tape?
%?-2v?--/, .J-<A%-*A-3-:(<-o-3-<J., In my opinion, it will not be
sunny.
meaning
depends on
(/-$A-,RR$-/?-2>.--/, /.-}R/-:$R$-$=-(J, From the medical point of
view, it is very important to context
In adverbial
prevent sickness.
phrase
.JJ-;AA/-/, %-:IR-.$R?-.R/-8R%-$A?-3J., In that case, there is no
reason for me to go at all.
?%?-o?-\J%-/, #<-$J-=?-/-Z, Speaking of Sang rgyas, he
works hard.
KA-o=-ZZ-/-Z, %-3A-:IR, It is fine if foreign countries
are good. I will not go
Something
(there). is
Between two #<-$J-K$$-/--K$ .J-%-<-:VJ=-2-3J., It is fine if he is rich. It has dismissed
identical nothing to do with me. dis-
monosyllabic ?-.J-,$-<A%-/-<AA%-, %-_%?-:#R<-;R., It is fine if that place is far. I
adjectives have a car. regarding
lJ.-3R-;$--/-;$ %?-v-3A-2?3, It is fine if the performance its assets.

is good. But I don't want to
see it.
•523•
3<-$J-:IRR-/-:IRR, <J.-S-:IR-|R-5%-3-3R- It is OK if she goes. But all

expenses depend on herself.
Something
is accepted
<%-$A-#-/-;R., under a
certain
8-;?-9R?-:<-o$--/-o$ #R-9R?-h%-<J?-3A- It is OK if children make noise condition.
Between two as long as they do not fight.
identical o$-/,
verbs
(%-:,%-/-:,%-, <J.-S-3%-$A-3-:)$ It is OK to drink as long as
(you) don't drink too much.
|R<-3R-2!RR=-/-2!RR=, .-/$-3-:,J/-/, It is OK if one spends money
as long as he does not use
opium.
HR?-2lA-2!<-;?-/-<J., 29%-/--%/-/-#R- You should respect him. He is
your father, good or bad.
It signifies
such
Verb /
HR:A-A-1-<J., notions as
regardless,
adjective + / ;$--/-24SS$-/, %:A-=$-$-c/-3R-:.A-3R- That's the way my wife is, no matter,
despite her beauty. disregard,
+ verb / etc.
$9A$-;R%-/A-<J.,
adjective's
antonym + / MA-5%-3-:S-3*3-;A/, K$-0R-;A/-/-3AA/-/,
All people are equal, rich or
poor.
%-.$:--/-3AA-.$:--/, #<-$J?-%-3-$4B?, He did not respect me no
matter how I felt.
Exercise 23 The bolded phrases are incorrect. Replace them with correct conjunctions
or sentence connectors in parentheses.
.0J<-2eR., %?-=?-!-$&A$-<-3-=?-/-<, |R<-3R-:.A-9R-5<-8R<-<-%-.!:-%=-;R.-o-3-<J., (<J$-$J<, .?,)

%?-=?-!-$&A$-<-3-=?-/-<, |R<-3R-:.A-9R-5<-<J$-$J<-%-.!:-%=-;R.-o-3-<J.,
1. #<-$J-aR2-3-$9A$-;A/-/-<, #<-$J?-o-;A$-Z-=->J.-.R%-$A-;R., (;A/-$A-<?, .J:A-nJ/-$A?)

2. 3<-$J-aR2-.R%-;?-/R-$A?, 3<-$J?-9-#%-$9A$-$A-/%-/?-8R<-=?-;?-/A-<J., (8R<-<, 3…$R%)
3. #<-$J-=?-2R.-/-;R.-/-3-$+R$?, ?J3?-<%-$A-o=-#2-/-;R.-$A (.?, /-<)
4. 3<-$J-.LA/-{.-<-Z-/-3-$+R$?-.LA/-)A-2-$9A$-<-A-/-3-/-<J., (/-$A-<, ;%-3A/-.)
5. 2R.-;A$-aR2-OA.-$A-!J%-/?-{.-<A$?-$8/-0-2>.--/-<-3A-(R$ (/, 8R<-<)
6. /3-^-2R.-/?-SR-/-Z-$A ;%-3A/-.-.$R%-3R-,R/-/-:H$?-$A(.J-3A/-., .J:A-nJ/-$A?)
7. #<-$J-/%?-!-;=-{R<-<-:IR->-!$-<J., HR.-9R-:IR-o?-3A-:IR-o?, (:IR-/-3A-:IR-/, ?R%-/-3-?R%-/)
8. $R/-o-.J-2v?-/-3A-;$ .J-3A-;$-/-<, %<-35S/-/-$R/-o-SR/-0R-;A/-.$R?,($R/-/-3A-$R/-/, 24S$-0R-;A/-/-;A/)
9. %-=R-?3-&-,3-0-=R/-/, %?-.-2R-L-2-$9A$-$-.$:-$9A$-fJ.-3J., ($A-<?, .?)
•524•
10. #<-$J-\J/-0-;A/-/-<, HR?-#<-$J:A-,R$-$-:5B$-0-9-3A-*/, (/-$A-<, /R-$A?)
11. #<-$J-lR3-0-0R-$9A$-;A/-/R:C-<A%-%-.-2R-<A-3R-2-$9A$-<-2&:-o?-9J<-$A-;R., (<…<, /R?-3A-5.…<)
12. #<-$J?-o$?-$-P-1A$-;?-oR:A-/A-<-.0J-(-3%-%-$9A$-*R?-,=, <J.-S-#<-$J<-v-#R3-;R.-$A-3J., (.?, oR:A-(J.-<)
13. A-3-=R-$&A$-$-3-<A$ ;%-3A/-.-8-;?-$A?-3<-$J-S/-$A-3J., (/A-<, ;A/-/-<)
14. %-=R-$?3-$A-}R/-/-o=-#2-:.A<-;R%-/A-;A/, .J-$A-<A%-%- %?-.LA/-;A$-.%?-3-MR%-, (3…$R%-, .J:A-}R/-/)
15. HR?-<%-!R%-%-MA-$A-=$-/?-.%R?-2R-=J/-3A-*/, HR?-MA-.J-3->J?-/-<, (.J:A-,R$-$ /-3-$+R$?)
16. %-KA-o=-/-;R.-/R:C-.?-o-{.-2>.-PR$?-$&A$-<-3J., %-o-{.-2>.-/-)J-24S$-<J., (/R:C-<A%-%-, /R:C-{2?-2)
17. (A-$9A$-9-/%-, N%-$R:C-9-3-;%-3A/-.-9R?-/-:.R., KA-o=-$A-9-3-;%-3A/-.-9-:.R., (<…<, #J<-<R-3A/-…<)

18. A-8A-=A, $/3-%R-<2-$A-<A%-%-HR:A-$R/-o-.J-Y2-?R%-, HR?-.$/-H-:HJ<-.$R?-o-<J., (.?, /)
19. %J.-9R:C-:$R-2-.?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-}R/-/-$8%-12-#%-/-3J., .?-5S.-2o.-0-$A-<A%-%->R$ ($A-{2?-2, $8$-/?)
20. o=-#2-:.A-/?-.0R/-0R-$R-$/?-3,R-$A-<?, <%-$:A-MA-<A$?-$J?-#R-9R-3$R<-:#<-$A-3J., (/-$A-<, /-<)
21. 8A-=A-:.A-#<-$J:A-A-1-<-A-/-3-/-<J., $9$?-3,R-$A-<?-d-3R%-<J., (.J:A-,R$-$ /-$A-<)
22. .LA/-)A-o=-#2-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-/%-, KA-o=-<-;R%-$A-<A%-%- %?-o/-.-.J-2?3?-$9A$ (3-;R% …$R%-, 3-;R%-…}R/-/)
23. =R-2&R-s-$A-{2?-2-%?-%%-=$-<A$-3-MR%-, %:A-MA%-YA%-<A$?-$J?-<-%:A-3*3-0?-<A$-/A-<J., ($A-<A%-%-, <J$-$J<,)
24. <R$?-0-$9A$-.$:-$A-:)$-/-%?-|R<-3R-!J<, 3PR/-/-:2R., <J.-S-5%-3-$A?-$R-3-(R.-, (oR:A-.R/-/, /-$A-<)
25. .$R%-3R<-:P=-2-$*A?-!-%J.-5%-/?-2#., .J:A-,R$-$-3J-:#R<-$A-$8$-$-#R-$*A?-!-3-(R., (<J.-S, $%-v<-/-<)
26. 4:-(A$-<-#$-:.A?-3,/-1A=-;?-.$R?, .J?-3A-5.-:P/-#<-,J%?-$8$-3-#R-9R-13-o-<J., ($%-v<-/-<, .J-3A/-.)
Exercise 24 Complete the narration with proper temporal words.
%-A-3.R-$A-2R.-$9A$-;A/, %-A-3J-<A-#-/?-=R-2&-,3-0-$A?-3A-5.-:$R<-?R%-, .J_____%?-<%-$A-@-3-<-*J-.-9R-S/-,=,

%?-#R-9R-S/-_____, MA$-(-,-<-<, %-KA-o=-<-;R%-____, %?-@-3-$*A?-!-,J%?-$&A$-<-3-<A$ #R-$*A?-!-=R-S$-&-
$A-/%-<J., #R-$*A?-!-=R-2./-&<-_____2.-_____, %-#R-$*A?-!<-v-$A-:IR-o?, %-:.A<-_____;R%-_____,
A-3J-<A-#-$A-:5S-2-*A.-o-<J.-:.R.-$9A$
%-A-3J-<A-#-/?-2#.-______, o-=R%?-,R.-$A-,R$-/?-*A.-0R-<J., <J.-S-%-?-:.A<-,R/-______, %?-.J%-3$R<-1-
;:-$A-9-3-S/-$A ______, >-*J-<-@-3-S/-$A .J:A-______(%-LA?-0:A-{2?-$A-lJ.-?-lJ.-<R$?-9R-S/-$A ?-(-:.A<-
,R/-______;=-$.%-hR$-$R-3->J?-$9A$ 353?-353?-3-<R$?-0-#-;?-1-;:-/?-;R%-/, 1-;:-:.A-3R-<J.-$/-3R-
<J.-9J<, .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, %?-KA/-(.-;:-3A-S/-oR-,$-$A?-2&.-<, .J-:.R.- ______;:-$.%-hR$-$R-hR-$R<-3R-<J.,
.-______, %?-|R<-3R-$?R$-o-;A/, aR2-9-/?-3,<-KA/-______%-KA<-<-;:-2-:IR-o?, ;:-2-3A-:IR-oR:A-,R$-/?-
•525•
<R$?-0-9R?-%-<-2.J/-3-2>.,
Exercise 25 Complete the narration with reason- or purpose- conjunctions learned in
this chapter.
A-3J-<A-#-$A-<R$?-0-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-%-;=-$.%-.J-3R-$9A$-(A-$9A$->J.-(J-/?-9J<, #R-9R-HA3-3A-<-#-,$-3A-<A%-______
>J?-$A-3J., .J:A-@/-(.-/?-#R-9R-.0=-:LR<-<-,A-5S$?-$A-(-nJ/-Z-______, %:A-$/?-5=-gR$?-,2-$A-3J.,
%-%J.-5%-$A-8A-=A-(J-2R-;A/, %:A-Z%-3R-$*A?-!-$/?-=-2.-?R%-______, .-@-3-$*A?-!:A-=R$?-/-=?-<R$?-3J., 8A-=A-

(J-2R-$A?- @- 3- $*R<- .$R?- /R-=$?-YR=- ;A/-______<J., %-KA- o=-<-______, @- 3- $*A?-!?- ;R.- ;R.-5%-3-2+R/-/A-
<J., .-%-KA<-<-:IR-.$R?, .J-%-:IR-:.R.-______3-<J., %-3A-:IR-<%-:IR-<-;A/,
%?-%-:IR-.$R?-YR=-%:A-A-3J-<A-#:A-<R$?-0-9R<-2>.-/, #R-9R?-$R-2-=R/-$A-3J., $&A$-/?-%:A-1-;:-/-KA-o=-$A-c/-$?R-

#%-9J<-/R-.J-3J.-___, @-3- 9R-c?-/-8-;?-9R?-$*R<-.$R?-/A-<J., /%-|R?-?-YR=-o/-$A-HA3-5%-$9A$-/?-;R%-/, 8A-=A-
(J-:$R<-z$-+- :$/- #<-;R., %:A-<R$?-0- 9R?- 2v?- /, %?- @-3- $*A?-!____%-<%-$A-5K- $&A$- $A- 2.J-#$- 2?3- $A- 3J.-
9J<, <J.-S-@-3-$*A?-!-3-*A.-/, %-*A.-YR=-3J.-_____ <R$?-0R-9R:C-3A$-/%-$A-2.J-#$-9J<-/R-%?-2?3-?-3A-:IR-$A
Exercise 26 Complete statements with contrast conjunctions and so / such…that.
.0J<-2eR., _%?-:#R<-:.A-3IR$?-/-$A-<-_%-<J., .J:A-<A/-$R%-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
1. %-3<-$J<-:.%-(J-/-<, 3<-$J?-%<-_R3-,2-$A-3J., 3<-$J?-2v?-/, %-:HR$-0R-;A/-_____3<-$J?-_R3-3A-,2-9J<,

2. %?-Z-=->J.-3<-$J-.$:-$A-:)$-$A-;R., ______%-3$R-/?-3)$-2<-<-3<-$J:A-]R<-:22-$A-3J.,
3. %J.-5%-$*A?-!-$A-2<-?-#-,$-,%-______, %-3<-$J<-,$-oR-8J-,$-$A?-.!:-$A
4. .J- <A%- %?- 3<- $J<- #- 0<- ,J%?- 3- 2o- <- 2+%- ;R., ______ #- 0<-=J/- 3#/- 3J.- $A 3<- $J:A- lA2- /- 8A- =A- $8/- 0-
$9A$-3J.-0,
5. %-3<-$J:A-!J%-%-?J3?-:#R<-______/R/-0-$9A$-<-A-/-3-/-<J., ______3<-$J-(A-$9A$-$-%-.$:-$A-3J.-/%-,
6. OA$?- OA$?- 3J.- /- %- ?J3?->A- .$R?- o- <J., ______, {2?- .J<- ,R/- /, 3<- $J?- 353?- 353?- 3-;%- %-.$:-
3.R$-!R/-$A-;R.,
7. 3<-$J-;$-______z-3R-<J., <J.-S-z-3R-$9A$-=J/-oR-.!:, A-3-$A?-2>.-$A-<,
•526•
Exercise 27 Complete each statement with appropriate conditional conjunctions.
.0J<-2eR., HR.-:IR-/-.-?R%-, .J-3A/-.-&%-3A-:$R<-<-$/3-:22-o-<J.,
1. MA-9R?-,A<-$A?-.3<-9?-3A-9-_______, 2R.-/-}R-5S.-3%-%-3J.-/R-$A?-#R-9R?-2R.-/?-3A-9-<%-9-<J.,
2. MA-$9A$-:VR$-$-:IR_______, IR/-o-3,$-0R-:HJ<-.$R?, :VR$-/?-/3-^-<R%-?-$A-/3-^-:S-3R-3A/,
3. HR.-2R.-<-:IR-{2?-.%R?-2R-3%-%-KA-o=-/?-:HJ<-3A-.$R?, HR.-<%-$A?-:HJ<-:.R.-_______,
4. :VR$-/-HA-24/-0R-;R.-9J<, HA-$9A$-$-,$-_______%?-(A-$9A$-;?-/%-,
5. HA-24/-0R-$9A$-;A/_______, $/-n=-=R$_______HA-$A?-3A-:(:-9J<, <J.-S-.J-3R-;?-oR-.!:-3R-;A/-o-<J.,
6. 2R.-$A-?-(-/?-o-<A$?-=R-B-2-$9A$-$A?-$R-3A-(R., =R-B-2-.J?-2R.-{.->J? _______,
Exercise 28 Combine each line with adverbial phrases, sentence connectors, and
conjunctions.
.0J<-2eR., :.A->J.-3-:IR, *A/-$9A$-$-HR.-:IR.-0-*J-o-<J., :.A->J.-?R%-/, *A/-$9A$-$-HR.-:IR.-0-*J-o-<J.,

Original statement Rewritten statement
1. %-=R-*A->-$A-}R/-/-:.A<-;R%-, .J-.?-%-=R-2&R-s-;A/, _________________________
2. %-2R.-<-;R%-, ;R%-.R/-2R.-{.-aR2-oR-;A/, _________________________
3. %?-9-3-3%-%-9R?-?R%-, .-%:A-#R$-0-2.J-$A-3J., _________________________
4. A-1-#%-2-=?-oR<-:,.-$A-3J., %?-#%-2-=?-2+%-, _________________________
5. %?-(%-3A-:,%-, 353?-353?-3-3A-:,%-!-3J.-<J., _________________________
6. A-3-$A?-HA3-=?-=?, 8-;?-$*R<, 3<-$J-22-$A?-#R3-$A-3J., _________________________
7. %-2R.-<-=R-$?3-$A-}R/-/-,R/, .J-/?-.-%?-2R.-{.->J?-/A-;A/, _________________________
8. $R/-o-:.A-%-=-(%-?R%-, HR.-AJ-.$R?, _________________________
9. %-vR$?-;?-:.<-$A-;R., .-9-3-3J.-/-%?-=?-!-=?-3A-,2, _________________________
10. |R<-3R-b-3#/-?%?-o?-<-.!R/-3(R$-$*A?-$A-$&A$-<J., _________________________
11. .$J-c/-$A?-=?-L-3%-%-LA/, %?-.?-5S.-$?3-3-VA?-2+%-, _________________________
12. %:A-5-2R-$A-L-2-.!:-3R-<J., #<-$J-9-3-9-#R3-<-3J., _________________________
13. aR2-3-:.A-9R-aR2-.R%-;?-$A-;R%-, b%-,%-%-,A-=J-*A-><-;R%-, _________________________
14. %-aR2-9-:PA3?, 353?-353?-3-8R<-=?-;?-<?-|R<-3R-24=, _________________________
•527•
15. =R-28A-$A-}R/-/-%-3,<-KA/, %-KA<-<-aR2-9:A-/%-%-?R%-3-MR%-, _________________________
16. %:A-Z%-3R-$9A$-aR2-9<-3-?R%-, 3<-$J?-%:A-/-2R-$*R<-.$R?-?R%-, _________________________
17. %:A-A-#-#-24S$ #R$-:)3, MA-%/-0-$9A$-22-$A?-3A/, _________________________
18. g-3IR$?-3-:.A<-_%?-:#R<-$A-3IR$?-3*3-3J., _________________________
19. ?-:.A-$%-<J., #R-5%-3A/-/-HR.-5%-;A/-.$R?-o-<J., _________________________
•528•
Verb / adj. + / + the It is used to express something is fine under a reserved condition.
same verb / adj.
Between verbs (reserved) Between adjectives

.?-5S.-$9A$-*R-/-*RR, $R%-3A-3,R-/, z-?-,$--<A%-/--<A%-, %-3)=-$A-:IR-o?,
It's OK to buy a watch as long as the price is not It does not matter if Lhasa is far-off. I will
high. make a pilgrimage.
;=-{R<-<-:IRR-/--:IRR, $%-v<-/-<-%-#R3-;R., 2R.-/?-%-3A-*AA.-/-3AA-*AA., %-KA<-<-2R.-<-:IR-o?,
It is OK to travel. Anyway, I have much free It does not matter if I am unhappy in Tibet. I
time. will return to Tibet (anyway).
#<-$J-o-;A/-/-;AA/, #<-$J?-2R.-{.->J?-/, _%?-:#R<-2{R<-/R-.=-//-.=, 3-$8A-2.J-:)$?-<J.,
It does not matter if he is Chinese as long as he It does not matter if the car runs slowly. The
knows Tibetan. key point is safety.
\--=J/-/--=J/, $R-{2?-;%-<-;%-$A?-3J., 5K-$&A$-$A-n-;--3AA-;$--/-3AA-;$ 3<-$J<-OJ=-;R.-2+%-/,
It's OK to sing a song. Such a chance is rare. It is fine if my life-long partner is not pretty as
long as she is loyal.
Verb + # # is attached to a verb in PRT to convey a temporal notion, with a Ladon case marker
latent: the very moment when something happens.
Tibetan English
#R-A-3J-<A-#<-;R%-#-=J$?-*J?-3%-%-$9A$-*R?, He bought a lot of presents shortly before
coming to the USA.
9-3-9-#-8-;?-9R-lJ-$A-:IR-3A-.$R?, The children must not go play right before
the meal.
=?-!-=?-5<--#-:$R-2-$A?-;%-=?-!-$8/-0-$9A$-LA/-,=, My boss gave me another job when I was
about to finish one.
HR.-:IRR-#-%:A-.%R?-2R-:HJ<-oR-3-2eJ., Do not forget to take my stuff when you
leave!
*A-3-:(<--#-%-o/-.-;<-<-=%?-$A-;R., I always get up when the sun rises.
/--. Meaning depends on the contexts: only when or if…then…
Only when If…then

%-vR$?-/-.-%-?.-)J-,%-;A/, .0R/-0R-.J-;R%-/-.-(A-$9A$-;?-o?,
I get short-tempered only when I am hungry. If the high officer comes, then what shall we
do?
2-mA-$9A$-fJ.-/-..-3<-$J-.$R%-5S$?-$-;R%-,2-o-<J., .J-<A%-KA-SR<-L-2-3J.-/-.-$%-%-:IR,
She can come to the party only when she finds a Where should I go then if there is no work this
babysitter. afternoon?
3<-$J-#J<-<R-;A/-/-.-?/-$A-;R., #<-$J-35S-}R/-/-;R%-//-.-%?-#R-35S-}R/-0R<-:HA.-o?,
She feels lonely only when she is alone. If he comes to Qinghai, then I will take him to
Koknor (Qinghai Lake).
•529•
<…<… In negative sentences, it expresses neither…nor… and, in positive sentences,
both…and…
neither…nor… both…and…
%-vR$?-<-3A-vR$?, {R3-<-3A-{R3, #<-$J-}$?-0-<-;A/-8A%-2-<-;A/,
I am neither hungry nor thirsty. He is both a lay tantric specialist and a farmer.
#<-$J-;R%-<-3-;R%-, 3A-;R%-<-3-9J<, #J-2-:.A-8A%-#J-$9A$-<-;A/, :VR$-#J-$9A$-<-;A/,
He neither came nor said that he would not This village is both agricultural and herding
come. (agro-pastoral).
$/:-m?-:.A-$R%-2.J-<-3A-2.J-$A =R-<A%-<-3A-<A%-$A 8A-3R-:.A-;$-3-$9A$-<-;A/, .$:-29%-3-$9A$-<-;A/,
This antique is neither cheap nor so old. This girl is both beautiful and kind.
3A/-. It means except.
Tibetan English
3J-+R$-:.A-3A/-.-$8/-0-9R-2R.-/-<-;R.-#-<J., All other flowers can be found in Tibet except
this one.
%:A-MA%-ZA%-(-2R-%-3A/-.-5%-3-{.-&/-;A/, All my siblings have a nice voice except me.
#<-$J?-{R3-.?-7-(%-3A/-.-3A-:,%-, He drinks nothing but beer when he is thirsty.
%?-2R.-{.-3A/-.-{.-<A$?-$8/-0-3A-2>., I speak no language other than Tibetan.
3-.$RR? + .-2R / < It expresses let alone or do not mention.
Tibetan English
8A-3R-:.A-%<-.$:-3-.$RR?-.-2R-#%-$A-;R., This girl hates me, let alone likes me.
%-KA-o=-<-,R/-3-.$RR?-0J-&A/-/-<-?R%-3-MR%-, I have never been to Beijing, do not mention

going abroad.
%?-.LA/-;A$->J?-3-.$RR?-.-2R-2R.-;A$-<-3A->J?, I do not even know how to read Tibetan, let
alone English.
:P=-2-9R-,R/-3-.$RR?-.-2R-=3-3-<-=%?-3J.-9J<, The guests are not even on the road, let
alone having arrived.
Instrumental case $A? It is used with nouns to express because of or due to.
Tibetan English
MA-K$-0R-.J-/R3-0-$A?-:.$-,2-$A-3J., The rich person cannot stay quiet because of his
wealth.
.J-<A%-%?-5.-0-$A?-=?-!-=?-3A-,2, I cannot work today because of the heat.
/.-0-:.A?-/.-$A?-.!:-=?-MR%-$R-$A This patient is suffering because of illness.
\-3-:.A-{.-$A?-I$?-?R%-, This singer became famous due to her voice.
•530•
<…....in negative This structure is used to express … even…, do not mention…
statements
Tibetan English
24S/-3-$A?->A-oR-<-2?3-$A-3J., 3$R-.-|<-#-*/-/%-, The prisoner is ready to die, don't
mention he will surrender.
#<-$J?-.R/-.$-(%-(%-<-12-3A-,2, .R/-.$-(J-2R-.-12-3A-,2, He cannot get even small things done, let
alone big ones.
8A-=A-.J?-A-1-<<-$>J-$>J-$+R%-$A HR.-.-&%-%-2lA-o-3-<J., The boy criticizes even his father, do not
mention that he would respect you.
c.-0R-$A?-<-c/-3R-3A-$4B-/, $8/-$A?-.-$4B-/?, Even the husband does not respect his
wife, do not mention the others.
;=-P-:.A-/?-<-.%R?-2R-.!:-$A PR%-HJ<-(J-/?-.-2>.-3A- Things are expensive even in this
community, let alone in big cities.
.$R?,
< between repeated This emphasizes certain aspects usually in a disapproving tone,
nouns implying too much.
Tibetan English
=?--!-<-=?--! c.-0R-:.A?-*A.-o$-3A->J?, Work and work! This old man does not know
how to enjoy life.
:R-)-:.A-(-<-(-<J., /%-/-:R-3-&%-3J., This milk tea is just water, there is no milk in it.
#<-$J:A-8A-=A-#<-$J-<-#<-$J-<J., His son is just like him.
5.--0-<-5.--0, .R-5B$?-.L<-#-*A/-I%?-%-5.-0-(J, Hot and hot! Every day is hot this summer.
HR?-=2--<-=2-oR2?, #R$-/-$&A$-<-3J.-<, You just boast, being empty-headed.
Genitive case It expresses from the point of view, from this angle, in respect of, and the
marker + (-/? like.
Tibetan English
aR2-3-$9A$-;A/-0::A-(-/?, %:A-8A-3R-$A?-:5S-2-$A-*A.-#$-3A->J?, My daughter, as a student, still does not
know what life is.
aR2-9-$A-:$R-$4S-;A/-0::A-(-/?, #<-$J-$R%-2!<-;?-/-<J., As the headmaster, he deserves respect.
Z-3R-;A/-0::A-(-/?, >-:O%-3R<-2R.-{.-$A?->-hR-9J<, Muscle is called "meat stone" in Tibetan

for being hard.
o=-#2-:.A:A-,A-.3%?-;A/-0::A-(-/?-%-$%-2-3,R, I am proud of being a citizen of this
country.
#R-=R-(%-<J., <J.-S, .J:A-(-/?-#R-$-;%?-%-2+%-/-3A-:PA$ He is young. But it is not right to forgive
him just because of his age.
•531•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-2&--2.//-0,,
$J-?<-o=-0R:C-1%-,
$J-?< Gesar (mythical figure) $J-?<-9J<-/-=R-o?-,R$-$A-3A-$-$9A$-3A/,
o=-2R king o=-2R-$A?-24/-3R-$?<-2-$9A$-=%?,
1% story 8-;?-=R-(%-1%-%-.$:,
~/-%$ poem %-~/-%$-:VA-oR<-?/-$A
%$-,R$ oral %$-,R$-$A-PR?-3,/-$A?-1$?-3A-1J<,
.0:-2R hero .0:-2R-9J<-/R-.J-#<-3-$9A$-<-<J.,
1%-3#/ storyteller 1%-1%-3#/-$A-]R-%R-/-;R.,
3-*3?-$R%-:1J= development; improvement .0=-:LR<-3-*3?-$R%-:1J=-<J.,
;R/-+/-&/ intellectual MA-;R/-+/-&/-,A<-$A?-#R$-3A-.R$
$*A.-?. to wake up $*A.-3-?.-/-i3-<A$-3A-$?=,
,A-3,/ republic n-</-?J-,A-3,/-$A-o=-#2-$9A$-;A/,
3$R-,R/-,2?-;? to eke out a living (%-n=-.J?-3$R-,R/-,2?-;?-$A-;R.,
=-?$? Ladakh =-?$?-/-#-3(J-<-2R.-$*A?-!-;R.,
<A$-:S similarity <A$-:S-9J<-/-A-/-3-/-3A/,
}-3-2R the former one =/-}-3-2R-:PA$-$A KA-3-2R-3A-:PA$
,A-=R Christian era; AD .-=R-,A-=R-!R%-$*A?-<-2o.-;A/,
o=-<2? dynasty (A/-o=-<2?-3%:-,%-(J,
$R%-3 king; emperor #R-$R%-3-;A/-/-<-.2%-3J.,
8=-:.J2? donation; alms #<-$J?-|R<-3R-*A->-$A-8=-:.J2?-2o2,
.<-H2-(J widely spread .LA/-;A$-:63-\A%-/-.<-H2-(J,
#-#R<-/ around 35S-}R/-0R:C-#-#R<-/-:VR$-0-;R.,
:V$ dragon :V$-hR$-$R-%R-3-$A?-AJ-;R.,
$/: ancient $/:-3A-9R?-\R$-<A$-MR%-3J.,
%$-o/ oral tradition %$-o/-/-#J-2-:.A-3$R-=R$-/?-(.,
•532•
]-<A soul mountain A-MJ?-k-(J/-$J-?<-$A-]-<A<-$R
.0:-83 to be intimidated .0:-3-83, %R2?-0-*J.,
@2 noodle @2-<-,$-0-.%R?-0R-$&A$-<J.,
$/3-P-,% airport $/3-P-,%-/?-_%?-:#R<-o$-3A-(R$
HA3-K$? garbage HA3-K$?-$A-/%-/?-$?J<-3A-fJ.,
:$R$ to block; to stop *J/-gR$-0-$A?-_%?-:#R<-5%-3-:$R$-$A
.L<-$/% summer holidays .L<-$/%-%-%<-=?-o-3%-,
@-8J/-$A? hardly; diligently @-8J/-$A?-212?-/-.R/-.$-:P2,
.R/-~A%-&/ meaningful; significant {.-(-.R/-~A%-&/-+$-+$-2>.-oR-.!:,
t$?-L airplane t$?-L-$;A?-3J.-/-:1<-3A-,2,
:O$-(J/ big war :O$-(J/-$A-/%-/?-.3$-OA-2./->A-?R%-,
?:-=J/ Soviet Union ?:-=J/-.-?A=-2<-,R<-;R.,
:P3-2o. river basin k-(:A-:P3-2o.-/-PR%-HJ<-3%-,
,%-o=-<2? Tang Dynasty ,%-o=-<2?-$/:-$9A$-$A-;A/,
24/-0R emperor; king 24/-0R-.J:A-<A%-%-2R.-o=-#2-24$?,
$&A$-I< unification o=-#2-.-2R-$&A$-I<-;R%-3J.,
l-2-o? to take / to strike root 3-l-3#/-:.A-\R$-[.-=?-/?-l-2-o?,
?A=-2<-,R< to fall to pieces; to collapse 2R.-(J/-0R-?A=-2<-,R<-<?-=R-3%-%-:$R<,
#J<-(. stray =$-#J<-(.-.J-%J.-5%-$A-3A/,
YR=-$+R.-3#/ founder P2-3,:-:.A-YR=-$+R.-3#/-?-<J.,
$J-?<-1%-$A-/%-.R/-,A-#R$
,A-#R$ general /%-.R/-,A-#R$-$9A$-%?-<-$R-,=,

:O%? to be born +-=:A-]-3-{-UJ%-$?3-0-/3-$A-=R<-:O%?,
(R?-o=-$?3 three Tibetan emperors (R?-o=-$?3-0R-%?-2lA-3A-,2,
[-[R barbarian [-[R:A-.?-{2?-2-MA-=-lA?-,%-3J.,
.3-3-2+$? to conquer *J?-(J/-$9A$-$A?-$.R/-:SJ-.3-3-2+$?,
•533•
2.. demon 2..-$A-$*J/-0R-$J-?<-;A/,
(3-3-12 to destroy; to conquer 2..-#3?-$J-?<-$A?-(3-3-12,
2.J-=-:#R. to set free; to bring peace .J%-?%-3$R-/$-MA-2.J-<-:#R.-;R.,
.2%-%-#. to bring under control 5S-2-:.A?-5S-(%-$*A?-.2%-%-#.-o-<J.,
3#:-:PR-3 dakini %?-3#:-:PR-3-$+/-/?-<A$-3-MR%-,
(R?-*R% dharma protector .$R/-0-?R-?R-/-(R?-*R%-;R.,
Y%-3 guardian deity HA3-5%-:.A:A-Y%-3-$%-;A/,
n-:,2 to become stranded; to collude .R/-.$-3%-%-$9A$-n-:,2-?R%-,
,-(% youngest 8A-=A-,-(%-.-2R-=R-$?3-3-=R/-3J.,
2<-$% space 2<-$%-/-Y%-{<-)J-3%-<J.,
*J=-3-;? to escort %?-:P=-2-$9A$-*J=-3-;?-.$R?,
,A-.0R/ general commander ,A-.0R/-$9A$-$-:)R/-,%-.$R?,
?J<-$-&/ stingy MA-?J<-$-&/-/-o-3A-:#R<,
%/-2&R? to harm; to cause trouble $8/-/-%/-2&R?-/?-<%-1%-,
$-:SJ/ troublemaker; culprit OR-,%-IR.-$A-$-:SJ/-;A/,
3A-$ figure 3A-$-?3-&-5S$?-,R$-/-;R.,
8J-cR. violent MA-8J-cR.-<-#-3-\R%-,
3,<-0R.-2+% to cast someone out M=-3-o=-#2-.J-/?-3,<-0R.-2+%-,
!R.-o. upper reaches (of a river) :VA-(:A-!R.-o.-#3?-/-;R.,
OA throne $R%-3:A-OA-3-2.J-/, %%-2R:C-*=-?-3A-2.J,
:UA/-=? commitment; task ]-3-:.A-:UA/-=?-o?-$A-;R.,
.M=-#3? hell .M=-#3?-/-MA-$%-<A$?-;R.-o-/%-,
(-nJ/-8/ poor (-nJ/-8/-/-<-#R-5%-*A.-0R-<J.,
*R2 to protect; to save one's life 24S/-3-*R2-(J.-%?-#-2m.,
<A-?$? wildlife <A-?$?-9R-dR/-0-$A-=$-$->R<-?R%-,
1R-;$ handsome 1R-;$-.J<-(%-3-3R-24S$-$9A$-;R.,
O%-O% wild goose O%-O%-2R.-/-3A-3%-,
?J3?-$;J% to get relaxed /.-0-$A?-?J3?-$;J%?-/-:PA$
•534•
(%-? marital engagement 8A-3R-:.A-=R-(%-.?-(%-?-2o2-;R.,
o-#R$ inland China o-#R$-.L<-#-5.-0-(J,
#$-:#< to take responsibility %-3A-=/, %?-#$-3A-:#<,
$R-o hearing; information $R-o-3J.-/-#R$-o-3A-;R%-,
;A$-:K$ misspelling ;A$-/R<-;R.-/-<-.0J-(-/%-.R/-(J,
$/3-%R-:O$? to get clouded $/3-%R-:O$?-/-|%-/?-3-:.$
#-eJ-.< to be influential #J-.0R/-#-eJ-.<-$A-3J.,
#-{. oral language #-{.-<-;A$-{.-A-/-3-/-3A/,
}R-,A%-%J bright blue .J-<A%-$/3-%R-}R-,A%-%J-,
L% to be versed; to be fluent 8A-=A-:.A-o-{.-<-L%-;R.,
fR$-$+3 nonsense fR$-$+3-2>.-/-#R-%<,
#$-IR% retribution <%-#$-<%-*R?-;A/-/-#$-IR%-<J.,
:#R% to become gluttonous 8-;?-9-3-$A-!J%-%-:#R%-$A-;R.,
#-o2 food and clothes #-o2-#J2?-/-#<-$J<-:.%-o$-3J.,
36.-0 deed; contribution *J?-(J/-:.A?-36.-0-(J-2*%?,
(-~R3? average (-~R3?-$A?-MA-<J<-!->-$*A?-<J-,J3?,
=3-=$? social system =3-=$?-3J.-/-1A$-=3-*R$-:PR,
:2= to offer #J-3A-9R?-$8A-2.$-$-3(R.-0-:2=,
,A-?J3? social mind ,A-?J3?-3J.-/-|J<-.R/-<-3A-:P2,
5/-<A$ science 5/-<A$-.J%-,R$-KA-o=-/?-l-2-5$?,
$/3-,% (it) gets sunny .J-<A%-$/3-,%-;R.,
5K-KA. to be able to eke out a living %:A-A-#-#$-3R->J.-5K-KA.-?R%-,
>A.-=? post-death tasks; funeral 2R.-/?->A.-=?-;?-/-:PR-|R-(J,
(.-0R worn-out; threadbare $R/-o-(.-0R-??-<-$R/-/-3A-:.R.,
2?R.-/3?-$A?-3A-<% to be forbidden by moral virtue %/-2&R?-/-2?R.-/3?-$A?-3A-<%-,
.3J to feel disgusted %-MA-%/-.J<-.3J-$A
$< to move ^-$8$-3<-%?-#%-2-$<-o-;A/,
8$-#R. staying overnight 8$-#R.-$A-:PR-?R%-|R<-S$-&-;A/,
•535•
2o$?-0 fat; large (person) MA-2o$?-0-$9A$-:$R-2<-2{R?-?R%-,
.-2<-$A-$J-?<-o=-0R:C-1%-,
2<-H.-(J different 3A%-Z%-$*A?-!-i3-<A$-$A-,R$-/?-2<-H.-(J,
,A/-,$ tape ,A/-,$-$A-!J%-1-12-.$R?,
12 to download; to record %?-3*J/-(?-$9A$-12-$A-;R.,
;A-$J-2 calligrapher; intellectual ;A-$J-:.A-;A-$J-2-$9A$-$A?-3-VA?,
$+J<-36S. trove; storehouse $J-?<-1%-lR3-<A$-$+J<-36S.-$9A$-;A/,
AR%-> buttocks 3<-$J-AR%->-5S/-0R-;A/,
AR%->-;%-3R philandering; lustful #<-$J:A-c/-3R-AR%->-;%-3R-;A/,
8J-,R$? to get sentimentally attached A-3-8-;?-$A-,R$-$-8J-,R$?,
0-2R / %R-2R grandfather 0-2R-%-<-3*3-0?-:.$-$A-;R.,
0-3R / %R-3R grandmother 0-3R-$/:-$9A$-/?-3J.-?R%-,
1<-cR= attack 1<-cR=-<-o=-#-3-,R2,
.2%-:.=-&/ powerful; charismatic MA-.2%-:.=-&/-$A?-3A-?J3?-:.=,
$4$-$-:6B/ to prioritize HR?-.R/-.$-:.A-$4$-$-:6B/,
;A-<% to be interested; to admire %-lA?-<A$-.R%-oR<-;A-3A-<%-,
3$R-:#< to be haughty 1-.2%-(J-/, 2-3$R<-:#<-$A-;R.,
3,/-1A= unity 1/-5/-2<-/?-3,/-1A=-;R%-oR-$=-(J,
;=-$.% homesickness %-;=-$.%-(J, 1-;:-o/-.-S/,
c/-$?R-#% home for the old 2R.-/-c/-$?R-#%-9J<-/R-3J.,
:HR$-3R curve; indirect; dishonest #<-$J:A-c/-3R-MA-:HR$-3R-;-3J.-$9A$-;A/,
$/-o= lying on one's back :P=-2-(.-<?-$/-n=-<-=R$-2+%-,
#-24S$ verbally rough #R-#-24S$ <J.-S-#R$-3A-24S$
#R$-:)3 gentle; well-intentioned #<-$J-#R$-:)3, #-24S$-/-<,
•536•
aR2-5/-2&R-2o.-0,
2h-3R.,
Noun Clauses with /R /R vs. oR in clauses

Included-questions 9J< vs. 2>.
Noun Clauses with oR
Lanscape, Nyi ma (Nima ሐ⥯) County, Mnga' ris Administrative Region, TAR (2003).
Text One: noun clauses
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, =?-%/-<A/-(J/-.%-1R=-3, (1)
hR-eJ-;A-$J-$9A$-29%-;?-%J.-5%-%-,R/-,=, =$-0-:.<-8R<-<, ;A-$J-.J-,R/-9J<, #<-$J-;R%-oR-%:A-;A.-<-3-><, ;A-$J-.J-

(A-$9A$-$A-{R<-;A/-/R-%?-3->J?, hR-eJ-$A?-;A-$J-.J:A-=R-o?-$?=-2R-$9A$-2>.-,=, #R:C-c/-3R-35S-3R-?J3?-#<-$A?-*=-
?-/%-/-;R.-9J<,
hR- eJ- $A?- "%:A- 8A- =A- <A/- (J/, HR?- >J?- o- <J.,"9J<, "=R- $?3- $A- }R/- /, <A/- (J/- 3J- +R$- $A- !J%- %- ?J3?- >R<- ?R%- , 35S- 3R- <-
%J.-$*A?-!?, #<-$J?-:VJ=-2-.J-$&R.-.$R?-/R-,J%?-3%-%-$9A$-$-\J%-, 3J-+R$-5%-HR?->J?-o-<J., 3<-$J-5%-22-$A?-
$4%-3-3-<J., %:A-A-1-$A?, 3R-5%-%-MA-<2?-$*A?-$A-}R/-$A-<?-36K-/.-L%-;R.-/R-%-2>.-MR%-, .J?-3A-5., /.-:.A?-#R-
5%-%-.-2<-<-$/R.-$R-$A /-/A%-3J-+R$-$A-A-1-.-2R-/.-.J?-:HJ<-=-#.-$9A$-;?-,=,"
"<A/-(J/-MA- 29%- (A-3R- $9A$- ;A/-/R- #J-3A-5%-3-$A?- >J?- /A-<J., .J:A-!2?- $A?, 3J- +R$- 5%- $A?- $R-{2?- ;R.- ;R.-0R- ,.-<?-
<A/-(J/-#-.G?, %-<-35S-3R-$*A?-!?-3J-+R$-5%-3A-$4%-/R-2>.-I%?-%-, <A/-(J/-~A%-2G$?-/A-<J., *A/-3-(-<J-HA3-3-
3- ;R%- , 9- 3-3- 9R?, #- 3- I$?-/, %J.- c/- cR/- $*A?- !- <- :.$- YR=- $9A$- 3J.- $A %- 3- :,.- /, <A/- (J/- $A?- <%- YR$-<-
$&R.-/-,%-, .$R%-3R-$9A$-$-35S-3R-<-%J.-$*A?-!?-$*J/-.J<-:,.-3A-:,.-<-IR?-;?, 3<-$J-<-~A%-$A-8A-=A-=$-/?->R<-
oR<-*$-$A- ;R., >R<- ?R%-/, 3R-$?R/-oR<-$*A?-!?->A-/-.$:-9J<, .J:A-nJ/-$A?-%J.-$*A?-!?-8A-=A- $A-:.R.-0-{R%- oR- ;?-
2+%- , .-#R- $*A?-!- :.$- ?- $9A$- :5S=- .$R?- /R- $4S- 2R- /%- $A- ;%- $4S- <J., 3J- +R$- $A- @- 3- $*A?- !?, <A/- (J/- #R- 5%- /?-
:.$- .$R?- 9J<, 8A- =A- MA- $8/- $A- =$- :R$- /?- :.$- oR<- 35S- 3R- 22- $A?- 3A- :,., % ?- <A/- (J/- $A?- (A- $9A$- 2?3?- /R- SA?,
#<- $J?- <- <%- $A- @- 3- $*A?- !:A- 3*3- 0?- :.$- o?- 9J<, <J.- S, <A/- (J/- $A?- :.R.- /R- %?- 12- #-*/- $A- 3J., /.- %J.-5%-
/?-;<-3<-<-:$R?-/-(A-$9A$-;?-o?, %?-<%-$A-o.-0-$4%-3-.J->J.-2_$-/-3A-:.R.-$A %?-:.R.-/R-#R-$*A?-!?-#R-9R-
<%-$A-HA3-,2-:6B/-oR-<J., c/-3R<-.J->J.-2>.-2>.-/A-<, 3<-$J-<-:,.-oR-:,.-?R%-,"
"%-3J-+R$-5%-%-$*J/-aR%-$A-?R%-%- , 3J-+R$-$A-@-3-$*A?-!?, '3J-+R$-$A-/-3R-$/?-$9A$-$-LA/-28$ .-3J-+R$-!J<-3A-*/,
.J- 3A/- /- %J.- c/-cR/- $*A?-!- $8$- /?- ?<- #J/- o- ;A/, <A/- (J/- %J.- 5%- $A- 3$- 0- ;A/- .$R?, .J- ;A/- /, HA3- 5%- $A- o- /R<-
5%-3-$8$-/?-8- ;?-$*A?- !:A-;A/,'9J<, .J->J.-;?- oR<- %-<-35S-3R-3A-:,.-$A %?-8-;?-$*A?- !-|J<-5$?- $-:2.-oR-
\J%-%-,"
3J- +R$- $A- @- 3- $*A?- !?".J- 3A- (R$"9J<, "3J- +R$- 8A- 3R- $?3- 0R:C- /%- /?- A- +- $A?- .$:- 2R, #- */- /R- ;A/, %J.- 5%- $A- $8A-
:6B/-3#/-3R-;A/,"
•538•
"%J.- 9R- 5%- 3- 8- ;?- 9R:C- @- 3- <J., %J.- 9R- /3- 5S.- (A- 3R- $9A$- ;R.- :.$- 2>.- oR- .!:- 3R- <J., <J.- S- @- 3- $A?- 8- ;?-$A- *A.-
#$-2?3?-/-<J., <A/-(J/-%J.-5%-/?-8A-=A-$*J/-21A$?-3J.-/R-#J<-<R-;A/-/-<, %J.-$*A?-!?-#<-$J-<-3J-+R$-$*A?-!-#-
$+R<- /- 3A- :.R.- $A %- 3J- +R$- %J.- 5%- /?- :.$- oR<-<-3A- :,., <A/- (J/- HR.- 5%- %- ;R%- oR<- <- 3A- :,., %:A- <J- 2- ;A/- /, HA3-
5%-$*A?-!?, #R-$*A?-!?-<%-$A-HA3-,2-:6B/-oR<-o2-*R<-;?-/, %?-.J->J.-i-(-$+3?," 3J-+R$-$A?-@-3-$*A?- !?,
#R-$*A?-!?-:.%-o$-.$R?, %-KA:A-*A/-3-KA<->R$-9J<,
"KA-*A/-;=-29%-<J., *A-3-/3-3#:A-3,R%?-/-5-=3-3J, L-cR.-$?3-$A?-.LA%?-2!R.-$A%?-:.A-5%-3-v?-29%-$9A$-
$- 2lA?, %?- <%- $A- $R/- o- A- m- 2R- $R/, #- /?- $;%- :2R.- 8R<- <- 3J- +R$- 5%- %- ?R%- , %- ,R/- .?, 3J- +R$- $A?- @- 3- $*A?-
2|$?-/?-2#.-;R., 3-2?3?-?-/?, #R-$*A?-! $&A$-%R-<R.-<R->J., $&A$-%R-z%-;?-;R.,"
"3J-+R$-$A-A-1-$A?, '3.%-.$R%-, %J.-9R?-IR?-;?-2+%-, 3J-+R$-$A?-8A-=A-%J.-5%-%-HA.-;R%-/-(R$ <J.-S, #R-$*A?-!?-

<%-,2-:6B/-/, %J.-5%-/?-#R-$*A?-!<-$&A$-<-3A-,R2, '9J<, 3J-+R$-$A-@-3-$*A?-!-]R-,$-j.-(R.-;A/-/R-%?->J?-,=,"
"%-KA<-<-,R/-.?, 8A-=A-<-c/-3R-$*A?-!?-.R/-.$-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-/R-SA?-,=, #R-5%-3A-:,.-$A <A/-(J/-#R-5%-%-?R%-/- 3-
$+R$?, .J:A-,R$-/?-35S-3R-3A-:,.-/R-#R-,$-<J., <A/-(J/-$A?-#R-<-3J-+R$-5%-%-3A-:IR-9J<, $8$-/?, ??-<-$*J/-aR%-
oR-:R<-$A?-3-\J%-, <J.-S-<A/-(J/-<-3J-+R$-$*A?-!?-.-<%-:IR-:R%-;?-$A-;R.,"
"/%?-3R-$9A$-$ <A/-(J/-<-3J-+R$-<-K$?-mA-$8/-0-(-4B$-$A?-K$?-9R$-#-$&A$-$-:.J.-$A-;R.-/R-%?-<A$-,=, %?-MA$-
o%-(.-<J$-$J<-#R-9R:C-K$?-9R$-.J.-?<-,J%?-$%-3%-%-2v?, KA-SR-:KA-.?-$9A$-$ MA-$9A$-K$?-9R$-%J.-5%-$A-KR$?-
$-.J.-<?-;R%-$A-;R., K$?-H-*J-?<-,R/-/A-<, %?-K$?-9R$-9R-%J.-5%-$A-;A/-/R-<-mA-2R-3$-<-;A/-/R->J?-,=, 3$-<-<A/-
(J/- $A- <R$?- 0- /%- 3- $9A$- ;A/, %?- <A/- (J/- $%- %- 2.- ?R%- , #R- (A- $9A$- L%- 2+%-2?3?- ,=, $8$- /?, %?-3J- +R$- $A-
K$?-9R$-<-/%-/-;R.-/R->J?-,=, %?-z$-+-?J3?-#<-;?-?R%-,"
"%?-<A/-(J/-$%-/-;R.-/R-SA?, <A/-(J/-$A?-3$-<<- ;A-$J-:.A-LA/-2+%-$9A$ 3$-<-$A?, 3J-+R$-<-<A/-(J/-3*3-0?-;R.,
#R-$*A?-!-$%-%-:IR-o-;A/-/R- 3-2>.-,=, .-2R-%J.-5%-$A- K$?-9R$-3$-<-#<-$J?-:5S-9J<, <A/-(J/-$A?-<J-2-2+R/-/R- .J-
;A/-9J<,"
"%?- ;A$-%R- 3A- (R., <A/- (J/-wR3- ?R%- /R- >J?- /A- <, 35S- 3R- %?- ,=, .J- /?- 2o=- ,=, 3,:-3)$-/- ;?- *=- ?<- z%- ,=,
3<-$J:A-/.-S$-.$R?-/, 3<-$J<-.$R?-/R-<A/-(J/-$A-{R<-$A-$/?-5=-<J-$R-oR-<J.,"
•539•
18.1 --Noun clause with /R
Comple- Tibetan English Use
mentizer
HR?-::.A-VA?-/R-%?-3->J?, I did not know that you
wrote it. with verbs
in PAT
3<-$J?-A-3--KA<-<--,R/-/R->J?-3J., She does not know that her
mother has returned.
#<-$J?-|R<-3R-2b??-;?--/R-.-2R-$?%-;R., That he has stolen money is
still kept secret.
HRR?-2R.-;AA$-:VA-/R-??-<->J?, Everyone knows that you
write Tibetan.
%?--=$-->-3AA-S/--/R-m/-;A/, It is a lie that I don't miss
mutton.
with verbs
in PRT
MAA-<AA$?--$J-3%<-3RR<-.$:-/R-.0J-<J., It is natural that all people
like sweetness.
/R 2RR.-0--3%-(JJ->RR?-/%-2!!/--0-;AA/-/R-%?-<->J?, I also know that most with ;A/,
Tibetans are Buddhist.
tense mood
3<<-$JJ-}RR/-(.-;$--3-;AA/-/R-.-2R-<->J?-,2-$A One can even now tell that
she used to be beautiful. depending
=?--!-.!:--3R-;A/-/R-=?-/->J?, One knows that physical
labor is difficult when he
on context
experiences it.
HRR.-$*J/-221A$-o--;A/-/R-.R/-.$-(J-$9A$-<J., It is a big thing that you will
marry. with ;A/, in
%?--o-;AA$-.R%-o--;A/-/R-.-2R-S/-|R-;A/, It is just a thought that I will
study Chinese. future tense
HRR.-:.A<-.$:--o-3AA/-/R-%?-5S<-;R., I realized that you would not mood

like it.
Notes-1
1. /R: It has already been learned in connection with adjective clauses and as a personalizer.
Refer to Notes 1, 2, and 3, Chapter Thirteen. Its functions are compared here.
;A-$J-HR?-VA?-/RR-%:C-=$-$-:LR<-,=, I have already received the letter you

wrote.
In adj. clause
{.-2+%--/R-$?=-2R-3-<J., The message that was sent was not
clear.
In noun
HRR?-;A-$J-VA?-/R-%?-3->J?, I do not know that you wrote the
letter.
clause HRR?-{.--2+%-/RR-$?=-2R-<J., It is very clear that you have sent the
message.
As
;AA-$JJ-:VAA-/RR-HR.-<J., You are the person who wrote the
letter.
personalizer {.--$+R%-/RR-HR.-3A/-?-;A/, Who is the messenger if not you?
2. /R is used either as a complementizer or as nominalizer in noun clauses, e.g., (as a

complementizer) %?-#<-$J-?R%-/R-3->J?, I didn't know that he had gone. / (as a
nominalizer) #<-$J?-VA?-/R-$?=-2R-<J., What he wrote is very clear.
•540•
3. Complementized noun clauses are often put in front. A-1-:.A-3R-$9A$-c?-;R.-/R-%?-3-2?3?,
I have not thought about Father being so old.
4. Nominalized noun clauses are usually modified by such complements as >J?, ;A.-(J?,
$?=-2R, #R-,$-(R., ;-35<, ]R-13, ;A.-(., .$:-;R., :.R., :SA, ;A.-<-S/, *$-*J.-<J., Z-$A,
<J., ;A/, etc.
Exercise 1 Rewrite each statement with noun clauses, either as subjects or objects.
.0J<-2eR., %?-/3-;A/-/-<-2R.-5%-3-:VR$-0-;A/-:.R., <J.-S-:VR$-0-8A%-2<-vR?-/-3A-P%?-*%-,

:VR$-0-8A%-2<-vR?-/-/-3A-P%?-*%-/R-%:A-;A.-<-3-><,
1. 2R.-/?-1=-(J<-5%-3-MA-..-0-&/-+$-+$-<J., :.A-%:A-;A.-<-3-><,
______________________________________________________________
2. #3?-<-A-3.R-$A-MA-P%?-2#R3?-/-2R.-uR%?-$A-;/-<J., %?-.J-3->J?,
______________________________________________________________
3. 35S-2R.-3,R-|%-$A?-N%-$R-o=-#2-$A-?-o-$A-2o-(:A-*A->-l-s-9A/-;R., 35S-2R.-3,R-|%-(J-$A-/%-,
______________________________________________________________
4. 2R.-$A-MA-P%?-N%-$R:C-,A:A-MA-P%?-$A-2o-(:A-,A$-=J-P%?-(%-$?3-2o.-;A/, .J-3R-$9A$-(%-o-3-<J.,
______________________________________________________________
5. 35S-2R.-3,R-|%-$A-?-3$R-(-~R3?-3-35S-%R?-$A-<?-3?-!R%-5S-28A-<J., MA-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-.J->J?-$A-3J.,
______________________________________________________________
6. 2R.-$A-?-(-,A-$A-2o-(-$A-S$-&-<J-2o.-$A-!J%-/-K$?-9R$-:5S-$A-;R.,
______________________________________________________________
7. <R%-3-:VR$-$A-2R.-0-2R.-uR%?-/?-MA-P%?-,A-$A-2o-(:A-2./-&-z$-<J.,
______________________________________________________________
8. 2R.-uR%?-/?-:VR$-/$-<R%-3-:VR$-:S-3-$9A$-3A-3%-,
______________________________________________________________
9. 2R.-$A-:VR$-0-9R<-.$/-?-<-.L<-?-;R.-/A-<J., #R-9R-/3-;A/-/-<-?-(-$&A$-/-:.$-$A-3J.,
______________________________________________________________
10. 2R.-$A-?-(-/-8A%-?-&%-3J., ?-o-,A-$A-2o-(:A-$&A$-;R.-3J.-;A/,
______________________________________________________________
•541•
Exercise 2 Convert each sentence into a statement that includes a noun clause or an
adjective clause.
.0J<-2eR., Noun clause included: 8A-3R-9R?-_%?-:#R<-(J-$9A$-3A-{R<, 1=-(J<-2R.-$A-?-(-;R%?-/?-.J-3R-<J.,

8A-3R-9R?-_%?-:#R<-(J-$9A$-3A-{R<-/R-2R.-?$A-$/?-5=-$9A$-<J.,
Adj. clause included: 3.%-.$R%-%?-(%-:,%?, (%-@R%-$A?-8A3-$A
(%-%?-3.%-.$R%-:,%?-/R-@R%-$A?-8A3-$A
Noun clause included
1. #<-$J-MA-.$:-$9A$-;R%-o-<J., .J-$/:-$9A$-/?-%?->J?-;R., _________________________
2. A-=J, HR?-o-;A$-:.A-3R-A-m-$9A$->J?-/?, _________________________
3. %?-=J$?-*J?-2{<-3#/-.-2R-HR.-;A/-2?3?-,=, _________________________
4. .R-5B$?-,/-0-(J, 8A%-2-9R-$/3-:)R-(J-.$R?-$A-;R., _________________________

_
5. %<-|R<-3R-$;R<-o-3J., %?-HR.-,J%?-3%-%-2>.-2+%-, _________________________
_
6. HR.-2.J-3R, HR.-.J-<A%-,R/-2+%-/-8J-,$-$A?-Z-$A _________________________
_
Adjective clause included
1. #-l%-}-3R?-(<-2-22?-,=, 22?-/R-(J-$A _________________________

_
2. %?-_%?-:#R<-$9A$-*R?-2+%-, %?-|R<-3R-:23-$*A?-LA/-2+%-, _________________________
_
3. %:A-5-3R-$A?-.0J-(-$9A$-:.R/-$A-;R., .J-:VA-3#/-(R?-P$?-<J., _________________________
_
4. :S-0<-:.A-]-3-$9A$-$A-<J., ]%?-/R-@R%-$A?-Z-$A _________________________
_
5. #%-2-:.A-=R-?3-2o-$A-}R/-/-=?, .-2R-<-2!/-3R-<J., _________________________
_
6. :.A-35K-3-$*A?-!:A-/%-/?-(J-2R-<J., #<-$J-KA-o=-/-2#.-;R., _________________________
_
Exercise 3 Combine the two sentences so as to include a noun clause and / or the
personalizer . /R
.0J<-2eR., Noun clause included: =$-(-:.A-$R-(R.-<J., %?-o/-.-2!R=-$A-;R.,

%?-o/-.-2!R=-$A-;R.-/R-=$-(-$R-(R.-:.A-;A/,
Personalizer included: %-*=-$A-:IR, <J.-S-%:A-%/-;-3A-*=-9J<,
*=-$A-:IR-/R-%-;A/, 3A-*=-/R-%:A-%/-;-;A/,
•542•
1. 8A-=A-:.A-S%-3R-<J., .J<-%-.$:-$A ___________________________
2. 5S%-2-:.A-o-&/-;A/, <J.-S-.J-.R/-.$-:.A<-:VJ=-2-3J., ___________________________
3. %-/%-2!/-0-$9A$-;A/, .J-%-2R.-$9A$-;A/-/R-$A?-3-<J., ___________________________
4. .0J-(-:.A?-#R-:VR$-/?-=$-($?-YR=-\J%-;R., ___________________________
5. #<-$J-?%?-o?-$A-A-1-;A/-/?, .J-9J<-/-?%?-o?-#R-<-#R-<J., ___________________________
6. HR.-3A$->J=-$9A$-.$R?-/?, %?-$8$-/?-&A$-*R, ___________________________

_
Personalizer included
1. %-(.-$A _%?-:#R<-(R?-.<-$A?-{R<, __________________________
2. .$J-2>J?-(J/-3R-.J-<A%-$A-<?-3J., L-2-,3?-&.-%:A-=$-/-;R., __________________________
3. .J-<A%-.$J-c/-(R?-35S-/-2+%-, 2R.-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-;?-3A-,2, __________________________
4. .R-.$R%-HR?-/.-0-Y%-, %-;:-2-:IR, __________________________
5. 8A%-2-9R-{R3-$A-;R., <J.-S-SR?-)-{R=-3#/-.-2R-,R/-$A-3J., __________________________
6. <A-3R-:.A-<2-:LR<-$A?-VA?, <A-3R-:.A-;$-$A-/%-, __________________________
18.2 --Included-question noun clause
Noun clause that include question words

Tibetan English Question
words
%?-$%--/?--l=--.R%-;?--.$RR?-/R-3A->J?, I do not know where I should exercise. where
%-$%--%-:IRR-o-;A/-/R-HR:A-.R/-.$-3-<J., Where I will go is not your business. where to
aR2-3-9R-$%--/-;R.-/R-.$J-c/-$A?-$?=-2R<->J?-/A-<J., The teacher should know clearly

where the students are.
where
hR-eJ-$A?-(A-$9AA$-29%-;R.-/R-%?-$8/-/-3-2>., I did not tell anybody what Dorji had

in his hand.
what
;A-$J-.J-(A-$9AA$-$A-{R<-;A/-/R-%?-3->J?, I did not know what the letter was

about.
what
about
hR-eJ-$A?-(A-$9AA$->J.-;A-$J-$9AA$-:LRR<-/R<-:.%-2o2, Dorji tried to remember how he got
the letter.
how
;A-$J-.J-VA?-/R-(A-3R-$9AA$-;A/-/R-hR-eJ-$A?-v-3A->J?, Dorji cannot tell how well the letter is

written.
how
<A/-(J/-3J-+R$-$-(A-3R-$9AA$-.$:--$A-;R.-/R-$?=-2R-<J., It is very clear how much Rin chen

loves Me tog.
how
much
<A/-(J/-$A?-;A-$J-.J-?-$9AA$-$-LA/-/R-%?-<-3A->J?, I also don't know to whom Rin chen
gave the letter.
to whom
<A/-(J/-<-3J-+R$-(A-$9AA$-$-VR?-?R%-/R->J?-oR-$=-(J, It is very important to know why Rin

chen and Me tog eloped.
why
A-3-$A?-<A/-(J/-/3--KA<-<-;R%-o-;A/-/R->J?-/-:.R., Mother wants to know when Rin chen

will return.
when
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<A/-(J/-MA-29%--$9AA$-;A/-3A/-2>.-oR-.!:, It is difficult to tell if Rin chen is a
good person or not.
be verb
with its
;A-$J-.J-<A/-(J/-$A-;A/-3A/-%?-SA?, I asked if the letter is for Rin chen or antonym
not.
35SS-3R-/.--0-$9AA$-;A/-3A/-HR.-$?=-2R-;A/, You know well whether Mtsho mo is a
patient or not.
3J-+R$-$-36KK-/.--;R.-3J.-<A/-(J/-$A-A-1?-3A->J?, Rin chen's father does not know if Me
tog has leprosy or not.
E-v with
its
<A/-(J/-$A?-;A-$J-$9AA$-VA?-;R.-3J.-3$-<-$A?-3-2>., Mgu ru didn't tell whether Rin chen antonym
had written a letter or not.
3J-+R$-$A-/-3R-$/?--$9AA$-$-LA/-;R.-3J.-\J%-?R%-, Whether Me tog's sister has already
been betrothed or not is mentioned.
<A/-(J/-3J-+R$-5%--/?--:.$-:.RR.-3A-:.RR.-SA?, Rin chen is asked if he wants to stay in
Me tog's family or not.
present
tense:3A
<A/-(J/-$A-@-3-$A?-$*JJ/-aR%-3A-aR%-:R<-$A?-#-3-P$?, Rin chen's parents did not mention
again if they (would) ask for the
between
marital engagement or not. two of the
same
3J-+R$-$A-@-3-:,.--3A-:,.--<A/-(J/-#R-5%-%-;R%-3A-;R%-%- Whether Me tog's parents agree or not
depends on whether Rin chen lives verbs in
,$ with them or not. PRT
<A/-(J/-$A?-@-3-:,.--3-:,.--<-:.%-3-2o2, Rin chen didn't think about whether
his parents agreed or not.
3
between
#R-$*AA?-!-VR?-3-VR?-35S-3R<-3-2>., Mtsho mo was not told whether they
had run away or not.
two
same
3J-+R$-?J3?--#$-3-#$-HR?-AJ->J?, Do you know if Me tog was happy or
not?
verbs in
PAT
%?--.!RR/-3(RR$-5%--,$--<A%-3A/-3A->J?, I do not know if Dkon mchog's family
is far or not (from here).
3A/
follows a
%:AA-.$:--<R$?--$A?-=J$?--*J?-:.AA-=J/-3A/-%-$.J%-3J., I am not sure if my girlfriend will
accept this present or not. verb or
o=--#2--:PAA$-3,/-;R%-3A/-3%-5S$?-$A-v-2<-,$-;R., Whether the countries are peaceful
depends on public opinion.
an
adjective.
Notes-2
1. :.$ and 3A/ are alternatively used to express included-questions mentioned previously.
Present
#<-$J-:IRR-3A/-3-2>., Don't tell if he is going or not!
tense $/3--P-:1<-:.$-.-2R-3A->J?, It is still unknown if the plane will take

off or not.
Past
#<-$J-?R%-3A/-3-2>., Don't tell if he went or not!
tense $/3--P-:1<-?R%-:.$-.-2R-3A->J?, It is not clear if the plane has taken off

or not.
With
.0JJ-(-:.A-Z-3A/-HR?-2v?-/->J?, You (would) know if it is a good book or
not if you read it.
adjective <A-$/--3,RR-:.$-:$R?-/->J?, One can tell if that mountain is high or
not if he climbs it.
With be
:.AA-3.RR$-}R/-0R-;A/-3A/-2>.-3A-.$R?, It's needless to say if this is blue or not.
verb .?-5S.-:.AA-$?<--2-;A/-:.$-2>.-.!:, It is hard to tell if this watch is new or

not.
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HR?-aR2-3-9R-aR2-#%-/-;R.-:.$-AJ->J?, Do you know whether the students are
in the classroom or not?
With E-v
%-0-?J-*R-o-;R.-:.$-$-?J3?-#<-(J, I am worried if tickets are available or
not.
2. Included-question noun clauses are modified by such complement phrases as $?=-2R-<J.,
:SA, 3A-.$R? , ??-<->J? , ;A.-<-3-><, %?-S/-$A, ,$-$&R., $=-(J, .!:, ?J3?-#<-(J, 2>., #-/-
;R., >J?-/-:.R., .R$?-0-3A-9, etc. For example: ?%-*A/-(<-2-:22-3A-:22-2-%-?J3?-#<-(J, I am
worried about whether it will rain or not tomorrow.
Exercise 4 For each statement, write a question that contains an included-question

and that the corresponding statement answers.
.0J<-2eR., Statement: 2R.-$A-=R-?<-,A-=R:C-^-2-$*A?-0-$A-/%-<J.,

Included question: 2R.-$A-=R-?<-.?-/3-$9A$-;A/-3A/-HR?-%-2>.-/-(A-3R-<J.,
Original statements With included question
1. %J.-9R-.L<-$/%-$A-{2?-2-2R.-<-;=-{R<-<-:IR-o-;A/, 1. _____________ 2>.-/-AJ-(R$

2. .0J-(-VA?-/R-@R%-$A?-Z-$A lR3-0-0R-(R?-P$?-<J., 2. ______________ HR?-AJ->J?,
3. aR2-OA.-}R/-3-$A-!J%-/?-2!/-0-KA-.<-$A-{R<-2>.-,=, 3. _______________%->R.-0,
4. 3.%-.$R%-$A-3R-5S$?-!J%-/-MA-?3-&-$9A$-;R.-$A 4. ____________%?->J?-/-:.R.,
5. #-l%-.%R?-=$?-$A-.$J-c/-KA-\A%-2-$9A$-<J., 5. ___________HR?->J?-o-<J.-0,
6. .R-5B$?-$A-(R/-=3-(J/-3R-]-V%-.$R/-0-/?-:5S$-o-<J., 6. _______________HR?-AJ-$R
7. HR?-{J-o/-:.A-o=-/%-$A-PR%-HJ<-(J-$9A$-/?-*R?, 7. _______%-2>.-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
8. \R$-2f/-/-v-oR<-|R<-3R-s-2&-LA/, 8. __________%:A-;A.-<-3A-:(<-$A
9. HR.-8A-=A-$9$?-,%-%R-.$:, $9$?-<A%-2R<-8A-=A-$A-5$?-!-3J., 9. ________________%->R.-0,
Exercise 5 Comment on these statements using included-questions.
.0J<-2eR., =R-*A->-$A-}R/-/-.-$9R.-A-3.R:C-?-(-/-5-=-3-;R.-?R%-,
Original statement:
Comment with included-question: A-=J, 5-=-3-/3-$9A$-$-A-3.R<-,R/-:.$-%?-3->J?,
Original statements With included question
1. 5S%-2-:.A-5K-.0=-;A/, %?-.J-3->J?, 1. _________________________
2. aR2-{2?-$8$-3-^-2-.$-2-$A-!R.-<-:5S$-o-<J., 2. _________________________
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3. %-aR2-9-:.A:A-/%-/?-=R-S$-:$R<-$A-;R., 3. _________________________
4. %:A-aR2-3-9R-2R.-$A-?-(-#$-?R-?R-/?-;R%-, 4. _________________________
5. .J%-?%-2R.-/-<-=$-HJ<-#-0<-2!R=-3#/-3%-, 5. _________________________
6. 8A-3R-9R?-9-3-#-5-@R%-$A?-9-3A-,2, %-,A<-$A?-.$:-/-<, 6. _________________________
7. .J%-KA/-(.-.-%-KA-o=-<-:IR-3A-.$R?, 7. _________________________
8. =R-S$-$A-}R/-/-#R-A-3J-<A-#-/-;R., 8. _________________________
9. }R/-(.-%:A-YA%-3R-.$J-c/-2&R?-MR%-, 9. _________________________
Exercise 6 Complete the dialogue with included-question noun clauses.
<R$?--0-!-2 .-!R/-=?-,R/-=-#.-;R., HR?-%-___________________________________>R.-0,

<RR$?--0-#--2 .R-5B$?-/3-^-29%-$A $/3-:)R-(J-/R-$A?, :$R-<A=-@R%-$A?-Z-$A
<RR$?--0-!--2 HR.-9R:A-?-(-/?-=R-+R$-________________________HR?-AJ->J?,
<RR$?--0-#--2 =R?->J?, ,A<-2+%-$A?-^-2-2./-0:A-!R.-<-:VJ$-$A-;R.,
<RR$?--0-!--2 #R-9R?-=R-+R$-(A-$9A$->J.-:VJ$-$A-;R.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 ________________________%?-<-3->J?, .-%-;:-2-=R-2./-/-3-?R%-,
<RR$?--0-!--2 <J.-S, #J-2:A-/%-/-HR:A->-*J-8A%-:.J2?-3#/-;R.-o-<J.-0,

<RR$?--0-#--2 mR$?-3J.-$9A$-;R., <J.-S-________________________%?-3A->J?,
<RR$?--0-!--2 %J.-$*A?-!-!R/-=?-$A-{2?-2-HR.-5S:C-#J-2<-?R%-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 .J-(R$-$A <J.-S, HR?-________________________%->R.-S,
<RR$?--0-!--2 %?- #R- 9R?- :5S- 2- (A- $9A$- >J.- <R=- $A- ;R.- /R- <A$- /- :.R., .J? - 3A- 5., 8A%- =?- $A- KR$?- $A- YR=- o/-
____________H.-0<-2->J?-/-:.R.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 YR=-o/-H.-0<-2-3%-%-$9A$-;R., .0J<-28$-/, S$-0:A-[-<R=, .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, %J.-$*A?-!-^-

2-S$-0:A-/%-%-:IR-.$R?,
<RR$?--0-!--2 [-<R=-____________HR?-AJ->J?,
<RR$?--0-#--2 #J-2-<J-<J-/?-[-<R=-1=-(J<-*A/-3-$?3-;A/, +$-+$-/3-;A/-/R-%?-<-3A->J?,
<RR$?--0-!--2 HR?-[-<R=-________________________SA?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
<RR$?--0-#--2 (R$-$A %?-.R-.$R%-A-#<-#-0<-$9A$-$+R%-, #<-$J?-5%-3->J?-/A-<J.,
•546•
Exercise 7 Ask questions with whether-question noun clauses included, which the
original statements answer.
.0J<-2eR., Original statement:(R?-P$?-$A?-L-2-$?<-2-.J-=?-/-:.R.-$A-3J.,

Included-question: (R?-P$?-$A?-L-2-$?<-2-=?-/-:.R.-$A-;R.-3J.-2>.-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
Original statements With whether-question
1. %:A-c.-0R-MA-29%-$9A$-;A/, 1. __________________ 2>.-/-AJ-(R$

2. #<-$J:A-8-;?-$*A?-!-aR2-9<-:IR-$A-;R., 2. ___________________HR?-AJ->J?,
3. #R-$*A?-!-aR2-.R%-%-@R%-$A?-Z-$A 3. _____________________%->R.-0,
4. aR2-9-/%-/-9-3-;R.-/R-$A?-9-3-:HJ<-3A-.$R?, 4. _________________%?->J?-/-:.R.,
5. aR2-9-.J:A-/%-/?-.$J-c/-9R-8R%-$A?-:$/-?J3?-;R.-$A 5. ________________HR?->J?-o-<J.-0,
6. aR2-9-$A-aR2-OA.-<-#R<-;$-$A-(-nJ/-/-2>.-o-3J.-$A 6. _____________________HR?-AJ-$R
7. aR2-3-5S?-.0J-(<-<A/-!J<-3A-.$R?, 7. ____________%-2>.-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
8. aR2-9-.J<-8-;?-9R-?R%-/-8J-,$-$A?-2.J-3R-<J., 8. ______________________>R.-S,
9. %-<-%:A-c/-3R-$*A?-!-aR2-9-.J:A-.$J-c/-;A/, 9. _____________________%->R.-0,
Exercise 8 Answer questions with if- or whether-question noun clauses using :.$
and 3A/.
.0J<-2eR., Question: %?-{R3-0-3A-29R.-$A .3-2A-.J:A-/%-/-(-AJ-;R.,

Answer with included-question noun clauses: .3-2-.J:A-/%-/-(-;R.-:.$-%?-3->J?,
1. 8A-=A, HR.-.L<-$/%-$A-{2?-2-$%-%-:IR-/-:.R.,
________________________________.-2R-3->J?, %-<-A-1-$A?-.-2R-,$-$A?-2&.-3J.,
2. 8A-3R, HR?-.J-<A%-$R/-o-*R-/-:.R.-/?, :.R.-/-%J.-(-2R-3*3-0?-:IR,

______________________________________%-|R<-3R-;R.-3J.-$A-#-/-;R.,
3. A-&J, HR:A-z3-$A-(J-(%-?R-2./-AJ-;A/, .J-3->J?-/-%J.-$*A?-!?-HR:A-z3-*R-,2-o-3-<J.,

______________________________%?-<-3A-S/-$A A%-!A-?R-2./-;%-3A/-.-(%-o-<J.,
4. A-1, %?-z3-$9A$-*R-:.R., %?-*R?-/-AJ-(R$

______________________________________HR:A-A-3<-:SA-$A-?R%-, %?-3A->J?,
5. A-#, A-1-$A?-%-z3-*R-#-3A-*/, HR?-#<-$J<-2.J/-2>.-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,

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_________________________ $A?-$R-3A-(R., $/.-.R/-z3-$?<-2-$9A$-.$R?-3A-.$R?-<J.,
6. A-3, A-1-<-A-#-$*A?-!?-%-z3-$9A$-*R-/-:.R.-$A-3J., HR.-<%-$A?-*R-o-AJ-;A/,
______________________________________.-A-3-%-.$:-3A-.$:-$A-.R/-.$-<J.,
7. %/-;, HR:A-8A-3R<-^-2-$&A$-<J-z3-$?<-2-<J-.$R?-/?,
___________________________%?-<-3A->J?, <J.-S-A-3-$A?-3<-$J:A-:.R.-0-12-$A-;R.,
8. A-3, A-&J<-z3-*R-/, %?-<-:.R.-0-$9A$-2+R/-/-AJ-(R$

___________________________________HR:A-=$-/-3J., %:A-?J3?-#3?-/-;R.,
Exercise9 Below is a list of questions that a father asked his son, who wants to
marry. Convert the questions into included-question statements.
.0J<-2eR., Question: HR?-35S-3R->J?-$A-<?-(A-3R-$9A$-:$R<-;R.,

With included-question: HR?-35S-3R->J?-$A-<?-(A-3R-$9A$-:$R<-;R.-3J.->R.,
1. 35S-3R-MA-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., ____________________ >R.,

____________________ >R., 10. 3<-$J-8A-3R-%$-:)3-o.-29%-$9A$-AJ-;A/,
2. HR.-$*A?-!-(A-$9A$->J.-%R-,$ ____________________>R.,
____________________ >R., 11. 3<-$J?-c/-cR/-/-2lA-2!<-AJ-;?,
3. HR.-$*A?-!-/3-$9A$-$-%R->J?-*/-/?, ____________________>R.,
____________________>R., 12. 3<-$J-8R%-$A?-#-=?-.$J-3#/-$9A$-AJ-;A/,
4. 3<-$J-}R/-(.-$/?-=-?R%-AJ-MR%-, ____________________>R.,
____________________>R., 13. 3<-$J-HA3-5%-;-<2?-$9A$-/?-AJ-<J.,
5. 3<-$J-8A-3R-$8/-?J3?-&/-$9A$-AJ-;A/, ____________________>R.,
____________________>R., 14. 3<-$J-HA3-=?-=?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.,
6. 3<-$J-=?-!-=?-/-=$-:#R2?-AJ-(J, ____________________>R.,
____________________>R., 15. 3<-$J-8A%-=?-<-K$?-=?-=-(-o?-AJ-;R.,
7. 3<-$J<-YA.-$8%-$A-L-2-:S-AJ-;R., ____________________>R.,
____________________>R., 16. 3<-$J-2R.-$4%-3-$9A$-AJ-;A/,
8. 3<-$J-;$-3R-|R-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., ____________________>R.,
____________________>R., 17. 3<-$J-5%-&%-3J.-$9A$-3A/-/?,
9. 3<-$J-}R/-(.-aR2-9<-?R%-AJ-MR%-, ____________________>R.,
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18. HR.-3<-$J:A-!J%-%-?J3?-:(R<-$A-;R.-<, ____________________ >R.,
____________________ >R., 22. 3<-$J:A-@-3-9R-(%-?-o$-oR<-AJ-:,.,
19. 3<-$J<-$*J/-21A$?-/-HR.-:IR.-0-3J.-/?, ____________________ >R.,
____________________>R., 23. 3<-$J-%J.-5%-$A-3/:-3-2&:-#-AJ-*/,
20. 3<-$J<-$*J/-1A$-oR-HR.-<%-$A-?J3?-AJ-;A/, ____________________ >R.,
____________________>R., 24. 3<-$J-8A-3R-:.R.-0-&/-$9A$-3A/-/?,
21. 3<-$J-HR:A-,R$-$-8J-,$-$A?-.%?-$A-AJ-;R., ____________________ >R.,
Text Two: noun clauses
9<-v:A-aR2-5/,
1-3-=-3A%?-0:A-;A-$J
SAA/-(J/-1--3-$*AA?-!-=$?,,
;A-$J-:.A-=$-$-:UR.-.?, %-*A/-3-$&A$-$A-<A%-%-VR?-?R%-/R-HR.-$*A?-!?->J?-o-<J., A-1-<-A-3, %-#-V=-
?R%-/R<-?J3?-#$-3-;?, %:A-$8$-$-<-3-;R%-, %-<%-$A-.$:-<R$?-$A-3*3-0?-?-#-,$-<A%-?-$9A$-$-:IR-o?,
:.A->J.-:IR-.$R?-/R-%J.-$*A?-!-$A-=?-.2%-<J., >$-3R-$A-3*3-0?-:.$-,2-/-.-%-*A.-?R%-/A-<J.,
SA/-(J/-$A-@-3-$*A?-! %-HR.-$*A?-!:A-,R$-$-:.%-3A-(J, ?J3?-:#R<-$A-3J.-l-2-/?-:.R.-3A-*/, .J-3R-$9A$-
$%-/?-;A/-o?, %-HR.-$*A?-!:A-,R$-$-:.%-=R?-;R., %:A-.R/-/-HR.-$*A?-!?-2.-5S.-$A?-@-8J/-;?-/R-?J3?-/-
z%-%J-;R., SA/-(J/-@-3-$*A?-!-8J-,$-$A?-2!:-SA/-(J, <J.-S, HR.-$*A?-!?-.R/-:.A:A-,R$-/?-%:A-,R$-$-:.%-
.0R$-$A-($?, %-3J.->=-/?, %J.-5%-$A-K$?-9R$-:5S-oR-%?-$-<<-2&R=-;R., #<-$J?-#?-<-]%?-2+%-,
;A-$J-:.A-:VA-8R<-<, %:A-%R-/-MA$-(-,-<-<, ;-#R$-/-#$-3J<-$A-;R., %-1J-2+2?-/R-8-;?-$9A$-<-A-/-3-/-
<J., *A/-3-$9A$-$-%-HR.-$*A?-!-v-$A-KA<-<-;R%-#R-,$-;A/, %:A-.R/-/-HR.-$*A?-!?-#R$-#$-3A-;?-oR, ]R-3A-13-
oR-%:A-<J-2-;A/, #-/?-3-EA-<J-,R/, %-3J.->=-/?, HR.-$*A?-!?-<%-<%-%-2.$-A-m-LR?,
2-(%-<A/-(J/-/?,
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18.3 -- in noun and infinitive clauses
oR
:(<--$8A-29R-oRR-%:A-3$R<-8, Making the plan became my job.
/ To make the plan is my job.
Clauses with oR can be
treated either as
3<<-$JJ-:..$--oRR-;?-;R., %-:IRR-oRR-;?-;R., It is decided: she stays and I go.
noun clauses or as
3PRR/-:2R.-;?--oR-:(<-$8A:A-/%-/-3J., It is not in the plan to invite the
guests.
infinitive clauses.
%?--=?-oRR-<-#<<-$JJ?-=?-oRR-3A-$&A$ What I will do and what he will Such noun clauses

do are different. are nominalized in
oR 3<<-$JJ?-*R-oR-:S-.0<-:.A-<J., What she will buy is this picture.
prospect, the actions
pending are yet to
A-1-$A?-2>.--oR-%:A-{R<-;A/-o-<J., What (my) father is going to talk
about would be me. happen. oR is simply
9-oR-l-3R-<J., =?-oRR-.!:-3R-<J., Eating / To eat is easy. Working /
To work is difficult. put after a verb in
*=--oR<-.$:, =?-oRR<-#$ Someone likes to sleep / sleeping
but dislikes to work / working.
PRT, to render either
a gerundial case or an
:.RR/-oR-vR?-/-:.%-o$--oR-$=-(J, Thinking / To think is more
important than reading / to read. infinitive case.
Notes-3
oR: This function word was discussed earlier in connection with infinitive and adjective
clauses. This review focuses on its function as a prospective nominalizer. nApplied with a
verb in PRT, it renders a noun clause, which implies actions yet to happen, either imminently
or in prospect. Given its prospective feature, the statements with such a clause are not in past
tense.%?-:VA-.$R?-oR-.J.-lR3-$9A$-;A/, What I need to write is an essay. / %?-:VA-oR-.J.-lR3-
$9A$-;A/, What I (will) write is an essay. In both examples, something is yet to take place.
oIt is never used with verbs in PAT to form this prospective noun clause, e.g., an incorrect
example: %?-VA?-oR-:K$?-?R%-, A correct example: %?-:VA-oR-:K$-o-3-<J., What I need to write
wouldn't be mistaken. (in prospect). To express in PAT, the verb is transformed in tense form
and the function word becomes , e.g., /R %?-VA?-/R-:K$?-?R%-, What I wrote was mistaken. (The
action in the clause has already happened.)
•550•
Exercise 10 A teacher assigns tasks to each student. Complete each statement with the
appropriate tense form of the verbs and . oR
.0J<-2eR., .%R?-2R-:5$-$A-:)$-oR-%-.$J-c/-$A?-.%-%-=J/,
1. 5K-2g/-<A-3R-VA?-/-Z, .0J-(-:.A:A-<A-3R-___________________________=?-:$/-;A/-9J<,
2. .L%?-&/-\-.L%?-]%?-/-Z-$A______________________3<-$J-<-\-3-(R?-35S<-2&R=-/A-;A/,
3. o/-.-l-:6$?-;?-/R-.!R/-3(R$-*2?-;A/, ______.!R/-3(R$-*2?-$A?-=?-/-3A-:.R.-/-<-=?-.$R?,
4. (R?-:1$?-$A-A-1<-_%?-:#R<-(J-$9A$-;R., _____________________(R?-:1$?-$A?-:$/-#<,
5. ,J%?-}R/-3-5K-=R-$A?-*R-(-2o2-/R-%:A-]R<-:22-$A .-<J2-<________________#<-$J?-U$-$-=R%?,
6. :6B/-9-:.A:A-/%-/?-9-3-2{R=-/-?-Z, ___________________________MA-.J:A-=?-:$/-;A/,
7. MA-?R-?R-$A?-|R<-3R-29%-/-.!:-3R-<J., ____________________________0/-N%-$A-:$/-;A/,
8. aR2-3-5%-3-/%?-!-.?-5S.-2o.-$A-}R/-/-,R/-.$R?, _____________aR2-3-<%-<%-$A-?J3?-3-9%?,
Exercise 11 The statements are either past or present in tense. Rewrite each
statement with oR or /R without changing the meaning.
.0J<-2eR., Statement: c.-0R, .-HR?-KA/-(.-HA3-/?-.-2-3-:,J/, 8-;?-9R-<-$/R.-o-<J.,

Rewritten: c.-0R, HR?-KA/-(.-HA3-/?-.-2-3A-:,J/-oR-%:A-<J-2-;A/, :,J/-/-8-;?-9R-<-$/R.-$A
Original statement Rewritten statement
1. %?-#$-3-$9A$-*R?, .J:A-3.R$-}R/-0R-;A/, 1. _____________________
2. HR.-aR2-9-$%-%-?R%-, aR2-:VA%-$?3-0-AJ-;A/, 2. _____________________
3. .-/%?-~/-%$-:.A-]R<-:6B/-.$R?, 3. _____________________
4. 8A-=A-.J?-{.-(-24/-0R->J.-2>.-,=, .J-2>.-YR=-$9A$-3-<J., 4. _____________________
5. %:A-5-3R-$A?-o-;A$-.R%-o-<J., 3<-$J<-N%-$R<-?R%-/-:.R., 5. _____________________
6. %?-2a2-L-$%-=J/-/%-, :.A-,$-$&R.-l-3R-$9A$-3-<J., 6. _____________________
7. #-l%-aR2-$?R-$A-{R<-2>.-,=, .J-<A%-<A$-$/?-$A-{R<-2>.-o?, 7. _____________________
8. aR2-3-5S?-=?-L-A-m->J.-VA?-;R., $8$-/?-<-.J->J.-UA?, 8. _____________________
9. .-HR?-(%-3-:,%-, :.A-%:A-<J-2-;A/, 9. _____________________
•551•
18.4 --Noun clause with question words

MAA-?-:.JJ3-(R$-//R-%:A-=$-/-3J., Who is allowed to be selected
is not my decision.
with modal verb
/R %?--$/3-P--/3-:11<--/R-3->J?, I did not know when the plane

had taken off.
in past tense
MAA-$8/--0-?--;RR%-.$R?-/RR-%-3-2>., I was not told who else should

come.
with modal verb
aRR2-OA.-$AA-!JJ%-/?-(AA-2>.--/R-o-{.-<J., What was spoken during the

class was Chinese.
in past tense
mood with what
included
/R #%--2<-???-&$--$-;?--/R-.-2R-$?%-2-$9A$-<J., Who made the room tidy still
remains a secret.
past tense with
who included
#<<-$JJ:A-2RR.-{.-(AA-3RR-$9AA$-Z-/RR-2>.-3A-.$R?, It is needless to say how good
his Tibetan is.
general statement
with how
included
MAA-?--:.J3-oRR-.-2R-,$-2&.-3J., It is undecided who would be
selected.
infinitive clause:
yet to be selected
$/3--P-KAA-SRR<-:1<<-oRR-,$-2&.-;R., It is decided that the plane will
take off in the afternoon
infinitive clause:
yet to take off
%:AA-c/--3R-?JJ3?--LA%-oRR-8-;?-$A-.R/-/-<J., What makes my wife
depressed is the children.
noun clause in
future tense
mood
oR aRR2-OA.-$AA-!JJ%-/?-((A-(A-2>.-oRR-%:A-2!R.-0-3A/, What will be talked about noun clause in
during the class is not my idea. future tense
mood
#%--2<-???-&$--$-;?--oR-%?-3A->J?, I do not know who will make
the room tidy.
noun clause in
future tense
mood
#<<-$JJ:A-2RR.-{.-((A-$9A$->JJ.-Z-,,2--oRR-.R/-.$-(J, How his Tibetan could be
improved remains a big issue.
in prospect
Notes-4
/R: nA noun clause that is put forward in past tense mood, e.g., #<-$J-K$-0R<-*/-/R-#<-$J-@-8J/-(J-
/R-$A?-<J., It was because he worked hard that he became rich. oIn a noun clause that is put
forward with modal verbs or O-be, e.g., 29:-5%-:,R<-.$R?-/R-29:-2-$*A?-$A-=?-<J., It is fate
that this couple has to divorce. pIn a noun clause that is expressed in general tone, e.g., #<-
$J-$9$?-3,R-/R-o.-$A?-<J., His being tall is genetic.
Exercise 12 Express the statements again with - or - included clauses. /R oR
.0J<-2eR., Statement: /-/A%-.R-5B$?-$/3-:)R-3J.-$A .J-(A-$9A$-$A-nJ/-;A/-/A-<J.,

Rewritten: /-/A%-.R-5B$?-$/3-:)R-3J.-/R-(A-$9A$-$A-nJ/-;A/-/A-<J.,
1. .R-8$-HR.-<A$-o-3J., HR.-$%-%-?R%-,
_________________________________________ &A$->R.-S,
•552•
2. %-.L<-$/%-$A-{2?-2-35S-#<-lJ-$A-:IR-o-;A/, HR?-(A-$9A$-=?-o-;A/,
_________________________________________ ,$-$A?-2&.-3J.,
3. %-8J-$A?-vR$?-$A %:A-c.-3R-$A?-9-3-(A-$9A$-2{R=-o-/%-,
_________________________________________ .-2R-3A-2>.-$A
4. :$R-2, %?-L-2-5%-3-=?-5<-?R%-, L-2-.-(A-$9A$-=?-.$R?,
_________________________________________ $%-$%-;R.,
5. L-2-$%-$%-HR?-=?-,2, L-2-$%-$%-HR?-=?-3A-,2,
____________________________.->R., $8$-/?-HR?-$/-.!:-$A :.A-.!:-$A-3-9J<,
6. 2R.-{.-<-.LA/-{.-.%?-/-3A-:S-$A 2R.-{.-(A-$9A$->J.-.%?-/-Z-/%-,
______________________________________%-3-:SA, %?-<-2R.-{.-.%?-3-MR%-,
7. %-=?-<R$?-$9A$-.$R?-$A ?-=$-:#R2?-(J,
______________________________________%->R.-S, %-=$-<R$?-$9A$-.$R?-$A
8. HA3-$A-=?-!-HR?-=?-.$R?, %:A-=?-!-3A/-/,
__________________________________HR:A-:$/-#<-3A/-/?, %?-3A-=?-#R-,$-;A/,
9. =R-2&-,3-0-$A-$8$-/?-%?-(A-$9A$-=?-o?, .J-.-%?-<-3A->J?,
_________________________________________%?-<-3A->J?, :.%-o$-$A-<-3J.,
10. HR?-\R$-2f/-$%-$%-%-2v?-2+%-,
_________________________________________;A.-<-AJ-:(<,
Exercise 13 Complete the travel plan using /R and oR.
c.--0RR A-<R, HR?-.%R?-2R-(A-(A-________%-&A$->R.-S,

/$--3R %?- 9- o- :$:- <J, ;=- {R<-$A- =3- ;A$- .0J- (- $9A$- *R?- ;R., .J- 3A/- .- ________.- 2R- ;=- {R<- $A- z3-(-
$*A?-<-;R., .J:A-@/-(.-/?-.-%?-(A-$9A$-*R-.$R? ________3A->J?-$A
c.--0RR .J%-?%-;=-{R<-<-:IR_____.J%-3-:S-3-$9A$-.!:-3R-3A/, 9-o-?-$%-;A/-/-<-*R-o-;R., HR.-$/3-P-$A-
0-?J-=J/-$A-/3-:IR,
/$--3R 0-?J-$A-,R$-/?, %?-.-2R-&%-2>.-3J., 0-?J-/3-*R?-/-$R%-2.J-3R-;A/________HR?-AJ->J?,
c.--0RR .-%J.-$*A?-!-:IR-<J$- $J<-$9:-:#R<-$*A?-+$-+$-;R.-$A $/3-P:A-0- ?J-*R-______.!:-3R-3-<J., <J.-
S-*R-_____:KA-/, $R%-)J-.!:-;A/,
•553•
/$--3R $R%- )J- .!:- ;A/- ______HR?- 3- 2>.- /, %?-<- >J?- $A HR?- /3- *R?- /- Z- ______>R.- S, *R- $A- :IR-
_______%?-#?-=J/,
c.--0RR HR.-.-?R%-/-<J., .J-3A/-.-/%?-!-$9:-3)$-<J., 0-?J-:5S%-3#/-9R?-|R-o$______#R-,$-;A/-/A-<J.,

/$--3R .J?-/, .J-<A%-#R-9R?-/3-<J$-$J<-|R-:LJ.-________HR?->J?-/?,
c.--0RR %?-.J-<-3A->J?, <J.-S-0-?J-}-?J?->J.-*R-___________$=-(J/-/%-$A-;%-(J/-<J., ,J%?-}R/-3-<-%J.-
$*A?-!?-$R%-.!:-3R-LA/__________HR?-1=-(J<-2eJ.-?R%-$9A$-0,
/$--3R HR?-.J->J.-3-2>., .J-%-#J<-<R-$A-*R/-3-<J., .J:A-,R$-$ %?-=?-_______5%-3-HR?-*R/-/-3-3,R%-,
c.--0RR %?-.J-9J<-$A-3J., 0-?J-.J-<A%-*R________%:A-=?-:$/-;A/, HR?-HA3-/?-.$R%-)-{R=-________;?,
/$--3R HR?-0-?J-*R-8R<-<, z3-*R-________;?-/-(A-3R-$9A$-<J., /%?-!-<-$/%?-*A/-%-#R3-o-3-<J.,
c.--0RR %?-*R?-/-(R$-$A <J.-S, z3-*R-/, HR.-<-3*3-0?-;R.-/-<2-;A/-o-<J., ,J%?-}R/-3-%?-*R?-
______HR:A-]R<-3-22?-,=,
/$--3R (R$-$A 8-;?-$*A?-!<-(A-$9A$-.$R?________HR?-AJ-SA?,

c.--0RR %?-3-SA?, #R-$*A?-!-;R.- ________;=-{R<-$A-KR$?-$A-.%R?-2R-<J., %?-2v?-/, #R-$*A?-!-&%-.$R?-
o-3-<J.,
/$--3R 2?3?-_______<-S/______HR.-<%-$J-#J<-<R-<J., HR.-3A/-., #R-$*A?-!-<-:.R.-0-;R. _______
#R-,$-;A/-/A-<J.,
c.--0RR .-%-3$R-/-$A .J-3R-$9A$-;A/-/, %-.J-<A%-3A-:IR-______;?, /%?-!-%J.-28A-2R?-*R-(-o$-______ ;?,
/$--3R AJ, /%?-!-*R-(-o$-$A-:IR, <J.-S-%:A-:.R.-________/%?-!-%=-$?R-________<J., .-%-%R-3-$A?-
(.-$A
c.--0RR c.-3R, HR?-.J-3-9J<, ;=-{R<-<-:IR-________.J%-,R$-HR?-\J%-/A-;A/, %?-=J-:.J.-;?-/A-3A/, <J.-S-
:IR-<J$-$J<, L-2-5%-3-5$?-$-(.-________.R/-(J/-<J.,
/$--3R %J.-$*A?-!-3A-3,/- ________)J-3%-<J.,
c.--0RR %?-2v?-/, %J.-$*A?-!-3,/- ________<-)J-3%-<J., 2&:-________<-=?-________3%-/,
3A-3,/-?-<-;R.-o-<J., 29:-5%-$9A$-;A/-/, L-2-8R<-$A?-)J-3%-;A/-________2>.-.$R?-/?,
/$--3R ;%-HR?-2.J/-2>.-2+%-, (R$-$A HR.-.-0-?J-*R-$A-?R%-, %-HA3-/?-:.$
c.--0RR, HR?-<-,$-0-8A3-0R-$9A$-{R=-________3-2eJ.,
•554•
Text Three: noun clauses
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, =?-%/-<A/-(J/-.%-1R=-3 (2)
=R- $&A$- $A- $8$- /?, %?- <A/- (J/- <- 3J- +R$- KA<- <- ,R/- ;R.- /R- $R- ,=, =R- (- 4B$- :$R<- ,=, %?- mR%- ,R$- $A- 9- #%- (%- (%-
$9A$-$A-/%-/?-9-$A-;R.-.?, mR%-,R$-$A-28A-3.R-(J-2R-$A-P-$-/?-*J?-29A-(-;R.-$9A$-<A$-,=, 2v?-5S.-<-#<-$J?-5S%-
2o2-<%-<J., *R?-/R-5%-3-=$-/-;R., %?-#R-?-;A/-/R-$?=-2R-$9A$-3A->J?-$A <J.-S-#<-$J-%?-$%-$9A$-/?-<A$-MR%-/R-
#R-,$-<J., %?-2v?-2v?-2+%-, <J.-S-;A.-<-$&A$-<-3-;R%-,=,
%- :IR- #<, *J?- 29A- .J- #- 5- <- :#R<- ,=, #<- $J?- %- v- 8R<- <- .$R.- 8R<- ;?- ,=, #<- $J?- %- ?- ;A/- >J?- ;R.- /R- #R- ,$- <J.,
#<- $J- ?- ;A/- /%- , .J- /?-%?- <A/- (J/- $A?- ;A- $J- VA?- /R- S/- ,=, #<- $J- ,$- *J<- $+$?- /A- <, .- %?- #R- ?- ;A/- /R- $?=- 2R<-
>J?-,=, #<-$J-.J%-3<-vR?-/-c?-;R.-/-<,
"<A/-(J/, HR.-2.J-3R, HR.-?-:.A-/?-,$-oR-%:A-;A.-<-3-><,"%?-#<-$J<-2.J-3R-;?, <A/-(J/-%-,$-/R-$A?-.$:-;R.-/R-#R-

,$-<J., ;A/-/-<-.J%-,R$-#<-$J?-(A-$9A$-2>.-oR->J?-$A-3J., #<-$J-c?-c?-/?-.J%-3-$A-<A/-(J/-<J.-9J<-oR-.!:-3R-<J.,
"%:A-=$-$-;A-$J-.J-:UR.-$A-<?, =R-S$-:$R<-?R%-$9A$ .?-5S.-(A-3R-$9A$-3IR$?-$A-/%-,"%?-.J->J.-2>., "3J-+R$-(A-3R-

<J., HR.- <- 3J- +R$- $*A?- !<- 8- ;?- AJ- ;R.," #<- $J?- <J3- 3- =/- 3- 2+2?, <J.- S- %:A- :SA- 5B$- .J<- =/- :.J2?- oR- .!:-3R-
;A/-/R-#R:C-%R-/-z%-%J-<J.,
<A/-(J/-$A?"%-<-3J-+R$-$*A?-!-KA-/?-=R-$&A$-$-2#.-2+%-, {2?-.J<-,R/-/A-<, %J.-$*A?-!-KA<-3-;R%-<%-;R%-<J., KA-

/?-3$R-,R/-oR-.!:-3R-<J., *A/-3-$9A$-$-3J-+R$-$A?-%-?J3?-$+3-2>.-,=,"9J<,
3J-+R$-$A?-"<A/-(J/, A-1-$A?-%-3$-0-$9A$-2a%?-2+%-, %?-.-A-1-;A.-(.-$A-:)$-*/-o-3-<J.,"9J<,

"%-HR:A-!J%-%-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-:.$-HR?->J?-;R., <J.-S-HR.-$/R.-/R-%?-<-3A-=?, 3J-+R$"<A/-(J/-$A?-.J->J.-=/-2+2?,
3J-+R$-$A?-"HR.-%R-3-=%?"9J<,
"3J-+R$ HR?-.J->J.-=2-/-#$-$A-#-#$-<J., <J.-S-%?-2.-5S.-$A?-HR.-=J-=/-3A-:.J.,"
"<A/-(J/, $%-v<-/-<-%J.-$*A?-!-5K-$&A$-$A-<R$?-0-2&:-,2,"
"3J-+R$ ,2-/A-3-<J., 29:-5%-3A-*/-/, <R$?-0-2&:-oR-%:A-:.R.-3A/,"
3J-+R$-$A?".J?-/, .-%?-(A-$9A$-=?-o?,"9J<,
"HR?-&%-<-=?-3A-.$R?," "%?-=$-0-$A?-V%-#-3//, %:A-~A%-wA%-/R-)J-3IR$?-)J-3IR$?-<J., ~A%-1=-(J<-#-/%-/-;R.-
#-<J., %?-3<-$J-o2-2!/-2+%-, %J.-$*A?-!-%3-%3->$?-$A?-<%-<%-?<-2.-?R%-," <A/-(J/-.-2R-?J3?-LA%-;R.-$A

•555•
$8$-$8$-/?-%%?-$R-/R-;A/-/, 3J-+R$-$A?-<A/-(J/-/-=2-/R-m/-<J., 3<-$J-.$R/-0-$9A$-$A-/%-/-)R-3R-2&R?-;R.-$A <J.-
S, <A/-(J/-$A?-$/?-5=-.J->J?-;R.-3J.-%?-<-3->J?,
18.5 --Citational word 9J<: reported speech and exact quotations

Reported Speech
$88$--/?-<AA/-(J/-KAA<-<-;RR%-;R.-9J<, It was said that Rin chen came
back afterwards.
9J< : say or
#<<-$JJ?-3J-+R$-2eJJ.-3A-,2--9J<, He said he could not forget Me call.
tog.
3JJ-+RR$-$A?-3<<-$JJ?-A-1--;A.-(.--$A-3A-:)$$-9J<, Me tog said she would not let her
father down.
9J<
<AA/-(J/-$AA?-#R-KA-/?-==R-$&A$-$--2#..-2+%-9J<, Rin chen said he had stayed for
one year far from home.
<AA/-(J/-$AA?-|R-/?-3$RR-,RR/-oR-.!:-$AA-9J<, Rin chen said it was difficult to
make a living outside.
3JJ-+RR$-$A?-<<A/-(JJ/-<-<RR$?--0-2&:--:.RR.-9J<, Me tog said she wanted to become
Rin chen's friend.
Quotation
<A/-(J/-$A?-"%--KA<-<--,R/-2+%--"9J<, Rin chen said, "I came back." Direct
quotation and
#<-$J?"%?--3J-+R$-2eJJ.-3A-,2"9J<, He said, "I cannot forget Me tog." reported
speech are
often mixed in
3J-+R$-$A?-"%?--A-1--;A.-(.--$A-3A-:)$$"9J<, Me tog said, "I will not let my
father down." oral Amdo.
9J< <A/-(J/-$A?-"|RR-/?--3$R-,R/-oRR-.!:--$A"9J<, Rin chen said, "It is difficult to
make a living outside."
<A/- (J/-$A?- "%-- 3J- +R$- $AA- <RR$?-- 0- 2&:-- /- 3AA- Rin chen said, "I don't want to be
Me tog's friend."
:.RR.,"9J<,
%?-"<AA/-(J/, HR.-8--;?-AJJ-;RR.,"9J<, I said, "Rin chen, do you have
children?"
Notes-5
1. 9J< is a polysemy: call (with Ladon case), mean (with /), and say (with ergative case),
e.g., .$J-c/-$A?-*A/-.J<-#R-aR2-OA.-<-;R%-3A-,2-9J<, Teacher said he cannot come to class that
day. / .0J-(-9J<-/-:.R/-o-$9A$-;A/, Books mean something to read. / o=-#2-.J<-:)<-3/-9J<,
That country is called Germany.
2. 9J<: It is used to cite both reported speech and give an exact quote, e.g., 5K-<A%-$A?-*A/-.J<-#R-
5S$?-,R$-$-3A-;R%-9J<, Tshe ring said that he will not join the meeting that day. 5K-<A%-$A?-"%-
.J-<A%-5S$?-,R$-$-3A-;R%-, "9J<, "I won't join the meeting today," said Tshe ring.
3. Reported speech and exact quotes are not as clearly distinguished in oral Amdo as in
•556•
English, reported speech being dominant. Quotation indicative characters &J?, 8J?, and
>J? are used (but exclusively in print), e.g., 3PR/-0R-$A?-"%-=3-?%-:PR,"8J?-=2-/?, =$-+-E-
3R-29%-!J-2.-?R%-, "I go immediately," said the guest and, with his hat in hand, departed.
Exercise 14 Convert the following reported speech to exact quotes using 9J<.
.0J<-2eR., Reported Speech: 3PR/-#%-2.$-0R-$A?-%?-#%-2-$A-/%-/?-(%-:,%-3A-(R$-9J<,

Quotation: 3PR/-#%-$A-2.$-0R-$A?"HR?-#%-2-$A-/%-/?-(%-:,%-3A-(R$"9J<,
Reported speech Quotation
1. A-1-$A?-2>.-/, .J%-?%-$A-8-;?-9R-*A.-$A 1. _______________________________
2. A-3-$A?-3<-$J:A-<A%-%-#$-+$-+$-3,R%-9J<, 2. _______________________________
3. A-3-$A?-%:A-c.-3R-$A?-3<-$J-@R%-$A?-3A-$&J?-$A-9J<, 3. _______________________________
4. %:A->-*J-$9A$-$A?-%?-#<-$J<-$R-3A-(R.-$A-9J<, 4. _______________________________
5. MA-<A$?-$J?-2>.-/, %-(%-.?-8-;?-T-5$-$9A$-;A/, 5. _______________________________
6. %:A-c.-3R-$A?-%-3A-S/-$A 8-;?-S/-$A-9J<, 6. _______________________________
7. A-#-$A?-#<-$J-}R/-(.-.0:-2R-,R%-:6B/-$9A$-;A/-9J<, 7. _______________________________
8. A-&J-$A?-%-|R<-3-:IR, .J-3A/-.-:H$-o-<J.-9J<, 8. _______________________________
9. %R-2R-$A?-(%-n=-HR., KA/-(.-3-:,%-9J<, 9. _______________________________
18.6 -- 9J< vs. 2>.

9JJ<
:)<-3/-/?-<A-?$?-2?.-/-OA3?-:$=-;A/-9J<, It is said that killing animals is illegal
in Germany.
nreportive
3<-$J?-2l3?-1%-.J?-;A.-:SJ/-$A-9J<, She said the novel is very interesting. osay
pexpresses
/%?-!-:P=-2-5%-3-,R/-o-<J.-9J<, It is said that guests will come
tomorrow. sometimes
as a matter
?%-*A/-(<-:22-o-<J.-9J<, It will reportedly rain tomorrow.
of fact
aR2-3-$9A$-$A?-3<-$J-*A/-3-(-<J-;R%-3A-,2-9J<, A student said that she will not be
able to come for several days.
8A-=A-.J?-/3-;A/-/-<-3A-22-$A-3A-9J<, The boy never says that he cannot do
something.
•557•
2>.
:)<-3/-/?-<A-?$?-2?.-/-OA3?-:$=-;A/-/R-2>., (One) explained that it is illegal to nspeak,
kill animals in Germany. narrate,
She talked about how the novel is talk, tell
3<-$J?-2l3?-1%-.J-(A->J.-/%-.R/-(J-/R-2>., interesting.
Don't tell that guests will come onot used
/%?-!-:P=-2-9R-,R/-o-;A/-/R-3-22>., tomorrow! to incite
The weather forecast said that it quotations
$/3-$>A?-#%-$A?-(<-:22-o-;A/-/R-2>.--$A will rain.
A student mentioned that she will psomeone
aR2-3-$9A$-$A?-3<-$J-;R%-3A-,2-/R-2>., not be able to come. speaks with
The boy never says that he cannot intention
8A-=A-.J?-/3-;A/-<-3A-2.-/R-3A-2>., do (something).
Notes-6
9J< vs. 2>.: The former is used to cite while the latter is the primary verb in a sentence.
Without 9J<, sentences are grammatically complete, e.g., .J-<A%-*A-3-:(<-o-3-<J.-9J<, It is said
that it will not be sunny. However, 2>. does not quote and, without it, a sentence is
incomplete, e.g., .J-<A%-*A/-$%-%R-%?-o-{.-2>., I spoke in Chinese all day today.
Exercise 15 Complete each statement with 9J< or 2>..
.0J<-2eR., #<-$J?-%-Z-/R-3A-2>., #<-$J?-%-%/-0-;A/-9J<,
1. #<-$J-z-?-/?-?/-$A____________, 11. 8-;?-.J-;-35<-;A/-____________,

2. A-3-$A?-3<-$J?-(%-.?-#$-3,R%-/R___, 12. 8A%-:.J2?-YR=-:VR$-0-.J?-3A->J?_____,
3. (/-0-$A?-(/-.J-~A%-/.-<-1/-0-3A-(J___, 13. 2R.-$A-?-3$R-3,R-/R-@-/A?->J?-;R.-_____,
4. 8A-=A-.J?-#<-$J-?J3?-*R-/R_________, 14. ,-3$-:,J/-/-2.J-,%-%-3A-Z-________,
5. .$J-c/-$A?-aR2-3-3%-(J->R?-Z-$A_____, 15. ,-3$-3-:,J/-/-2.J-,%-%-Z-YR=-_____,
6. 0<-=J/-/R-$9A$-$A?-<->J=-$9A$-.$R?-__, 16. l=-.R%-;?-/-/.-:$R$-oR<-1/-_____,
7. \-2-$9A$-$A?-;R%-:22-.3:-/R-______, 17. %-,R/-;R.-/R-A-3-$A?->J?-3J._______,
8. .J%-?%-MA-5%-3-22-$A?-#R3-$A-3J.-_____, 18. %?-(A-$9A$->J.-;R%-/R-$?=-2R->J.-____,
9. 8A-=A-:S-3J.-$9A$-$-8A-3R-__________, 19. A-3-$A?-%-MA-%/-$A-3*3-0?-3-:IR-____,
10. ]-3-:.A:A-gR$?-0-3,R-/R-;-35<-;A/____, 20. %?-%-MA-%/-$A-3*3-0?-:IR-o-3A/-/R-___,
•558•
Exercise 16 Convert these quotations into included-questions.
.0J<-2eR., A-3-$A?-"<A/-(J/, HR?-$R/-o-$%-$R/-o?,"9J<, A-3-$A?-<A/-(J/-/-$R/-o-$%-$R/-o-;A/-/R-SA?,
1. (R<-.<-$A?"aR2-3-9R?-$9:-3)$-$-(A-$9A$-=?"9J<, (R?-.<-$A?_______________________,
2. A-/J-c/-3R-$9A$-$A?"A-<R, HR.-(R?-.<-AJ-;A/"SA?-,=, A-/J-c/-3R-.J?____________________,
3. %:A-5-3R-$A?"A-2R, HR.-KA-o=-<-?R%-AJ-MR%-"9J<, %:A-5-3R-$A?__________________________,
4. A-3-$A?"8A-=A, HR:A-^-1R$?-$-|R<-3R-.-;R."9J<, %:A-A-3-$A?-_________________________,
5. 5S%-2-$A?-"#$-3-:.A-MA%-I$?-$9A$-;A/,"9J<, 5S%-2-$A?-____________________________,
6. =3-0-$9A$-$A?-%-".-.?-5S.-.-;A/,"SA?, =3-0-$9A$-$A?-%-__________________________,
7. KA-\A%-2-$9A$-$A?".-2R.-/-t$?-g-8R/-o-AJ-;R.-,"9J<, KA-\A%-2-$9A$-$A?__________________,
8. .$J-c/-$A?"lR3-;A$-A-m-2R-:.A-??-VA?,"9J<, .$J-c/-$A?-lR3-;A$-A-m-2R-.J_________________,
9. A-&J-$A?"A-<R, t$?-L3?-HR.-;%-$%-%-:IR-$A-;R."9J<, A-&J-$A?-t$?-L3?-_______________,
10. "%:A-MA$->J=-??-$R/-?R%-," 5K-.0=-$A?-:.%-.0R$-$A-3J., 5K-.0=-$A?____________________,
11. "PR%-HJ<-*A$-;R-(J-/%-, =R/-+/-(J," :SA-5B$-:.A-8-;?-$9A$-$A?-SA?, 8-;?-$9A$-$A?____________,
12. (R?-:1$?-$A?"%:A-c/-3R-5B-,%-$9A$-;A/, %?-.J-3->J?,"9J<, (R?-:1$?-$A?________________,
Exercise 17 Complete this text about a large ma ni stone pile in Khams in connection
with what has been learned in this chapter.
?J%-9J-3-EA-9J<-/R-;=->=-2R.-<A$?-<%-*R%-#=-*J-c:A-><-KR$?-$A-=J-2<-s-$A-353?-/-;R., ?J%-9J-:)A$-gJ/-:.A:A-,R$-
/?- 3- EA- hR- %%?- A- +- $A?- (J- 2R-;A/- 2>.- ______ .!:, <J.- S- .J- 9R:C- /%- /?- $&A$- ;A/-______ #R- , $- <J., hR- A- +-
$A?-(%-%R-:2<-8/-$A-|3-(%-:S-3-;A/-______, hR-#-;?-.0J-(-$-<A%-$A-(J-(%-;R.-______, hR-%%?-:.A:A-MA%-%-
o-/$-3-EA-______, MA%-.J-:.R$?-.R/-3-EA-hR-%%-$A-YR=-$+R.-3#/-o-/$-$-?R%-MR%-/R-$A?-#<-$J:A-MA%-%-o-/$-,R$?,
#<-$J-.?- <2?- $?3- $A-}R/- /-(2-3.R- /?- *J?-9J<, 2!/-0-%J=-______<%-$A- :$/- #<-<-2lA?- /?, #<- $J?- ?J%-
9J-/?-3-EA-hR-%%?-$A-.0J-24$?-______,
3- EA- hR- %%?- 28J%?- 3#/, o- /$- $A - {- UJ%-.%- 2R-gR$?-w/- $A- {R<- /- $+3- o.- 3%- %- 2>.- o- ;R., ngR$?- w/- :VA- (- $A-
#<-,R/-?R%-______, #<-$J?-3*/-0-$9A$-$-#R-(:A-1<-#-:SJ/-,2-______SA?, <J.-S-3*/-0-$A?-8A%-VJ$?-;?-
#R3-$A-3J.-______, 2|$?-/-3-:.R.-/R-$A?, gR$?-w/-<%-$A-$9/-2o%?-/?-$4%-2R:A-1<-=-:1<-?R%-______,
•559•
3*/-0-$A?-gR$?-w/-MA-.G?-3-$9A$-3A/-______;<-3<-<-______, gR$?-w/-$A?-3*/-0-9R<-:P=-2-9R:C-=$-
/?-\-24:-=J/-3A-*/-______2>., .J:A-nJ/-$A?-.J%-?%-<-:VA-(:A-#-$A-3*/-0-9R?-P-\-3A-=J/-______, ogR$?-
w/-9A-OR/-/-:IR-.?, #<-$J?-*J?-29A-$9A$-<%-$A-8R/-g->A-?R%-/R:C-.R/-/-1J-:.J2?-$A-;R.-______<A$ gR$?-w/-$A?-
~A%-eJ-2&%?, =$-$A-3-EA-:#R<-=R-g-.J:A-3$R<-$+$?-______, 8R/-g<-;%-$A?-.2$?-o?-?R%-______, .J:A-nJ/-
$A?, #<- $J:A- 3- EA- :#R<- =R<- :.R- 2- <R- 2lJ%?- :#R<- =R- :2R.- $A- ;R., pgR$?- w/- 9A- OR/-$A- \A% - (J/- :IA%- <A<- 1J2?-
______, #<- $J?- t$?- =- o=- 2R- $A- 1R- V%- $A- }/- /?- .<- tR$- $9A$- 2lJ%?- ______, t$- =- $A?- .<- tR$- ??-
2lJ%?- ______ l.- $&R.- .- 2&$ fJ.- /- OA3?- 3- :)$- .$R?- ______, 9- 2- $9A$- $A?- gR$?- w/-.<- tR$- 2lJ%?-
3#/- ;A/-______>J?- ?R%- , t$?- =- $A- :#R<- :2%?- 5%- 3- $A?-gR$?- w/- /- =$- t$?- 2o2, <J.- S- =$- t$?- $A?-
gR$?- w/- $A-=$-0-3-9A/, =$-t$?- $*A?- !-\R-o$- $-3J.-?R%-______, t$?-=- $A?-gR$?-w/- $A-5S.- ]%?- /-:.R.-
?R%-, gR$?-w/-/-)-2$-2&R- 2o.-3*3-0?-1R-V%- $A-[.-<-:1J/-$A-2&$ <J.-S- gR$?- w/-$A?-)- 2$-5S-g-$A-*A/-=3-3-
:1%?-______, )-2$-9R-:5S=-______.!:-3R-*/-?R%-9J<,
3-EA-hR-%%?-$A-(R-$ 3-EA-hR-%%?-%-#-$R/-o$-.?, 82?-VR-$9A$-:O2-o-;R., 82?-VR-.J-:O2-______8A-=A-9R:C-=?-

!-<J., 82?-VR-:O2-8R<-<-\-$8?-=J/-$A-;R., \-.L%?-g-<A%-, $<-*3?-:I<-(J,
2R.-^-.%-2R-<-2&-$*A?-2-$*A?-!:A-5K?-2-2&R-s-$A-*A/-/, 2R.-<A$?-3%-%-;=->=, ?J<->=, k-!R., (2-3.R-/?-?J%-

9J-#J-2<-;R%-$A-;R.-______, #R-9R?-3-EA-hR-%%?-%-{R<-<-o$-$A-;R., hR-3-EA-?J%-9J-#J-3A-$A?-2bR?-______2R.-<A$?-
:.A-<A$?-$A?-*R?-/?-3-EA-hR-%%?-$A-,R$-$-:)R$ 5K?-2-2&R-s-$A-*A/, .$R/-0-$A?-MA-3%-%-.2%-$/%-$A-;R.______,
?J%-9J-#J-2-$A-3-EA-hR-%%-$A-{R<-$A-:5S-2, 3-EA-hR-%%?-.?-(J/-$A-!2?-$A?, 2R.-<A$?- !R%-U$-3%-%-?J%-9J-#J-2<-;R%-$A-

;R.-______, ?J%- 9J- #J- 3A?- 3)=- 2- 9R<- $/?- 5%- $;R<- ______:$/- #<- $9A$- ;A/, 3)=- 2- 9R- $A?- ?J%- 9J- #J-3A- $A-
=$-/?-hR-3-EA-*R-______<-#J-3A-9R?-:.R.-______;A/, 3)=-2-3%-%-$A?-.-2R-#J-2:A-:.2?-$A-(-#-/?-|<-o$-$A-
;R.-9J<, :VR$-0-3%-%-$9A$-$A?-K$?-=?-,R/-m?-$A?-hR-3-EA-*R-$A-;R.-______,
3)=- 2-:.A- 9R- ..- 0- &/- +$- +$- ;A/- ______2>.- 3A- .$R?, #R-9R?- 3- EA- hR- %%- $A- {R<- =3- /?- 3- EA- :.R/, 9%- 9A% - $A-
OR3- <- /?- MA- 3%- $A?- .%R?- 2R:C- $R%- $+3?- $A- ;R.- ______ $R- ,2, o- $<- <- z- ?- /?- ,R/- ______:)<- g- <, <?,
%R?, ?A=-+R$-<J., 9A-OR/- /?-,R/-______)-<-:V?-<J., ;=->=-?-$/?- /?-,R/-______>A%-9R-<, PA, |, D-#-
=-?R$?-;A/, .?-(J/-:.A-.-2R-$?<-2-<-$?<-3R-5S-$A-.?-(J/-$9A$-;A/-______5%-3-$A-?J3?-/-;R.,
•560•
hR-1-2R%-$A-!J%-%-3-EA-bR-______>A-2R-$9A$-$A-*J-2R-9R:C-:$/-#<-;A/, %:A-A-1-$A-A-1-:.?-/A-<, %:A-@-3-$*A?-!?-
,$- *J- $A- V$- %R<- 3- EA- 3%- %- 2bR?-______ %?- .- 2R- 2eJ.- 3A- ,2, #R- $*A?- !?- .L <- $%- %R<- :U%- .R$- $9A$- /?- |<-
24$?, 3- EA- 2bR?, #$- $- 2eJ.- o- 3J.- /- <- fA%- o- ;R.-______, %:A- @- 3- $*A?- !:A- #$- <- ;%- $A?- fA%- ?R%- , <J.- S,
V$-$9<-3R:C-!J%-$A-3-EA-/3-;A/-<-<A$-o-;R., @-3-$*A?-!?-hR-,$-,$-$+$-$A-;R.-______.-2R-%:A-i-=3-/-;R.-$A
•561•
:..$ It is used with verbs and monosyllabic adjectives to introduce included-question noun
clauses.
With verb With adjective

3.%--.$R%-3PRR/-#%-/--:P==-2--;R.-:..$-??->J?, aR2-3-9R-$A?-o$$?-$8AA-.!:--:.$$-\J%-,
Who knows if there were guests in the hotel last The students talked about whether the exam
night? was difficult or not.
v.--3R-2-;RR%-:.$$-v.-3R-;$-3A-;$-$A-#-/-;R., _%?--:#R<-:.AA->JJ.-(J-:.$$-3-2{R<-/-3A->J?,
Whether an audience will come or not depends One would know whether the car is powerful or
on whether the performance is appealing or not. not only when he drives.
#%-2-:.AA-:PP2--,2--:.$$-%:A-=$-/-3J., 8AA-=AA-:.AA-?JJ3?--;$-:..$-2>.-oR-.!:,
Whether this house (construction) can be It is hard to judge if this boy is kind or not.
finished or not is not under my control.
aRR2-3--9R-.$J-c/-/--.$:-:..$-SA?-/->J?, .0JJ-(--:.A-$R%-.!:--:.$$-%?-5S%-2<-:SA-o?,
One will know if the students like their teacher I will ask the salesperson if this book is
or not if he asks. expensive or not.
b//-3--$A?-|RR<-3R-2b??-:..$-l.-$&R.-$A-;R., .%RR?-2R-:.A-;%-:..$-=$-$-]%?-/->J?-$A
Whether the thief has stolen money or not is By lifting, one can tell if this thing is light or
under investigation. not.
Verb + <RR$? + (RR. This compound is used to express one could or could not bear to do
something.
Tibetan English
A-3-$A?-8-;?-#J<-<R-:)RR$-<R$?-(RR.-$A-3J., The mother does not dare leave her child
alone.
%?-.%R?-2R-:.A-3R-$9A$-$-|R<-3R-3%-%-!J<-<RR$?--3A-(R., I don't dare pay much money for such a
thing.
%:A-A-&J-.$R%-3R-#J<-<R-|R-#<-:IRR-<RR$?--3A-(R., My elder sister does not dare go out alone
at night.
8-;?-=R-(%-:.A-3R-$9A$-#J<-<R-:IR-$A-:)$--<R$?-(A->J.-(R., How dare one allow such a young boy to
travel alone!
.-%?-L-2-.!:-3R-=?-<RR$?--3A-(R., Now, I don't dare take difficult work.
c.-3R-3-:,.-/, c.-0R-$A?-|R<-3R-2*AA-<RR$?--3A-(R., The husband would not dare to lend money

if his wife did not agree.
•562•
Duplicated verb This compound expresses an inclusive tone in past tense mood.
in PAT + 2R / 0R
Tibetan English
aR2-3-9R?-.%?--.%?--2R-=R-o?-$A-{R<-<J., What the students have learned is all about
history.
$R-$R-2R-$/?-5=-%/-0-+$-+$-<J., What has been heard is all bad information.
2>.--2>.--0R<-_R3-3A-*/, What has been told shouldn't be entirely

believed.
LA/-LA/-0R-9-3A-*/-9J<, It is said that one should not eat all that is
given.
?J<-<R-;A/-;A/-0R-#<-$J?-$?J<-<J.-9J<, He said all yellow things are gold.
*R?-*R?-2R-5%-3-#<-$J:A-<J., All (the items) purchased are his.
Duplicated verb in This compound expresses an inclusive tone, referring to something

PRT + 2R / 0R specific in present tense mood.
Tibetan English
aR2-#%-/%-/-;R.-;R.-0R-aR2-3-<J., All the people in the classroom are students.
:63-!R/-!R/-0R-MA-29%-<J.-3-:.R., Don't think all who smile are good people.
.!<-.!<-;A/-;A/-0R-=$-3A/, All white things are not sheep.
A-3.R-/?-;A/-;A/-0R-2R.-<A$?-3-<J., Not all who are from Amdo are Tibetan.
z-?<-:IRR-:IRR-2R-3)=-2-+$-+$-<J., All who go to Lhasa are pilgrims.
.J-<A%-;R%-;R%-2R-1-;:-/?-<J., All who came today are from my hometown.
Duplication of This compound stresses a duration in past tense. It can be treated either as
verb in PAT + $A? participle case or be translated while.
Tibetan English
\-2-\-]%?--$A?-]%?--$A?-%<-=%?, The singer, singing and singing, was excited.
29:-2-$*A?-!-:PRR$?--$A?-:PRR$?--$A?-@/-5/-/-?/-?R%-, The couple, being in companionship, were

tired of each other.
%-?R%-$A?-?R%-$A?-(-3$R-$9A$-$-,R/, Marching and marching, I came to a river.
|R<-3R-2!RR=-$A?-2!RR=-$A?-5%-3-5<-,=, All the money, being spent, ran out.
8A-=A-T-5$-.J-2>.--$A?-2>.--$A?-)J-24S$-<J., The naughty child, while being scolded, gets

worse.
2?3?--$A?-2?3?--$A?-3<-$J-;%-?J3?-#$-,=, She, thinking and thinking, became sad
again.
•563•
Duplication of This compound expresses how one does something, often taken as
verb in PRT + $A? participle case in present tense.
Tibetan English
=-$-$9A$-wA%-$A?-wA%-$A?-3-3R:C-a.-/-;R., A lamb is next to the ewe, frolicking.
c.-0R-$9A$-3-EA-:.RR/-$A?-:.RR/-$A?-%J.-5%-%-,R/, An old man came to my home, reciting a

mantra.
%J.-$*A?-!-v.-3R<-v-$A?-v-$A?-;=-{R<-<-:IR, We both went traveling, enjoying all the scenes.
%-g<-8R/-$A?-8R/-$A?-b%-2-/, My leg gets painful while riding a horse (for a

long time).
*R/-3J., =3-3A-:K$ %-?-O<-v-$A?-v-$A?-:IR, It's OK. I wouldn't get lost. I go following the
map.
Verb in PRT + ? It expresses a sense of feasibility: there is a way to do something and, in its
+ :IRR negative form, there is no way to do something
Tibetan English
MA-A-5$?-&/-:.A<-2.JJ/-2>.--?-3A-:IRR, There is no way to reason with this stubborn
person.
?-=/-/R-l.--$&RR.-?-3A-:IRR, There is no way to investigate who is guilty.
.%R?-2R-:.A-$R%-$+3?--?-:IR, It's OK to bargain over the price for this thing.
#%-3A$-:.A:A-/%-/?-L-2-=?--?-3A-:IRR, It's not possible to work in this small room.
L-2-:.A-.J-<A%-:P2-?-3A-:IR, There is no way to finish this work today.
•564•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-22&R-2o.-0,,
=?-%/-<A/-(J/-.%-1R=-3, (1)
=?-%/ unlucky 2-3R-=?-%/-.J<-*J?-0-%/-0-$9A$-;R.,

:.< to shake |R-/?-4$-(J, MA-9R-:.<-$A-;R.,
:VJ=-2-$&R. to cut off a relationship o=-#2-$*A?-!?-:VJ=-2-$&R.-3-,2,
$4%-3 clean 9-3-$4%-3-3A/-/-%?-3A-9,
36K-/. leprosy MA-36K-/.-&/-/-:6K3-.$R?,
?J3?-2!$? to entice; to get attracted 3<-$J?-%:A-?J3?-2!$?-3-MR%-,
<%-YR$-$&R. to commit suicide <%-YR$-$&R.-/-3J-+R$?-3A-.$R?,
$*J/ relatives; marriage $*J/-$A-(J.-<-%-#R3-$A-3J.,
=$-/?->R< to lose; to get out of control L-2-A-m-2R-%:A-=$-/?->R<-,=,
:.R.-0-{R% to satisfy; to meet one's demand MA-5%-3-$A-:.R.-0-{R%-oR-.!:,
=$-:R$-/? under one's leadership / control MA-%/-.J:A-=$-:R$-/?-3R-:.$-3-:.R.,
$/?-$9A$-$-LA/ to get betrothed 3<-$J-(%-.?-/?-$/?-$9A$-$-LA/-2+%-,
$*R<-3#/ caretaker 8-;?-:.A-$*R<-3#/-?-<J.,
|J<-5$? independent o=-#2-$9A$-;A/-/-|J<-5$?-;A/-o-<J.,
$8A-:6B/-3#/ heir 2R.-/?-$8A-:6B/-3#/-8A-=A-9R-;A/,
i-(-$+3? to propose; to imply 3<-$J?-(%-:,%-oR:A-i-(-$+3?-$A
HA3-,2-:6B/ to have a family %?-?%-=R<-<%-$A?-HA3-,2-:6B/-o-;A/,
/3-3#:A-3,R%? high sky /3-3#:A-3,R%?-/-3J-+R$-;R.-o-3-<J.,
5-=3-3J hot and sunny *A-3-2<-$%-/-5-=3-3J,
$;%-:2R. call for good fortune $;%-:2R.-;?-oR-2R.-$A-.0J-;A/,
.LA%?-$&R. to soar .LA%?-$&R.-/R-:.2-($?-$%-$%-<J.,
%R-<R.-<R serious facial expression MA-$/-?-<J., %R-<R.-<R->J.-2#.-;R.,
%R-z% to become disheartened .J-<A%-5S%-3A-Z, 5S%-2-%R-z%-;R.,
•565•
]R-,$-j.-(R. resolute .R/-.J:A-,R$-/?-#<-$J-]R-,$-j.-(R.-3A/,
$*J/-aR% to propose (marriage) %-/-2R-$A-(J.-<-$*J/-aR%-$A-:IR,
:IR-:R% contact; exchange :IR-:R%-3J.-/-KA-o=-$A-$/?-5=-3A-$R
#-$&A$-$ together .R-.$R%-%J.-5S?-#-$&A$-$-9-3-9,
MA$-o% eye-sight ?-<2-,=, 3A$-o%-(.-,=,
<R$?-0-/%-3 intimate friend %?-<R$?-0-/%-3-<-$?%-$+3-3A-2>.,
2o= to faint 24S/-3-*$-;?-2o=-?R%-,
*=-?<-z% to become bed-ridden /.-0-.J-.-*=-?<-z%-;R.,
2#R3? to total; to add together MA-5%-3-2#R3?-/-:.A-/-S$-;R.,
,A$-=J zero ,A$-=J-3J.-/-$&A$-<-3J.,
2!/-3R sturdy; strong 8A-=A-.J-MA-2!/-3R-$9A$-;A/,
KA<-:.%-o$ to think back; to recall KA<-:.%-3-o$ }/-:.%-oR2?,
:PA$-3,/ concord; harmony 29:-2-:PA$-3,/-3A-;R%-/-,R<-/-Z,
v-2 view; idea lR3-0-0R-:.A-MA-v-2-&/-$9A$-<J.,
2!/-0-KA-.< the later spread of the doctrine 2!/-0-KA-.<-9J<-/-.?-$9A$-<J.,
5-=-3 orange 5-=-3-A-3.R-/?-3A-*J,
1-3-=-3A%?-0:A-;A-$J
=$-$-:UR. to receive .J-<A%-;A-$J-$9A$-%:A-=$-$-:UR.,
#-,$-<A% distant %J.-$*A?-!-1/-5/-/-#-,$-<A%-,
?J3?-:#R< to concern; to think about %-;%-8A-=A-$A-!J%-%-?J3?-:#R<-$A-;R.,
2.-5S.-$A? at one's best >A%-29R-$A?-2.-5S.-$A?-=?-$A-3J.,
:.%-.0R$ to be able to understand 8A-3R-$A?-$/.-.R/-/-:.%-.0R$-$A-3J.,
>=-/? post-death A-1-$A->=-/?-8A-=A-$A?-HA3-2*%?,
#$-3J< to be full of sadness #<-$J:A-?J3?-/-#$-3J<, %R-/-3A$-(-,-<-<,
#R$-#$ sadness; depression #R$-#$-;?-/-=?-<-$/R.,
]R-13 to be disappointed; to be depressed o$?-3-:UR.-/R-$A?-#R-]R-13,
•566•
.%-%-=J/ to accept; to take seriously %?-2>.-/R-#<-$J?-.%-%-3A-=J/,
U$-$-=R%? to take (blame / responsibility) L-2-LA/-/R-U$-$-=R%?,
0/-N% monitor (of a class) 0/-N%-9J<-/R-MA-%/-A-K-3-$9A$-<J.,
$/R. to hurt; to infect |R<-3R-OA-$9A$-$A?-K$-0R-.J<-3A-$/R.,
2a2-L lesson 2a2-L-]%?-/-$8$-/?-1/,
=3-;A$ passport =3-;A$-3J.-/-o-$<-<-:IR-$A-3A-:)$
(-$*A? two pairs z3-(-$*A?-$R%-.3:-3R->J.-24S%?-,=,
=?-%/-<A/-(J/-.%-1R=-3, (2)
5-< here; back 5-<-;R%-3#/-z-3R-<-1<-:IR-3#/-%-;A/,

=$-:)-;? to shake hands; hand in hand MA-(-3J.-<-=$-:)-3-;?,
z%-%J conspicuous; clear MA-$9$?-&/-$/-Y%-/-z%-%J-;R.,
=J-=/-:.J. to blame L-2-212?-/R-3A-Z-/-<-=J-=/-3-:.J.,
~A%-wA% to beat (heart) 2?3?-$A?-2?3?-$A?-%:A-~A%-)J-wA%-<J.,
o2-2!/ to betray; to be disloyal to #<-$J?-$8$-/?-MA-SA/-(J/-/-o2-2!/,
%3-%3->$?-$A? naturally; without external force %:A-?J3?-%3-%3->$?-$A?-~A-3R<-*/,
:.J3 to select 2R.-/-:$R-2-:.J3-o-3J.,
$&J? to take care of; to mind @-3-8-;?-3A-$&J?-/R-*%-,
,R% chest !$-,R%-/?-:6B/-3#/-<%-$:A-MA-3A/,
KA/-(. henceforth KA/-(.-#<-$J-A-<<-3A-:IR-9J<,
OA3?-:$= illegal OA3?-:$=-$A-L-2-$+/-/?-=?-3A-<%-,
2l3?-1% story 2l3?-1%-8R%-$A?-<-.R/-%R-3-3A/,
~A%-/. heart disease #<-$J:A-A-3-~A%-/.-$A?-HJ<-?R%-,
1/-0-(J useful; good for (/-:.A-(3-0<-1/-0-(J,
0<-=J/-/R photographer 0<-=J/-/R-o-3-2R.-$9A$-<J.,
\-;?-3#/ worker; employee :VR$-/?-\-;?-3#/-9R-<R%-/?-<J.,
;R%-:22 income ;R%-:22-3J.-/-:IR-|R-3A-#J2?,
•567•
gR$?-0-3,R knowledgeable; erudite ]-3-:.A-gR$?-0-3,R-9J<,
MA$->J= eyeglasses HR.-MA$->J=-$R/-/-29R-v-5,
5B-,% short-tempered MA-5B-,%-$A-#-3-\R%-,
=J-2< a half kilometer ,A-=J-$&A$-$-=J-2<-$*A?-;R.,
hR-%%? stone pile hR-%%?-5%-3-3-EA-hR-%%?-3A/,
:2<-8/ matches :2<-8/-/$?-/%-/?-*J/-#-(J,
.0J-24$? to set an example #<-$J?-c/-3R-$*A?-]%?-;?-.0J-24$?,
,$?-,$-2&. to recognize a new lama 3=-{-:.A-<J3-3-,$?-,$-$&R.-o-<J.,
$9/ monk's clothing $9/-,R$-$-:$R3-;$-3-$+R%-,
2o%? to open widely; to unbutton |3-(%-#-2o%?-/?-;R.,
.G?-3 normal; ordinary .%R?-2R-:.A-o-%?-.G?-3-<J.,
.2$?-o? to revive; to get strong .-MA-9R$-5%-3-.2$?-o?-;R.,
.L%?-g melody .L%?-g-3J.-/-\-3A-9J<,
*3?-:I<-(J graceful $<-3#/-3-.J-*3?-:I<-(J,
$R%-$+3? to bargain %?-.0J-(-:.A:A-$R%-3-$+3?,
:)<-g boot g<-8R/-.?-:)<-g-$R/-/->R3,
%R? incense %R?-21R/-/-%:A-3$R-/,
| saddle |-:.A-$?J<-$A?->/-;R.,
D-# salt D-#-3%-/-.$-;A/,
$%-%R< whole; entire #<-$J-5K-$%-%R<-8A%-2-2&R?,
|<-24$? to camp /-/A%-%J.-5%-$A?-:.A-/?-|<-24$?,
$9<-3R steep <A-$9<-3R-.J:A-!J%-%-=$-3-:.J.,
$+$ to type; to engrave 3<-$J?-*A/-$%-%R<-;A-$J-$+$-$A-;R.,
•568•
aR2-5/-2&-.$-2,
2h-3R.,
Unreal Condition Wish: o-/

Wish: /-(J. Suggestion: o-/
Past Unreal Condition Present Unreal Condition
Sras mkhar dgu thog ĹŏǓŜāȜŜāŎĸŘāŇȳāņŬĹ in Gtsos (Hezuo ড়԰) City, the nine-storied
main hall of Gtshos Monastery, Gan lho Prefecture, Gansu Province (2011).
Text One: real condition and unreal condition
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, 5S%-2-8A$-$A-*A?-:$=,
5SS%-2 %-L-2:A-!J%-/?-.!:-%=-3%-%-;R.-$A HR.-2!R.-0-<J-:,J/-o-AJ-;R.,

<RR$?--0 HR?->R.-S, %?-HR.-<R$?-;?-,2-/-,%-,
5SS%-2 =$-HJ<-#-0<-:5S%-oR-.!:-/R-%?-2?3?-/R:C-;/-<J., #-0<-*R-3#/-$9A$-;R%-/, #-0<-$%-$9A$-*R?-
/-Z-/R-%-:SA-$A-;R., SA?-/-%?-o/-w/-$A?-S%-3R->J.-2>.-$A-;R., =$-HJ<-#-0<-*R-3#/-3%-(J->R?-2R.-
<A$?- <J., =$- HJ<- #- 0<- (A- 3R- $9A$- *R- .$R?- /R- o- ;A$- 3- >J?- /- #R- 9R?- >J?- $A- 3J., ,A<- 2+%- $A?- #R- 9R<-
.$R?-/R-<%-$:A-#-0<-$9A$-<J., =$-HJ<-#-0<-/%-$A-;A-$J-5%-3-o-;A$-;A/-/R-$A?, #-0<-<-LJ.-|R-3%-/-
z$-$A?-$R-(R.- $A- 3J., ;%-2>.-/, %-5S%-<- $A- /%- /?- 2R.-0-5S%- 2-#J<- <R-;A/, S%-3R- 3-2>.-/- %-?J3?-
3A-2.J, <J.-S-S%-3R->J.-2>., #-0<-$R%-2.J-3R-$9A$-24S%?-/, %:A-:$R-2-~A%-=%?-$A-;R., #<-$J?-o/-
.-2>.-oR, 5S%-2-.$:-$9A$-;A/-/, *R-3#/-/-2.J/-2>.-<?-.%R?-2R-A-+-$A?-.!:-3R-*R-$A-:)$-.$R?-
9J<, .J- 3R- =?- /- %- %J?- %J?- 3A- 2.J- $A HR?- 2v?- /- %?- (A- $9A$- ;?- /- Z- $A .%R?- 2R- #R- 9R- 3A- .$R?- /R- *R- $A-
2&$-/-AJ-:PAA$
<RR$?--0 %-HR.-;A/-o-/, %?-*R-3#/-/-$/?-=$?-2>.--o-<JJ., $.3-!-A-m-$9A$-#R-9R-<%-<%- $A?-(A-$9A$->J.-
;?- oR- 2>.- o- <J., %?- <%- $A?-,,$- $&R.- ;?- o- 3- <J., *R- 3#/- $A?- :SA- 5B$- :SA- /, %?- =/- S%- 3R- >J.-
:.JJ2-<, .J->J.-;?-/, HR?-m/-<-2>.--3A-.$R?, #R-9R:C-.R/-/-,$--$&R.-<--;?-3AA-.$RR?,
5SS%-2 %?-=$-HJ<-#-0<-$R%- 2.J-3R- $9A$- 24S%?-/, %:A-:$R-2-$A?-" HR?-%?- @-8J/-;?-$A-3J.-" 9J<, HR.-;A/-o--
/, HR?-#<-$J-(A-$9A$-2>.-o--<J.,
<RR$?--0 %-HR:A-#-3=-/-;R.-o--/, %?-:.A->J.-2>.--o-<JJ., ":$R-2, .%R?-2R-3A-.$R?-/R-$9A$-*R-3#/-/-*R-$AA-2&&$--
/- %- 3A- 2.J- $A %?- 82?- 8- .$:- $9A$- 212?- /- :.R.- $A 82?- 8- .$:- $9A$- ,R2- /, *R- 3#/- 9R- KA<- #-
:#RR<-/AA-<JJ.,"
5SS%-2 %?- 2v?- /- .J- ,2?- 2!R.- .$:- $9A$- <J., %?- .J- >J.- 2>.- /, #<- $J- ?J3?- :I<- /- ,%- , 82?- 8- .$:-
$9A$- ,R2- oR- *R- 3#/- 9R<- 35S/- /- A- +- $A?- $=- (J/- 0R- ;A/- /R- #<- $J?- %R?- 9A/- /- ,%- , .J? - 3A- 5., MA- S%- 3R-
$9A$-2&:-,2-/, %-<%-$J-<-?J3?-2.JJ-$AA
•570•
19.1 --Unreal condition
Unreal condition--present tense

<A-:.A-3,R-o-/--%-:$R-3R, If the mountain were high, I
would climb.
This unreal
condition is
#R-5%-,$-*J-o--/-%-<-:IR-3R, If his home were near, I also expressed in
o- /
would want to go. present tense

mood.
(/-0-=$-l=-Z-o-/--/.-0-:.A-3R-$9A$-3A/-3R,
If the doctor were skillful, the
patient would not be like this.
%-|R<-3R-;R.-o--/-;=-{R<-<-:IRR-o--<J., If I had money, I would go
traveling.
nVerbs in if
clause are in
HR.-:.A-/-3J.-o--/, %?-(A-$9A$-;?--o?, What would I do if you were not
here? PRT.
HR.-;R%-o-/, %?-0J/-ZA-2&:-o--<J., If you came, I would make
dumplings.
oVerbs in
o-/
main clause
3<-$J?-L-2-}-?J?-=?-o--/-}-?J?-:P2-o--<J., She would finish the work
earlier if she did it earlier. are in PRT.
%?-2R.-{.->J?-o--/-=3-?%-2R.-<-:IRR-o--<J., I would go to Tibet immediately
if I knew Tibetan.
p o-<J.conveys
the notion
%-HR.-;A/-o--/-%?-{.-(-3%-%-2>.-o--3-<JJ., If I were you, I would not talk
much. would.
Notes-1
1. o-/ is put in sub-clause and 3R in the main clause to express a wish (the speaker's).
2. o-/…o-<J.: It is used to express a likelihood in an unreal condition.
3. The verbs, both in sub-clause and in main clause, are in PRT in present tense unreal
condition.
Exercise 1 Write proper verbs and phrases in the blanks to make an unreal
condition.
.0J<-2eR., .R-.$R%-%-:P=-2-(-5B$-;R., .J-3A/-o-/-%-<-#R:A-!R/-,R$-$-;R%-3R,
1. %-aR2-9<-:IR-$A-3J., %-___________%:A-.LA/-{.-.-$A-;/-___________,
2. %:A-8A-=A-<-c/-3R-$*A?-!-:.A-/-___________, 353?-353?-3-8A-=A-.!:-=?-;A/-/-<,
3. %?-2f/-:UA/-/-:.A-3R-o/-.-___________, %?-.-.0J-(-:.A-$?3-0R-<J3-3-v-5<-___________,
4. t$?-3R-$A?-L-2-$9A$-___________, 0J-&A/-/?-3A-:.$-$-9A-=A%-%-;R%___________,
5. /.-0-.J-<J3-3-(/-#%-%-___________#$-:.A-3R-(A-$9A$-MR%-___________,
6. $+3-29%-HR?-3A-2>.-______, %?-#<-$J<-\R-o$-$-2>.-/-:.R.-$A-;R., .J-;A/-/-#<-$J-@R%-$A?-.$:-o-<J.,
7. .-A-3-<J3-3-KA<-<-___________8-;?-vR$?-__________, .-%?-(A-$9A$-!J<-/%-,
8. HR?-{.-(-.J-3R-3-2>., HR.-%-.-2R-:.%-(J___________, %:A-%/-.J-3R-2>.___________,
•571•
9. %?-5B-=J/-$9A$-*R?-2+%-, 5B-=J/-8J-,$-$A?-Z-$A 3A-Z-______, %?-<J3-3-KA<-<-!J<___________,
10. %-{R3-3?->A-,=, .-:.A-/-(-.3-2A-$%-___________%?-|R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-.$R?-/-<-___________,
11. A-&J-=R-=R/-:.A-n=-!R%-(A-3R-$9A$-<J.-/%-, 3<-$J-=R-*%-$9A$-;A/________3<-$J-(A-3R-$9A$-_________,
12. !-2, HR.-2R.-<-:IR________2R.-$A-?-(-$%-%_______, #-2, 3A->J?, $%-v<-/-<-z-?<-:IR-_____,
13. !-2, HR:A-|R<-3R-3J.___________%?-.!:-__________, #-2, .J-3-9J<, %:A-|R<-3R-$A?-$R-(R.-/,
14. HA3-35K?-<-%J.-$*A?-!-22-$A?-3A-:PA$ .J-3R-$9A$___________%?-#<-$J-#$-$-{=-___________,
15. #<-$J-MA-=$->R$?-&/-$9A$-;A/, #<-$J<-|R<-3R-;R.-________, #<-$J?-HR.-|R<-3R-3%-%-!J<-_________,
Exercise 2 Complete the statements to reflect unreal conditions using negative forms
if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., !-2, 8A-=A-T-5$-.J-.-aR2-3-A-m-$9A$-$-*/-;R.,

#-2, #<-$J<-.$J-c/-.$:-$9A$-;R., 3J.-o-/-#<-$J-&%-%-<-*/-o-3-<J.,
1. !-2, HR?-%-LA/-/R-z3-A-m-$9A$-<J., HR.-8J-,$-$A?-2!:-SA/-(J,

#-2, :R-=R?, .J-z3-A-m-_________, %?-HR.-z3-_________, (be verb) (!J<)
2. !-2, .-<J2-HR:A-{<-:V?-@R%-$A?-3,R-$A %?-*R?-/R:C-.0J-(-$A?-$R-AJ-(R.,
#-2, $R-(R.-,=, %-HR:A-.0J-(-_______, %?-<-{<-:V?-.J-3R-3,R/-0R-$9A$-=J/-_______, (;R.) (,2)
3. !-2, A-=-=, ?-(-:.A-(A-3R-$9A$-*A.-$A-/%-, HR?-?-:.A-3R-$9A$-;R.-/R-(A-$9A$->J.->J?-/?,
#-2, %?-$R-/A-;A/, %?-_________HR.-<-%J.-$*A?-!-.J<_________, ($R) (;R%)
4. !-2, HR?-%-|R<-3R-2*A?-/R-2!:-SA/-(J, <J.-S-%?-*A/-0-<J3-3-!J<,
#-2, *A/-0-HR?-<J3-3-!J<-o-<J.-_________%?-<-_________, (:.R.) (2*A)
5. !-2, HR.-2R.-/?-AJ-;A/, HR:A-2R.-{.-%J?-%J?-&A$-Z-$A
#-2, %-2R.-/?-;A/, %-2R.-/?_________%?-2R.-{.-.J-3R-A-m-$9A$-2>.-_________, (3A/) (>J?)
6. !-2, .J-<A%-/3-^-(A-3R-$9A$-SR-$A
#-2, :R-=R?, /3-^-_________HR.-<-|R<-____________, (SR) (:IR-#-*/)
7. !-2, HR.-=?-.2%-(A-3R-$9A$-Z-$A .-HR.-aR2-9-(J/-3R-$A-.$J-c/-$9A$-<J., <J.-S-%-.-2R-8A%-2-$9A$-;A/,
#-2, HR.-<-aR2-9-.-_________, HR.-<-<J3-3-8A%-2-_________, (:IR-$A-;R.) (2&:)
8. !-2, HR:A-#%-2-:.A-Z-$A-/%-, %?-#%-2-:.A-3R-$9A$-8R%-$A?-*R-,2-o-3-<J.,
#-2, %?-^-1R$?-3,R/-0R-$9A$-=R/-$A-;R., _____%?-<-#%-2-:.A-3R-$9A$-*R-_____, (=R/-$A-3J.) (,2)
•572•
9. !-2, HR.-?-(-:.A-/?-A-K-$9A$-?/-$A-;R.,
#-2, <J.-;, %-?/-oR-_________%-?-(-:.A<-_________, (>J?) (;R%)
10. !-2, HR?-{.-(-l2-0R-2>.-/R-$A?, A-3-?J3?-#$-$R-$A
#-2, :R-=R?, 3<-$J-#$-oR-_________%?-<-{.-(-Z$?-3R-.J-3R-_________, (>J?) (2>.)

Exercise 3 Complete the text with present tense unreal conditions using the words in
parentheses and, if necessary, . /
%?- HA3- 35K?- $A?- o/- ]%?- ;?- |R<- 3R- ?- ;- $9A$- =R/- ?R%- 9J<, |R<- 3R- .J- %-__________, (,R2) %?-
__________, (:(<- $8A- 3%- %- :,J/) %- .J:A- KAA:A- *A/- 3- =?- #%?- /%- /?- __________, (:2.) %- :63- \A%-
;R%?- %- ;=- {R<- <- __________, (:IR) %- 3PR/- #%- A- +- $A?- .!:- 3R- $A- /%- /?- __________, (:.$) %- (A-
$9A$- .$R?- /- %?- .J- __________, (*R) %?- _%?- :#R<- A- m-%- .$:- /R- <A$- ________ %?- .J- =3- ?%-
__________, (*R) 3PR/- #%- $R% - .!:- 3R- 9R- :P=- 2- $A?- :$J% -__________, %?- .J:A-/%-/?-:.$-?-;R.-,2?-
__________, (2&:) %- |R<- 3R- .J- 3R- 3%- %- $9A$- ;R.- /- %?- (A- $9A$- ;A/- /- <- =?- __________, (,2)
__________, (:P2) A-3-3, %-;%-:#R<-2-$+A%-3J.-$A-/%-%-z%-,=, %?-$8/-1/-$A-L-2-<-__________,
(=?) %?-3J.-0R-9R-|R<-3R-$A?-__________, (<R$?-;?) %?-.$J-l-$A-=?-.R/-/-__________, (o2-*R<-;?)
%?- .$R/- 0- |R<- 3R- $A- __________, (8=- :.J2?- o$) %?- |R<- 3R- .J- 3R- 3%- %- $9A$-__________, (=R/) %?-
|R<- 3R- 5%- 3-__________, (2.$- $- :6B/) %?- |R<- 3R- .J- $A?- MA-$%- 3% - %-:5S- 2- $A- ,R$- /?- __________,
(<R$?-;?)
19.2 --Real condition and unreal condition
Real condition Note

.?-5S.-;;R.-/-%-l=-.R%-%-:IRR-o--;A/, I will do sports if I have time.
|R<-3R-$A?-:.%--/-%?-L-2-=?--o-3AA/, I will not work if I have enough

money.
/…o-;A/ / o-<J.
These tell what

.?-5S.-.-2R-}-/-%J.-(-2R-*=-o--3A/, We will not go to bed if it is still
early.
may happen
under certain
$+3-:.A-$R-/--#<-$J-%--o-<JJ., He will cry if he hears the news. circumstances.
(-:H$?-:,%?-/-HR.-1R-/-o--<J., You will have a stomachache if

you drink cold water.
8-;?-:.A-HR.-<-<A$-/-cR.-0R-$9A$-;R%-o-<JJ., This child will become naughty
if he is like you.
•573•
Real condition Note
HR.-:IRR-/-%-3A-:IR, I will not go if you go. A precondition
/+ 3A… verb
is given before
HR?-(/-.RR%-/-%?-3A-.R%-, I will not study medicine if you
study it.
something
happens.
.J-<A%-<-o-#R$-=J/-/-%?-3A-9, I will not eat hot pot if it is
ordered again today.
Unreal condition Note

.?-5S.-;R.-o-/-%-l=-.R%-%-:IRR-o--<J.,I would play sports if I had time. These tell
what may
o-/… o-<J.
|R<-3R-$A?-:.%-o--/-%?-L-2-=?--o-3--<J., I wouldn't work if I had enough happen in a

money. hypothetical
situation.
$+3-:.A-$R-o--/-#<-$J-%--o-<JJ., He would cry if he heard the news.
Notes-2
1. /…o-;A/ structure is used, in real conditions, to express First Person and First Person
Plural intentions.
2. /…o-<J. structure is used to express what would be done (conjecturally) in real
conditions.
3. There are two forms of negative real condition: 3A + a verb in PRT and verb in PRT + o-
3A/, e.g., 2.3?-/-(R$-/-%-?-:.A-/?--3A-:.$ I will not stay in this place if I have the choice. /
2.3?-/-(R$-/-%J.-9R-:.$-o-3A/, We will not stay here if we have the choice.
4. /…o-3-<J.: This negative form is used to form negative conjectural real conditions, e.g.,
2.3?-/-(R$-/-#R-9R-:.$-o-3-<J., They will not stay if they have the choice.
Exercise 4 Put in proper tense forms of the verbs in parentheses and phrases so as to
form unreal or real condition. Use negative forms if necessary.
.0J<-2eR., %:A-5S%-Z-/-?%-=R-%?-_%?-:#R<-4-;-$9A$-*R-o-;A/, (Z) (*R)

%?-o$?-3A-:UR.-$A %?-o$?-:UR.-o-/-A-1-$A?-|R<-3R-$A-.$:-g$?-!J<-o-<J., (o$?-:UR.) (!J<)
1. %-A->J-;-/?-*A.-0R-_________;R-<R2-\A%-%-_________, (be verb) (;R%)

2. %:A-<R$?-0-5%-%-9-3-9-$A-_________%?-=J$?-*J?-&%-_________, (:IR) (:HJ<)
3. 3<-$J?-o-{.-2>.-_________N%-$R-/?-_____________, (>J?) (KA<-<-;R%)
4. 3<-$J?-2f/-:UA/-.J-3R-3%-%-$9A$-3A-_________.0J-(-z$-+-_________, (v) (v)
5. 35S-*A.-<-*A/-3-$&A$-$A-$/%-%-_________.$R/-0:A-/%-%-_________, (;R.) (:IR)
6. #R-9R?-=?-!-3%-%-_________:5S-2-$A-(-nJ/-)J-Z-_________, (=?) (;A/)
•574•
7. $/3-,%-_________, %:A-A-&J-=?-!<-_________, (b%-,%-%-:IR)
8. !-2, :VR$-0-9R-(-nJ/-.-2<-$A-:5S-2-$A-;/-;A/-_______, #R-9R?-(A-$9A$-______,(;?)
#-2, #R-9R-:.$-#%-_______, (=?)

9. #J-2:A-/%-/-HA3-5%-$9A$-$-=?-!-$A-.!:-%=-_________#J-MA-$8/-0R-9R-$A?-_______, (;R.) (<R$?-;?)
10. !-2, HR?-2R.-$A-?-(-$%-/?-:5S-2-<R=-/-______, $R-{2?-;R.-/,
#-2, 3A->J?, $%-v<-/-<-A-3.R-/?-______, (:.R.) (:.$)

11. 8-;?-$A-A-3, 8-;?-\R-o$-$-________(/-0-HR?-(A-$9A$-_______, (/) (;?)
(/-0, %?-#<-$J-22-$A?-/-$A-:)$-o-3-<J.,
12. !-2, HR.-0J-&A/-/-______$%-/?-______, (:IR) (:.$)
#-2, .J-.-%?-<->J?-$A-3J., 1=-(J<-3PR/-#%-/%-/?-_______,

13. \R$-[.-:.A-$R%-4B?-4-$9A$-_________%?-$&A$-_________, (2.J) (*R)
Text Two: unreal and real conditions
9<-v:A-aR2-5/, YA.-)?-.%-:VR$-0:A-:5S-2,
.?- <2?- }R/- 3- $A- =R- <2?- .$- 2&- 2- $A- /%- , 2R.- $A- :VR$- 0- 9R- $+/- #R.- ;?- $A- 2&$ .J- $A- <?- 29%- , C- ?-|J<- <- LA/,
9R$- =$- #- #- >J.- :5S?, .J%- ?% - #R- 9R?- C- 9-MA- $8/- /- $;R<- :.R.- /- $; <- /- (R$- $A $8/- /- 24S%?- /- (R$- $A :5S- 2- $A-
,R$-/?-!2?-2.J-@R%-$A?-<J., YA.-)?-:.A-3R-$9A$-}R/-(.-=$-2!<-;?-3J.-o-/-:VR$-0-9R-.-2R-<-$+/-#R.-$A-#%-2-
$A-/%-/-:.$-,2-;R.-o-3-<J., <J.-S, YA.-)?-:.A:A-8R<-<-\J%-$8A-3%-%-$9A$-<-:1J=-$A-;R.,
K$?-9R$-$A-o.-A-m->J.-%J=-oR-\J%-$8A-$9A$-<J., }R/-(.-:VR$-0-9R?-<->J.-9R$-=$-:5S?-/A-<J., K$?-9R$-$A-I%?-

!-3%-/R:C-!2?-$A?, o.-$A-,R$-/?-1R-9R$-3R-9R$->-O$-*J-/R-$/.-.R/-$9A$-3-<J., <J.-S-.J%-?%-HA3-5%-$9A$-$A-9R$-
$A-I%?-#-<-$9A$-$-vR?-/-@R%-$A?-(%-$A .J:A-1/-(.-/?-C-?<-t$?-<-2o2-;R.-/R-$A?, HA3-35K?-?R-?R-$A-K$?-9R$-
1/-5/-/-#J2-oR-<-.!:-3R-<J., <%-9R$-<%-.A$-;?-/-K$?-9R$-$A-o.-=.-:IR-/R-#R-,$-<J.,
:VR$- 0- 9R:A- }R/- (.- $A- :5S- YR=- .J- 2R.- 3A:A- :IR- =$?- <J., :IR- =$?- .J- ($?- 3J.-o- /- :VR$- 0- 3%- 5S$?- $A- 3*3- =?- $A-
k%- $8A- ;R%- ;R.- o- 3- <J.- 9J<, :VR$- .3%?- 9R- ,A- $A- o- /R<- K$?- 9R$- <- C- ?- ;R.- /R- $A?, #R- 9R- 8A- 3,/- <- 3*3- =?- 3*3-
:5S-$A-:5S-2-*A.-0R-,R2-?R%-/A-<J., .J-3R-;A/-3J.-o-/, C-?-$A-.R/-/-:,2-lR.-L%-;R.-o-3-<J., :5S-2:A-,R$-/?-.!:-%=-
<-,$-/- v-?-<-2~J/-?--;R.-o-3-<J.-9J<, <J.-S-.J%-?%-.2=-K$-(-~R3?-;R%-o-3-<J.-9J<, ;%-$A?-;%-$A?-:VR$-HA3-
•575•
=-=-)J-;R.-<-=-=-)J-3J.-;A/-o-<J., $/?-5=-52?-(J/-;A/-/, 3J.-0R-<A$?-$A?-C-?-:5S%-.$R?-o-<J., ;R.-0R-<A$?-$J-
C-?-*R?-$A?-*R?-$A?-)J-(J-;A/-o-<J., )J-K$-;A/-/-*R/-3-<J., <J.-S-:VR$-0-3J.-0R-=$-/?-C-?->R<-?R%-3#/-9R-$%-%-
:IR-9J<-$A-;R.,
$%-v<-G%-YA.-)?-:.A-=R-2&-z$-$9A$-$-=$-2!<-;?-2+%-, :VR$-0-$+/-#R.-#%-2-;R.-3#/-)J-3%-<J., :VR$-0-

3%-%-$9A$-$A?-.-2R-mR%-,R$-<-PR%-2h=-/-#%-2-*R?-;R., $?<-2-$?<-3R-<A$?-$A?-<-/%-/-K$?-9R$-:5S, c.-0R-c.-
3R, 8- ;?- =R- (%- PR%- /- :5S- 2- <R=- 3#/- <- )J- 3%- <J., :.A-:5S- 2- ;<- o?- $A- g$?- <J., <J.- S- YA.- )?- :.A- .?- ,%- ,%- $A-
/%-%J?-%J?-Z-$A-9J<-oR-.!:-3R-;A/-$A-;R.,
C-?-)J-,-;A/-/R-5%-3-$A?->J?-/R-<J., .J-C-?-vR?-?-vR?-:)R$-$A?-(%-?R%-, K$?-9R$-;%-vR?-?-vR?-:)R$-$A?-3%-?R%-

/R-$A?-<J.-9J<, HR.-.J%-3-YA.-)?-:.R/-3#/-;A/-;R.-o-/, HR?-(A-$9A$-;?-;R.-o-<J.,
19.3 --Past tense unreal condition
Past tense unreal condition

3<-$J-3J.-/R->J?-;R.-o--/, %-<-;R%-3J.-o-<JJ., I wouldn't have come if I
knew she was not there.
nVerbs
in If
;R.-o-/ + ;R.-o-<J.
YA.-)?-:.A-Z-;RR.-o-/--:5S-2-)J-=J$?-$-;R%-;RR.-o-<<J.,
Life would have been clause
improved if the policy was are in
good. PAT.
<A-:.A-3,RR-;RR.-/-%-:$RR?-;R.-o--3-<JJ., If the mountain were high, I
wouldn't have climbed it. oVerbs
in main
3<-$J?-.LA/-;A$-.%%?-;RR.-/-$J->/-0-$9A$-:HRR%?-- She would have become a
tourist guide if she had clause
are in
;RR.-o-<JJ., studied English.
PAT.
%?-$/?-5=-.J->J?-?R%-/--=3-?%-HR.-2>.--;R.-o-- I would have told you right nIn if
/ + ;R.-o-<J.
away if I had known the clauses,

<JJ., situation. auxiliaries
indicate
5S%-Z-?R%-/-#<-$J-#%-2-.J:A-/%-/-2#.--;R.-o--3-<JJ., He wouldn't have remained past tense.
in that house if his business
Past tense auxiliary +
were good. oVerbs

in main
#<-$J-$9$?-3,RR-;RR.-/-r%-=A-lJ.-3#/-$9A$-$-*/-- If he were tall, he would have
become a basketball player. clauses
are in
;RR.-o-<<J., PAT.
:$R-2-.$:-3-?R%-/--HR:A-^-1R$?-$+.--;R.-o--3-<JJ., You wouldn't have gotten a
raise if your boss were
unhappy.
•576•
Past tense unreal condition
<A-3-3,R-/-%-:$R?-;RR.-o-3--<J., If the mountain were not high, I
wouldn't have climbed it. Both
#<-$J?-HR.-3-<A$-/--<A$-?R%-9J<-;R.-o--3--<J.,
If he had not seen you, he clauses are
/ + ;R.-o-3-<J.
/ /+ 3JJ.-o-<JJ.
wouldn't have said that he had negative.
seen you. In if
.0J-(-33-2[$?-/--#<-$J?-.J:A-/%-.R/-2>.- He wouldn't have been able to clauses,
tell the book's contents if he had auxiliaries
,22-;RR.-o-33-<JJ., not read it. or verbs
indicate
HR?-%:A-#-3-]%?--/-.R/-.$-P2-;R.-o-3--<J., If you had not listened to me, you past tense.
wouldn't have achieved it.
Notes-3
Past tense unreal condition: nPerfective adverb ;R. is put before o-<J., following the
verb in PAT in main clauses. Verbs are always in PAT both in if- and main clauses. oVerbs
unchangeable in tense form require auxiliaries to communicate past tense, e.g., #<-$J-24/-0R-
$9A$-;A/-;R.-/, 8-;?-=R-(%-.J?-2f?-2&R?-;?-,2-;R.-o-3-<J., If he were strong, the young boy
wouldn't have been able to bully him. pMonosyllabic adjectives require an auxiliary to
indicate past tense, e.g., #<-$J-=R-3-(J-/-2v?-/-.J-3R-$9A$-c?-;R.-o-3-<J., He wouldn't have
looked so old if he were not old.
Exercise 5 Write verbs in proper tense form and proper phrases in the blanks. Use
the past tense unreal condition.
aR2-9-(J/-3R-/?-3,<-KA/-/A-<, %?-2R.-$A-?-(-/?-.LA/-;A$-.$J-c/-$A-L-2-24=, .LA/-{.-$A-.$J-c/-$A?-2R.-{.-<-

>J?-.$R?-/R-$A?, %-.$R?-3#/-3J.-$A %-KA-o=-/-;R.-.?-2R.-{.-$A-aR2-OA.-_____________, %?-________
_____, (2!R.-1A$-;?) (.R%) %?-2R.-{.-_____________, (.R%) %:A-2R.-{.-8J-$A?-_____________,
(Z) .3-.$J-mR%-$A-.3:-:VA%-$A-/%-/?-L-2-$9A$-______________, (fJ.) HR?-:.%-$9A$-oR2?-S, %?-L-2-.J-
_____________, %-KA<-<-_____________, (=R/) (;R%) %:A-5K-$%-$A-:5S-2-<-#-KR$?-$8/-0-$9A$-$-
_____________, (:IR) %-.-2R-A-3.R-_____________, (:.$) %-.3-.$J-$A-:VR$-3R-$9A$-$-________
_____, (,$) OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/, 3<-$J-<-_____________, ($*J/-1A$) .J-3R-$9A$-____________, %-
1=-(J<-2R.-/?-_____________, (;A/) (=?) %-8-;?-<-(-4B$-;R.-/-,%-, =?-.2%-%/-$A %?-L-2-.J-3-=R/,

%-2R.-/?-<-:.$-3-,2, .-%?-L-2-?/-*J.-$9A$-=?-$A-;R., 5K-$&A$-$A-n-;-$9A$-<-3J., %:A-2R.-{.-_________
___, %:A-:5S-2-%R-3-$A?-_________, (Z) (VR-2-w/)
•577•
Exercise 6 Write verbs in proper tense form in the blanks using both unreal and real
conditions and, if necessary, negative adverbs and auxiliaries.
3$RR/-0R 5K-=R, HR.-<%-$A-:5S-2-#-KR$?-2+<-3#/-$9A$-$-,$-AJ-MR%-,

5K-=R MR%-%-, <J.-S-MA-.J?-%:A-:5S-2-%/-0->J.-2+<-/A-<J., .J%-3-%?-o-;A$-.%?-.?-.!:-=?-3%-%-M%?-
2+%-, .J-$4S-2R<-%:A-aR2-:VA%-$A-o-;A$-.$J-c/-$A-!2?-$A?-<J., #<-$J?-2R.-$A-aR2-3-<A$?-$A?-{.-
<A$?-3A->J?-:.R.-$A-;R., 2R.-$A-aR2-3-$9A$-$-:SA-5B$-$9A$-____________, (:SA) #<-$J?-o/-.-
_________ ___, (d/-0-:,J/) "2R.-$A-8-;?-<A$?-$J-(A-$9A$-3-*/, {.-<A$?-
____________(.R%) $&A$-<-____________"9J<, (>J?) o-$A-aR2-3-$9A$-$-
__________,(:SA) #<-$J?-.$:-z%->J.-=/-/-____________, (|$)
3$RR/-0R .J-%R-3-$A?-:)A$?-$A .$J-c/-$A?-HR.-.J-3R-=2-/A-AJ-<J.,

5KK-=RR .J-.-=R?-;A/, #<-$J?-:SA-5B$-$9A$-SA?, %?-=/-2+2?-/R-____________,(:PA$) #<-$J?-%?-;A.-
5S.-;?-2+%-___________, (9J<)
3$RR/-0R %-HR:A-@-3-$*A?-!-___________,(;A/) %?-#<-$J<-.J->J.-.R/-3J.-<-__________, (:)R$) #R-
$*A?-!-aR2-9:A-:VJ=-;R.-$A-:$R-2-9R<-$+$?-;R.-/-<J., #<-$J-2R.-<-o<-*J-<A%-;R.-/R-2>.-/-<J., HR.-
%:A-8-;?-__________,(;A/) %?-.$J-c/-,->=-.J-=?-!->R<-$A-____________, (:)$)
5KK-=RR HR?-2?3?-/R-<J., MA-$9A$-$A?-#<-$J-KR$?-<?-3J.-3#/-$9A$-$-____________, ($+R%) %-<-o-
{.-$A-,R$-/?-$.J%-)J-;R.-___________, (;A/) #<-$J:A-v-2-$A?-:6B/-9:A-/%-$A-2R.-$A-aR2-3-5%-
3<-__________, (>/->$?-%/-0-,J2?)
3$RR/-0R %:A-8-;?-$?3-0R<-.$J-c/-.J-3R-%/-0-3J., #R-9R-=?-.2%-29%-$A
Exercise 7 Write the proper tense forms of the given verbs and phrases in the blanks
using unreal and real conditions.
.0J<-2eR., 3<-$J-.?-5S.-:#R<-=R<-:.%-(J-, |R<-3R-(A-3R-$9A$-!J<-o-/-<, 3<-$J?-:5S%-o-3-<J., (!J<) (:5S%)

%?-.0J-(-:.A<-^-2-$&A$-$-3-,$ %?-,$-;R.-o-/-.-%?-2l3?-5<-;R.-o-<J., (,$) (lR3)
1. %-(%-.?-|R<-3R-$A?-______, %-?:A-$R-=_____, %-=?-3J.-<J., %:A-3-l-5%-3-!R%-?R%-, (:.%) ({R<-2-o$)

2. .-%-|R<-3R-_______, %-?:A-$R-=<-{R<-2-o$-$A-______, <J.-S-|R<-3R-3J.-/-:IR-YR=-$%-/-;R., (;R.) (:IR)
3. 3<-$J-_%?-:#R<-$A-______________HA3-3-}-?J?-______________, ($8$-$-(R.) (,R/)
4. HR?-%<-2>.-/R-%R-3-$A?-Z-,=, HR?-%-$/?-5=-.J-___________%?-l-2-/?__________, (2>.) (>J?)
•578•
5. %?-o/-.-_______, %-:.A-3R-5S/-0R-_______, =?-,%-<-:.A-3R-$9A$-_____, (l=-.R%-;?) (;A/) (8/)
6. .J-<A%-;=-%/-2!/-2+%-, ;=-%/-____________%-.J-<A%-0J-&A/-/-:IR-______________, (!R/) (,2)
7. HR.-.J%-3-2.J/-/R-%<-3-2>., HR?-______________%?-HR.-______________, (2>.) (_R3)
8. E- 3R- :.A- $&A$- 3A/- .- 3J.- ?R%- , 5S%- #%-$A- /%- /- $&A$- $A?- 3A- 5.- ______________ %?- $*A?-
______________, $&A$-HR:A-<-$&A$-%:A, (;R.) (*R)
9. $9:- :#R<- }R/- 3- %?-HR?-/%- $/?- Y% - ;R.- /R- 3- >J?, %?- __________%?- 9- 3- $8/- 0- 3A/- .- ________,
(>J?) (.3<-9?-{R=)
10. %J.- 5S:C- #J- 2- /- 35K- 3- $?3- ;R.- /R- HR?- $R- AJ- MR%- , @- 3- $*A?- !?- #R- $?3- 0R- 9- 2- 2&:- $A- 2&$- 2+%- 9J<, %- #R- 9R:C-@-
3-$*A?-!-_____________, #R-$?3-0R-9-2-2&:-$A-____________, .J-;A/- ;R.-o-/, OA$?-OA$?-3J.-

/, #R-$?3-0R… (;A/) (:)$)
11. 3<-$J-4B?-4-$9A$-$A?-$8$-$-3-(R., 3<-$J-________, 3<-$J?-L-2-.J-_________, ($8$-$-=?) (<J$)
12. %J.- 5%- $A-2- 3R- $A?- ,$- 0- _R3- 0-3%- %- $9A$- 9R?- 2+%- $9A$ ,$- 0- 5%- 3- ________, 3<- $J- _________,
(9) (:$.)
Exercise 8 Write the proper tense forms of the given verbs and phrases and put the
statements in the blanks. Use unreal and real conditions.
:223--0 AR, 5K-<A%-, .R/-.$-(A-$9A$-;R.-/?,

5KK-<AA% .R/-.$-&%-3J., AA/…, <J.-S, %-8A-3R-.J<-%J?-%J?-&A$-.$:-$A %?-3<-$J-|R<-2R?-/-:.R.-$A
:223--0 .J<-*R/-&%-3J.-$A :2R.-:.R.-/-2R?-3R,
5KK-<AA% <J.-S, %?-3<-$J-2R?-/-<-, 3<-$J?-3A-;R%-_______, (9J<)
:223--0 3<-$J?-3A-;R%-(A-$9A$-$-9J<-o?,
5KK-<AA% vR?-<, %-\-$<-5S$?-0-$9A$-$A-/%-/-___________, (;R.) 3<-$J-%:A-3*3-0?-|R<-3*3-0?-
___________, (:IR) HR?-\-$<-5S$?-0-$9A$-:6$-o-AJ-;A/,
:223--0 %?-3A-:6$ <J.-S-HR?-<R=-(?-$&A$-<-h%-3A->J?, HR?-.J-$%-$9A$-/?-S/-/?,
5KK-<AA% 2.J/-$A 3<-$J:A-.$:-<R$?-}R/-3<-_%?-:#R<-;-3J.-$9A$-;R.-$A %:A-_%?-:#R<-.J:A-;/-
___________, (;A/) 3<-$J?-;-___________, (9J<)
:223--0 <J.-S, _%?-:#R<-$9A$-;R.-/R-HR.-=?-.2%-Z-$A
5KK-<AA% .-%?-<-3A->J?-$A 3<-$J-%J?-%J?-&A$-;$-$A %-1R-|R-__________, (;R.) OA$?-OA$?-3J.-/-3<-$J?-
•579•
;-__________, (9J<)
:23-0 HR.-<-1R-|R-#$-,$-3-<J., HR?-.J:A-,R$-$-?J3?-#<-;?-?-3A-:IR,
5K-<A% %-o-$A?-___________, (/R$?) %?-3<-$J-9-#%-A-m-$A-/%-%-HA.-___________, (,2) HR?-
%-|R<-3R-___________(A-3R-$9A$-<J., (2*A)
:23-0 .J-;?-3A-*/, .J-;?-/-3<-$J?-HR?-/3-;A/-/-<-3<-$J-9-#%-A-m-$A-/%-%-HA.-:.R.-o-<J.,
5K-<A% HR?-2>.-/R-2.J/-$A
:23-0 HR?-*R/-S, 5K-<A%-, HR.-:.A-3R-$9A$-:52-2J-:52-2J-___________, (3A/) 3<-$J?-;-9J<-/-,%-,
<%-5$?-;R.-/R->J.-3<-$J-_________, (|R<-:2R.) 3<-$J?-HR.-___________, (]R<-:22)
3<-$J-HR:A-3*3-0?-:IR-/A-<J.,
5K-<A% HR?-2>.-/R-2.J/-$A %?-3<-$J<-.-#-0<-$+R%-o?,
:23-0 Z-$A $8$-/?-,$ .R/-.$-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-:.$-%<-2>.-oR-3-2eJ.,
5K-<A% :23-0, 4K-$<-$9A$-#R.-S, :23-0, :23-0, 3<-$J?-;-9J<, <J.-S-%-3<-$J:A-___________(A-
$9A$-;?-o?, (]R<-3A-:22) :23-0, :23-0,
19.4 --Wish and suggestion
o- /
.-3<-$J-=3-/-;R%-$A-;R.-o-/, .J-3A/-.-%?-|$-3A-,2-$A I cannot wait. I wish she
were on the way!
o-/ is put at
Present tense
the end of
aR2-3-<A$-;$-:.A-2lRR/-:P?-(J-o-/, If only this intelligent
student were diligent! sentence to
%-<-$*J/-!R/-.J:A-,R$-$-:IRR-,2-o-/, I wish I also could take
part in the wedding!
express a
8A-3R-.J?-;-9J<-o-/, If only the girl said yes! wish.
%-8A-3R-.J<-,$-;R.-o-/, %?-<-3<-$J-]R<-:22-$A I wish I had met the girl,

too! I love her as well.
A verb in
PAT + E-v +
.J-<A%-$/3--22?-3JJ.-o-/, %?-=?-!-$&A$-<-=?-3-,2, I wish it had not rained. I
Past tense
couldn't do anything! o-/ is used

aR2-3-:.A-2lRR/-:P??-(JJ-;RR.-o-/, #<-$J?-o$?-:UR.-3J., This student failed the
exam. If only he were
to express a
wish in past
diligent!
8A-3R-.J?-;-9J<-;R.-o--/, 8A-=A-?J3?-#$-$A?->A-,=, I wish the girl had said tense mood.
yes. The boy is dying of
sadness.
•580•
o- /
:.A-/-HR:A-<R$?-0-$9A$-;R., HR.-<-;R%-o-/, A friend of yours is here.
Will you come?
o-/ is
A-3-#R3-$A-3J., HR?-9-3-{R=-o--/, Your mother is busy. How always put
Suggestion
would it be if you cooked?

at the end
A-#-(/-#%-%-2#.-;R., %J.-$*A?-!-v-$A-:IR-o--/, My uncle is hospitalized.
How is it if we visit him? of a
HR.-o-;A$-$-3A-Z, HR?-o-;A$-$A-aR2-OA.-$9A$-=J/-o-/, You are not good at
Chinese. How would it be sentence.
if you take a Chinese
course?
Notes-4
1. o-/ conveys a) a suggestion or proposal b) a hypothetical situation, a) e.g., HR.-<J3-3-:IR-o-

/, (<-2-:22-=-#.-;R., I suggest you go right now; it is about to rain. b) 9-3-0J-=J/-;?-;R.-
o-/, If only the food were ready! / aR2-{2?-<J3-3-&A$-PR=-o-/, If only the semester would
end soon!
2. 3R is often put after o-/ to stress a wish, usually in past tense mood, e.g., HR.-%:A-$*J/-!R/-$A-
,R$-$-;R%-;R.-o-/-3R, I wish you had come to my wedding. / HR.-%:A-$*J/-!R/-$A-,R$-$-;R%-,2-
;R.-o-/-3R, I wish you could have come to my wedding. o-/-3R can be contracted to o?-3R,
e.g., HR.-%:A-!R/-,R$-$-;R%-o?-3R,
Exercise 9 Write appropriate verbs and phrases in the blanks to express either a
wish or a suggestion.
.0J<-2eR., Wish:%-;R/-+/-0-;-3J.-$9A$-;A/-o-/, .-$A?-<?-%?-Z-=->J.-aR2-.R%-;?-o?,

Suggestion: |R<-3R-<-|R<-3R, >A-/-|R<-3R-$A?-$R-3A-(R., HR?-3-EA-<J-:.R/-o-/,
1. /%?-!-}-3J?-%-.?-5S.-S$-$A-!J%-;<-<-=%?-.$R?, %-.J-3R-}-?J?->J._________, ;<-<-=%?-oR-l-3R-3-<J.,

2. %:A-2R.-{.-.-2R-<-A-=-0-=-<J., %-2R.-{.-<-L%-3-___________, aR2-PR$?-<A$?-$J-2R.-{.-<-@R%-$A?-Z-$A
3. 8A-3R-$/-(A-3R-$9A$-;$-$A-/%-, 3<-$J-%:A-.$:-<R$?-_____________, 3<-$J<-.-2<-.$:-<R$?-AJ-;R.,
4. ]-V%-.$R/-0-;=-{R<-<-:IR-?-*A.-0R-$9A$-;A/, %J.-$*A?-!-_____________, <J.-S-.R-5B$?-<J-2-3J.-$A
5. %?-vR$?-3A-29R.-$A .-/%?-%?-VR-#-_______________, %?-A-3-$A-=$-/?-VR-#-=J/-#-3-*/,
6. .-$/3-<2-$A-;R., (<-2-<J3-3-:22-o-<J., HR.-9R-<J3-3-____________, .J-3A/-/-$/3-/%-%-=?-o-<J.,
7. %?-;R%-|R-$A?-3$R-,R/-.!:-$A %:A-^-1R$?-______________, :$R-2-$A?-^-1R$?-$+R.-#-3A-*/-$A
8. aR2-9-/?-3,<-KA/-/-^-1R$?-3,R-9J<, HR.-aR2-9<-____________, HR.-.-2R-=R-<-(%-$A
•581•
9. .-%-=R-(J, S/-0-<-)J-#$-<J., =?-!R2?-<-8/-,=, %-:.A-3R-$9A$-___________, %-3A-:$R<-<->A-/-3A-:.R.-$A
10. _%?-:#R<-2#.-/-=3-3A-2.J, HR.-$/3-P-<-:.$_____________, _%?-:#R<-<-vR?-/-3IR$?-3R-<-<J.,
11. ?-<2-,=, 8-;?-$*A?-!-.-2R-3-,R/, #R-$*A?-!-<J3-3_______________, %?-?J3?-#$-$A?->A-,=,
12. HR.-%J.-5%-%-_______________, MA-$8/-0-9R-3J.-/R-$A?-HR.-*=-?-z$-3-$9A$-;R.,
Exercise 10 Write the given verbs in proper tense form in the blanks using real and
unreal conditions to make a wish or a suggestion.
{=--29% HR.-2.J-3R, HR.-L-2-(A-$9A$-;R.-/?,

5K-*A. ^-2-$8$-3:A-/%-%?-29:-3$R-21A$?-/R:C-=R-:#R<-</-$A-;R., %?-$%-$?J%-$A-:(<-$8A-.$:-$9A$-
$A?-c.-0R-.$:-$A-:)$-2?3-$A-;R., HR?-%-?-(-MA%-I$?-(-<J-____________, (%R-3R.-;?)
{=--29% ;-;-;, HR.-o-#R$-$-____________, (:IR) HR.-8J-,$-$A?-*A.-0R-____________, (;R%) HR.-
OA/-+:-2-?R%-/, =3-#-/?-2R.-$A-?-(-3%-%-, .0J<-28$-/-$9A-5-#J-.$<-____________, (:IR-
,2) o=-3R-5=-2-<R%-/?-2R.-$A-#%-2-H.-0<-&/-___________, (<A$) <J.-S-o-35S:C-#<-lJ-$A-
:IR-/, HR.-$/3-P-<-:.$-.$R?-/R-$A?, ;=-uR%?-3%-%-_________, (<A$) <J.-S-o-35S-#<-,R/-
/, ;%-$%-2-$8/-0-$9A$-________, (;A/)
5K-*A. <J.-S-.J-5%-3-2R.-$A-<A$-$/?-$A-?-(-3-<J.,
{=--29% AR, HR.-2R.-$A-?-(-/?-:.$-2?3?-/?, HR.-$*A?-!-35S-}R/-0R<-____________, (:IR)
5K-*A. 35S-}R/-0R, %J.-$*A?-!-35S-}R/-0R<-____________, (:IR) v-o-<-<A$-o-(A-$9A$-;R.,
{=--29% 9R$-=$-<, 35S, ;=-{R<-2-3%-%-, ,%-(J/-<A$-o-<J.,
5K-*A. <J.-S-;=-{R<-2-____________(3%) %-*A.-0R-;R%-___________,
{=--29% .J?-/-HR.-!R.-3%:-<A?-____________, (:IR) .J-/-MA-3-.$R?-<A-?$?-<-<A$-oR-.!:-3R-;A/,
5K-*A. .J-*/-/-Z-$A <J.-S…
{=--29% #R3-0-;R.-.?, HR?-.J-/?-(A-$9A$-=?-o-/?,
5K-*A. %-(-n=-2g$-oR<-.$:, %-<A-3$R<-:$R-oR<-.$:,
{=--29% HR.-<A-3$R<-:$R-oR<-.$:-/-(R$-$A <J.-S-_________!R.-3%:-<A?-HR.-:IR-?-$9A$-3-<J., ((<-n=)
5K-*A. %:A-c.-0R-<A-3$R<-:$R-oR<-.$:, *-:6B/-oR-3A/-.,
{=--29% .J- 3R- $9A$- _____________, (;A/) !R.- 3%:- <A?- <-:IR- ?- .$:- $9A$- ;A/-o-3-<J., 35S-}R/-0R-:IR-
?-A-m-2R-;A/-o-<J.,
•582•
5K-*A. %?- <- .J- :.R.- $A- ;R., #<- $J-<A- 3$R- :$R- oR<- ____________, (.$:) !R.- 3%:- <A?- :IR- ?- $9A$-
___________, (;A/) ?-3$R-.J-3R-$9A$-3,R, ,$-<A%-, %J.-$*A?-!-KA-<-,R/-,2-3A/-??->J?-o-<J.,
{=--29% 35S-}R/-0R-$A-{R<-/?, :.A-/-$/?-5=-3%-%-$9A$-3J., %-35S-}R/-0R<-____________%?-HR.-$/?-
5=-<J_________, (:IR) (2>.) %-<%-$J-<-<J3-3-____________, (:IR-,2) :IR-:.R.-8R<-<-
=R-$?3-:$R<-,=,
5K-*A. <J.- S- %?- 35S- }R/- 0R- #- /?- (A- $9A$- =?- o?, % - ;- :6B/- oR<- 3A- .$:, ;=- {R<- 2- ________ %- *A.- 0R-
______, (3%) (;R%)
{=--29% .J?-/-HR.-$*A?-!-1-;=-$%-/?-;A/,
5K-*A. 1-;:-d-2-mR%-,R$-/?,
{=--29% <J., HR.- $*A?- !- d- 2- ____________, (:IR) ^- 2- 2o.- 0:A- /% - %- d- 2- 8J- ,$- $A?- *A.- 0R- <J., MA-
3%-%-3J., $%-?-$%-/-$?J<-(J/-3J-+R$ =$->-8A3-0R, }R-C-$A-SA-3, .-2R…,
5K-*A. d-2-(A-3R-$9A$-;A/-/R-HR?-2>.-.$R?-/?,
•583•
/--(J. It is the short form of … / &A-3-<% and is used to make an unreal wish, similar to if only...
After adjective After verb
%:A-8-;?-:.A-<A$-0-iR-/-(JJ., =?-!-}-?J?-=?-;R.-/-(JJ., .J-<A%-:P2-o-3-<J.,
If only this child of mine were clever! If only the work had been done earlier! Now
we cannot finish it today.
%:A-#%-2-.-2R-4B?-4-$9A$-(JJ-/--(J., %?-2!.-<?-.0J-(-2+R/-;R.-o-/-(JJ.,
If only my apartment were a little bit bigger! I wish I had continuously studied!
A-@R, %-4B?-4-$9A$-}-/-(J., .J-;A/-;R.-o-/-%-$8$-$-(R.- %?-_%?-:#R<-.=-3R->J.-2{R<-/-(J., .-($-|R-L%-
;R.-o-<J., 2+%-,
Oh, if only I were a bit earlier! If it were so, I I wish I had driven slowly! Now an accident
would have managed to catch it. has taken place.
:VR$-HA3-.J-,$-*J-/-(JJ., .-%-3A-,R/-$A %?-{.-(-.J-3-2>.-/--(JJ., %:A-:$R-2-.-.$:-$A-3J.,
If only the nomad household were near! I cannot I wish I had not said that! My boss is now
walk now. unhappy.
$/3-%R-.J-<A%-,%-/-(JJ., .-%-(<-n=-,2-o-3-<J., %?-.%R?-2R-:.A-3-*R?-/-((J., .J-o-2-3A-Z-$A
If only the sky were clear! Now I won't be able to I wish I had not bought this thing! Its quality
swim. is poor.
Verb / adjective This compound is used to dismiss something under certain conditions,
+ / + the same conveying the notion no matter if something is done…; no matter someone
verb / adjective does…
Tibetan English
HR:A-<R$?-0-aR2-9<-3A-:IRR-/--3A-:IR, HR.-;A/-.-3A/-.-?R%-, You must go to school! It doesn't matter if
your friends go or not.
8A-=A-%/-0-.J?-.--2-:,JJ/-/-:,JJ/, HR.-<%-$A?-3-:,J/, You, yourself, should not smoke! It does
not matter if the bad boy smokes or not.
HR.-9-3-9-$A-3A-;RR%-/-3AA-;RR%-, %J.-(-2R-|$-o-3A/, We will not wait to eat. It is fine that you
don't come.
#<-$J?-3-*R?-/--3-*RR?, .%R?-2R-:.A-*R-3#/-3%-$A There are many buyers for this stuff. It is
fine that he didn't buy it.
:<-(J-/-(J, $4S-2R-#%-2-;R.-?-Z-.$R?, $4%-3-;A/-.$R?, Being noisy is not important as long as
the house is located in a nice and clean
area.
3/:-3-%R-24S$-/--24S$ MA-29%-$9A$-;A/-.$R?, The daughter-in-law should be a nice
person. Her being unattractive doesn't
matter.
•584•
.2%--.-2+%--/ This phrase is used to make the hypothetical notion assumed; suppose.
Tibetan English
%-:)<-3/-/-;R.-/R:C-.2%--.-2+%--/, %?-:)<-3/-$A-{.-.R%-o- I would study German, supposing that
I were in Germany.
<J.,
;R%-|R-)J-3,R-;A/-oR:A-.2%--.-2+%--/, %?-#%-2-$9A$-*R-o-<J., Assuming my income were higher, I
would buy a house.
HR.-.-:IR-oR:A-.2%--.-2+%--/, HR.-2R.-<-/3-,R/-o-<J., Suppose you were going to Tibet now,
when would you arrive?
2A?-9-=R/-oRR:A-.2%-.-2+%--/-<, %?-=$-HJ<-3A-=R/, I wouldn't get a passport even if I
supposedly could get the visa.
\R$-2f/-;$-/R:C-.2%--.-2+%--/-<-3<-$J-3A-:IR-#R-,$-;A/, She certainly wouldn't go even if the
film was supposed to be good.
o-3J. This compound denotes something happens very slowly or takes time, or something is
not so much or very much. Such statements are always negative, with 3J. at the end.
Tibetan English
.$J-c/-:.A<-OA.-o-3JJ., /3-;A/-/-<-.=-3R->J., The teacher does not start to teach, being

always slow.
With Ladon
HR.-=-9-3--{R=-o--3J., %-vR$?-;?->A-,=, I am dying of hunger. You are so slow to

cook.
case
HR.-=-*R-o-3J., o/-.-:.A-*R-$/-*R-9J<-/-<, For all your promises to buy this and that,
you just do not buy anything.
3J-+R$-5%-3-{3-,=, HR.-==-(-w$--o-3J., You never water; all the flowers dried up.
$4%-2R-:.A<-3A-.=-/-3IR$?-o-3J., This river is not fast, if not slow.

Without Ladon
aR2-3-:.A<-<A$-0-;$-o-3J., This student is not so intelligent.

case
K$-0R-5%-9J<-/R<-//R$?--o-3J.-$A The so-called rich family is not so rich.
#J-2-.J<-:.A-/?-<?-,$--<A%-o-3J., The village is not so far from here.
aR2-3-9R<-;R/-+/-3%--o-3J., Knowledge would never be too much for

the students.
With Ladon
#$-%?-3,R%-/R<-<-*%%-o--3J., The hardship I experienced is not

insignificant.
case
HR:A-$+3-3-3%--o-$+/-/?-3J., Your talking would never be too much.
5S$?-?-:.A-3R-$9A$-$A-/%-/?-MA-2o-<-3%--o-3J., Even one hundred people are not too

much in such a meeting hall.
•585•
Genitive case + {R<- This compound expresses the notion of from the point view of, regarding
/? / ,R$-/? / ,.--/? something, in terms of, etc.
Tibetan English
\RR$-[.-$AA-{RR<-/?-%-&%-2>.-o-3J., I have nothing to say about computers.
3--b%-5SS%-<-$AA-{RR<-/?-%->J?-2-.3/, I am poorly informed about the stock

$A-{R<-/?
market.
.0J-(-3%-%-$9A$-$?RR-2--<A$-0--$A-{R<-/?-<J., Many books are about medicine.
/RR<-2-$AA-{RR<-/?-.R-8$-%?-&%-3-$R I have not heard anything about Norbu

lately.
lAA?-<A$-$AA-,RR$-/?-#R-%:A-;/-;A/, He is better than I in mathematics.
=RR-o??-$AA-,RR$-/?-2>.-/, d-2-9A-OR/-$A-3%:-#R%?-3A/, From a historical point of view, Rnga ba

$A-,R$-/?
is not a part of Sichuan.

3AA-<AA$?--$R3?-YRR=-$A-,R$-//?-#<-$J->J?-o-(J, He is knowledgeable about ethnic
customs.
MAA-;AA/-0:A-,R$-/?-5%-3-$&A$-<J., <J.-S… As human beings, everyone is equal,
but…
$/.--.R/-:.AA:A-,.--/?-%-&%-2>.-o-3J., I have nothing to say as far as this
problem is concerned.
o--;A$-$AA-,.--/?-aR2-3-:.A-.$:-$9A$-;A/, This student is good at Chinese.
$A-,.-/?
8-;?-T-5$-:.A-2?3-0--$A-,.-/?-,->=-$9A$-3A/, As far as his intention is concerned, this

naughty child is not bad.
29RR-=?--$A-,.-/?-2R.-eJ?-=?-;A/, Tibet is undeveloped regarding
industry.
•586•
,--~.-.%--5BB$-PR$?, aRR2-5/-22&--.$--2,
5S%-2-8A$-$A-*A?-:$=,
=$-HJ<-#-0< cell phone =$-HJ<-#-0<-$R%-)J-2.J-)J-2.J-<J.,
o-;A$ Chinese characters o-;A$-$A?-A-3J-<A-#-/?-$R-3A-(R.,
~A%-=%? to get angry $+3-:.A-$R-/-A-3-~A%-=%?-o-<J.,
2.J/-2>. to reason with; to convince 2.J/-2>.-3#/-?%?-o?-<J.,
$/?-=$? reasons $/?-=$?-3J.-/-lR.-0-3-;?,
$.3-! choice .0J-(-$%-.$R?-$.3-!-HR?-LR?,
=/-:.J2 to answer :SA-5B$-.J<-%?-=/-:.J2-3A-,2,
@-8J/ diligence @-8J/-;?-/-P2-:V?-,R/-;R%-,
#-3 position; principle HR:A-#-3-/-%-;R.-o-/-(J.,
82?-8 service 82?-8-Z-/-3PR/-#%-:.A-/?-:.$
?J3?-:I< to change one's mind 8A-3R-?J3?-:I<-<?-MA-$8/-/-:PR$?,
S%-3R direct MA-S%-3R-5%-3-o.-29%-3A/,
?J3?-2.J carefree %:A-.R/-/-A-1-?J3?-2.J-$A-3J.,
:$R to climb <A-3$R<-:$R-oR-l=-.R%-*A.-0R-<J.,
0J/-ZA boiled dumpling 0J/-ZA-2?3?-2+%-/-#<-$J-?J3?-SR-$A-;R.,
.!:-=? hard work .!:-=?-3-M%?-/-*A.-#$-3A->J?,
*A/-0 compensation =$-$A-*A/-0-|R<-3R-S$-2o-<J.,
Z$?-3R rough (in language, material) $R/-o-Z$?-3R-$R/-/-=?-3A-2.J,
o/-]%? to buy a lottery (ticket) =?-&/-.J?-o/-]%?-;?-:2$?-,=,
.$J-l charity .$J-l-*R%-/-;<-?J3?-:6B/-.$R?,
=?-.R/ cause; business MA-4-;-9R?-=?-.R/-$4B$?-$-:6B/,
8=-:.J2? donation 8=-:.J2?-o$-3#/-MA-?J<-$-&/-.J-<J.,
% to weep 8-;?-%-$A-3-:)$
•587•
)J-Z better .J%-?%-A-3.R-/?-(-nJ/-)J-Z-<J.,
$R%-2.J fairly priced $R-H-:.A-$R%-2.J-o-3J.,
YA.-)?-.%-:VR$-0:A-:5S-2,
$+/-#R. sedentary :VR$-0-$+/-#R.-9R?-4-S/-$A-;R.,
|J<-<-LA/ to be privatized o-/R<-5%-3-|J<-<-LA/-?R%-,
#-#->J. separately %-<-%:A-%/-;-.-#-#->J.-;R.,
$;R< to borrow; to lend .%R?-2R-l-(J/-$8/-/-$;R<-3A-*/,
1J< to be able to match 8A-=A-.J?-*J?-29A-$9A$-$A-.R-;-1J<,
YA.-)? policy YA.-)?-29%-/-3%-5S$?-*A.,
t$?-< fence .J%-?%-C-,%-;R%?-%-t$?-<-2o2-;R.,
.A$ to mate; to be in heat (animal) 36S-3R-.A$-.?-#J2-.$R?,
:IR-=$? the way something works #-3A-I$?-/R-#<-$J:A-:IR-=$?-<J.,
3*3-=? cooperation L-2-:.A-3*3-=?-$A?-=?-$A-;R.,
k%-$8A foundation; basis k%-$8A-2g/-/-L-2-$A-1$?-<-2g/,
8A-3,/ peace 8A-3,/-$A-:5S-2<-%-?J3?-~J$-$A
:,2-lR. fight :,2-lR.-$A-/%-/?-.3$-3%-%->A-?R%-,
:L% to originate; to take place .GR$?-:.A-($-|R-:L%-?-8A$-;A/,
v-? someone to depend on @-3-$A-1/-/?-3R<-v-?-3J.,
2~J/-? someone to rely on )R-3R-:.A-$A-2~J/-?-(R?-P$?-5%-<J.,
.2=-K$ poverty and wealth .2=-K$-|%-$>R%-:(R<-3A-*/,
(-3*3 even; equal ?-(-3J.-0R-:.A-/?-.2=-K$-(-3*3-;A/,
;%-$A?-;%-$A? step by step; gradually 3.%-.$R%-%-;%-$A?-;%-$A?-29A-?R%-,
)J-;R. to get better-off ;R.-0R-)J-;R.-<-3J.-0R-)J-3J.-<J.,
)J-3J. to get worse-off %%-2R<-)J-3J.-*/-YR=-3J.,
;R.-0R the rich ;R.-0R-5%-3-#%-2-A-m-$A-/%-/-:.$
)J-K$ to be richer )J-K$-;A/-/-?J3?-)J-*A.-AJ-;A/,
•588•
*R/ disadvantage; problem #<-$J-*R/-$A?-2m.-3J.,
=?-2!<-;? to implement YA.-)?-9R-=3-?%-=$-2!<-;?-.$R?,
mR%-,R$ county seat mR%-,R$-/-#%-2-3,R/-0R-3%-,
PR%-2h= town PR%-2h=-/?-3PR/-#%-$A-$R%-2.J,
;<-o? development :5S-2-;<-o?-$A-g$?-!/-,R.-29%-/R-<J.,
g$? symbol #-2.J-/R-<A$-0-;R.-/R:C-g$?-<J.,
vR?-?-vR?-:)R$-$A? relatively 3<-$J-;$-/R-vR?-?-vR?-:)R$-$A?-<J.,
YA.-)?-:.R/-3#/ policy maker YA.-)?-:.R/-3#/-$A?-YA.-)?->J?-.$R?,
2f?-2&R? bullying MA-,->=-$A?-$8/-/-2f?-2&R?-;?-$A
c? to get old MA-c?-/-<A$-0-:HR<,
3,<-KA/ to graduate %-3,<-KA/-/?-=R-$?3-:$R<-?R%-,
5K-$% whole life #<-$J-5K-$%-%-PR%-HJ<-<-?R%-3-MR%-,
?/-*J. boring; troublesome lJ.-,.-?/-*J.-:.A-<A$?-:.A-/?-3-:)R$
n-; spouse n-;-:.?-/A-<-#<-$J?-.!:-$A-;R.,
VR-2-w/ interesting; humorous; tasty $+3-o.-:.A<-@R%-$A?-VR-2-w/,
#-KR$? trend; direction #-KR$?-:.A-/-<R%-3A/-:VR$-3J.,
d/-0-:,J/ to sigh ?J3?-#$-/R-$A?-%?-d/-0-:,J/,
.$:-z%->J. delightedly #<-$J?-$R/-o-.$:-z%->J.-2N?-2+%-,
:)A$? to be astonishing HR?-2>.-/R-<-@R%-$A?-:)A$?-$A
;A.-5S. estimation; guess P%?-!-.J-;A.-5S.-$A?-2>.-3A-,2,
KR$?-<? discrimination KR$?-<?-29%-/-2.J/-*R%-?-3A-:IR,
3-l-!R% to become insolvent; to go bankrupt 5S%-2-:.A-<J3-3-3-l-!R%-?R%-,
=?-,% physical condition =?-,%-*3?-/-/.-1R$-a,

/%-$/? fast %?-/%-$/?-$+/-/?-2Y%?-3-MR%-,
2!. to explode :2<-m?-MJ-$A-/%-/?-2!.-?R%-,
$8$-$-3-(R. to be too late aR2-.R%-$A-,R$-/?-3<-$J-$8$-$-3-(R.,
\-$<-5S$?-0 troupe \-$<-5S$?-0-/-$?<-2-$?<-3R-3%-,
•589•
;-3J. super; matchless (/-0-:.A-(/-0-;-3J.-$9A$-;A/,
; yes ;-9J<-3#/-.J-8-;?-=R-(%-$9A$-<J.,
:52-2J-:52-2J hurriedly A-3-:52-2J-:52-2J-/%-%-,R/,
<%-3.R$-;R. to have self-confidence / principles 1R-<2-$9A$-;A/-/-<%-3.R$-;R.-.$R?,
A-=-0-= so-so \R$-2f/-:.A-A-=-0-=-<J.,
L%-3 fluent; versed; skillful o-3A-:.A-2R.-{.-<-L%-3-<J.,
$+R. to raise :$R-2-$A?-^-1R$?-$+R.-#-*/-,=,
S/-0 memory =R-c?-$A-c?-$A-S/-0-<-*3?-,=,
=R-:#R< anniversary aR2-9-/?-%?-=R-:#R<-$?3-3-2a2?,
MA%-I$? famous .%R?-2R-MA%-I$?-$R%-.!:,
$%-2 feeling; sense %?-2>.-2>.-0R<-#<-$J?-$%-2-3A-:6B/,
*-:6B/ to fish *-:6B/-3#/-9R-#-<R$-$J<-(-#-/-;R.,
•590•
Appendix I: Oral Verb Conjugations
Note: Verbs are conjugated in the order of their sequential appearance in the texts, not in Tibetan
alphabetical order. The verbs, if their conjugate forms vary in written Tibetan from the oral ones, are
juxtaposed in written forms in parentheses. In the case of phrasal verbs, the stem verbs are put in
written forms in parentheses, with the remaining phrasal particles presented with "_". n / a
indicates that this verb has no imperative form.
English Future Present Past Imperative
be verb ;A/ ;A/ ;A/ ;A/

be verb <J. <J. <J. <J.
to do; to make ;? (L) ;? (LJ.) ;? (L?) LR?
to call; to say 9J< 9J< 9J< 9J<
to come ;R% (:R%) ;R% (:R%) ;R% (:R%?) >R$
to step; to get aboard :2. :2. 2. 2.
to meet; to touch ,$ ,$ ,$ ,$
to stay :.$ (#R.) :.$ (#R.) 2#. #R.
to tell; to speak 2>. 2>.(:(.) 2>. >R.
to flourish; to develop .< .< .< n/a
to get together :6S3 :6S3 :6S3? n/a
to have free time #R3 #R3 #R3 n/a
to do =? =? =? =?
to sleep $*A. $*A. $*A. $*A.
to play lJ lJ lJ? lJ?
to have a holiday 2<-$?J%-$+R% (_$+%) 2<-$?J%-$+R% 2<-$?J%-2+% 2<-$?J%-,R%?
to cook; to sway $;R $;R $;R? $;R?
to be satisfied ;A.-5B3 ;A.-5B3 ;A.-5B3? n/a
to have a break 3=-ZR (_$?R) 3=-ZR (_$?R) 3=-ZR? (_$?R?) 3=-$?R?

to meet with %R-,$ %R-,$ %R-,$ %R-,$
to form; to be located :($ :($ :($? / ($? n/a
to rotate; to surround 2{R< {R< 2{R< {R<
•591•
to see; to visit 3)= 3)= 3)= 3)R=
to look 2v v 2v? vR?
to want; to desire :.R. :.R. :.R. n/a
to show 2!/ !R/ 2!/ !R/

to see <A$ <A$ <A$ n/a
to hire \ \ \? \?
to give !J< !J< LA/ LA/
to need .$R? .$R? .$R? n/a
to use 2!R= 2!R= 2!R= #R=

to be full of 2!% (.$%) 2!% (:$J%) 2!% n/a
to cook; to boil 2{R= {R= 2{R= {R=

to eat 9 (29:) 9 9R? 9R
to last (time) :$R< :$R< :$R< n/a
to lead; to guide :HA. (:OA.) :HA. (:OA.) HA. (OA.) HA. (OA.)
to reap; to cut VJ$ :VJ$ VJ$? VR$?
to pull; to transport :S. :S. S. S.
to increase :1J= :1J= :1J= n/a
to run 2o$ o$ 2o$? o$?

to carry :#< :#< #< #<
to manage $*J< $*J< $*J< $*J<
to herd :5S :5S :5S? :5S?
to convert; to let $+R% ($+%) $+R% 2+% ,R%?
to agree :,. :,. :,. n/a
to be completed :P2 :P2 P2 n/a
to circumambulate {R<-<-o$ {R<-<-o$ {R<-<-2o2 {R<-<-oR2?

to fit :UR. :UR. :UR. n/a
to depart 2.-:IR 2.-:IR 2.-?R% n/a
to study aR2-.R%-;? (_L) aR2-.R%-;? (_LJ.) aR2-.R%-;? (_L?) aR2-.R%-LR?

•592•
to be born *J *J *J? n/a
to see off; to send off 1<-*J= 1<-*J= 1<-2*= 1<-*J=

to welcome 2? 2? 2?? ??
to count 2lA 2lA 2lA? lA?
to be finished 5< 5< 5< n/a
to mention \J% \J% \J%? \J%?

to listen */ */ */ *R/
to prepare P-1A$-;? (_L) P-1A$-;? (_LJ.) P-1A$-;? (_L?) P-1A$-;?-LR?
to offer bsang 2?%-1=(_.2=) 2?%-:2= 2?%-1= 2?%-1=
to smoke .-2-:,J/ .-2-:,J/ .-2-:,J/ .-2-:,J/
to sing \-=J/ \-=J/ \-]%? \-=R%?
to remember S/ S/ S/ n/a
to be bored / lonely ?/ ?/ ?/ n/a
to make / create 2&: 2&: (:(:) 2&R? (R?

to take care of $*R< $*R< $*R< $*R<
to get angry %R-=% %R-=% %R-=%? %R-=R%?
to erect 2lJ% lJ% 2lJ%? lJ%?
to shoot arrows 3.:-:1J/(_:1%) 3.:-:1J/ 3.:-:1%? 3.:-1R%?
to move :$= :$= :$= n/a
to suffer #$-M% #$-MR% #$-M%? #$-MR%?

to drive :.J. :.J. .J. ,J.
to lend $;< $;R< $;< $;R<
to copy 0<-o$ 0<-o$ 0<-2o2 0<-oR2?
to make a decision ,$-$&R.-;? (_L) ,$-$&R.-;? (_LJ.) ,$-$&R.-;? (_L?) ,$-$&R.-LR?
to clean $4%-3-;? (_L) $4%-3-;? (_LJ.) $4%-3-;? (_L?) $4%-3-LR?
to wash 2N :O. 2N? O?
to give $/% $/% $/%? $/R%?
to divide 2$R 2$R. 2$R? 2$R?
•593•
to protect 2Y% Y% 2Y%? Y%?
to sow :.J2? ($.2) :.J2? 2+2 ,R2?
to maintain o/-:6B/ o/-:6B/ o/-29% o/-9%?
to get thin (hair) LA (:LA) LA(:LA) LA n/a
to be enough :.% :.% :.% n/a
to use 2!R= (.$R=) 2!R= (:#R=) 2!R= #R=

to think :.%-o$ :.%-o$ :.%-2o2 :.%-oR2?
to scold $>J-$>J-$+R% (_$+%) $>J-$>J-$+R% $>J-$>J-2+% $>J-$>J-,R%?
to teach lR. lR. 2l. lR.
to cause trouble #$-$-2{< #$-$-{< #$-$-2{< #$-$-{<
to receive; to reach :LR< :LR< :LR< n/a
to exchange 2eJ 2eJ 2eJ? eJ?

to give birth 24: 24: 24? n/a
to give a name MA%-:.R$ (_$.$?) MA%-:.R$? MA%-2+$? MA%-,R$?

to beseech 2!J/ !J/ 2!J/ !J/
to have sex 3OA$-0-,. 3OA$-0-,R. 3OA$-0-,. 3OA$-0-,R.
to fly :1< :1< :1< :1<
to escort; to transport 2*= *J= 2*= *J=
to squander 2!A3 !A3 2!A3? !A3?
to go shopping *R-(-o$ *R-(-o$ *R-(-2o2 *R-(-oR2?
to hate; to be hostile #% #% #% n/a
to save; to accumulate 2?R$ $?R$ 2?R$? $?R$?

to lie down *= *= *= *R=
to wake up ?. ?. ?. ?R.
to sing $8?-$+R% (_$+%) $8?-$+R% $8?-2+% $8?-,R%?
to feed 2~R. ~R. 2~R. ~R.
to find fJ. fJ. fJ. n/a
to get mad /R /R /R? n/a
•594•
to enjoy; to consume <R= <R= <R= <R=
to be broken (. (. (. n/a
to get fed up 3)J. 3)J. 3)J. n/a
to originate :L% :L% L% n/a
to cry % % %? %?
to be delighted 2?R. 2?R. 2?R. n/a
to be blocked :$$ :$$ :$$? n/a
to get curly :HA= :HA= :HA= n/a
to call; to invite :2R. :2R. 2R? 2R?

to be late :KA :KA :KA n/a
to ask :SA (SA) :SA SA? SA?

to take; to accept =J/ (]%) =J/ ]%? =R%?
to broil 24S :5S. 24S? 5S?
to look for :5S= :5S= 24= 5S=
to get used to =R2? =R2? =R2? =R2?
to stop smoking .-2-$&R. (_$&.) .-2-$&R. .-2-2&. .-2-(R.
to scold 2#A$ #A$ 2#A$? #A$?
to get rich :2$ :2$ :2$? n/a
to grow up =$-:($ =$-:($ =$-($? n/a
to satisfy; to suffice 2. 2. 2. n/a
to trust; to believe in _R3 _R3 _R3 n/a
to dig 2bR bR 2bR? bR?

to be able to get =R/ =R/ =R/ n/a
to survive ,< ,< ,< n/a
to stumble over ,R$? ,R$? ,R$? n/a
to beat $*R$ $*R$ $*R$ $*R$

to wilt fA. fA. fA. n/a
to promise #?-=J/ #?-=J/ #?-=%? #?-=R%?

•595•
to ignore; to discard 2*< *< 2*< *<
to take a vow .3-2&:-:)R$ .3-2&:-:)R$ .3-2&:-28$ .3-2&:-8R$
to destroy :)A$ ($8A$) :)A$ 2>A$ >A$?
to be exterminated :)A$ :)A$ :)A$ n/a
to benefit 1/-0-:.R/ 1/-0-:.R/ 1/-0-2+R/ 1/-0-,R/

to use 2J.-,R.-;?(_L) 2J.-,R.-;? (_LJ.) 2J.-,R.-;? (_L?) 2J.-,R.-LR?
to convert 2+< +< 2+< +<
to grab $9% :6B/ 29% 9%?
to offer 3(R. 3(R. 3(R. n/a
to irrigate (-$+% (-$+R% (-2+% (-,R%?

to mimic =.-3R-;?(_L) =.-3R-;?(_LJ.) =.-3R-;? (_L?) =.-3R-LR?
to become; to collapse =R$ =R$ =R$ n/a
to climb :$R :$R :$R? :$R?

to be needed 3#R 3#R 3#R n/a
to channel water (-S% (-:SJ/ (-S%? (-SR%?

to belong to $+R$? $+R$? $+R$? n/a
to sell 24S% :5S% 24S%? 5S%?

to travel :PA3 :PA3 :PA3? :PA3?
to listen to #-=J/ (_]%) #-=J/ #-]%? #-=R%?
to turn 2*R$ *R$ 2*R$? *R$?
to move; to migrate %< %R< %< %R<
to mix 4 4 4? 4?
to knead 2$R $R 2$R? $R?
to pour; to mould ]$ w$ ]$? ]$?
to get boiled :#R= :#R= :#R= n/a
to seethe $. $. $.? n/a
to be able to digest tA$? tA$? tA$? n/a
to use up; to wear out 9. 9. 9. n/a
•596•
to grab :) :) :)? :)?
to issue :1. :1. 1. 1.
to make neat &$-$-;? (_L) &$-$-;?(_LJ.) &$-$-;? (_L?) &$-$-LR?
to be plenty; to gather :6S3 :6S3 :6S3? n/a
to cut; to raze :VJ$ :VJ$ VJ$? UR$?

to ruin; to destroy 2>A$ ($8A$) 2>A$ (:)A$) 2>A$ >A$?
to entrust with 2&R= 2&R= (:(R=) 2&R= :(R=
to cause trouble #$-$-$+R. #$-$-$+R. #$-$-$+. #$-$-$+R.
to become downcast $/3-%R-<2 $/3-%R-<2 $/3-%R-<2 n/a
to get betrothed $*J/-g$?-o$ $*J/-g$?-o$ $*J/-g$?-2o2 $*J/-g$?-oR2?

to promise V%-#<-o$ V%-#<-o$ V%-#<-2o2 V%-#<-oR2?
to combine 2#J2 #J2 2#J2? #J2?
to become blind 8< 8< 8< n/a
to be threadbare 9$ 9$ 9$ n/a
to be able to control ,A$ ,A$ ,A$ ,A$

to lose weight >-8. >-8. >-8. n/a
to push; to force //-;? (_L) //-;? (_LJ.) //-;? //-LR?

to be enough to buy #$ #$ #$ n/a
to step $R3-0-%R $R3-0-%R $R3-0-%R? $R3-0-%R?

to find enough room >R% >R% >R% n/a
to get; to obtain ,J3? ,J3? ,J3? n/a
to be able to compete .R .R .R n/a
to suffer a loss #A?-9 (_29:) #A?-9 #A?-9R? #A?-9R

to become independent 3$R-,R/ 3$R-,R/ 3$R-,R/ n/a
to get by *A/-3-:HR= *A/-3-:HR= *A/-3-:HR= n/a
to become subject .2%-%-:PR .2%-%-:PR .2%-%-?R% n/a
to slaughter 2>: 2>: 2>? >R?

to save face %R-=R/ %R-=R/ %R-=R/ n/a
•597•
to show affection .%? .%? .%? n/a
to retire =?-:H<-;? (_L) =?-:H<-;? (_LJ.) =?-:H<-;? (_L?) =?-:H<-LR?

to be voracious }2 }2 }2 }2
to create :.J2? ($.2) :.J2? 2+2 ,R2?
to divorce :,R< :,R< ,R< n/a
to explode .$. :$. 2!. #R.

to close (door) |R-o$ |R-o$ |R-2o2 |R-oR2?
to go bankrupt 5S%-2hA2 5S%-hA2 5S%-2hA2? n/a
to burn 2YJ$ YJ$ 2YJ$? YJ$?

to fit well :1=-$-:UR. :1=-$-:UR. :1=-$-:UR. n/a
to blame for =J-=/-:.J. =J-=/-:.J. =J-=/-.J. =J-=/-,J.

to belittle $%-(%-;? (_L) $%-(%-;? (_LJ.) $%-(%-;? (_L?) $%-(%-LR?
to think of; to miss ?J3?-:#R< ?J3?-:#R< ?J3?-:#R< n/a
to fire 2.: :.J. 2.: (2.?) .J.

to hesitate :6K3 :6K3 :6K3? :6K3?
to type; to input ;A-$J-$+$? ;A-$J-$+$ ;A-$J-$+$? ;A-$J-$+$
to be engrossed ;A.-.2%-:UR$ ;A.-.2%-:UR$ ;A.-.2%-UR$? ;A.-.2%-UR$?
to contact :VJ=-$+$?-;? (_L) :VJ=-$+$?-;? (_LJ.) :VJ=-$+$?-L? :VJ=-$+$?-LR?
to stare $&J< $&J< $&J< $&J<
to gobble up &/ &/ &/ &R/
to add 2$/ $R/ 2$/ $R/
to decline *3? *3? *3? n/a
to end a relationship :VJ=-2-(. :VJ=-2-(. :VJ=-2-(. n/a
to creep /< /< /< n/a
to be disappointed ;A-(. ;A-(. ;A-(. n/a
to send 2{< {< 2{< {<

to lend; to borrow 2*A *A 2*A? *A?
to relax ?J3?-$;J= ?J3?-$;J= ?J3?-$;J= ?J3?-$;J=
•598•
to become paralyzed 8 8 8 n/a
to make a living :5S-2-2*= :5S-2-*J= :5S-2-2*= :5S-2-*J=

to feel the pulse l-2g$ l-gR$ l-2g$? l-gR$?
to diagnose /.-2g$ /.-gR$ /.-2g$? /.-gR$?
to be able to tolerate 29R. 29R. 29R. n/a
to take refuge from *2?-2&R= *2?-2&R= (:(R=) *2?-2&R= *2?-:(R=

to provoke #-\R% #-\R% #-\R%? #-\R%?
to make gossip ]-2|= ]-|= ]-2|= ]-|=
to deserve :22 :22 :22 n/a
to be startled :SR$ :SR$ :SR$? n/a
to gobble :$3 :$3 :$3? :$R3?

to destroy $+R< $+R< $+R< $+R<
to be able to sustain 3,:-:HR= 3,:-:HR= 3,:-:HR= n/a
to lose a job L-2-:(R< L-2-:(R< L-2->R< n/a
to relax; to compromise [R. [R. zR. zR.

to go across 2c= c= 2c= cR=
to be unsatisfied ;A.-3-5B3 ;A.-3-5B3 ;A.-3-5B3 n/a
to keep in mind ;A.-<-:6B/ ;A.-<-:6B/ ;A.-<-29% ;A.-<-9%?

to get lost 2R< :2R< 2R< n/a
to divide 2$R-L-;? (_L) 2$R-L-;?(_LJ.) 2$R-L-;? (_L?) 2$R-L-LR?

to sew 24K3 5K3 24K3? 5K3?
to get rich o-,R$-$-o$ o-,R$-$-o$ o-,R$-$-2o2 o-,R$-$-oR2?
to cooperate 3*3-=?-;? (_L) 3*3-=?-;? (_LJ.) 3*3-=?-;? (_L?) 3*3-=?-LR?
to set (the sun) /2 /2 /2 n/a
to bend :$$ (.$$) :$$? 2!$ #$

to lease 2R$?-$-$+R% (_$+%) 2R$?-$-$+R% 2R$?-$-2+% 2R$?-$-,R%?
to scream :$-:.J2? ($.2) :$-:.J2? :$-2+2 :$-,R2?
to be startled 2}% }%? 2}%? n/a
•599•
to be able to breathe .2$?-=R/ .2$?-=R/ .2$?-=R/ n/a
to put on the lap 0%-%-]% 0%-%-=J/ 0%-%-=%? 0%-%-=R%?

to sob 5J% 5J% 5J% n/a
to recognize %R?-:6B/ (_$9%) %R?-:6B/ %R?-29% %R?-9%?

to fill in (blank) #-{R%-;? (_L) #-{R%-;? (_LJ.) #-{R%-;? (_L?) #-{R%-LR?
to conceal $?% $?% ($?R%) $?% $?R%?
to get betrothed (%-?-o$ (%-?-o$ (%-?-2o2 (%-?-oR2?
to vomit 2*$ *$ 2*$? *$?
to have constipation l-:$$ l-:$$ l-:$$? n/a
to become fed up 8J/-=R$ 8J/-=R$ 8J/-=R$ n/a
to be engrossed ;A.-.2%-:(R< ;A.-.2%-:(R< ;A.-.2%->R< n/a
to take over }/-$&. }/-$&R. }/-2&. }/-(R.

to get injured $. $. 2$. $R.
to nag 3/< 3/< 3/< n/a
to break (rule) :$= :$= :$= n/a
to get infected <J. <J. <J. n/a
to prance :.< :.< :.< n/a
to push in 24% :5% 24%? 5S%?

to clear up .J%? .J%? .J%? n/a
to shy away :6K3 ($9J3) :6K3 :6K3? :6K3?

to follow eJ?-:.J. eJ?-:.J. eJ?-.J. eJ?-,J.
to be able to stand tR$? tR$? tR$? n/a
to avoid $;R= $;R= $;R= n/a
to cover :$J2?(.$2) :$J2? 2!2 #R2?

to move 2|= |= 2|= |=
to move :$= :$= :$= n/a
to become eroded $>R? ($>R) $>R? ($>R) $>R? n/a
to pant; to wheeze @= @= @= n/a
•600•
to borrow $;< $;R< $;< $;R<
to cover #J2? #J2? #J2? n/a
to solve; to card (wool) 2?= ?J= 2?= ?J=

to confiscate $8%-%-]% $8%-%-=J/ $8%-%-]%? $8%-%-=R%?
to be able to get in (. (. (. n/a
to be satisfied ;A.-5B3 ;A.-5B3 ;A.-5B3? n/a
to use a political contact %R-24S% %R-:5S% %R-24S%? %R-5S%?

to respect 2lA-=J/-;?(_L) 2lA-=J/-;? (_LJ.) 2lA-=J/-;? (_L?) 2lA-=J/-LR?
to accept; to abide by .%-=J/-;? (_L) .%-=J/-;? (_LJ.) .%-=J/-;?-(_L?) .%-=J/-LR?
to gnaw; to eat :(: :(: :(R? :(R
to think of 2?=-]R-$+R% (_$+%) 2?3-]R-$+R% 2?3-]R-2+% 2?3-]R-,R%?
to become mixed :SJ :SJ :SJ? n/a
to wrap .NA .NA .NA? .NA?

to worship .. .. .. n/a
to touch <J$ <J$ <J$ n/a
to erect 2lJ% lJ% 2lJ%? lJ%?

to be latent 8 8 8 n/a
to prove <-3R.-;? (_L) <-3R.-;?(_LJ.) <-3R.-;? (_L?) <-3R.-LR?

to wipe KA? (.LA) KA? (:LA.) KA? KA?
to tie up 2GA$ :HA$ 2GA$? HA$?
to beat; to lash $&<-h%-;? (_L) $&<-h%-;? (_LJ.) $&<-h%-L? $&<-h%-LR?
to destroy $8R3 :)R3? 2&R3 (R3?
to rob; to snatch :UR$ (.VR$) :UR$ UR$? UR$?
to exploit 2}R$ }R$ 2}R$? }R$?
to contaminate 2m. mR. 2m. mR.
to entice; to seduce #-.G #-.G #-.G? #-.G?
to quit one's job L-2-:1% L-2-:1J/ L-2-:1%? L-2-1R%?
to hurt $/R. $/R. $/R. n/a
•601•
to have all together :5$ :5$ :5$ n/a
to make fire 3J-|R% 3J-|R% 3J-2|R%? 3J-|R%?

to feed w. w. ]. ].
to cheat 3$R-{R<-$+R% (_$+%) 3$R-{R<-$+R% 3$R-{R<-2+% 3$R-{R<-,R%?
to solicit #-2f% #-fR% #-2fR%? #-fR%?
to host an assembly 5S$?-2{R= 5S$?-{R= 5S$?-2{R= 5S$?-{R=
to reach (a number) =R%? =R%? =R%? n/a
to make; to tailor 29R 29R 29R? 29R?

to fit well =?-,R$-$-:22 =?-,R$-$-:22 =?-,R$-$-22? n/a
to dance 82?-VR-o$ 82?-VR-o$ 82?-VR-2o2 82?-VR-oR2?

to establish a family ,2-$9% ,2-:6B/ ,2-29% ,2-9%?
to strike root l-2-o? l-2-o? l-2-o? n/a
to fall into pieces ?A=-2<-,R< ?A=-2<-,R< ?A=-2<-,R< n/a
to be born :O% :O% :O%? n/a
to conquer .3-3-:.R$ (_$.$?) .3-3-:.R$? .3-3-2+$? .3-3-,R$?

to destroy / conquer (3-3-:2J2 (_.22) (3-3-:2J2 (3-3-12 (3-3-1R2?
to bring peace 2.J-=-:#R. 2.J-=-:$R. 2.J-=-:#R. n/a
to get tumbled n-:,2 n-:,2 n-:,2

to escort *J=-3-;?(_L) *J=-3-;? (_LJ.) *J=-3-;? (_L?) *J=-3-LR?
to block; to stop :$R$ (.$$) :$R$ 2!$ #R$?
to cause trouble %/-2&: %/-2&: (_:(:) %/-2&R? %/-(R?
to save; to protect YR$-*R2 (_2*2) YR$-*R2 YR$-2*2? YR$-*R2?
to cast out 3,<-0R.-$+R% (_$+%) 3,<-0R.-$+R% 3,<-0R.-2+% 3,<-0R.-,R%?
to get relaxed ?J3?-$;J% ?J3?-$;J% ?J3?-$;J%? ?J3?-$;J%?
to take responsibility #$-:#< #$-:#< #$-#< #$-#<
to churn (dark cloud) $/3-%R-:O$ $/3-%R-:O$ $/3-%R-:O$? n/a
to be influential #-eJ-.< #-eJ-.< #-eJ-.< n/a
to be versed L% L% L% n/a
•602•
to offer; to donate :2= (.2=) :2= 1= 1=
to be to one's liking ]R<-:22 (.22) ]R<-:22 ]R<-22? n/a
to be able to eke out 5K-KA. 5K-KA. 5K-KA. n/a
to clear up (sky) $/3-,% $/3-,% $/3-,% n/a
to enter the next grade =R-<A3-:1< =R-<A3-:1< =R-<A3-:1< n/a
to feel disgusted .3J .3J .3J n/a
to move 2$< $< 2$< $<

to download; to record 12 (.22) :2J2 12 1R2?
to prioritize $4$-$-:6B/(_$9%) $4$-$-:6B/ $4$-$-29% $4$-$-9%?
to admire ;A-<% ;A-<% ;A-<% n/a
to be haughty 3$R-:#< 3$R-:#< 3$R-#< 3$R-#<

to shake :.< :.< :.< n/a
to end a relationship :VJ=-2-$&R.(_$&.) :VJ=-2-$&R. :VJ=-2-2&. :VJ=-2-(R.

to commit suicide <%-YR$-$&R. (_$&.) <%-YR$-$&R. <%-YR$-2&. <%-YR$-(R.
to lose =$-/?-:(R< =$-/?-:(R< =$-/?->R< n/a
to meet one's demand :.R.-2-2{% :.R.-0-{R% :.R.-0-2{%? :.R.-0-{R%?

to get betrothed $/?-$9A$-$-!J< $/?-$9A$-$-!J< $/?-$9A$-$-LA/ $/?-$9A$-$-LA/
to propose; to imply i-(-$+3 i-(-$+3 i-(-$+3? i-(-$+R3?
to have a family HA3-,2-$9% HA3-,2-:6B/ HA3-,2-29% _9%?
to soar .LA%?-$&R. (_$&.) .LA%?-$&R. .LA%?-2&. .LA%?-(R.

to become sad %R-z% (_v%) %R-z% (_v%) %R-z% n/a
to propose (marriage) $*J/-2a% $*J/-aR% $*J/-2a%? $*J/-aR%?

to faint 2o= 2o= 2o= n/a
to become bed-ridden *=-?<-z% (_v%) *=-?<-z% (_v%) *=-?<-z% n/a
to add together 2#R3 #R3 2#R3? #R3?

to think back KA<-:.%-o$ KA<-:.%-o$ KA<-:.%-2o2 KA<-:.%-oR2?
to receive =$-$-:UR. =$-$-:UR. =$-$-:UR. n/a
to concern ?J3?-:#R< ?J3?-:#R< ?J3?-:#R< n/a
•603•
to understand :.%-.0R$ (_.0$) :.%-.0R$ :.%-.0$? :.%-.0R$?
to be disappointed ]R-13 ]R-13 ]R-13 n/a
to take seriously .%-%-]% .%-%-=J/ .%-%-]%? .%-%-=R%?

to take (responsibility) U$-$-]% U$-$-=J/ U$-$-]%? U$-$-=R%?
to hurt; to infect $/R. $/R. $/R. n/a
to shake hands =$-:)-;? (_L) =$-:)-;? (_LJ.) =$-:)-;?(_L?) =$-:)-LR?

to blame for =J-=/-:.J. =J-=/-:.J. =J-=/-.J. =J-=/-,J.
to beat (heart) ~A%-wA% ~A%-wA% ~A%-wA% n/a
to betray o2-2!/ o2-!R/ o2-2!/ o2-!R/

to select; to elect $.3 :.J3(_:.3) 2.3? :.J3?
to take care of $&J? $&J? $&J? n/a
to set an example .0J-:6$?(_$9$) .0J-:6$? .0J-24$? .0J-5$?

to make up one's mind ,$?-,$-$&R. (_$&.) ,$?-,$-$&R. ,$?-,$-2&. ,$?-,$-(R.
to camp |<-:6$? (_$9$) |<-:6$? |<-24$? |<-5$?
to open widely 2o% oR% 2o%? oR%?
to revive; to get strong .2$?-o? .2$?-o? .2$?-o? n/a
to type; to engrave $+$? $+$ $+$? $+$

to get angry ~A%-=% ~A%-=% ~A%-=%? ~A%-=R%?
to reason with 2.J/-:(. 2.J/-2>. (_:(.) 2.J/-2>. 2.J/->R.
to answer =/-:.J2(_$.2) =/-:.J2 =/-2+2 =/-,R2?
to change mentally ]R-:I< ]R-:I< ]R-:I< n/a
to climb :$R :$R :$R? :$R?

to select by chance o/-]% o/-=J/ o/-]%? o/-=R%?
to be privatized |J<-<-!J< |J<-<-!J< |J<-<-LA/ |J<-<-LA/
to have potential 1J< 1J< 1J< n/a
to originate; to happen :L% :L% L% n/a
to get old c?(_c) c?(_c) c? n/a
to graduate 3,<-KA/ 3,<-KA/ 3,<-KA/ n/a
•604•
to sigh d/-0-:,J/ d/-0-:,J/ d/-0-:,J/ d/-0-:,J/
to become insolvent 3-l-!R% 3-l-!R% 3-l-!R%? n/a
to raise $+R. $+R. $+. $+R.

to fish *-:6B/ (_$9%) *-:6B/ *-29% *-9%?
•605•
Appendix II: Grammar Index
Tibetan Section
#$: difficulty / easy to do (15. S. grammar) 460

#: seem and in infinitive case (6. S. grammar) 190
#J<-<R-3A/-/…<: not only…but also (17.6) 520
#R3 / =R%: have time to do (15. S. grammar) 462
$%-:.R. (11. S. grammar) 337
$%-;R. (11. S. grammar) 337
$%-3% (11. S. grammar) 337
$%-v<-/-<: anyway; in any case (17.6) 520
$&A$-$R: the other one (16.N-6) 483
$&A$-<: not even one (5. S. grammar) 153
$, %, /, 2, 3 and <: subjective markers (6. S. grammar) 188
$/-<A$?-$J; :.A-<A$?-$J; .J-<A$?-$J: those; these; those (16.5; 16. N-4) 478
$/-hR$-$R; :.A-hR$-$R; .J-hR$-$R: that one; this one; that one (16.8; 16. N-8) 484
$8$-/ / $8$-/?: after / behind (11.2) 318; (17.2) 502
$8/-0-2R; $8/-$9A$; $8/-0-9R: the other; another; the others (16.7; 16. N-8) 483
$9A$: reportive mood vs. temporal concept (9. S. grammar) 283
$A-<?: since (17.2) 502
$A: in infinitive case (8.4) 237
$A: postposition vs. noun-adj. converter (3. S. grammar) 91
$A?: due to; because (17. S. grammar) 529
&%-< vs. $&A$-< (16. N-8) 487
&%-<: anything (5. S. grammar) 153
&% vs. $&A$: indefinite pronouns (16.9; 16. N-9) 486
&%: any in negation and question (4. N-5) 117
&/: noun-adj. converter (4. S. grammar) 118
(-/?: from the point of view; in respect of (17. S. grammar) 529
(-<J: several (-4B$: several &%: not many / any (16.2) 471
(-<J; (-4B$; =-=; $9A$; &%; #-;? (9.4) 275
•606•
(A + verb + :.A + the same verb + 3J.: excessive extreme (16. S. grammar) 491
(A-3R-$9A$ + verb / adjective + /-<: no matter how much…(12. S. grammar) 362
(J.-<: so as; because (17.3; 17. N-3) 508
*%-*%-$9A$: a few (16.6) 480
*%->R?: less than a half (16.6) 480
*%: few *%-*%-$9A$: a few 4B?-4-$9A$: a little bit (9.3) 272
,.: vehicle-indicative morpheme (10.3) 295
,= and ?R% with monosyllabic adj.: too; too much (9.5) 278
,2: can / could (8.9) 244
,2?: the way / method (15. S. grammar) 460
.$R?: should / need (8. N-9; 8.11) 250; 251
.?: when (11.1) 316; (17.2) 502
.2%-.-2+%-/: assumed; suppose (19. S. grammar) 584
.J-3A/-/: otherwise (17.6) 520
.J: definite article vs. demonstrative pronoun (4. N-3) 111
.J:A-,R$-$: in addition (17.6) 520
.J?-3A-5.: furthermore; in addition (17.6) 520
.J; $/; :.A: that / the; that; this (16.3; 16. N-2) 474
.R/-/: for; in order to (17.3; 17. N-3) 507
.R/: reason / purpose (15. S. grammar) 460
/-$A-<: so…that…; such…that… (17.4; 17. N-4) 510
/-(J.: if only…(19. S. grammar) 584
/-<: although; even though (17.4; 17. N-4) 510
/-<: even if (17.5) 514
/…(R$: can / something is allowed to do (8.13); (8. N-10) 253
/…,%: might (8.13); (8. N-10) 252
/…OA$?-OA$?-3J.: might (8.14); (8. N-11) 255
/-3-$+R$?: unless(17.5) 514
/ as postposition and conditional adverb (3. S. grammar) 91
/%-%: within / during (11.3) 317
/% vs. $9A$: exclamation vs. reportive mood (8. S. grammar) 259
•607•
/: conditional aspect vs. infinitive case (7. S. grammar) 210
/: if (17.5) 514
/?-29%: since (11. S. grammar) 343; (17.2) 502
/?...2< / $A-<?...2<-<: from…to…/ in between (11.1) 313
/?: causative conjunction (15.3; 15. N-3) 456
/?: conjunction, participle, interrogative, and emphatic (3. S. grammar) 91
/…*/: may / something is OK to do (8.13); (8. N-10) 253
/…:.R.: Conditional wish (8.3) 236
/…S$?: something is too much to do (10. N-5) 303
/A-;A/ vs. /A-<J. (2. N-5) 50; (2.S. grammar) 62
/A-<: as soon as (11.3) 274; (17.2) 502
/R-$A?: because (17.3; 17. N-3) 507, 508
/R in adjective clause vs. demonstrative pronoun .J (16.4; 16. N-3) 477
/R in adjective clause (13. N-1) 374; (13.6) 388
/R: clausal nominal vs. personalizer (13.2; 13. N-2) 375
/R: complementizer and nominalizer (18. N-1) 540
/R?-3A-5.…< : not only…but also (17.6) 520
:)$: let/ make (8.15) 257
:)$: with spontaneous verbs vs. with active verbs (8. S. grammar) 259
:.$ in included-question noun clause (18. S. grammar) 562
:.R.: desire / want (15. S. grammar) 460
:IR vs. ;R% as particles (8. S. grammar) 259
:IR: tendency in future tense aspect (6.7; 6. N-7) 176
;$: completely; entirely (16. S. grammar) 491
;%-3A/-.: otherwise; or (17.6) 520
;%-3A/-. …;%-3A/-.: either…or (17.6) 520
;A/-.-3A/-. / ;A/-$&A$-3A/-$&A$ / %J?-0<-.….$R?: must / should in any case (8.11) 248
;A/-/-<: even so (17.4; 17. N-4) 510
;R% / :IR vs. 2+% / ?R%: future tense aspect vs. past tense aspect (7. S. grammar) 220
?-<: anyone in negative sentences (5. S. grammar) 152
? and /R in adjective clause (13.5) 384
•608•
?: anyone in negation and question (4. N-5) 117
{2?-2: during (11.3) 317; (17.2) 502
}R/-/ / }R/-/?: before / ago (11.2) 314; (17.2) 502
}R/-/ vs. }R/-/? (11. S. grammar) 537
< …<: both…and; as well (17.6) 520
<%-$A?: no sooner than (11.3) 317; (17.2) 502
</: It is time to do / to be / The time comes to do / to be (16. S. grammar) 491
<? and 0: suggestion (7. S. grammar) 220
<….... in negative statements: even …; do not mention (17. S. grammar) 529
<…<: negative neither…nor…; positive both…and… (17. S. grammar) 530
<A%-%: during (11.3) 317
<A/: worth doing something (16. S. grammar) 491
<J$-2< / <J$-$J<: until (11.1) 313; (17.2) 502
<J.-S: however (17.6) 520
<J: each and some (6. S. grammar) 198
<R$? + (R.: dare or strong enough to do (18. S. grammar) 562
=-=: some #-;?: some (16.2) 471
=$? / YR=: the way / custom (15. S. grammar) 460
=-#.: temporal about (16. S. grammar) 491
>=-/?: after (11. S. grammar) 337
>J.: adverb of manner (10.4) 297
>J.: clause adverbializer (10.6) 303
0 / <?: polite suggestion (8.1) 228; (8.2) 232
0 and 2: cardinal numbers converted to ordinal numbers (5. S. grammar) 152
0R / 2R / %R: implied definite articles (16. N-1) 469
0R / 2R: gerund-noun converter (4. S. grammar) 118
0R /2R: cardinal numbers that single out or include holistically (5. S. grammar) 152
2>.-$A-<: according to or based on one's statement (9. S. grammar) 284
2>.-/: according to vs. with respect to (9. S. grammar) 284
28$: perfective adverb already (11. S. grammar) 337
vR?-/: in comparison / in one's opinion(6. S. grammar) 189
•609•
3-.$R? + .-2R / <: let along; do not mention (17. S. grammar) 529
3%-(J->R? / 3%->R? most (16.6) 480
3%; 3%-%; 3%-%-$9A$; .J-3R; .J-3R-$9A$ (9.2) 272
3: adj. converter (16. S. grammar) 491
3: verb-adj. converter (4. S. grammar) 118
3 + verb in PAT + <% + the same verb: had no choice but to do… (12. S. grammar) 362
3…$R%-%: before (11.2) 315; (17.2) 502
3A/-.: except (17. S. grammar) 529
3A + verb in PRT + .$ + the same verb: one does something in an extreme (13. S. grammar) 394
3A + verb in PRT + <% + the same verb: has no choice but to do...(12. S. grammar) 362
3R: a sensational word used to refute (7. S. grammar) 220
5%-3: all (16.6) 480
5< vs. ;$: finish vs. complete (9. S. grammar) 283
8R<-<: while (11.1) 313; (17.2) 502
9J< vs. 2>. (18.6; 18. N-6) 557; 558
lA?: plan / going to (15. S. grammar) 460
n% vs. $4B$?: fully ready and resolute (9. S. grammar) 283
nJ/-$A?: due to; because (17.3; 17. N-3) 507; 508
o-/-<: even if (17.5) 514
o-/: auxiliary to express unreal conditions (19.1; 19. N-1) 571
o-<J.: auxiliary to express unreal conditions (19.2; 19. N-2) 573; 574
o…;R.: infinitive case have something to do (8.5) 239
o-3J.: emphatic durative temporal process (19. S. grammar) 584
oR between duplicated words (6. S. grammar) 188
oR vs. /R in noun clauses (18.3; 18. N-3; 18.4; 18. N-4) 550; 552
S$? vs. @R%-$A?: too vs. very much (10.5) 301
S: polite request (8.1) 229
w/: noun-adj. converter (4. S. grammar) 118
•610•
English Section
Adjective clause (13.1) 371
Adjective clause: temporal and locative (13.4) 381
Adjective phrase with $%: (6. S. grammar) 188
Adjective phrase with (A: (6. S. grammar) 188
Adjectives (10.1) 291
Adverbial clause (17.1) 501
Adverbial conjunctions (17.6) 520
Classifiers (9.1) 271
Conditional conjunctions (17.5) 514
Contrast conjunctions (17.4) 510
Demonstrative pronouns with postpositions (2. S. grammar) 62
Conditional wish (3.4) 81; (8.3) 236
Duplicated plural pronouns (4.N-4) 115
Duplicated verb in PAT + 2R / 0R …<…: inclusive tone (18. S. grammar) 563
Duplicated verb in PRT + 2R / 0R: inclusive tone (18. S. grammar) 563
Duplication of verb in PAT + $A?: durative process (18. S. grammar) 563

Duplication of verb in PAT + $A?: participle aspect (12. 4 S. grammar) 362
Duplication of verb in PRT + $A : participle aspect (12. 4 S. grammar) 362
Duplication of verb in PRT + $A? : durative process in participle aspect (18. S. grammar) 563
Duplication of verb + 8R< (11. S. grammar) 339
Emphatic duplicated verbs in past tense form (7. N-5) 212
Emphatic duplications: adverbs, verbs, and adjectives (10. S. grammar) 305

Ergative case markers (1. N-7) 16; (1. S. grammar) 27; (2.1) 42
E-v with intransitive verbs (2. N-5) 50
Existential verb ;R. (1.3) 6
Experiential perfect tense (11.5) 324
Experiential perfective adverb MR% (11. N-5) 325
Frequency words (3.1) 74
Future tense auxiliary: o-;A/ / o? (6.1) 165
•611•
Future tense auxiliary: o-<J. (6.2) 165
Future tense in clauses (6.7) 175
Genitive case +{R<-/? / ,R$-/? / ,.-/?: from the point of view; regarding (19. S. grammar) 586
Genitive case markers: $A and :A(1. N-4) 8
Participle case (12.1; 12. N-1) 349
Negative participle variants (12.4; 12. N-3) 355

Imminent future tense aspects: 9J<-$A-;R. / 9J<-$R-$A (6.4) 167
Imperative (8.1) 228
Implied definite articles and indefinite articles (3.5) 82; (4. S. grammar) 118; (16.1) 469
Included-question noun clause (18.2; 18. N-2) 542
Inclusive plurality marker <A$?-$J (4. N-3) 111
Infinitive case oR vs. conditional / (8.7) 241
Infinitive case review (12.5) 356
Infinitive clause: oR (8.6) 240
Infinitive clause: oR vs. o (8. N-5) 240
Infinitive clause: oR< vs. oR:A (8.7; 8. N-6) 241
Interrogative adverb /% (2. S. grammar) 62
Interrogative adverb /? (1.N-9) 22
Interrogative adverb AJ (1. N-6) 12
Interrogative adverbs and pronouns (1.8) 17
Interrogative adverbs:
AJ, /?, and / (2.7) 57
Instrumental case marker $A?: with what or out of what one does (10. S. grammar) 305
Ladon case markers (1. S. grammar) 27; (2.2) 44
Monosyllabic adjectives (1. N-5) 10

Morpheme ? (4. N-1) 106
Negative adverbs (1.6) 10
Negative adverbs: , 3A 3A/, and 3 (2. N 3) 46

Negative continuous tense (5.8) 149
Negative forms of future tense: o-3A/ / o-3-<J.(6.6; 6. N-5 ) 174
Negative participle case (12.3; 12. N-2) 353
Negative imperative (8.2) 232
•612•
Negative past tense forms (7.5) 207
Negative present tense forms (2.5) 52
Noun / adjective / verb + 3 + Noun / adjective / verb: semi-, hybrid, almost (16. S. grammar) 491
Noun and verb modifiers (10. 3) 295
Noun clause with /R (18.1) 540
Numbers above one hundred (2. Text five)55
Numbers less than one hundred (1.N-10) 25
Numeral adverbs / pronouns (16.2) 471
Passive voice (15.1; 15. N-1) 451 (15.2) 453

Past tense indicative auxiliaries: ,=, ?R%, 2+% (7. N-2) 201
Past tense unreal condition (19.3; 19. N-3) 576
Perfective adverb;R. (11. N-4) 322

Personalizing nominal group: 0R, 2R, 3#/, 2, 3 (4. S. grammar) 118
Plural demonstrative pronouns (16.5; 16. N-4) 478
Plurality markers , 9R <A$?-$J, and (:R (4. N-3) 111

Positive participle variants (12.2) 351
Possessive adjectives (4.1) 104
Possessive pronouns (4.4) 114
Postpositions (5.4) 140
Present continuous tense (5.1) 131
Present perfect continuous aspect vs. past continuous aspect (11.7; 11. N-6) 329
Present perfect tense and past perfect tense (11.4) 322
Present perfect tense vs. experiential perfect tense (11.6) 326
Subject pronouns and possessive pronouns (1.1) 2

Purposive infinitive case (7. S. grammar) 223 (8.4) 237
Quantity words (16.6) 480
Questions in past tense aspect (7.6) 210
Regular action: verb in PRT + $A-;R. (1. N-6-7) 12; 16
Reportive auxiliary: $A (2. N-4) 48
Self-reportive in continuous aspect: $R-/? / $A-;R.-/? (5.7) 147
Sensational interrogative markers (3. S. grammar) 91
•613•
Sensational particles: S and < polite suggestion (8.1) 228
Simple past tense (7.1) 200
Singular demonstrative pronouns (16.3; 16. N-2) 474; 475
Special cases with / (17.1) 501
Subjective expression vs. reportive expression: /A-<J. vs. $A (3.6) 85
Temporal clause (11.1) 316 (17.2) 502
Temporal postpositions (5.5) 142
Tibetan versions of modal verbs (8.8) 242
too (much): ,=; ?R%; ;R.; and S$? with adj. (9.5) 278
Types of adjectives (10.2) 293
Unreal condition (19.1) 571
V. / adj. +/R + polar V. / adj. + /R: one thing confirmed while another denied (13. S. grammar) 394
Verb / adjective + / + the same verb / adjective: no matter…if… (19. S. grammar) 584
Be verb ;A/ (1.2) 5
Be verb <J. (1.3) 6

Verb in PAT + <%:…shortly before (12. S. grammar) 362
Verb in PRT + ? + :IR: feasibility (18. S. grammar) 564
Verb LJ., =? and ;? (2. N-6) 54

Past tense unreal condition (19.3; 19. N-3) 576; 577
•614•
Appendix III: Answer Key
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŇĻāŊŬĴ
Exercise 1
1. ŌŇŪāŎŬ 3. ɖ 5. ĹĻāŉŜ 7. ĹĻāĻ
2. ĹĻāŉŜ 4. ŗŢŉ 6. ĹĻāĻ 8. ŌŇŪāŎŬ
Exercise 2
1. ŗŢŉ 3. ŗŢŉ 5. x 7. x
6. ŗŢŉ 8. x
2. x 4. x
Exercise 3
1. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ; ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 5. x; ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 9. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ
2. ŗŢŉ; ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 6. ŗŢŉ 10. x
3. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 7. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ
4. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 8. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ
Exercise 4
1. ȅāŜāŗĹ 6. ŚŬĹāȳāĹɖŎāŊŬāļŬĹāŏǅ‫ؙ‬āǵŪĻāŉāŗŬŇă
2. ŖľŘāŎŉāȘŢāȌĻŜāĽŪ 7. ȢāĹŘāŐŇāŊāĽŪă
3. ȜŬĹāĽĹŜāŞā̀ƐŪāŘŢāŉāŗŬŇă 8. ȢřāĸŌāŎĻāŊŬāɃŌāȓŬĹŜāŉāŗŬŇă
4. ŇŪāŘŢĻāŉŎāȚāȐŬŉāŊŬāŘŪŇă 9. ȢāĹŘāŞāŚŪāŗāŉāŗŬŇă
5. ĹɎĻāʙŌāĸĻāĹŢāŉĻāŉāŇĹŪāǨŉāŗŬŇă 10. ȤŬřāŎāŎŐǓāȉŬŇāŘāĻŖŢāŌŘāŉāŗŬŇă
Exercise 5
1. ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ; ŉāŗŬŇ 6. ŉ…ŗŬŇ; ŉŜ…ŗŢŉ
2. ŗŢŉ; ŉāŗŬŇ 7. ŉ…ŗŬŇ; ŉŜ; ŉŜ
3. ŉāŗŬŇ; ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 8. ŉāŗŬŇ; ŉŜ…ŎŢŉ / ŎāŘŪŇ
4. ŉŜ; ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ 9. ŉŜ…ŘŪŇ; ŎŢŉ / ŎāŘŪŇ
5. x; ŉŜāŘŪŇ 10. x; ŗŢŉ / ŘŪŇ
Exercise 6
1. ŎŢŉ / ŎāŘŪŇ; ŎŢŉ / ŎāŘŪŇ 3. ɈŘāĹŪ; ŎŢŉ / ŎāŘŪŇ 5. ŎŢ; ŎŢ
2. ĸŬāĹɖŎāŊŬ; ŎŪŇ 4. ĸŬāŕŬ; ŎŢŉ / ŎāŘŪŇ 6. ĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķ / ŎŪŇ
Exercise 7
In order: ŗŢŉ; ŉŜāŗŢŉ; ŗŢŉ; ŉ; ŗŬŇ;ŎŢ; ŉ; ŗŬŇ; ŎŢ; ŉ; ŘŪŇ; ŎŢŉ
•615•
Exercise 8
(Example)
1. ŎŪŇăĻŖŢāŋāɑřāŉāȘŢāŎĻāĻāŎŪŇă 6. ŇķŖăŇŪāŘŢĻāŖȐŢāŐƾĹāŇķŖă
2. ŎŢŉăĻŖŢāŋāǧŇāŌŬŇāǧŇāŎŢŉă 7. ŎāŘŪŇăȉŬ‫ؙ‬āȤāȃŬřāĹŜřāŌŬāŎāŘŪŇă
3. ŗŢŉăĻāɘāɒāɖāŉŜāŗŢŉă 8. ŘŪŇăȉŬŇāŇĹŪāǨŉāŌŏŉāŊŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
4. ŎŢŉăĻāɘāɒāɖāŉŜāŎŢŉă 9. ŗŢŉăȝŬŌāĸĻāŖŇŢāĹŏĻāŎāŗŢŉă
5. ŘŪŇăŌŬŇāǧŇāŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă 10. ŎāŘŪŇăŇāɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȢŇāŘāŐřāŌāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 9
(Example)
1. Q: ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬāȝŬŌāĸĻāĹŢāǪŬāŉāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇăĻŪŇāĽāŌŬāȝŬŌāĸĻāĹŢāǪŬāŉāŗŬŇă
2. Q: ŉĻāŉāȝŬŌāŎāŎĻāĻāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŎŪŇă ŉĻāŉāȝŬŌāŎāŎĻāĻāŎŪŇă
3. Q: ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āȉŢŎāŉŜāȝŬŌāȮŘāņĹāŘŢĻāŞŪāŗŢŉă A: ŗŢŉăņĹāŘŢĻāŗŢŉă
4. Q: ȝŬŌāȮŖŢāŉĻāŉāŕāĸĻāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŎŪŇăȝŬŌāȮŖŢāŉĻāŉāŕāĸĻāŎŪŇă
5. Q: ȝŬŌāȮāŉŜāŇŊŪāĽāĹŬĻāŇķŖāŎŬāŞŪāŗŢŉă A: ŎŢŉăȝŬŌāȮāŉŜāĹŬĻāŇķŖāŎŬāŎŢŉă
6. Q: ȋĻāĻŬāŉāǪŬāŜŎāĹĿŢŜāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇăȋĻāĻŬāŉāǪŬāŜŎāĹĿŢŜāŗŬŇă
7. Q: ȝŬŌāȮāŖŇŢŖŢāĸāŎāŞŪāȞă A: ŎŢāȞăĸāŎāŎŢāȞă
8. Q: ŖőƾŉāȮāŖŇŢāŉāȝŬŌāŎāŞŪāŎĻāă A: ŎŢāŎĻăŖőƾŉāȮāŖŇŢāŉāȝŬŌāŎāŎŢāŎĻāă
9. Q: ŇŪāŘŢĻāȝŬŌāŐŉāŇķŖāŎŬāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŘŪŇăŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă
10. Q: ŖŇŢāŉāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŉāȚāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇăŖŇŢāŉāĻŖŢāŉāȚāŗŬŇă
Exercise 10
(Example)
1. Q: ŎĹŬŉāŊŬāŎŐǓāŌŬŇāŉŜāŞŪāȠŢŇă A: ɈŘāĹŪāŌŬŇāŉŜāȠŢŇă
2. Q: ɈŘāĹŪŜāŇĻŬŜāŊŬāĹŬĻāŇķŖāŎŬāŞŪāĿŬă A: ŎŢāĿŬăɈŘāĹŪŜāŇĻŬŜāŊŬāĹŬĻāŇķŖāŎŬāŎŢāĿŬă
3. Q: ĸĻāŌāĹŢāŉĻāŉāĿřāĸĻāĹļŢĹāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇăĸĻāŌāĹŢāŉĻāŉāĿřāĸĻāĹļŢĹāŗŬŇă
4. Q: ȝŬŌāȮāȝŬŌāŗŬŉāŇķŖāŎŬāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŎāŘŪŇăȝŬŌāȮāȝŬŌāŗŬŉāŇķŖāŎŬāŎāŘŪŇă
5. Q: ȝŬŌāǧŌŜāĹļŢĹāĹŢāȝŬŌāŗŬŉāǪŬŘāŎŬāǬāŌȢāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŘŪŇăȝŬŌāǧŌŜāĹļŢĹāĹŢāȝŬŌāŗŬŉāǪŬŘāŎŬāǬāŌȢāŘŪŇă
6. Q: ŌŬŇāŉŜāȁŉāĹŢāŖȋŬāǪŬāȘŢāŘĻāĹŢāŞŪāŗŢŉă A: ŗŢŉăŌŬŇāŉŜāȁŉāĹŢāŖȋŬāǪŬāȘŢāŘĻāĹŢāŗŢŉă
7. Q: ŎĹŬŉāŊŬāŎŐǓāřŬāŞŪāȷĻă A: ŎŢāȷĻăɈŘāĹŪāřŬāŎŢāȷĻă
8. Q: ȝŬŌāȌŬĹŜāŐĻāŎāřŬāŞŪāĽŪă A: ŎŢāĽŪăȝŬŌāȌŬĹŜāŐĻāŎāřŬāŎŢāĽŪă
9. Q: ŌŬŇāŉŜāŇĹŪāǨŉāŞŪāŌŕĻă A: ŎŢāŌŕĻăŌŬŇāŉŜāŇĹŪāǨŉāŎŢāŌŕĻă
10. Q: ŌŬŇāŉŜāȝŬŌāĹŜŬāŌŕĻāĻŉāŖȐŪŜāŎāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŘŪŇăŌŬŇāŉŜāȝŬŌāĹŜŬāŌŕĻāĻŉāŖȐŪŜāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 11
(Example)
1. ŗŢŉ; ŗŢŉ 3. ŗŢŉ; ŗŢŉ 5. ŗŢŉ; ŘŪŇ
2. ŗŬŇ 4. ŘŪŇ / ŗŢŉ; ŘŪŇ / ŗŢŉ 6. ŘŪŇ / ŗŢŉ; ŗŬŇ
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Exercise 12
1. ŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāŎŐǓāǭŬŉāŊŬāŉŜāŗŬĻă 5. ŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāŘāĹŗĻāȠŢŇāŘāŌŉāŇŪāŞāŎŇŬŘāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. ŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāĹĿŢŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. ĹŗĻāȠŢŇāŘāŌŉāŇŪāŚŬĹāŋŪāȂŪāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. ĽŬŜāŎŬāŎŐǓāŘāǧřāŌŕĻāĹĿŢŜāķāȊŢŉāȿɐāŉāŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ĽŬŜāŎŬāŎŐǓāŘāǧřāŌŕĻāĹŢŜāȢāǧŇāȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. ĽŬŜāŎŬāŎŐǓāŘāǧřāŌŕĻāĹŢŜāȢāǧŇāŌŚŇāŚŪŜă
Exercise 13
1. ĹĻāŉ 5. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹ 9. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹ 13. ĽŢāŚŪŇ
2. ŉŎ 6. ĽŢāŎŬ 10. ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 14. ɖāɖ
3. ɖ 7. ĹĻāŉ 11. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹ
4. ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 8. ŉŎ 12. ĹĻāŉŜ
Exercise 14
(Example)
1. Q: ĹŔŢŜāķāȂŪāĹĻāŉāŗŬŇă A: ĹŔŢŜāķāȂŪāŌŬŇāǰŬĻŜāŉāŗŬŇă
2. Q: ŞāŎŇŬāĹŢāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāĹŏǓāŌŬāĹĻāŗŢŉă A: ŞāŎŇŬāĹŢāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāĹŏǓāŌŬāŕŢāřŢĻāŗŢŉă
3. Q: ŎŐǓāǭŬŉāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă A: ŎŐǓāǭŬŉāŔŢĻāĽŪŉāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
4. Q: ŖľŘāŎŉāĹŢāȢřāŇŘāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă A: ŖľŘāŎŉāĹŢāȢřāŇŘāŇķŘāŉĹāŜŪŘāŖȐŪŜāŎāŘŪŇă
5. Q: ŜĻŜāȢŜāȤŬřāŎāřŬāɁāŘŪŇă A: ɈŘāĹŪāřŬāĿŪŘāĹĿŢŜāŘŪŇă
6. Q: ŇŬāŐƾĹŜāŊŬāřŢŉāŉāǴŇāŎŬāŌāŞŪāŎĻă A: ŎŢāŎĻāăŊŬāřŢŉāŉāǴŇāŎŬāŌāŎŢāŎĻă
7. Q: ĹĻŜāŘŢŉāŊŬāĽŪāŎņŬāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă A: ĹĻŜāŘŢŉāŊŬāĽŪāŎņŬāɈŜāʅĹāǵŬĻāŘŪŇă
8. Q: ŇŪāŉŜāɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāŘŪŇă A: ŖŇŢāŉŜāɁŜāŐǓŇāʅĹāŊāŘŪŇă
9. Q: ŇŬŉāŖʁŌāȢřāĹŢŜāŇŊŪāĽāĹĻāȈŬĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ȲŘāĹŪŜāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢāŇŊŪāĽāĹŕŢĹāȈŬĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă
10. Q: ŖŇŢāŉŜāŇȕŢŉāľŢŘāņĹāŞŪāŘŢĻă A: ŎŢāŘŢĻăŖŇŢāŉŜāŇȕŢŉāľŢŘāņĹāŎŢāŘŢĻă
Exercise 15
In order: ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ; ŗŢŉ; ŗŢŉ; ȲŘāĹŪ; ɖ; ŗŢŉ; ɈŘāĹŪ; ɈŘāĹŪ; ŞŪ; ŎŢ; ŗŢŉ; ŘŪŇ; Ɂ; ŘŪŇ; ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ; ŞŪ; ŉŜ; ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŖőƾŉāȮāŝŬĻāĹŢŜ; ĽŪ;
ŉŜ; ŉŜ; ŉŜāŘŪŇ; ŗŬŇ; ŘŪŇ; ŗŬŇ; ŞŪ; ŎŢāĽŪ; ŗŬŇ; ĹĻāĹĻ; ŉŜ; ŎāŘŪŇ; ɖ; ŞŪ
Exercises 16-20 Do by yourself.
Exercise 21
In order: ĸāŊŘāĹĻāŉāĹŅŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ȉŬŇāȠŢŇāŊŬāŞŪāŗŢŉă ɜāŖɆŎāŇĹŬŉāŊāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă ŇŪāŉŜāŉŎāȚāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
ŞŪāŗŢŉă ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŔŢāŎŬāřŬāɁāŗŢŉă ŇŪāŉŜāŇāɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāŘŪŇă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹ ȉŬŇāȓŢŘāŘāŉŎāŗŬĻāă
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāĹĿŢŜāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. Ō; ŗŬŇ 4. ŉŜ; (Ř)ŖȋŬ 7. ŉ; ŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇ 10. ŉ; ŗŬŇ
2. ŉ; ŗŬŇ 5. ŉ; ŎŪŇ 8. ŘāŖȋŬ; ŎŢāŖȋŬ
3. ŉŜ; řāŇĹŖ 6. ŎŪŇ 9. ŉāŎŢāŎĻ; ŉ
Exercise 2
1. ĿřāĹŢāŗŬŇ; ĿřāĹŢāŎŪŇ 5. ŎŢŉ; ŗŢŉ 9. ŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇ; ŖȋŬāĹŢāŎŪŇ
2. ȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇ; ŎŢāȨŬĻ 6. ĸŬŎāĹŢāŎŪŇ; ĸŬŎāĹŢāŗŬŇ 10. ǹŬ; ŎŢāǹŬ
3. ŌȂŬŉāŖʁŜāĽŪ; ŌȂŬŉāŖʁŜāŎŢāĽŪ 7. Ř; ŗŬŇ
4. ŗŢŉ; ŎŢŉ 8. Ļ; ŎŢāŇĹŖ
Exercise 3
1. Ř; ŎŪŇ 4. ĹŢŜ; ŎŢāŖŇŬŉ 7. ĹŢŜ; ȨŬĻāĹŢāŎŪŇ 10. ĻŬāŎŢāŚŪŜ
2. ŉ; ŎŪŇ 5. Ř; ŎŢāŌķŬř 8. ɵĹŜ; ŎŢāɵĹŜ
3. Ř; ŖȋŬāĹŢāŎŪŇ 6. Ŝ; Ŝ 9. ŇĹŖ; ŎŢāŇĹŖ
Exercise 4
1. ŎŪŇ 4. Ř; ŎŪŇ 7. ĹŢŜ; ĹŢāŎŪŇ 10. ĹŢāŎŪŇ
2. ĹŢŜ; ĹŢāŗŬŇ 5. Ļ; ĹŢāŎŪŇ 8. ŎŪŇ
3. Ŝ; ĹŢāŎŪŇ 6. Ř; ŎŪŇ 9. Ř; ŎŪŇ
Exercise 5
1. ŖɁĹāĹŢāŎŪŇ 4. ŕāĹŢāŎŪŇ 7. ŎŪŇ 10. ŎŢāŇŘ
2. řŜāĹŢāŎŪŇ 5. ŎŢāŚŪŜ 8. ŎľřāĹŢāŎŢāŖȋŬ
3. ŎŢāŇĹŬŜ 6. ĽĹŜāŎŪŇ 9. ŖȋŬāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇ
Exercise 6 Do by yourself.
Exercise 7
1. …ŗĻāŎŢŉāŗŬāŘŬŌāŉŜāŗĻāŎŢŉāŞāŎŪāŘŢāĸāŉŜāŘŪŇă 7. …ŌŬŇāŉāȠŢŇāŊŬāŘŪŇă
2. …řŎāĹŢāǵŪĻāŉāŎŪŇă 8. …ŎņŖāǧŬŘāŉāŇĻŬŜāŌŬāŎĻāĻāŗŬŇă
3. …ǭŬŉāŉāȷāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇă 9. …ǱŢĻāŌāŘāŘŪŇă
4. …ĹŗŜāĹŗŬŉāŉāŇŊŪāĽāŎĻāĻāŗŬŇă 10. …ɱŉāŘāȜŢĻāŎŬāĹĿŢŜāķāŗŬŇă
5. …ȘŢāȌĻŜāŘāŎĻāă 11. …ŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāŎŢāĸŬŎă
6. …ŉĻāŉāļĻāŎŪŇă
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Exercise 8
1. …ŎŪŇă 4. …ŎŢŉă 7. …ŎŪŇă 10. …ŎŢāŘŢĹāĹŢ
2. …ŎŢāŎĻāă 5. …ŎŢāŖȋŬă 8. …ȨŬĻāĹŢāŎŪŇă
3. …ņĹāŎŢāŘŢĻāă 6. …ŖȋŬāŉāŎāŖŇŬŇă 9. …ĹřāŎŢāĽŪă
Exercise 9
In order: ŇĹŖāĹŢ; ŗŬŇ; ŘŪŇ; ŞŪāŌŚŇ; ŎāŘŪŇ; ŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇ; ĹŢ; ĹŢāŗŬŇ; ĹŢ; ĹŢ; ŞŪ; ĹŢ; ĹŢ; ŎŢ; ĹŢ; ŞŪ; ŗŢŉ; ŗŢŉ; ŎŢŉ; ŎŢ
Exercise 10
1. Q: ȉŬŇāŇŬāŐƾĹŜāŞāŎŇŬŘāŞŪāŖȋŬă A: ŎŢāŖȋŬă ĻāŞāŎŇŬŘāŎŢāŖȋŬă
2. Q: ȉŬŇāȉŢŎāŐĻāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇă ĻāȉŢŎāŐĻāŗŬŇă
3. Q: ȉŬŜāǧŇāŘŢĹŜāŎĻāĻāŞŪāŌŚŇă A: ŌŚŇă ĻŜāǧŇāŘŢĹŜāŎĻāĻāŌŚŇă
4. Q: ȉŬŇāŘāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āȜŢĻāŎŬāŞŪāŘŢĹ A: ŎŢāŘŢĹ ĻāŘāĻŖŢāȜŢĻāŎŬāŎŢāŘŢĹ
5. Q: ȉŬŜāȝŬŌāŎāĹŢāřŜāȕāǴāŞŪāŖŇŬŇă A: ŖŇŬŇă ĻŜāřŜāȕāǴāŖŇŬŇă
6. Q: ȉŬŇāŖɁĹāŜāņĹāŞŪāŘŢĻāă A: ŎŢāŘŢĻāă ĻāŖɁĹāŜāņĹāŎŢāŘŢĻāă
7. Q: ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŞāŎāĹɏĹŜāŞŪāŘŢĻāă A: ŘŢĻāă ĻŖŢāŞāŎāĹɏĹŜāŘŢĻāă
8. Q: ȉŬŇāŎŢĻāȜŢĻāŌŔŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇ ă ĻāŎŢĻāȜŢĻāŌŔŢāŗŬŇă
9. Q: ŖľŘāŎŉāǧŇāŇķŖāŎŬāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŘŪŇă ŖľŘāŎŉāǧŇāŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă
10. Q: ŇŪāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŞŪāŗŢŉă A: ŗŢŉă ŇŪāĻŖŢāŗŢŉă
Exercise: 11 Do by yourself.
Exercise 12
1. Q: ŌŬŇāŎŢāŐĻāŎāŇŇāŊāŞŪāĽŪă A: ŇŇāŊāĽŪă ŌŬŇāŎŢāŐĻāŎāŇŇāŊāĽŪă
2. Q: ŘŬĻāŜāŉāŔŢĻāŌāŕŬŜāʈĹŜāŞŪāŖŐǓă A: ŎŢāŖŐǓă ŘŬĻāŜāŉāŔŢĻāŌāŕŬŜāʈĹŜāŎŢāŖŐǓă
3. Q: ǸŪāŌāŉĻāŉŜāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāǴāŞŪāɀŌă A: ɀŌāĹŢ ǸŪāŌāŉĻāŉŜāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāǴāɀŌă
4. Q: ŔŢāŎŬāŎĻāĻāľŬāŎŬāŌļŖāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŎŪŇă ŔŢāŎŬāŎĻāĻāľŬāŎŬāŌļŖāĹŢāŎŪŇă
5. Q: ȘŢāǨŉāŊāĹŬŉāʗāŗāŎŐŘāŘāŞŪāŇĹŖă A: ŎŢāŇĹŖă ĸŬāŕŬāŎŢāŇĹŖă
6. Q: ȓŢāȢřāŉŜāĽŬŜāǼŪřāŎĸŉāŕŬŘāȉŢŎāŐĻāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇă ĸŬāŕŬŘāȉŢŎāŐĻāŗŬŇă
7. Q: ĸŎŜāŉŜāȓŪāŎĻāĻāŞŪāŕă A: ŕă ĸŎŜāŉŜāŘāȓŪāŎĻāĻāŕă
8. Q: ǧŇāŘŢĹŜāŖŇŢāĹĿŢŜāķāŘŢĹāŖȐāŞŪāŗŢŉă A: ŎŢŉă ǧŇāŘŢĹŜāŖŇŢāĹĿŢŜāķāŘŢĹāŖȐāŎŢŉă
9. Q: ȞĻāŎŬāĹŢŜāŞŪāĹŬ A: ŎŢāĹŬ ɈŘāĹŪŜāŘāŎŢāĹŬ
10. Q: ȂŎāŊāŜŬĹāŊŬāŉŜāʗĹāŞŪāĽŪă A: ŎŢāĽŪă ȂŎāŊāŜŬĹāŊŬāŉŜāʗĹāŎŢāĽŪă
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Exercise 13
1. Q: ȉŬŜāĹŬŉāʗāĿŬāŞŪāŖŇŬŇă A: ŖŇŬŇă ĻŜāĹŬŉāʗāĿŬāŖŇŬŇă
Q: ȉŬŜāĹŬŉāʗāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāŖŇŬŇă A: ĻŜāĹŬŉāʗāĹŬĻāĽŪŉāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāŖŇŬŇă
2. Q: ŌŬŇāŉāĹŗĹāŘāɓĹāŎĻāĻāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŗŬŇă ŌŬŇāŉāĹŗĹāŘāɓĹāŎĻāĻāŗŬŇă
Q: ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹ A: ŌŬŇāŉāȯāŜāŎĻāă
3. Q: ŌŬŇāŉŜāŔŢāŎŬāŕŬāȝŬŌāȮŘāŞŪāŖȋŬă A: ŖȋŬă ĸŬāŎŬāŕŬāȝŬŌāȮŘāŖȋŬă
Q: ĸŬāŎŬāŕŬāŉŎāŖȋŬă A: řŬāŌȢŇāĹŢāǵŪĻāă
4. Q: ŔŢĻāŌāŕŬāȢřāŉĻāĻāʍĹāĹŢāŞŪāŖȋŬă A: ŖȋŬă ŔŢĻāŌāŕŬāȢřāŉĻāĻāʍĹāĹŢāŖȋŬă
Q: ĸŬāŕŬāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāŖȋŬă A: ĸŬāŕŬāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŘāŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă
5. Q: ŌŬŇāŉŜāȚāȋĻŜāĻāĸĻāȍāǵŪŘāŞŪāŇĹŬŜă A: ǵŪŘāŇĹŬŜă
Q: ǪŬŘāŎŬāɁāǵŪŘāŇĹŬŜă A: ȚāȋĻŜāĻāǪŬŘāŎŬāǵŬĻāĹļŢĹāǵŪŘāŇĹŬŜă
6. Q: ŌŬŇāŊāĹŢŜāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŉāɓĹāŞŪāŖŐǓă A: ŎŢāŖŐǓă ĸŬāŕŬŜāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŉāɓĹāŎŢāŖŐǓă
Q: ĸŬāŕŬŜāĹĻāŉāŖŐǓāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ĸŬāŕŬŜāŘŬĻāŉāŖŐǓāĹŢāŗŬŇă
7. Q: ŖŇŢāŉŜāȉŢŎāŎāȉŬŇāǥĻāņĻāĻāŞŪāŖȋŬă A: ŖȋŬă ŖŇŢāŉŜāȉŢŎāŎāĻāǥĻāņĻāĻāŖȋŬă
Q: ɁŜāŐǓŇāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĹāŖȋŬă A: ɁŜāŐǓŇāĹļŢĹāĹāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă
8. Q: ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŘŬĹŜāŊāĹŢŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāǹŎāŇĹāĹŕŢĹāŞŪāŌŚŇă A: ŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ȲŘāĹŪŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāǹŎāŇĹāĹŕŢĹāŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Q: ȲŘāĹŪŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ȲŘāĹŪŜāĿŢŉāȋĻŜāĻāɗŘāɒŜāŚŪŇāȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă
9. Q: ɈŘāĹŪāřŬāŞŪāĽŪă A: ŎŢāĽŪă ɈŘāĹŪāřŬāŎŢāĽŪă
Q: ɈŘāĹŪāřŬāɁāŗŢŉă A: ɈŘāĹŪāřŬāĿŪŘāĹɖŎāŘŪŇă
10. Q: ȘŢāĽāŎŪŇāŖŇŢāŕŬāŇĹŬŉāŊŖŢāŉĻāĻāŞŪāŖȋŬă A: ŎŢāŖȋŬă ĸŬāŕŬāŎŢāŖȋŬă
Q: ĸŬāŕŬāĹĻāĻāŖȋŬă A: ĻŜāŘāŎŢāŚŪŜă
Exercise 14
In order: ɖāŗŢŉă řŬāɁāŗŢŉă ŌŕŖāŐĻāŞŪāŗŬŇă ĹĿŪŉāȤŢĹāȂŢŜāŞŪāŗŬŇă ŖɁĹāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă ĹĻāŉāŗŬŇă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹ ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹŉŎāŖȋŬă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹ
ĽŢāĹŕŢĹ ȖŪřāŌāŞŪāĽŪă ņĹāŞŪāŘŢĻāă ȚāŌāĹļŢĹāĹāǪŬŘāŎŬāɁ‫ ؛‬ȘŢāŕŬāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 15
In order: ŉă ŉă ŗŢŉă ŉŜă ŉă ŉă ŉă ŉă ŗŬŇă ŉĻāĹŢ Řă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ŘŪŇă
Exercise 16
1. Q: ŕŢāȊŬŉāŉŜāŎŐǓāǭŬŉāŉāņĹāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŢĻāă A: ȦŢāřŪāėĘĖĖĹŢŜāņĹāŘŢĻāă
2. Q: ŌŇŪāĽŪŉāŉŜāȕĻāȓŬĹŜāĹāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĜĝĖŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. Q: ȋŬāŐĻāǸŪāŌāŉāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇă A: ȋŬāŐĻāǸŪāŌāŉāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŎĻāĻāŎŪŇāĹŢ
4. Q: ȋŬāŐĻāǸŪāŌŖŢāŇȆŢřāŉāĽŢāĽŢāŗŬŇă A: ȋŬāŐĻāǸŪāŌŖŢāŇȆŢřāŉāŕāĸĻāŘāŎȌŬŉāĸĻāŗŬŇă
5. Q: ȋŬāŐĻāǸŪāŌāŉāĹĻāĹĻāŗŬŇă A: ȋŬāŐĻāǸŪāŌāŉāŕāĸĻāȷĻāȷĻāřāŜŬĹŜāŗŬŇă
6. Q: ŘŬĻāŌŬāŇĹŬŉāŊāřŬāɁāŖĹŬŘāŗŬŇă A: ŘŬĻāŌŬāŇĹŬŉāŊāřŬāěĜĖŖĹŬŘāŗŬŇă
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7. Q: ŘŬĻāŌŬāŇĹŬŉāŊŬāĹŢāȢŌāĹŢāŘŢāŇŪāŎņŬāŐŇāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă A: ŎņŬāŐŇāɈŜāėėĖĖŗŢŉă
8. Q: ŘŬĻāŌŬāŉāȘŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇă A: ŘŬĻāŌŬāŉāȘŢāȊŢāĹĿŢŜāȅĹāŗŬŇă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāĹɖŎāŊĴ
Exercise 1 Do by yourself. Exercise 2 Do by yourself.
Exercise 3
In order: ŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāřŜāȕāŎĻāĻāă ʗŉāɁ‫ ؛‬ŎŢāŖȸĹ ʗŉāɁ‫ ؛‬ĹŕŌāŖĸŬŘāŘŪŌāȋĻŜāĻāă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāʗŉāɁ‫؛‬
ŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāȐŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŎŢāŖȋŬă ŎŐŎŜāŎŐŎŜāŎāŖɆŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĹŅŉāŉŜă ŖȖřāĹŢāŎŪŇă ŔŬĻāĹŢŜāǪŬŘāŞŪāŖȋŬă
ŌŘāŌŘāŘāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗŉāɁāŉĻāŉă ŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŎŐŎŜāŎŐŎŜāŎă ǴāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬĻāă ŘŪŇāȐāĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķāŌŘāŌŘāŘāŎŢāŖȌŢĹāĹŢ
ŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāŗŢŇāŐƾŎŜāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŎŐŎŜāŎŐŎŜāŎă ŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāȂāŎŬāŎāŘŪŇă ŋřāĽŪŘāŘŢĹāĹŢāŎŪŇă
Exercise 4 Do with your partner.
Exercise 5
In order: ĹĻāŉŜāŗŬĻāă ɖāŗŢŉă ŎŐŎŜāŎŐŎŜāŎă ŞŪă ŞŪă ĹŬŉāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă ʗŉāɁāŞŪāĹŬŉă ȲŘāĹŪāřŬāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă ȢāǧŇāŌŚŇāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă
ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŖĹŬāŌāĹŢŜāǧŇāŘŢĹŜāɁāŌŚŇāŚŪŜă ŌŕŬāȮŖŢāŉĻāŉāǧŇāŘŢĹŜāĹĻāʗŉāɁāŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĹŅŉāŉŜāŎŢāŌŚŇă ĹŅŉāŉŜāŎŢāĹŬŉă
ʗŉāɁ‫ ؛‬ʗŉāɁ‫ ؛‬ŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ɈŘāĹŪāřŜāķŘāŗŬĻāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹ ĹŅŉāŉŜāŎŢāŌŚŇă ĹŅŉāŉŜāŎŢāĹŬŉă
ĽŢāŚŪŇāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘă ĹŅŉāŉŜāŎŢāŌŚŇă ĹŅŉāŉŜāŌŚŇāŎŢă
Exercise 6
1. ĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜ / ŕŬāĹŢŜ 5. ĹŕŢĹ 9. ĹŕŢĹ…ĹŕŢĹ / ŕŬ…ŕŬ
2. n / a 6. n / a 10. ŇŪ
3. ŕŬ 7. ŇŪ / ĹŕŢĹ
4. ŇŪ / ĹŕŢĹ 8. n / a
Exercise 7
In order: ŕŬă ĹŕŢĹāĹ ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ Ɂ‫ ؛‬ŊŬă ŊŬă ŌŬă ĹŕŢĹ ŕŬă ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ ŕŬă ŊŬă ŌŬă ĹĻāĻāă ŊŬă ŞŪă ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪă and the total
price
Exercise 8 Exercise 9 Exercise 10

In order: ŇŪă ŇŪă ŞŪă ŇŪă ŇŪ…ĹĻāŉă ĽŢāŚŪŇă ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪă Do by yourself. Do by yourself.
Exercise 11
1. ŎĹŬŉāŊŬāȠŢŇāĹŢŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă 4. ŎĹŬŉāŊŬāȠŢŇāĹŢŜāĹŜŘāŌāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāǱŪŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. ĽŬŜāŎŐǓāĹŢŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŕŪŘă 5. ɖāǭŬŉāĽŇāřŜāȕŪŇāŊāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
3. ɖāɖāĹŢŜāĸāŌǶāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. ĽŬŜāŎŐǓāĹŢŜāĹŉŜāɊřāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŌŚŇāĹŢ
Exercise 12 Do with your partner. Exercise 13 Do by yourself.
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Exercise 14
1. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāŌāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŉŎāŗŬŇă A: ĹŕŖāȚāŌāĹŢāĿŢŉāȲŘāĹŪŘāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŬŇă
Q: ɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŬŇă A: ȓŢāȐŬ‫ؙ‬āɁŜāŐǓŇāĹĿŢŜāŊāĹŢāǵŪĻāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŬŇă
2. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĹŢŜāĿŢŉāŎāŉŎāĸāŌǶāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ȲŘāĹŪŜāĹŕŖāŎŢĹāŇŎŘāŘāĸāŌǶāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Q: ɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāĸāŌǶāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ǭāȐŬ‫ؙ‬āɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȶāĹļŢĹāŊāĹŢāǵŪĻāĸāŌǶāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3 Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĹŕŖāŎŢĹāŇŎŘāŘāŉŎāĿřāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ŇĹŬĻāŎŬāɁŜāŐǓŇāŌɁŉāŊāĹŢāǵŪĻāă
4. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĹŢŜāĿŢŉāŎāŉŎāĿŬāĽāȢĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ĹŕŖāȅĹāŊāĹŢāĿŢŉă
Q: ɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāĿŬāĽāȢĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ȓŢāȐŬ‫ؙ‬āɁŜāŐǓŇāŌŔŢāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāȢĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă
5. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĿŢŉāŎāŉŎāɁŜāŐǓŇāŇȳāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāŗŘāŘāřĻŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ĹŕŖāɅŘāɆāĹŢāĿŢŉă
Q: ĿŢŉāŎāŇŪŘāŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĹŢŜāȳĻāľāŉŎāŖɀĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ɁŜāŐǓŇāŇĻāŌŬāĹŢāǵŪĻāŖɀĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă
6. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāŉŎāŇĹŬĻāŐǓĹŜāĹāŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă A: ȲŘāĹŪāĹŕŖāŊāŜĻŜāĻāŇĹŬĻāŐǓĹŜāĹāŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă
Q: ȲŘāĹŪāɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāŇĹŬĻāŐǓĹŜāĹāŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă A: ɁŜāŐǓŇāʅĹāŊāĹŢāǵŪĻāă
7. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĹŢŜāĹŕŖāǼŪŉāŊāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ȲŘāĹŪāǩĻāřŢāȂŪāĹŢāŗŬŇă ȍŬĹāŌǱŉāĸĻāĻāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Q: ɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāĹŢāņŬĹ A: ǩĻāřŢāɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȶāŌāŘāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāĸĻāĻāɁŜāŐǓŇāǬāŌă
8. Q: ŞāȲāȤŬřāŎāȠŌŜāĹŢŜāŉŎāȳĻāĹŜŪĻāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ĹŕŖāĿŢāŎāĹŢāĿŢŉă
Q: ɁŜāŐǓŇāŉŎāȳĻāĹŜŪĻāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: ĿŢŉāȳĻāɁŜāŐǓŇāŇĻāŌŬāĹŢāǵŪĻāă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌŔŢāŌĴ
Exercise 1
1. ĹŢ…ĹŢ 4. ĹŢ 7. ĹŢ 10. ĹŢ
2. ĹŢ / ŖŢ… ĹŢ / ŖŢ 5. ĹŢ / ŖŢ 8. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ 11. ĹŢ…ĹŢ
3. ĹŢ … ĹŢ / ŖŢ 6. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ 9. ĹŢ …ĹŢ / ŖŢ 12. ĹŢ / ŖŢ
Exercise 2
1. ĹŢ / ŖŢ 4. ĹŢ / ŖŢ 7. ĹŢ 10. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ
2. ĹŢ 5. ĹŢ 8. ĹŢ 11. ĹŢ / ŖŢ
3. ĹŢ / ŖŢ 6. ĹŢ / ŖŢ 9. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ 12. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ
Exercise 3
1. ĹŢ / ŖŢ …ĹŢ / ŖŢ 4. ĹŢ 7. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ
2. ĹŢ…ĹŢ…ĹŢ 5. ĹŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ 8. ĹŢ… ĹŢ
3. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ 6. ĹŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ
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Exercise 4
1. ĹŢ / ŖŢ 4. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ŇŪ 7. ŕŬ…ĸŬāŕŬ 10. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ȲŘāĹŪŘ
2. ĸŬāŕŬ 5. ĹŢ…ŇŪāŕŬ 8. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ŇŪāŕŬ
3. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĸŬŘ 6. ĹŢ…ĸŬāŕŬŜ 9. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ
Exercise 5
In order: ĹŢ ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ŇŪă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ŇŪă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ȲŘāĹŪŖŢă ŇŪă ĹŢ ĹŢ ŇŪă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ȲŘāĹŪ ȲŘāĹŪ ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ɈŘāĹŪ
ȉŬŇāĹŢŜă ĹĿŢŜāķ ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķ ĹĿŢŜāķ
Exercise 6
1. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…Ļ 15. ĸŬāŕŬ…ĸŬāŕŬŜ
2. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĸŬāŎŬāĹĿŢŜāķ…ĸŬāŎŬāĹĿŢŜāķ 16. ĸŬāŕŬ…ĸŬāĹɖŎāŊŬŘ
3. ĹŢ 17. ŇŪ…ȉŬŇāĹŢāŇŪ
4. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ȲŘāĹŪŜ 18. ŇŪ…ŇŪŖŢ
5. ȲŘāĹŪŜ…ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ŕŬŜ…ȲŘāĹŪŜ 19. ŇŪ…ŇŪ…ŇŪŖ…
Ţ ŇŪ…ŇŪ
6. ȲŘāĹŪ…ȲŘāĹŪ 20. ŇŪ
7. ĹŢŜ…ȲŘāĹŪ 21. ŇŪ
8. ĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķ 22. ȲŘāĹŪŜ
9. ɈŘāĹŪŜ 23. ŖŇŢ…Ĺŉ…ĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķŜ
10. ŇŪāĹĿŢŜāķ…ĻŖŢ 24. ĻŪŇāŕŬ
11. ɈŘāĹŪŘ 25. ȉŬŇ
12. ɈŘāĹŪŘ…ɈŘāĹŪŖŢ 26. ĹŢ / ŖŢ…ĹŢ
13. ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķ…ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķ…ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķŘ 27. ŇŪāŕŬ
14. ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāĹŢ 28. ȉŬŇāĹŢāŇŪ…ŇŪ
Exercise 7
In order: ĹŢ ŇŪŖŢă ĹŢ ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĻāĹŢ / ĻŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ȉŬŇāĹŢ ȉŬŇāĹŢ ĻŪŇāŕŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŇŪă ŇŪŖŢă ĹŢ ĻŖŢă ŇŪŖŢă ŇŪŖŢă ĹŢ / ŖŢă ĹŢ
ĹŢ / ŖŢă ŇŪă ŇŪă ŇŪă ĹĿŢŜāķ ŇŪāĹĿŢŜāķ ŇŪă
Exercise 8
In order: ɖāɖă ĹĻāĹĻāĻāă ĹĻāĹĻāă ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĹ ŘĻāŘĻāĹŢ ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪŜă ŘĻāŘĻāă ŘĻāŘĻāă ɖāɖă ɖāɖă ĻŪŇāŕŬă ŞŪă ŘĻāŘĻāă
ĹĻāĹĻāĻāă ĽŢāĽŢă ĹĻāĹĻāă ĹĻāĹĻāĻāă ŘĻāŘĻāă ŇŪă ŘĻāŘĻāă
Exercise 9
In order: ɖŖŢă ŇŪŖŢă ȲŘāĹŪŜă ɖă ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķ ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķ ɖŜă ĻŪŇāŕŬ‫ؙ‬ă ɖāɖă ĸŬāŕŬă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹ ŘĻāŘĻāă ĻŜă ļĻāă
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāǬāŌĴ
Exercise 1
1. ĹŢŜ…ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇāĹŢ 5. ŉ…ĹŢāŗŬŇă 9. ŉ…ĹŢ…ŉ…ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇāĹŢ
2. ŉ…ĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. ĹŢāŗŬŇă 10. ŉ…ĹŢāŗŬŇ / ĹŢāŗŬŇāĹŢ
3. ŉ…ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇāĹŢ 7. ŉ…ĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. ŉ…ĹŢāŗŬŇă 8. ŉ…ĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 2
1. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŢāŗŬŇă 4. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇă 5. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇă 8. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŢāŗŬŇă 9. R. ĹŢāŗŬŇă P. ĹŬāĹŢ / ĹŢāŗŬŇ
Exercise 3 Exercise 4 Exercise 5 Exercise 6

Do by yourself. Do by yourself. Do with a partner. Do with a partner
Exercise 7
Do with a partner.
Exercise 8
In order: ĹŅŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĹĿŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢ ǧŬřāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŇĹŬŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇ / ŖŇŬŇāĹŬāĹŢ ȲŘāĹŪāĹĻāŉāŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŇĹŬŜă ŇĹŖāĹŢāŗŬŇ / ŇĹŖāĹŬāĹŢ ŖŇŬŇāĹŬāĹŢ / ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŞŪāȠŢŇă řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŐǓĻāȢĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ŖɁĹāĹŬāĹŢ / ŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŌļŖāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŚŬŘāĹŬāĹŢ / ŚŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŐǓřāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŚŪŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă
ŖʀŘāŗŬŇāĹŢ ŖŇŬŇāĹŬāĹŢ / ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 9
1. PFK: řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇ PFA: ȝŬŌāȮāŉ…ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. PFK: ȝŬŌāȮāŉ PFA: ȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. PFK: PFA: ŌķŬřāĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. PFK: ĹĻāŉ PFA: ǪŬāŉ
5. PFK: ĿřāĸĻāĹŢāŉĻāŉ PFA: ŞāŎŇŬāŉ
6. PFK: ŋāɑřāŉ PFA: ŋāɑřāŉ
7. PFK: ŞāŎŇŬāŉ PFA: ĹŢāŉĻāŉ
8. PFK: ĸŎŜāŉ PFA: ŞāŎŇŬāŉāŘ
9. PFK: ŞāŎŇŬāŉ…ŞŪāŗŬŇ PFA: ȝŬŌāȮāŉ…řĹāŉ
10. PFK: ĹŢāřĹāŉ PFA: ʗŉāǷŉāĹŢŜāŖŇŬŉāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă
11. PFK: ȝŬŌāĸĻāĹŢāŉĻāŉāŘ PFA: ȝŬŌāĸĻāĹŢāŉĻāŉ…ȜĻāŉ
12. PFK: ĹŢāŉĻāŉ PFA:
13. PFK: ĹĻāŉ PFA: ŖŇŢāŉ
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Exercise 10
Do with a partner
Exercise 11
1. (ķ) Ř 5. (ĸ)Ř…ŉ 9. ĹŢ…ĹŢāǵŪĻ 13. ĹŢāǵŪĻ
2. ŉŜ…ŉĻ 6. (ŎŬ) Ř 10. ĹŢāŉĻ 14. ĹŢāǵŪĻ
3. ĹŢ 7. ŉ…(ĸ) Ř 11. Ļ
4. (ŎŬ) Ř 8. ŉŜ…ĹŢāŌŘāŘ 12. ĹŢāŉĻā
Exercise 12
1. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȢŇāŊāŘāǧŘāŎāŌŔŢāŘŪŇă 4. ɁŜāŐǓŇāĹĿŢŜāŊŘāǧŘāŎāŌɁŉāĽŇāĹŢ
2. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȶāĹļŢĹāŘāǧŘāŎāŌȶāĹɖŎāŘŪŇă 5. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȶĹāĹļŢĹāĹāǧŘāŎāŌȶāŇȳāĽŇāĹŢ
3. ŇāɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȶāŌāŘāǧŘāŎāǬāŌȶāĻāŌŔŢāŘŪŇă 6. ŇāɁŜāŐǓŇāĹĿŢŜāŊāŌǨřāŗŬŇāĹŢ
Exercise 14
In order: řŜāĹŬāŉŜă ɟĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŜă ŗŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŢāŉă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹ ĹŢāŎŪŇă ŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢ ĹĻāŉŜă ĹĻāĻ…ŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĹŗŜāĹŢ ŖȋŎāĹŢ ŖŇŬŇāĹŢ
ɖă ŇŪāŎŬă ĹɖŎāŊŬă ɖŜă ĹŢāŗŬŇāĹŢ ȠŢŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ļĻāă ņŬŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă řŎāŉă ĹŢāņŬĹāĹ ŇŪŖŢāņŬĹāĹ ņŬŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 15
1. ŋŪāŖŇŪŌŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă 4. ŖȌŢĹāĹŢāŎŪŇă 7. ĹĿŬŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. ŗŬĻāĹŢāŎŪŇă 5. ŗŬĻāĹŢāŎŪŇă 8. ĸāȂŬŇāŗŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă
3. ŚŪŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă 6. ŖȋŬāĹŢāŎŪŇă 9. ŌŜŬŇāĹŢāŎŪŇă
Exercise 16
1. ɖāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāĽŪŇāŘāȉŬŜāŇŬāŔĹāŇķŖāřŜāŎĻāĻāȘŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. ŌŬŇāŉŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāŔŢāřŢāŔŢāŎŬāĹŢŜāǪŬāŉŜāřĹāŖȸāŗŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. ŞāŎāŘāŞāŋāĹŢŜāɖāĹŕŢĹāĹāĹŬŉāʗāĹŬŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ɖŜāǭŬāŐǓŇāŎĻāĻāŕāĹŢāŎŪŇă
3. ȄŢāŌŬāȄŢāŎŬāŘŢĹŜāĹŪŜāĹĻāŉāʈĹŜāŕŬĹāŖŐǓāĹŢāŗŬŇă 8. ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āɑɐāŌāȓŢāȍŢĻāŌāřŬāȋĻŜāĻāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. ŔŢāřŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜāɓĹāŖŇŪŇāĹŬāĹŢ 9. ȉŬŇāŊŬāřŢŉāŉŜāřŬāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŖĹŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
5. ɖāɖāĹŢŜāĻŬāǴāĹŢāɢŉāŉāŗĹāřŜāŗŜāĹŬāĹŢ 10. ŋāɑɐāĹŢāǧŬŘāŉŜāȉŬŜāļŢāĹŕŢĹāȐŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 17
In order: řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŐǓřāĹŢāŗŬŇă řŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă ŖɀĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŗŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ɟĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă ǴŬĹŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŗŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŘŬĹŜāŗŜāĹŢ ĹŬŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ŉĻāŉă ĽŇāŊāĹļŬŇāĹŢ ĹŢāŉĻāŉă ɖŜāĿŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă ɖŜāĿŉāĹŢāŎŪŇă ŉŜă ŎŢāŌŚŇă ȊŢŇāĹŢ ǵŪŘāĹŢ ŎŢāĸŬŎă ǴāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŉĻāŉŜāŖɁĹāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŗŬĻāĹŬāĹŢ
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāʅĹāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. ŌļŖāʗāŗŢŉă 3. ŖɁĹāʗāŗŢŉă 5. ĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă 7. ŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉă
2. ŗŬĻāʗāŗŢŉă 4. ŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉă 6. ŖőǓŎāʗāŗŢŉă 8. ȈŬĹāʗāŗŢŉă
Exercise 2
1. ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 3. ŖŌŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 5. ĹĿŪŉāŌȤŢĹāʗāŘŪŇă 7. ĿŬāʗāŘŪŇă
2. ŇĹŖāʗāŘŪŇă 4. ŖŌŌāʗāŘŪŇă 6. ĿŉāʗāŘŪŇă 8. ŖɀĻāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 3
1. ȉŬŜāřŪĹŜāȠŪŜāĹŕŢĹāŉŎāĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă 6. ȉŬŇāŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāĹāȓŢŉāĽŇāŗŢŇāĽŪŜāʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă
2. ȲŘāĹŪāŎŐǓāǭŬŉāŉāŉŎāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 7. ȉŬŇāĹɎĹāȓŬĹŜāŖŇŢāŉŜāŖɁĹāʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă
3. ȉŬŇāŕŬāŇŪāŘŢĻāǩĻāřŢāȂŪāʗāŞŪāŗŢŉă 8. ȉŬŜāȕāŌāŇŪāřŜāʗāŞŪāŗŢŉă
4. ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŋāŎāĹĿŢŜāķāĹĻāŉŜāŖɁĹāʗāŘŪŇă 9. ȉŬŇāĹĻāĻāŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉă
5. ȉŬŇāŜĻāřŬāŔāŗŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇāʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă 10. ŐǅāĹɏĻŜāŉŎāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 4
1. ĿŬāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 3. ɎĹŜāʗŜă 5. ŖŐǓŇāʗāŘŪŇă 7. ŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. ŌɭāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 4. ŖɀĻāʗāŘŪŇă 6. ǵŪŘāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 8. ŖŐǓřāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 5
1. ĽŘāĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜāĻŜāɓĹāŖŐǓāʗŜă 5. ĻŜāĸĻāŌāŜŬāŎāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāʗāŎŢŉă ǱŢĻāŌāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. ĹɎĹāȓŬĹŜāĻāɼĻāĹŬāŉŜāŖɁĹāʗāŗŢŉă 6. ŇŬāŐƾĹŜāŔŢāřŢāȝŬŌāȮŘāȠŪřāʗāŎŢŉă
3. ŇŬāŇĹŬĻāĻŜāȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ŉĻŜāķāĻāɁŜāŐǓŇāŌɁŉāŊāĹŢāǵŪĻāřĻŜāʗāŗŢŉă
4. ĻŜāȉŢŎāŉŜāŔāŗŜāĹĿŬŘāʗāŎŢŉāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 8. ĻāȓŢāȐŬŘāŉŇāŊāĹŕŢĹāĹāǴāĹŢāŖȋŬāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 6
1. other: ȝŬŌāŐŉāŖŇŢāŇķŖāʗāŘŪŇă first person: ĻāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŖŇŢŘāɎĹŜāʗāŎŢŉă
2. other: ŎŐǓāŎŬāŇŪāŘŢĻāŗŬĻāʗāŘŪŇă first person: ȓŢāȐŬŘāĻŜāľāŖɀĻāʗāŗŢŉă
3. other: ŇĹŪāǨŉāĹŢāŔŢāŎŬāĹɏĹŜāŎņŬāʗāŘŪŇă first person: ĻāȌĻāĹŢ ŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉă
4. other: ĻŖŢāŌŬŇāǧŇāľŪāŇĹŖāŗŢŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă first person: ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬāŘŬĹŜāŊāĿŉāʗāŘŪŇă
5. other: ŉĻŜāķāŉŎāȚāņĻāʗāŘŪŇă first person: ŇŬāŇĹŬĻāĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķŜāŕāŎāŌǧŬřāʗāŗŢŉă
6. other: ŞāŎāĹŢāŕāŎāŔŢŎāʗāŎāŘŪŇă first person: ĻŜāǨŉāŎŬŘāĸāŊŘāĹŅŬĻāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
7. other: ȝŬŌāȌŬĹŜāŕŬāŌŬŇāŘāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă first person: ĻŜāĹŬŉāʗāĹŜŘāŌāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāĿŬāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
8. other: ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķāŞāŚŪāŗāŉŜāŗŢŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă first person: ĻŜāŇŊŪāĽāŖŇŢāŘŪŎāŎāŖȖŢāŐŘāʗāŗŢŉă
9. other: ŇŊŪāĽāŖŇŢāŇŪāŘŢĻāŇĹŬŜāʗāŎāŘŪŇă first person: ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬŜāŇĹŬĻāŐǓĹŜāĹŅŬĻāʗāŗŢŉă
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Exercise 7
1. ĻāȝŬŌāȮŘāŖȌŬāŘŉāŜŬĻāă ĻāȝŬŌāŎŘāĿŉāʗāŘŪŇă 6. ĻŜāŘāɈŘāĹŪāǵŬŉāņŬĹāĹāŖŌŬŇāʗāŎŢŉă
2. ņāŎĹāŎŢāȞă ĻŜāŖņŪŉāʗāŎŢŉă 7. ŘŪŎāŎāŖȋŬă ŇŪāŎŢŉāĻāŖȉĹāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŬāĹŢ
3. ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬāŉāʗāŘŪŇă ǪŬāŉŜāŉŎāȚāŖȉĹŜāŉă 8. ŞāŋāŗŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬāŇāĹŜŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă
4. ǵŬŉāņŬĹāŉŜāĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķŜāʂāŇȕĻŜāřŪŉāʗāŗŢŉă 9. ĻāŘāǨŉāŎŬāřŬāřŬŉāʗāŘŪŇă ŖŐǓāŌāŎŢāȠŢŇāŉă
5. ĻāȧŬāŐǓĹŜāĹāŖŌŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ɈŘāĹŪāŎāŇĹŖāŉă 10. ĻāřŬāĹŢŜāŖȉŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĻŖŢāǧŪŇāŊāŘāŌɟŘāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 8
1. ʗāŗŢŉă 4. ʗāŘŪŇă 7. ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă 9. ʗāŘŪŇă
2. ŖɁĹāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 5. ʗāŘŪŇă 8. ʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 10. ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŘŪŇă
3. ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 6. ʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
Exercise 9
1. ȘŢāĻŉāŖŇŢāȠŪŜāŊāĹɎĹāŎāȘŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
2. ǨŇāŊŬāŖŇŢāɓŜāɅĻāȞă ŐǅāņĹāŘŢĻāʗāŘŪŇă
3. ņŉāŊāĹŢāǵŌŜāĹŢŜă ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬ‫ؙ‬āŖŐǓāŌāľŪāɭĹāŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă
4. ʈĹŜāŕŬĹāŎĻāŗŬŇă ȯāŜāȹĻāŗŬŇă ȯāŜāľŪāŌŏǓĹāŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă
5. ŌŬŇāŎĻāĻāĹŢŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāŎŢāŚŪŜă ŌŬŇāĹŢāŘŢĹāĹŉŜāĿŎŜāʗāŘŪŇă
6. ŇŬāŐƾĹŜāĹŉŎāŖľŬāŌŕĻāĹŢ ȯāŜāŌŕĻāʗāŘŪŇă
7. ŘŢŉāĽŪŉāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŘāřŬŌŜāŗŬŇă ŘŢāŉĻāĻāŖȋŬāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
8. ŐŉāŘŢĹāřĹāȂřāľŪāŇŘāŘŪŇă ĻŪŇāŕŬāŌŇŪāŌāļŉāŉāņŬŉāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 10
In order: ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŎŢŉă ʗāŎŢŉă ʗāŎŢŉă ʗāŎŢŉă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŎŢŉă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŎāŘŪŇă ʗāŎāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 11
1. ȉŬŜāĹļŬŇāɀŌāʗāŘŪŇă 4. ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 7. ʗāŘŪŇă
2. ĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă 5. ĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŘŪŇă 8. ʗāŎāŘŪŇă ʗāŗŢŉă
3. ŗŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 6. ŖŐǓřāʗāŗŢŉă 9. ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 12 Do with a partner.
Exercise 13
1. ŖŐǓĻāʗāŗŢŉă ȍāʗāŗŢŉă 4. ŗŬŇāŉă řĹāĹāřŬŉāʗāŘŪŇă 8. ŗŬŇāŉă řŜāʗāŘŪŇă
2. řŜāŉă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 5. ŗŬŇāŉă ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 9. řĹāĽĹŜāŉă ĹĿŬŘāʗāŘŪŇă
3. ŗŬŇāŉă ŖŌĹāʗāŘŪŇă 6. ŖőǓŎŜāŉă ŗŜāŉāĽŬĹāʗāŘŪŇă 10. ŗŬŇāŉă ŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
ȠŢŇāȢĹāʗāŘŪŇă 7. ŗŬŇāŉă ŌǧŬřāʗāŘŪŇă
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Exercise 14
1. ĻāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢāņŬĹāŉŜāľŪāȞāŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă 5. ŗĻāŖŇŢāŉŜāĿŢŉāŎāĹļŢĹāŖɁĹāŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă
2. ŝāŎāĹŢŜāĹŚŪāĹŚŪāĹŅŬĻāʗāŘŪŇă 6. ĻāřŜāȲĻŜāĻāǧŘāŎāŌȶāĹŢŜāņŬŉāŖȋŬă
3. ŉĻŜāķāɁŜāŐǓŇāŖȓŢāŖȋŬă 7. ȝŬŌāŎāŕŬāŇĹŖāʗāŘŪŇă
4. ĻāĽŎāŊāŋŬĹāŖȋŬă 8. ĸŬāŕŬāŖĽŎāŖĽŎāŎāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 15
In order: ȊŢŇāʗāŗŢŉă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă ɎĹŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŎĻāʗāŘŪŇă ɎĹŜāʗŜă ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă ǵŪŘāʗāŗŢŉă ŖʊĻāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŜāʗāŗŢŉă ǵŪŘāʗāŗŢŉă
ĸāĹŜŌāȢĹāʗāŗŢŉă ɓāȳāĹŅŬĻāʗāŘŪŇă řŎāŎāŖȋŬāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŐŘāʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă ŐŘāʗāŘŪŇă ȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă ȋŬŜāŌɭŘāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă
ǴāǧŬŘāŘāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă ĿŢŉāŎāĿŢāɔāĹŢŜāŖŇĻāʗāŘŪŇă ĹŬāŌǶāŖȔŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŇķŖāʗāŘŪŇă ȍāʗāŗŢŉă ȌŬřāʗāŗŢŉă ĽŬĹāʗāŘŪŇă
ȌŬřāʗāŗŢŉă ǵŪŘāʗāŗŢŉă ŖĹŬāȂŬŎāʗāŗŢŉă
Exercise 16
In order: ĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă ĿŬāʗŜă ŌŕĻāʗāŘŪŇă ĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă ŇķŖāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŌŕŖāŐĻāŌļŖāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖŐǓřāʗāŗŢŉă
ĹĿŪŉāŌȤŢĹāʗāŗŢŉă ŌȤŢĹāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŗŜāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă ŖŌŬŇāʗāŞŪāŗŢŉă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇāŊă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŌŚŎāʗāŗŢŉă
ŖȋŬāʗŜă ŖȋŬāʗŜă ŖȋŬāʗāŎŢŉă ŌŚŎāʗāŗŢŉă ŌŚŇāʗāŞŪāŗŢŉă ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă ŚŪŜāŖȋŬă ŖŇŬĹāʗāŗŢŉă ŖŇŬĹāʗāŗŢŉă
ŗŬĻāʗāŞŪāŗŢŉă ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă ɀŌāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŬĻāʗāŗŢŉă ŖɁĹāʗāŘŪŇă ŖɁĹāʗāŞŪāŗŢŉă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŘŬĹŜāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă
ĹĿŪŉāŌȤŢĹāʗāŗŢŉă
Exercise 17
1. ĸŬŎāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 4. ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 7. ŗŢŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 10. ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă
2. ȢĹāʗāŘŪŇă 5. ŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 8. ĽŪāʗāŘŪŇ
3. ĿŬāŇĹŬŜāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 6. ŇķŖāʗāŘŪŇă 9. ŖȋŬāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 18
1. ŗŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 4. ǴāĹŢāŎŪŇă 7. ĿŬāŉŢāŎāŘŪŇă 10. ǴāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. ŗŬŇāʗāŎŢŉă 5. ŖȋŬāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 8. ĸŬŎāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 11. ŎŪŇāʗāŘŪŇă
3. ŎāŘŪŇă 6. ʗāŎŢŉă 9. ŎŢāŖȋŬāŕŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 12. ŎŢāĿŬă
Exercise 19
1. Q: ȲŘāĹŪāŇɆŜāĹŏĻāĻāŖĸŬŘāĹŢāŖȋŬāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŖȋŬāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. Q: ȉŬŜāĸĻāŌāŜŬāŎāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāʗāŎŢŉāŉŜă A: ŎŢŉă ĸĻāŌāĹŜŘāŌāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāʗāŎŢŉă
3. Q: ŞāŎāĹŢŜāĹĿŬĹāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŎŪŇă ŞāŎāĹŢŜāĹĿŬĹāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
4. Q: ɈŘāĹŪŜāŇĻŬŜāɓĹŜāȨŬĻāʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŎŪŇă ɈŘāĹŪŜāŇĻŬŜāɓĹŜāȨŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
5. Q: ȂŢāŚŢĻāŐĻāŎāǱŢŇāʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă A: ŎāŘŪŇă ǱŢŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
6. Q: ȉŬŇāĽāŌŬāȷŘāȟřāĹŢāŖȋŬāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă A: ŎŪŇă ĻŪŇāĽāŌŬāȷŘāȟřāĹŢāŖȋŬāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
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Exercise 20
1. ŖȋŬă ŞŪă 4. ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 7. ʗāŗŢŉă 10. ʗāŎŢŉă
2. ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 5. ŖɿŇāʗŜă ʗāŘŪŇă 8. ĹŅŬĻāŗŬĻāă
3. ŖŌŬŇāʗŜāŕŪŘāĹŬāĹŢ 6. ʗāŗŢŉă 9. ʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 21
1. ĿŬāʗāŎŢŉă 3. ŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă 5. ŎŢāŌǧŬřă 7. ŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇāĹŢ
2. ŌķŬřāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 4. ŎŢāŇĹŖă 6. ŘŢĹāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 22
1. ĹŢāŎŪŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă 5. ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŗŢŉă ŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ŞŪă
2. ĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 6. ʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă ʗāŞŪāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŘŪŇă
3. ĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗāŗŢŉă 7. ʗāŘŪŇă ĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă
4. ĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ʗāŗŢŉă ʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 23
1. Q: ȲŘāĹŪŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāřŜāʗāŖŐǓřāĹŢāŗŬŇă A: řŜāʗāŗŬŇāŉāȲŘāĹŪāɖŉāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. Q: ȲŘāĹŪŜāřŎāŘŬĹŜāɖāŖŐǓřāʗāŘŪŇă A: ȲŘāĹŪŜāřŎāŘŬĹŜāȢāǧŇāŚŪŜāŎĸŉāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŉāȞāŕŪŘă
3. Q: ȉŬŇāȢřāĸŌāĹĻāĹĻāĻāŖȋŬāʗŜă A: ŞāŎŪāŘŢāĸāŘāɼĻāĹŬŘāŖȋŬāʗŜă
4. Q: ĽŢāŚŪŇāŜŬĻāŉāȉŬŇāĹĿŢŜāķāņŬŉāʗāŘŪŇă A: țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŎȋŬĹŜāŎŬāŚŪŇāŜŬĻāŉāņŬŉāʗāŘŪŇă
5. Q: ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāŘŬĹŜāŊāŕŬāŘāŎĹŬāŉāĹŢāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă A: ĻŪŇāŕŬāĹŢŜāŎŇĻāŇĹŬĻāŎĿŎāŊŜāĽĻāŖɀĻŜă
6. Q: ĽŢāĽŢāŎŢāřŜāŕŪŘă A: ĸĻāŌāŌļŖāŇĹāŎŢāŗŜāŕŪŘă ĹŬŉāʗāŎŢāŖɿŇāŕŪŘă
7. Q: ȉŬŜāŇĹŖāȠŪŇāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĿŬāʗāŗŢŉă A: ŇŪāĻŜāŇāŌŬāņĹāĹŢŜāŌļŇāŎŪŇă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌɁŉāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. Q: ȉŬŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŉŎāŌǧŬŘă A:… ŌǧŬŘă
2. Q: ɖŜāŇĻŬŜāŊŬāǮŢāŎŬāŇŪāȲŘāŜŬĻāă A: …ȲŘāŜŬĻāă
3. Q: ɖŘāȉŬŜāřŪĹŜāȠŪŜāĹŜŪŘāĹŢāǹāɓĻāĹŕŢĹāĿŬŜāŌŅĻāă A: …ĿŬŜāŌŅĻāă
4. Q: ŎŇĻāŇĹŬĻāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āȞĻāŎŬāĹŢŜāĹŬŉāʗāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹŬŉāņřă A: …ĹŬŉāņřă
5. Q: …ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜă A: … ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜă
6. Q: ŖŇŢāŉŜāȘŢāŘŢĹŜāĹŢŜāʂāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāĿŉāŌŅĻāă A: … ĿŉāŌŅĻāă
7. Q: ɈŘāĹŪāɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāĿřāņřă A: … Ŀřāņřă
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Exercise 3
1. …ŖŇŬŇāŜŬĻāă ȲŘāĹŪŜāŕŎāŊāřŜāŖŇŬŇāŜŬĻāă
2. …ɖŜāŌȠřāŌŅĻāă ȲŘāĹŪāŋāŎāĹĿŢŜāķŜāŇĹŬŉāŊŖŢāŉĻāĻāŌȠřāŌŅĻāă
3. …ĿŉāŞŪāŜŬĻāă ȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŇĹŪāǨŉāŉāĿŉāŜŬĻāă
4. …ŌǸŇă ȲŘāĹŪāřŬāŌļŬāŌȢŇāŘāȢāĹŘāŉŜāŌǸŇă
5. …řŜāŉŢāŘŪŇă ȲŘāĹŪŖŢāȝŬŌāŎāŕŬāĹŢŜă
6. …ŖɋĹŜāʖŉāȕŜă ȅāŜāȠŢŇāŚŬŇāĹŢāŕŎāŊāȲŘāĹŪŜāŎņŖāŎȸĹāŖɋĹŜāʖŉāȕŜă
7. …ŌȂŎŜă ȲŘāĹŪŜāŇāŌŬāȅāŎŬāȚŬŜāĹŘāŘāŌȂŎŜă
8. …ŜŬĻāă ȲŘāĹŪāĸŎŜāŇɆŜāĹŏĻāřāŜŬĹŜāĹāŜŬĻāă
9. …ŌȂŪĻŜāŜŬĻāă ȲŘāĹŪŜāŌǸŬŎŜāŊŜāŌȢāŘāŌȶāĹĿŢŜāŌȂŪĻŜă
10. …ŌʙŌŜă ȲŘāĹŪŜāŜŪŎŜāļŉāĹŢāŇŬŉāŉāŇĹŪāŇŬŉāŌʙŌŜă
Exercise 4
1. ŞāřāȠŪŜāŜāǨŬŇāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāǵŪĻāŉŜāĹŔŢāĽĹŜă 5. ŔŢĻāĻāȷāĹŅŬĻāĽŪŇă
2. ĸŬāŕŬŜāȀŬāŔŢĻāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāǱŪŇāŉŢāŘŪŇă 6. ɖāɖāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāȂŪŜāŜŬĻāă
3. ŜāǨŬŇāĹŕŢĹāĸŬāŕŬ‫ؙ‬āŖŐǓāǳŪŉāŉāĿŉāŜŬĻāă 7. ȷāǥāǥŬāŎĸŉāĹŢāȘŢāȌĻŜāľŪāŎĻāĻāɆŇāŜŬĻāă
4. ŞāřāȠŪŜāȘŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
Exercise 5 Do with a partner. Exercise 6 Do by yourself.
Exercise 7
1. ŗŬŇāŜŬĻāă 5. ȷāŌŅĻāă 9. ĿŉāŜŬĻāă
2. ŕŪŘ / ŕŪŘāņřă 6. ȂŪŜă 10. ŇĹŖāŜŬĻ…ɎĹŜāŜŬĻāă
3. ĹŔŢāĽĹŜ / ĹŔŢāĽĹŜāŜŬĻāă 7. Ōǵŉă
4. ŌǥŬŜă 8. ŜŬĻāă
Exercise 8
1. ŘŢĹāŜŬĻāă 4. ŌŜŬŇāņřă 7. ĹŗŘāŌŅĻāă 10. ŌŅŬŉāŌŅĻāă
2. ŌŔĹ 5. ŇĹŖāŜŬĻāă 8. ŕŬŜă
3. ŜŬĻāă 6. ŗŢŉă 9. ȖŢŜāŌŅĻāă
Exercise 9
1. ŌȝŬĹŜāŉŢāŎāŘŪŇă 6. ŘŢĹāŎāŜŬĻāă 11. ŎāņŬŉă
2. ŖŇŬŇāŉŢāŎāŘŪŇă 7. ŜŬĻāŉŢāŎāŘŪŇă 12. ȂŪŜāŉŢāŎāŘŪŇă
3. ŎŢŉă 8. ɎĹŜāŎāŜŬĻāă 13. ŕŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇă
4. ņŬŌāŎāŜŬĻāŉŢāŘŪŇă 9. ŎŪŇă 14. ŎŢŉă
5. ŎāŗŬĻāă 10. ŎāȐĻŜă
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Exercise 10
1. ɀĹāŜŬĻāă 4. ŎāĹŬ 7. ŎāŚŪŜă 10. Ȑŉāņřă
2. ŎāŌȝŌŜă 5. ȨĻŜă 8. ŎāŘŢĹ
3. ŎāŌķŬřă 6. ŖŇŬŇāņřă 9. ŎāŗŬĻāă
Exercises 11 and 12 Do with a partner.
Exercise 13
1. ŜāǨŬŇāĹŢāņŬĹāŉŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāřŬāɁāŎĻāĻāřŬāřŪĹŜāŎāŗŬĻāă 7. ȲŘāĹŪŜāɖāɖāȊŢŇāŘŜāȓŢŘāŘāȷāŎŢĹāĹŢāĸŘāŜŬĻāŉŢāŘŪŇă
2. ŞāřāȠŪŜāȘŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă 8. ȷāĹŢāŉĻāŉŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŖȸŘāŗŬĻāă
3. ɖāȂāŖɋĹŜāŗŜāŘŜāȷāǥāĹŕŢĹāŌǥŬŜāŜŬĻāă 9. ȷāǥāǥŬāŎĸŉāŕŬāɒāĸĹāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĹāŌĹŬŜāņřă
4. ȲŘāĹŪŘāĹɎĹāŉŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāřŬāřŪĹŜāņŬŌāŜŬĻāă 10. ǸŪāŌāɁāĹŢŜāɁŜāĽŪŉāȂāŖɋĹŜāĹŢāŖĹŉāȲŘāŉŢāŘŪŇă
5. ȲŘāĹŪŜāĹĻāŉŜāɽāŎĻāĻāŘŢĹāŜŬĻāă 11. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŘŢŎāŌŔŢŉāɁŜāĽŪŉāĹŕŢĹāĹāĿŉāŜŬĻāă
6. ȲŘāĹŪŜāȷāŎŢĹāĹŢāĸāŉŜāŕāŎāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāŎĽŬŇāŉŢāŘŪŇă 12. ɽāŘŬřāĹŉŖāŉŜāɖāĹŕŢĹāĹāĸŪŘāŘŬāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
Exercise 15
In order: ȠŪŜă ŗŬĻāă ĹŉŜāǼŘă ĹŉŜāǼŘă ĿŉāŜŬĻāă ŋŬāŌāŎāȢĹ ŗŬŇă ĸŪŉāŜŬĻāă ʊĻāă ŎŪŇāŜŬĻāă ŌǸŇă ɆŇă ŜŬĻāă ŌŚŇāņřă ŌǯŪŇāŜŬĻāă
ŎŪŇāŜŬĻāă ŖȌŢŎŜāŜŬĻāă ǱŪŇāŜŬĻāă ŌȠřă ŚŬŘāŜŬĻāă ĿŬŜāŌŅĻāă ĹŔŢāĽĹŜāŌŅĻāă
Exercise 16
1. present ĻāȓŢāȐŬŘāŖŇŢāŉŜāŖɁĹāȢŬŘāŎāŇĹŖă 6. past ŝāŎāĹĿŢŜāķŜāŌŕŬāȮāĹŕŢĹāŖȕŪŇāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. present ĻŜāŇŊŪāĽāŎĻāĻāȖŢŜāŜŬĻāă 7. past ĻŜāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāǴāŎŢāɀŌă
3. past ŇŪĻāŜĻāŇŊŪāĽāȖŢŜāŉāřŜāŐǅĹŜāŎŢāĽŪă 8. past ȉŬŇāŜāĽāŖŇŢŘāŗŬĻāĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă
4. past ĻāǭŬŉāĽŇāʗŉāɁāŎāĸŬŎă 9. present ŇŪĻāŎāŘāŖŐǓāŌāŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă
5. present ĻŜāĽĻāŘāņāŎĹāŎāŌŏǓĻŜă 10. past ĻāĹŏǓŇāŉŜāřŬāĽāŏƾĹāĹāŖɁĹ
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȢŇāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. ŚŬĹ 3. ĿŬŜāŊă 5. ŔŬĹāȐă 7. ņŬŉāĹŢāȷĹŜă
2. ȠŢŇāŊŬāȕŬŜă 4. ĸāŊŘāņŬĻŜă 6. ŚŬŇă 8. ɟĹŜă
Exercise 2
1. ŚŬĹ 3. ŖȉŪŘāŊă 5. ǴŬŜāŘŜă 7. ǵŬŉāŊă
2. ŘŬĹŜāȕŬŜāŊă 4. ĸāŊŘāņŬĻŜāŊă 6. ɀĻŜāŘŜă 8. ȌŬřāŊă
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Exercise 3
In order: ʌĹŜă ǺŬŜă ĹŏǓŌŜă ĹŏǓŌŜă ȜŬŜă ņŬŌŜă ǸŪŌŜă ĽŬŜă ĹŇŬřă ŔŬĹ ȢŬŌŜă ɀŜă ʌĹŜă ŔŬĹ ȷĹŜă
Exercise 4
In order: ŉāĹŢ ŎŢāȐĹāĹŢ ǴāŊă ŚŬŇāȐă ŉă ǭŬŉāŉă ĸāĹŇŬĻŜă ĹŜřāŌŬă ŕŬŜāŜŬĻāă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ǵŪŉă ɀĻŜă ŎāŖɀĻāă ŎāȕŪŇă Ŏāŕă ɀĻŜă
ņŬĻŜă
Exercise 5
In order: ŖȌŬāŊă ŖɁĹāŉĻāă ĿŬŜāŊă ĿŬŜāŊă ŖȋŬāŊă ĸāŌǶāŗŜă ɁāŌāĹŢāǵŪĻāŉāŗŬŇă ŞŪāŖɁĹ ŌǸŬŎŜāŊŜāǪŬŘāŎŬāɁāŘŪŇă ŞŪāĽŬĹ
Exercise 6
1. …ŘŢĹāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇă 4. …ŌȟřāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. …ŉāŖŇŬŇă
2. …ŜŬĻāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă 5. …ĻŉāŌļŖāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇ 8. …ŗŬŇāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. …ŌŚŇāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. …ŌǧŬŘāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢ
Exercise 7
1. ĻŜāŚāŐǓŉāŊŬāŕŬŜāŉāŖŇŬŇă ŘŪŇāȐāĻŜāȹĻāȹĻāŕāʗāŗŢŉă 5. ĻāȓŢāȢřāŘāʍĹāĹŢāŜŬĻāŉāŖŇŬŇă ŘŪŇāȐāǪŬŘāŎŬāŎŪŇāŉāĻŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹā
2. ĻŜāĸĻāŌāĹŜŘāŌāĹŕŢĹāĿŬŜāŉāŖŇŬŇă ĻāǪŬŘāŎŬāŎĻāĻāŖŐǓřāĹŢā ŗŜă
ŖȋŬă 6. ĻŜāŘŬĹŜāŊāŐĻāŎāŖŇŢāŉāŗŬŇāŉāŖŇŬŇă ŇŪāŗŢŉāŉāĻāɖŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
3. ĻŜāŌŕŖāŐĻāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇāŉāŖŇŬŇă ĻŜāŔŢāŎŬāŇĹŖāĹŕŢĹāŖŐǓřāʗā 7. ĻŜāȕāŌāȹĻāŉāŖŇŬŇă ŘŪŇāȐāȍāŌŏŖāŎĻāŉāŖŇŬŇă
ŗŢŉă 8. ĻŜāřŜāŘŬĹŜāĹŕŢĹāŘāŗŬŇāŉāŖŇŬŇă ŗŬŇāŉāĻāĸŬŎāʗāŘŪŇă
4. ĻŜāȍŬĹāȈŇāŌķŬřāǵĻŜāŚŪŜāŉāŖŇŬŇă ĻŜāŇŪŖŢāǧŬŘāĹŢāĹŜŬāȨŬĻā 9. ŖŇŢāŐĻāŎāʙŌāɀŌāʗāŉă ŇŪāŗŢŉāŉāŇāĻāȠŢŇāʗāŘŪŇă
ĹŕŢĹāřŪŉāʗāŗŢŉă
Exercise 9 In order: ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāŉāŖŇŬŇă ĹŢāŞŪāŖȋŬă ĹŢāŞŪāŖȋŬă ŉāŖŇŬŇă řŜāʗāŗŬŇă ĹŢāŗŬĻāă ĹŢāŖȋŬă
Exercise 11
1. ȢŬŘ…ȢŬŘ 5. ȢŬ 9. ȢŬ 13. ȢŬŘ
2. ȢŬŘ 6. ȢŬ 10. ȢŬŘ 14. ȢŬ‫ؙ‬
3. ȢŬŘ 7. ȢŬ…ȢŬŘ 11. ȢŬ
4. ȢŬ 8. ȢŬ 12. ȢŬ‫ؙ‬
Exercise 12
1. …ȢŬāĹřāĽŪă 4. …ȢŬāĹŏǓāŌŬāŘŪŇă 7. …ȢŬāȠŢŇāĹŢāŖĹŬāŎāŗŢŉă
2. …ȢŬāŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă 5. …ȢŬāŇķŖāĹŢ 8. …ȢŬāŐĻāŎāĹŢāŖɁŉāŊāŘŪŇă
3. …ȢŬāȂāĹŢ 6. …ȢŬāŇĹŬŜāŎĸŬāŘŪŇă
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Exercise 13
1. ȉŪŇāŕŬ‫ؙ‬āȢřāĸŌāŉŜāȢāǧŇāŚŪŜāȢŬāĹřāŞŪāĽŪă 4. ȉŬŇāŕŬ‫ؙ‬āȢřāĸŌāŉŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŉĻāŉŜāǧŪāŘĹŜāŖĽŢĻāȢŬā
2. ȉŬŇāŌŬŇāǧŇāŌŚŇāŉāŉŬŘāŖʈĹāŖʊĻāȢŬŘāŞŪāȡĹ ŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇāŞŪāŗŢŉă
3. ȉŬŇāŕŬ‫ؙ‬āȢřāĸŌāŉŜāȢāǧŇāŎāŚŪŜāŉāȕāŌāǱŪŇāȢŬāŇķŖāŎŬāŞŪā 5. ȍŬĹāȈŇāĹŕŢĹāĿŬŜāŉāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
ŗŢŉă 6. ȉŬŇāŌŬŇāŉŜāŌǸŇāŉāĽŢāŎŬāŘŪŇă
Exercise 14
1. ȢŬŘ…ŉ 4. ȢŬ 7. ŉ…ȢŬŘ 10. ȢŬŘ…ȢŬ
2. ȢŬ…ȢŬ 5. ȢŬŘ 8. ȢŬŘ 11. ȢŬ…ŉ
3. ȢŬŘ 6. ȢŬ‫…ؙ‬ŉ 9. ȢŬ‫ؙ‬ 12. ȢŬ
Exercise 15
1. ŎŢāɀŌă 4. ŎŢāɀŌă 7. ɀŌă 10. ŎŢāɀŌă
2. ŎŢāĿŉă 5. ɀŌă 8. ŎŢāɀŌă
3. ŎŢāɀŌă 6. ŎŢāĿŉă 9. ŎŢāɀŌă
Exercises 16, 18, 19 Do by yourself.
Exercise 17
1. ŇĹŬŜ…ɀŌ…ŇĹŬŜă 3. ɀŌ…Ŀŉă 5. Ŀŉ…ŎŢāĿŉă 7. ŎŢāĿŉ…ɀŌă
2. ŎŢāɀŌ…ɀŌă 4. Ŀŉ…ŇĹŬŜă 6. ɀŌ…ŇĹŬŜāĹŢ 8. ŎŢāŇĹŬŜ…ŇĹŬŜă
Exercise 20
1. …ŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇāŖɁĹāŇĹŬŜă 4. …ĻŪŜāŊŘāɁāŖɁĹāŇĹŬŜă 6. …ŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇāŇřāŎŬāȕŬŜă
2. …ȐĻāŎŬŘāŖȋŬāŎŢāĿŉă 5. …ŗŢŉāĹļŢĹāŎŢŉāĹĿŢŜāŇřāŎŬāŚŪŇā 7. …ɁāŌāŖņŪŉāŎŢāĽŬĹ
3. …ŉĻāĻāŖȌŬāŎŢāĽŬĹ ŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă 8. …ŖȋŬāŎŢāĿŉă
Exercise 22
In order: ŖȋŬāŞŪāŇĹŬŜă ŉāĽŬĹ ŗŢŉāĹļŢĹāŎŢŉāĹĿŢŜă ŇĹŬŜă ŉāŞŪāĽŬĹ ĽŬĹ ŇĹŬŜă ŉāĽŬĹ ŎŢāĿŉă ŇĹŬŜă ŇĹŬŜă ŎŢāŇĹŬŜă ŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇă
ŇĹŬŜă ŇĹŬŜă ŇĹŬŜă
Exercise 23
1. ŇĹŬŜă 3. ŎŢāĿŉă 5. ŎŢāĿŉă 7. ŇĹŬŜă
2. ŇĹŬŜă 4. ŎŢāĿŉă 6. ŎŢāĿŉă ŇĹŬŜă 8. ŇĹŬŜă
Exercise 24
1. ŉāņĻ…ŉāņĻāă 3. ŉāņĻă 5. ŎŢāĿŉ…ŉāņĻāă
2. ŉāņĻ…ŉāņĻāă 4. ŉāņĻ…ŎŢāɀŌ…ŉāņĻāă 6. ŉāņĻ…ŉāņĻ…ŉāņĻāă
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Exercise 25
1. ŎŢāĿŉ…ŉāĽŬĹ 4. ŎŢāĿŉ…ŎŢāĽŬĹ…Ŀŉ…ŉāĽŬĹ 7. ŎŢāĿŉ…ŎŢāĿŉă
2. ŎŢāĿŉ…Ŀŉă 5. ŞŪāĽŬĹ…ŉāĽŬĹ…Ŀŉă 8. Ŀŉ…Ŀŉă
3. ŉāŎŢāĽŬĹ 6. ŎŢāĿŉ…ŎŢāĿŉă
Exercise 26
1. ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āřĹāĹŢāŕāŎāŇŪāŔŢŎāŉāņĻāĹŢ ĻŜāŕŬŜāŉāŞŪāĽŬĹ 8. ɖāȁŉāĸĻāĻāŘŪŎāŎāŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇāȊŢŇāŇĹŬŜă
2. ŉŎāŎĸŖāŉŜāŎŪāŅŬĹāŌķŇāŞŪāɀŌă 9. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāĹŉŎāŖŌŌāŉāņĻāă
3. ȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāǴāŉāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāĹļŢĹāŎŢŉāĹļŢĹāĿŬāŇĹŬŜă 10. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāȉŬŇāāĸŪŘāŘŬāŗŢŉāŉāȊŢĹŜāȊŢĹŜāŎŪŇă
4. ȉŬŇāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇāŇĹŬŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 11. ɑřāǧŬŘāŌāŕŬāȅāĸĻāĹŢāŉĻāĻāŜŬĻāŉāŞŪāĽŬĹ
5. ŉĻŜāķāȉŬŇāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă 12. ĽĻāŖɀĻŜāŉāɖŜāŚŪŜāŉāņĻāă
6. ĽĻāŎĻāĻāŖɀĻŜāŉāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāŎŢāĿŉă 13. ȉŬŇāŉĻŜāķāȝŬŌāȮŘāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāĽŇāŎŢāĿŉă
7. ȁŉāŊāĹŢŜāŔāŗŜāĹŢŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŕāŎŢāĿŉāŕŪŘă 14. ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹāȲŘāĹŪāŎŢāŗŬĻāŉāȊŢĹŜāȊŢĹŜāŎŪŇă
Exercise 27
1. P: …ŇĹŬŜă N: …ŎāɀŌă 7. P: …Ŀŉă N: …ŖɀĻāŎŢāĿŉă
2. P: …ŎŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇ…ŇĹŬŜă N: …ŎŢāŇĹŬŜă 8. P: …ȢŬ N: …ȢŬā…ŎŢāɀŌă
3. P: … Ŀŉă N: …ŎŢāĿŉă 9. P: …ɀŌă N: …ŎāɀŌă
4. P: …ɀŌă N: …ŎŢāɀŌă 10. P: …ŇĹŬŜă N: …ŖȋŬāŎāŇĹŬŜă
5. P: …ȢŬŘ N: …ŖɁĹāŎŢāɀŌă 11. P: …ŇĹŬŜă N: …ŎŢāŇĹŬŜă
6. P: …ȢŬŘ N: ȢŬ…ŎȋŬĹŜāŎŢāĿŉă 12. P: …ŇĹŬŜă N: …ŇĹŬŜă
Exercise 28
In order: ȢŬă ŉāĽŬĹ ŎŢāŇĹŬŜă ŎŢāĿŉă ŇĹŬŜă ĽŬĹ ŉāņĻāă ŉāŞŪāĽŬĹ ĽŬĹ ɀŌāʗāŎāŘŪŇă Ŀŉă ŇĹŬŜă
Exercise 29
1. ĸŬāŕŬŜāĻāŇŪāřŜāĹŢāŌȶĹ 6. ĸŬāŕŬŜāĻāŖȋŬāĹŢāŞŪāŖȸĹ
2. ĻāŖȋŬāĹŢāŎāŌȶĹ 7. ĻāɑřāǧŬŘāĹŕŢĹāĹāŖȋŬāĹŢāŌȶĹāņřă
3. ĸŬāŕŬŜāȘŢāĹļŢĹāŘāŇŪŘāŖȋŬāĹŢāŎāŌȶĹ 8. ɖāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜāĸŬāŕŬāŉĻāĻāŗŬĻāĹŢāŌȶĹ
4. ŞāŎă ŞāŋāĻāŖȋŬāĹŢāȷĹŜāŊă 9. ȲŘāĹŪāĹŬāĹŢāŖȸĹāȢŬāȲŘāĹŪŜāŇķŖāĹŢāŖŇŬŇă
5. ȉŬŇāŖŇŢāŉŜāņāŎĹāŖņŪŉāĹŢāŎŢāŖȸĹ 10. ĻāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āʢāȳāŌķŬřāĹŢāȷĹŜāŊă
Exercise 30
1. ŉāŎŢāĽŬĹ 5. ŎŢāĿŉă 9. ŎŢāĿŉă
2. ŌŚŇāŎŢāĽŬĹ 6. ŖȸĹ…ĹŢāŎŢāŖȸĹ 10. ŎŢāĿŉă
3. ŎŢāĿŉă 7. ŎŢāĿŉă 11. ŉāŎŢāĽŬĹ
4. ĹŢāŖȸĹ 8. ŎŢāĿŉă
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŇȳāŌĴ
Exercise 1
1. ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 3. ŎĻāĻ 5. ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ 7. ŌĹāĽāĹĿŢŜ
2. ȹĻāȹĻ…ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ 4. ŎĹŬāĹɖŎ 6. ĸŪŎāɆāĹĻ 8. ɾ
Exercise 2
1. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŇĹŖă 5. F: ŎĻāĻ…S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŪŇă 9. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ
2. F: ŇŪāŎŬ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāĽŪă 6. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ…S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŕāĹŢāŎŪŇă 10. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬă
3. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŪŇă 7. F: ŎĻāĻ… S: ŇŪāŎŬă 11. F: ŎĻāĻ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ
4. F: ŎĻāĻ…ŇŪāŎŬāŎāŌŌŜă 8. F: ŎĻāĻ… S: ŇŪāŎŬă
Exercise 3
1. ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹā…ȹĻ 5. ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ…ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ 9. ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ…ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ
2. ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ…ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ 6. ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ…ȹĻāȹĻā 10. ȹĻāȹĻā…ŏƾŜāŏ
3. ȹĻ…ȹĻāȹĻ 7. ȹĻā…ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ
4. ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ…ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ 8. ȹĻā…ȹĻ
Exercise 4
1. ĽāŏƾĹ 4. řāř 7. řāř 10. ĽāŏƾĹ
2. ĽāŘŪ 5. ĹŕŢĹ 8. ĹŕŢĹ
3. ĽāŏƾĹ 6. ļĻ 9. řāř
Exercise 5
1. F: ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ…S: ĹŕŢĹ 7. F: ŇŎāŌŢāĽāŏƾĹ…S: ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ 13. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ
2. F: ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŎĻāĻ 8. F: ŎĻāĻ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 14. F: ĽāŘŪ… S: ŎĻāĻ
3. F: ĽāŏƾĹ… S: ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ 9. F: ŎĻā… S: ŎĻāĻ 15. F: ŎĻāĻ… S: ĽāŘŪ
4. F: ŎĻāĻāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 10. F: ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬ 16. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬ
5. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 11. F: ŎĻāĻ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 17. F: ȘŢāŎĹŬāĽāŘŪ… S: ĹļŢĹāŘ
6. F: ȹĻ… S: ŎĻā 12. F: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ… S: ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 6
In order: ĽāŘŪă ŎĻāĻāă ĽāŘŪă ŚāĸŬĹ ȲĹāŎāĽāŏƾĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ ȢāŎāŎĻāĻāă ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ ŌĹāĽāĽāŘŪă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŎĻāĻāă ȲĹāŎă
ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ řāřă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ĽāŘŪă ŎĻāĻāă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 7
1. ŇŪāŎŬ…ȹĻāŜŬĻ 4. ŇŪāŎŬ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ…ŎĻāŜŬĻāă 7. ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ
2. ȷĻāŜŬĻ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 5. ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĹ…ŇŪāŎŬ…ŘŢĻāŜŬĻāă 8. ŇŪāŎŬ…ŇķŖāŜŬĻāă
3. ŘŢĻāŜŬĻ…ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ 6. ȹĻāņř…ȹĻāȹĻ
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Exercise 8
1. ȹĻāŜŬĻāă 5. ɀĻāŗŬŇă 9. ĽŪāŜŬĻāă
2. ŌŏŉāŜŬĻāă 6. ŗĻāŗŬŇă 10. ŗŬŇāņřă
3. ĿŪāŜŬĻāă 7. ŎĻāņřă
4. ȷĻāŗŬŇă 8. ɀĻāŗŬŇă
Exercise 9
In order: ŎņŬāŜŬĻāă ŜŬĻāă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ȹĻāȹĻāă ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ ŎĻāĻāă ȹĻāȹĻāă ŎĻāĻāă ŎĻāĻāă ŜŬĻāă ŎĻāĻāă ļĻāă ŇŪāŎŬă ȹĻāȹĻāă ŎĻāĻāă
ŎĻāŜŬĻāă ŎĻāŜŬĻāă ļĻāă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŎĻāĻāă ļĻāă ļĻāă ŇķŘāŗŬřāĹĻāă ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ ȹĻāȹĻāă ŎĻāĻāă ļĻāă ŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹ
ȹĻāȹĻāă ŎĻāŜŬĻāă ŇķŘāŗŬřāĹĻāă ŎĻāŜŬĻāă ŇķŘāŗŬřāĹĻāă ļĻāă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāŌĴ
Exercise 1
1. …ĻāŜŪŎŜāɭĹāĹŢ 5. ȋŪŉāŉāŖĹŬāȢŬāȂāŎŬāŘŪŇă ɀŘāŘāŗŬĻāŉāǥĻāŌāǺŇāŖȋŬă
2. …ŇĹŬĻāŎŬāĻāŗŢāĹāȷĻāȷĻāŘŪŇă 6. …ŌǴŜāŉāĸŬāȍŉāŉŪāȍŪŉāŉŪāŗŢŉāŉāŘă
3. …ȢāŎŢāĹŢŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāȨĻŜāŉāŇķŖāŎŬāŗŢŉă 7. …ĸāȷĻāŘāĸāŎņŬāĹĿŢŜāķ
4. ŔŢāŎŬāŎŬāȂŬĹāŇŪāŜŪŎŜāŌŕĻāŉāŘă ɈŘāĹŪŘāŇĹŖāŎĸŉāŎŪŇă 8. …ȲŘāĹŪāŘŢĹāŗĹāŘāŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 2
In order: řŪāřŬāļŉă ǲŢĻāǯŪāļŉă ĹŚŬŌāĽŪă ȘŢĻāĽŪă ĹŕŢĹ ȐŢŉāĽŪŉă ɭĹ ŇķŖāŎŬă ȕŢŉāțŌŜāĽŪă ȹĻāȹĻāŎŢŉă ŇĹŖă ɭĹāĽŪă ŗĹ ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 3
1. Prt.: ǮŢāŜŬĻ…ŎŢāȉĹ Pat.: ǮŢāŜŬĻā…ŎāȉĹ Fut.: ǮŢāŜŬĻ…ȉĹāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
2. Prt.: ŎŢāĽŪ…ŎŢāŚŬĻă Pat.: ȷĻāŜŬĻā…ŎāŚŬĻă Fut.: ŚŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
3. Prt.: ŖȋŬāǪŬāĽŪāĹŢ…ŎŢāŖŇĻāă Pat.: ŖȋŬāǪŬāĽŪāĹŢ…ŎāŖŇĻă Fut.: ŖȋŬāǪŬāĽŪāĹŢ…ŖŇĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
4. Prt.: ŗĹāĹŢ…ŗĹāŎāŘŪŇă Pat.: ŗĹāņř…ŖʀŘāŎŪŇă Fut.: ŗĹāĹŢ…ŗĹāʗāŘŪŇă
5. Prt.: ɭĹāĽŪ…ŎŢāŎĻă Pat.: ɭĹāĽŪāŜŬĻ…ŎāŎĻă Fut.: ɭĹāĽŪāĹŢ…ŎĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
6. Prt.: ŎŢāŉŬĹŜ…ļĻāŎŪŇāŘŪŇă Pat.: ļĻāŎŪŇāŗŢŉ…ŉŬĹŜă Fut.: ľŪāŉŬĹŜāŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇ…řŜāĽŪāŉă
Exercise 4
With Ŝ
1. ǸŪāŇŊŬŉāĹŢŜāŌŚŇāŜāŜāŎĹŬāŎņŬă 5. ĻŜāŇŊŪāĽāŇŪāŘŢĹāŜāŊŬāřŢŉāŘŪŇă
2. ŖɅŘāŜāŊŪāļŢŉāŇāŌŬāņĹāŘŢĻāă 6. řŜāȲĻŜāŕāŎāǧŬřāŜāŎāŘŪŇă
3. ȉŬŜāřŪĹŜāȠŪŜāĿŬŜāŜāŇŪāĹĻāŘŪŇă 7. ĹŅŪŘāŖŇŬŉāŜāĸāņĹāŘŢĻāă
4. ȲŘāĹŪŜāȕāŌāřŜāŜāŌŇŪāŖľĹŜāŎāŘŪŇă
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With ȦŇ
1. ǸŪāŇŊŬŉāĹŢŜāŌŚŇāȦŇāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāĸāŌŇŪāŎŬāŇŪāŘŪŇă 5. ŔŘāŌāŗŢŉāŉāŎŢĹāŚŪřāŘŢĹāȦŇāŘāŎŢāĿŉă
2. ĻāŖɅŘāȦŇāĹŉŎāʁāȷĻāȷĻāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă 6. ȷāǧŬřāȦŇāŘāŇŪŎāĿŬă
3. řŪĹŜāȠŪŜāĿŬāȦŇāǪŬŘāŎŬāŌŔŢāŌȶāŗŢŉă 7. ĹŅŪŘāŖŇŬŉāȦŇāřāŖʉřāĽŜāĿŬă
4. řŜāķāřŜāȦŇāŘāĹŬŉāʗāŜŬāŎāŎāĹŬŉă
Exercise 5
1. …ǲŢĻāǯŪāĽŪāŚŪŇ 4. …ǷŪŎāŊŬāŚŪŇ 7. …ȜŌāŎŬāŚŪŇ
2. …ŌȂŢāřŪŉāĽŪ 5. …ɷŌāŎŬāŚŪŇ 8. …ĻĹāŖľŎāŊŬāŚŪŇ
3. …ĹŜřāŌŬāŚŪŇ 6. …ĸāŘŬĹāŚŪŇ
Exercise 6
1. …ȐĻāŎŬāŚŪŇ 5. …ŖĽŎŜāŊŬāŚŪŇ 9. …ŖŬŇāɻĹāŜŪ
2. …ņĹāŘŢĻāŚŪŇ 6. …ŇřāŎŬāŚŪŇ 10. …ŝŉāŉŪāŝŬŉāŉŪāŚŪŇ
3. …ĹŬŘāŘŬāŘŬāŚŪŇ 7. …ɭĹāŎŬāŚŪŇ
4. …ǲŉāŎŬāŚŪŇ 8. …ŐŇāŊāĽŪāŚŪŇ
Exercise 7
With adverb
1. ĻŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāŎȋŬĹŜāŎŬāŚŪŇāŎŢāŌŚŇă 5. ĻŜāȕāŌāɃŜāŊāĽŪāŚŪŇāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. ĻŜāĽĻāŎĻāĻāŚŪŇāŖɀĻāĹŢāŎŪŇă 6. ĻŜāɹŉāŎĻŬŉāɖŎāŚŪŇāŎŢāŌŚŇă
3. ĻŜāřŜāȕāŇřāŎŬāŚŪŇāŖȖŢāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ĻŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŜŪŎŜāȷĻāŚŪŇāǧŬŘă
4. ĻāĹŬŉāʗāŜŬāŎāŚŪŇāĿŬāȢŬŘāŇĹŖă 8. ĻŜāɆāřŬŉāɁŜāņŬĹāĹāŎľřāŉāŖŇŬŇă
With adjective
1. ĻāŌŬŇāǧŇāŌŚŇāŉāŎŢāŎȋŬĹŜă 5. ĻāȕāŌāĹŢāņŬĹāŉŜāɃŜāŊāĽŪă
2. ĻŜāĽĻāŎĻāĻāŎŢāŖɀĻāă 6. ĻāɹŉāŌŚŇāŉāŎĻŬŉāɖŎāŎŢŉă
3. ĻāřŜāȕāȖŢŜāŉāŇřă 7. ĻāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŌǧŬŘāŉāŜŪŎŜāȷĻāŗŢŉă
4. ĻāĹŬŉāʗāŜŬāŎāĿŬāȢŬŘāŇĹŖă 8. ĻāɆāřŬŉāŎľřāŉāɁŜāņŬĹāŗŢŉă
Exercise 8
In order: ŇķŖāĹŢ ŘĻāŎĹŬāŘĻāȢřāŘŪŇă ŇĹŖāŎŬāŚŪŇă ŌȂŢāŌȱŘāŎŢāĽŪāĹŢ ŖȓŢāŎŬāŚŪŇă ŖŬŉāŊāŘŪŇă ȠŢŇāŊŬāĹŕŢĹ ŇķŖāŎŬāŚŪŇă ŇķŖāĹŢ
ĹĻāŎĻāŎĻāŘŪŇă ĹĻāȹĻāȹĻāŘŪŇă ɭĹāŎŬāŚŪŇă ĹŏĻāŎāŎāŘŪŇă ĹŏĻāŎāŚŪŇă ŇķŖāŎŬă ŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă ŎĻāĻāă řŬāȹĻāĹŕŢĹāĹ ĽŪŉāŊŬă
ǭŬāǰĻāŜŪāŗŬŇă ŜŪŘāřŎāŎŪāŗŬŇă ȠŢŇāŊŬāŘŪŇă ŇřāŎŬāŚŪŇă ŎȋŬĹŜāŎŬāŚŪŇă ǼŬŌŜāŊāĽŪāĹŢ ŐŇāŊāĽŪă ŖȓŢāŎŬāŚŪŇă ŌŏŉāŊŬāŘŪŇă
ǼŬŌŜāŊāĽŪāŚŪŇă ŖľŢĹŜāĽŪāĹŢ ŌŏŉāŊŬāŚŪŇă ǼŬŌŜāŊāĽŪāŚŪŇă ŎȋŬĹŜāŎŬāŚŪŇă ȍŪŉāĹŢ ŎȋŬĹŜāŎŬāŚŪŇă
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Exercise 9
1. …ȐĹŜ 5. …ȐĹŜ 9. …ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ 13. …ȐĹŜ…ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ
2. …ȐĹŜ 6. …ȐĹŜ 10. …ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ 14. …ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ
3. …ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ…ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ 7. …ȐĹŜ 11. …ȐĹŜ 15. …ȐĹŜ
4. …ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ 8. …ȐĹŜ…ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ 12. …ȐĹŜ…ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ 16. …ŝŬĻāĹŢŜ…ȐĹŜ
Exercise 10
1. ǮĹŜāǳŘāŔŬŉāŉāŊŪāļŢŉāņĹāŘŢĻāȐĹŜă 5. ŕāŎāŖŇŢāŕŬŜāŉāʕĹāŌŏǓĹāŗŢŉāȐĹŜă
2. ŇŪāŘŢĻāŐŇāŊāĽŪāĹŢ ĹŬŉāʗāŖŇŢāĹŬŉāŉāŎɀĹāȐĹŜă 6. ŇāŌŬāȓŢāȐŬāŘŪŇă ŇĹŬĻāľāŖɀĻŜāŉāǭāȐĹŜă
3. ĽĻāŖŇŢāŖɀĻŜāŉāŌŏŉāȐĹŜă 7. ĸŬāřŜāŖɾŘāŗŜāŉāřŬāȷĻāȐĹŜă
4. ŇŊŪāĽāŖŇŢāǪŬŘāŎŬāɖŎāȶāŗŢŉāŉāĹŬĻāĽŪāȐĹŜă 8. ŇĻŬŜāŊŬāŖŇŢāĻŜāŖȉŪŘāŉāǮŢāȐĹŜă
Exercise 11
1. ŖȉĹŜāĹŢ ŇřāŎŬāŚŪŇă ŎȋŬĹŜāŎŬāŚŪŇă 6. ŘŪŎāŎă ŗĻāŇĹāŚŪŇă
2. ĻĹāŖľŎă ǧŇāŖȌĹŜāĽŪāŚŪŇă 7. ȑāŐĹ ȅŬŇāŊŬă ŗŘāŜŪŎŜāĽŪă
3. ŘŢĹāŗĹ ȕĻāŎāŚŪŇă 8. ŜŪŎŜāȷĻāŚŪŇă ĹĻāŖŇŬŇāŚŪŇă
4. ȐŬāĹŢ ȐŬŉāŊŬāŚŪŇă ŖȉĹŜāĹŢ 9. ĹŬĻāŎņŬă ĹŬŉāŎņŬŉāŊŬāŚŪŇă ĹŬĻāŇŎŖāŎŬāŚŪŇă
5. ŔŢŌāŎŬă ŐĹāŎŬāŚŪŇă 10. ɁŜāņŬĹāŚŪŇă ŖȓŢāŎŬāŚŪŇă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāĹļŢĹāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. …ĻŜāŌŬŇāǧŇāŝŬĻāĹŢŜāŇķŖāĹŢāŖŇŬŇāŜŬĻāă 4. …ĻŜāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉĻāĹŢāȘŢāŕŬāĻŬāŎāŗŢŉāŖŇŬŇă
2. …ĻŜāǶŬāķāŘāŎāŘŢĹ 5. …ȌŬĻāȉŪŘāĹŢāŖŐǓāŌāȠŢŇāŊŬāŌŇŪāȠŢŇāĸŎŜāŘŪŇāŖŇŬŇă
3. …ĻāřŬāŌȶāŌɁŉāŉāɆŇāŎŪŇă 6. …ĻŜāŖľŘāŎŉāĹŢāĹŬāŘŪāȐŉāņřă
Exercise 2
1. ĻāŜŪŎŜāŉāŎŢāȐŉāŇȳāȐŉāŘŪŇă 4. ĻāřŎāŜĻāȉŢŎāŎāŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉă
2. ɈŘāĹŪāŗĻāŎŢĹāřŎāŎāȅĻāŜŪāŚŘāņřă 5. ȕāŌāĹŔŉāŊāĹŕŢĹāŘāŌŏřāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. ȢāǧŇāľŪāɭĹāľŪāɭĹāŘŪŇă 6. ĻŜāŐǓĻāřŜāĹĿŪŘāʗāŎŢŉă řŜāȕŪŇāŊāŌļŖāʗāŗŢŉă
Exercise 3
In order: ɁŜă ǭŬŉāŉă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă ɁŜă ŔŬŘāŘă ɁŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ɁŜă ɁŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ɁŜă ɁŜă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ɁŜă ĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜă
ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă
Exercise 4
1. …ǭŬŉāŉ 5. …ǭŬŉāŉŜ 9. …ǭŬŉāŉ
2. …ǭŬŉāŉ 6. …ǭŬŉāŉ 10. …Ŏ…ĹŬĻ
3. …Ŏ…ĹŬĻ 7. …Ŏ…ĹŬĻ 11. …ǭŬŉāŉ
4. …ǭŬŉāŉ 8. …ĹŬĻ 12. …ǭŬŉāŉŜ
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Exercise 5
1. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉŜă 5. ǭŬŉāŉŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă 9. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉŜă
2. ǭŬŉāŉŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă 6. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉŜă 10. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉă
3. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉă 7. ǭŬŉāŉŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă
4. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉŜă 8. ǭŬŉāŉă ĹɎĹāŉŜă
Exercise 6
1. …ŘŪĹāĹŪŘ…ɁŜ 11. …ŘŢĻāĻ 21. …ǭŬŉāŉ
2. …ɁŜ…ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻ…ŘŢĻāĻ 12. …ɁŜ…ɁŜ 22. …ĹŬĻ
3. …ŉŢāŘ…ĹɎĹāŉŜ 13. …ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻ…ĹɎĹāŉŜ 23. …Ĺ…Ĺ
4. …ŔŬŘāŘ…ɁŜ 14. …ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻ…ɁŜ…ŘŢĻāĻ 24. …ĹɎĹāŉŜ…ĹɎĹāŉŜ
5. …ǭŬŉāŉ… 15. …Ř…ɁŜ…ŉĻāĻ 25. …Ŏ…ĹŬĻ
6. …ĹŬĻ…ŘŢĻāĻ…ĹɎĹāŉŜ 16. …ĹɎĹāŉŜ 26. …ɁŜ…ŔŬŘāŘ
7. …ŘŢĻāĻ 17. …ǭŬŉāŉ 27. …ǭŬŉāŉŜ…ǭŬŉāŉ
8. …ŔŬŘāŘ…ǧŌŜāŌ 18. …ĹŬĻ 28. …ĹŬĻ
9. …ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻ 19. …ĹɎĹāŉŜ 29. …ŘŢĻāĻ
10. …ɁŜ 20. …ĹɎĹāŉŜ 30. …ǭŬŉāŉ…ǧŌŜāŌ
Exercise 7
In order: ŞŪāŖɀĻŜă ŌǧŬřāŎŪŇă řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ɀŌāŎŪŇă ŗŜāŌŅĻāă ŖĹŬŘāŗŬŇă ŖȋŬāʗŜă ȗĻŜāŗŬŇă řŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖĹŬāŌȂŎŜāŗŬŇă ĹŜŬāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ŖȖŢāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŎņŬĻāŗŬŇă ȖŢŜāŗŬŇă Ŏă ȍŪĻāŗŬŇă ŌɏĻāŗŬŇă ĻŬāŎāɀĹ / ĻŬāɀĹāŎŪŇă ŘŢĹāŎŪŇă
Exercise 8
In order: ĹāŌǸŇă ŌǸŇāŗŬŇă ĹŢ ĹŬĻāă ŞŪă ŗŬŇă ŜŬĻāŎŪŇă ŎŪŇă ŗŬŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ʗāŘŪŇă ŗŬŇă
Exercise 9
In order: ĹŢāŗŬŇă ŕŬŜāŞŪāȘŬĻāă ʗāŗŢŉă ŎāȘŬĻāă ŗŬŇă ŐŘāŎŪŇă ʗāŗŢŉă ŎāȘŬĻāă ŎŪŇă ŎāȘŬĻāă ņřă ŗŬŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ȘŬĻă ŎāȘŬĻāă ȘŬĻāă ȘŬĻāă ĹŢāŗŬŇāĹŢă
ŎŪŇă
Exercise 10
1. …ŌɟĹŜāŗŬŇă 4. …ŘŢĹāȘŬĻāă
2. …ŌǸŇāŗŬŇă 5. …ŖĹŬŜāȘŬĻā…ŌȢŌāȘŬĻ…ŜŬĻāȘŬĻ…ȘĻŜāŗŬŇă
3. …řŜāȘŬĻā…ŌʙŌŜāȘŬĻāă 6. …ǧŎāŎŪŇ…ŋŪāŌŅŌŜāĹŕŢĹ
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Exercise 11
1. …ɒŌāŗŬŇ…ŌŕŬŜāŗŬŇă 5. …ɀĹāŜŬĻ…ĻŬāŎāɀĹ…ʊĻāŗŬŇ…ŌŬŜāŌŅĻāă
2. …ʁŌāŗŬŇ…ȖŢŜāŌŅĻ…ĿŬŜāŌŅĻ…ŖɁĹāĹŢāŎŪŇă 6. …ŎāŚŪŜ…ŚāɎŇāŗŬŇ…ȠŪŜāŗŬŇă
3. …ŖĹŬāŌȂŎŜāŗŬŇă 7. …ŌʖŉāŜŬĻ…ŖľŢĹŜāŗŬŇă
4. …ĹŬāņř…ŎāĹŬ…Ȑŉāņřă 8. …ŜŬĻ…ĹŬāŎāȘŬĻāă
Exercise 12 Do by yourself. Exercise 13 Do by yourself.
Exercise 14
In order: ȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŗŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă ȨĻŜāŗŬŇă ŎāŚŪŜă ŝāŔŪŉāŗŜă ŎāņŬĹŜă ņĹāĹŢŜāŌļŇă ǱŪŇāŜŬĻāă ĹŉŜāŐĻāŌļŜă ŎŪŇāņřă ŎŪŇāĹŢ ŎāɀŌă
řŬĹāŜŬĻāă ŖȔŇāŜŬĻāă ŌŚŇă ŗŘāĹŅŬĹāŌȢŌāņřă ņĹāĹŢŜāŌļŇă ǱŪŇāŜŬĻāă ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜāŗŬŇă ŖŐǓāŌāŘŬřāŗŬŇă ŖɁĹāʗŜă
ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 15 In order:
Q: ĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă ŖŐǓŜāŉŜāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŖĹŬŘāŗŬŇă ȠŢŇāŊŬāŞŪāŘŪŇă ŞŪāŗŬŇă ŉŜă ŎāŕŬŜă ĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĹ ŞŪă ŉŎāĹŢāŘŜă ĹŢāŞŪāŗŬŇă
ȖŢŜāŗŬŇāŕŪŘ…ŗŬŇāŉŜă ŔŢŌāŖȸĹāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŘŢĹāŞŪāȘŬĻāă
N: ĹŢāŗŬŇă ŖĹŬŘāŗŬŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă Ĺ ŚāŕāĹŢāŎŪŇă Ŏă ŖĸŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĹŢāŎŪŇă ŎĻāĻāŇĹŬŜāĹŢ ŎŪŇă ĹŢāŗŬŇă ŘŪŇāȐă
Exercise 18
1. …ŌļŖāŇĹāŗŜāɁŜ…ņŬŉāŌŅĻāă 12. …ǵŪŘāɁŜ…ŜŪŎŜāŖȳřāŌŅĻāă
2. …ŗŬĻāɁŜ…ŖĹŬāŌȂŎŜă 13. …ŗŬĻāɁŜ…ǿŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. …ɚāɁŜ…ǴāĹŢāŗŬŇă 14. …ʊĻāɁŜ…ĸāŊŘāĹŅŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇ…ǧŬŘāŔŬŘāŘă
4. …ņŬŉāɁŜ…ŖľŬĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă 15. …ŗŬŇāɁŜ…ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇ…ņŬŉāɁŜ…ŎņŘāȓŢŉāĹŢā
5. …ŚŢāɁŜ…ŖɆŇāĹŢāŗŬŇ…ȉŢŎāŐĻāŎāŌļŜă ŗŬŇă
6. …ņŬŉāɁŜ…ȡĹāņřă 16. …ŚŘāɁŜ…ŖŐǓāĹŢāŗŬŇ
7. …ņŬŉāɁŜ…ŖȖŪĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă 17. …ŗŬĻāɁŜ…ŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇ…ŘŢĹāɁŜ…ŝŬŉāřŬĹāŗŬŇă
8. …ĸāŊŘāĹŅŬĻāɁŜ…ĿřāĹŢāŗŬŇă 18. …ŖȐŢāɁŜ…ȡĹāĹŢāŎŪŇ…řŉāŖŇŪŌŜāɁŜ…țŬŎāĹŢāŎŪŇă
9. …ĹļŪŘāɁŜ…ĸāŖĸŬŘāŌŅĻāă 19. …ĹŉŜāřāŗŬĻāɁŜ…ȠŪŜāŗŬŇă
10. …ĹĿŪŉāȤŢĹāŗŜāɁŜ…ȕāŌāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 20. …ȐŉāɁŜ…řĹāĹāŖȔŬŇāŜŬĻāă
11. …ŌʙŌŜāŐŘāɁŜ…ŌǺŉāŜŬĻ…ŎŪāŖŌŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 19
1. ...ĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜă 5. ...ĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜ...ĹŢāŉĻāĻāă 9. ...ǭŬŉāŉ...ǯŪŜă
2. ...ɁŜă 6. ...ŗŢŉāɁŜă 10. ...ǧŌŜāŌ
3. ...ɁŜ...ɁŜă 7. ...ĹɎĹāŉŜă 11. ...ǯŪŜāŉŜ...ɁŜă
4. ...Ŏ...ĹŬĻ...ǭŬŉāŉă 8. ...ŔŬŘāŘ...ĹɎĹāŉŜă 12. ...Ŏ
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Exercise 20 In order:
(First dialogue) ŌǯŪŇāŜŬĻāă ŌɟĹŜāŗŬŇă ŎŢāǴāĹŢ ŜŬĻāă ŖŇŬŇāŜŬĻāă ŎāŖĹŬŘă ņŬŉāŗŬŇă ŚŪŜāŎŪŇāĹŢ ŖĹŬŘāņřă ŎĿŎāŖľŬĹāŎāŗŜă ʗĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ŎāŌǴŜă
(Second dialogue) ĹāȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜāŗŬŇă ŖĹŬŘāŗŬŇă ŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉă ŖȌŢĹāĹŢāŎŪŇă ɀĹāŗŬŇāĹŢ ŗŬĻāŗŬŇă ĹĿŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă ȢŌāȠŬŘāŗŜāņřă
ǱŪŇāŗŬŇă ŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă ĿŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŌǸŇă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāĹĿŢŜāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. …ŖȋŬāȢŬŘă 5. …ȠŪřāȢŬă 9. …ȉŪŘāŗŬĻāȢŬă 13. …ŖȌŬĹŜāŗŜ…ĻŬā
2. …ǴāĹŢ 6. …ŌǸŇāŘŜă 10. …ȂŪŜāŉŜă ɀĹāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă
3. …ŌŚŇāȢŬă 7. …ȊŢŇāŘŜă 11. …ɭĹāŎņŬĻāŗŜă 14. …ŌŚŇāʗă
4. …ǴāȢŬă 8. …ŕŬŜāŉŜ…řŜāŉŜă 12. …ȉŪŘāŗŬĻāȢŬă 15. …ŌŜŎŜāŎŜă
Exercise 2
1. …Ǵāʗā…ŕāʗă 7. …ĹŢāŖȋŬă 13. …ŗŬĻāȢŬă
2. …ŖɁĹāŉ…ĹĿŬŘāʗă 8. …ŖȋŬāʗ…ŌɟĹŜāŗŜă 14. …ĽŇāŘŜă
3. …ŖŐǓāŌāŘŬřāŉ…ȢŬ 9. …ĹŏǓĹŜāŗŜă 15. …ĹŕŢŎāȢŬ…ĹŢāŖȋŬă
4. …ŖɁĹāŉ…ŖŐǓāŌāȠŪřāȢŬŘă 10. …ŕāʗā…ŖɁĹāʗŖŢă 16. …ŕāʗ…řŜāʗă
5. …ŖŇĻāȢĹāʗă 11. …ȝŬŌāȢŬ‫…ؙ‬ĸŬŎāʗāŎŪŇă 17. …ŗŬĻāȢŬŘă
6. …ŐǅāņĹāŕŇāȢŬŘă 12. …ĿŬāȢŬŘ…ŌŏŉāŊŬāŗŜāŘŜ…ĿŬāĹŢ 18. …ŗŬĻāŉ…ŗŬĻāȢŬă
Exercise 3
1. …ŖŋŪřāȢŜāɖāĹŅŬĻāȢŬ‫…ؙ‬ŎŢāŖőƾŉāŉă 5. …ŌķŬřāȢŬ…ŚŪŜāȢŬ…ŚŪŜāʗ…ȊŢŇāȢŬŘ…ŎŢāŖȖŢāŖŪ…ŖɁĹāȢŬă
2. …ȢŬ…ȉŪŘāĹŢāŎŪŇāŘ…ŕāʗ…ĹŬŉāʗă 6. …řŜāʗ…Ŀřāʗă
3. …ŌŜŬĹŜāŗŜ…ŎŢāŌķŬřāŘă 7. …ŎŢāĹŅŬĻ…ĿŬāŉ…ĿŬāĸāŎŢāĿŉāŉă
4. …ŖȋŬāĹŢ…ǼŬāřĻŜāŗŜă
Exercise 4
1. …ŖĸĻāŘāŎŢāŗŜāŘ…ȕŢŉāŉŜă 6. …ŖɀĻŜāŗŜ…ŌǸŇāŘŜ…ŌǸŇāŘŜ…ŎŢāŘŢĹāĹā...ŖɁĹāȢŬă
2. …ŖȋŬāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă 7.…ŖȖŢāȢŬ…ǴāȢŬ…ǲŢĻāǯŪāŎŪŇāŘă
3. …ŎāŌǸŇāŘă 8. …ŎŢāŖŋŪŉāŉ…řŜāȢŬā…ĹĿŬŘāȢŬă
4. …ŖŐǓĻāʗă 9. …řŬāřŬŉāŉŜ…ŘŢĹāʗ…ǷŢĻāŗŜă
5. …ŖĹŬāȢŬ…ȝŬŌāʗă
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Exercise 5
1. …ŌŏřāŘŜ…ɀĹāȢŬă 13. …Ǵāʗ…ȊŢŇāŘŜă
2. …ĿŬāȢŬ…ŖőƾŉāȢŬă 14. …ŖȋŬāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă
3. …ȝŬŌāʗ…ŗŢŇāřāŖőƾŉāȢŬă 15. …ŖȋŬāȢŬŘă
4. …ŌŬŘāĹŢ…ŌŚŇāʗă 16. …ŇĹŬŜāʗ…ǵŪŘāʗă
5. …ŖȐŢāʗ…řŜāʗ…řŉāŖŇŪŌŜāȢŬŘă 17. …ņŬŉāȢŬ…ŖɁĹāȢŬă
6. …ʂāŇȕĻŜāȗĻŜāŗŜă 18. …ŌĹŬāȕāŗŜāȢŬ‫…ؙ‬ŌļŖāŇĹāŗŜāȢŬ…ŌļŖāŇĹāŗŜā
7. …ȨĻŜāŗŜ…ĹŬāʗ…ŖȋŬāʗă ȢŬ…ŗŘāŖľŬĹāŗŜāȢŬă
8. …ŖĹŬāʗă 19. …ĿŬāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă
9. …ŗŬŇāȢŬă 20. …ŌŚŇāȢŬ…řŜāȢŬă
10. …ŌǸŇāŘŜ…ņŬŉāȢŬŘ…ɟĹāȢŬă 21. …ŖȋŬāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă
11. …řŬĹāŗŜă 22. …ŎŢāŕāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă
12. …ŝāĹŬāʗă
Exercise 6
ķāŌ (in order): ĹŬŉāʗă ȠĹāŗŜă ŌʗĹŜāŗŜă ȠĹāŗŜă ŎŪāŖŌŘāŘŜă ȂŪŌŜāȢŬă ŖŐǓřāĹŢ ŘŢĹāʗă ŌɜĻŜāŗŜă
ĸāŌ (in order): ŖȉĹāȢŬă ĿŬāĹŢ ŖɆŇāʗă ŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŎŪŇă ŎāŗŬĻāĻāă ŖɁĹāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ȠŢŇāŊŬāŗŜāĹŢ
Exercise 8
In order: ŎŢāĸŬŎāŎă řŜāŉŜă ɎĹŜāĹŢ ŎŪŇāŘă ĸŬŎāʗă ĽŬŜāǧŬřāȢŬă ĽŬŜāǧŬřāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŎŢĹāǴāŗŜāŘŜă řŜāŉă ŖŋŪŉāȢŬă řĹāĹāŗŬĻāȢŬă
ŖŇŬŇāŊāŐƾŎāʗă řŜāŉŜă ŖɁĹāŉă ǥŬāʗă ǥŬāĹŢ ǥŬāĹŢ řĹāǵŬĻāĻāă ǥŬāĹŢ ǥŬāȢŬă ŖĹŬĹāȢŬŘă ŘŢĹāĹŢāŎŢāŖȸĹāĹ ǥŬāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ʈĹŜāŖŐǓāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă
ʗāņŬĹāĹāȢĹāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ʑĻāȠŬĻāŗŜāȢŬă ŌķĹāŗŜă ŖɆāǥŬāȢŬŘă ȍŜāŉŜă ŚŪŜāȢŬă ǥŬāĹŢ ľŪāřŪĹŜāĹāĹŅŬĻāȢŬŘă ŖŐǓřāȢŬŘă ŖŐǓřāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŖŐǓřā
ȢŬă ĿŬāȢŬŘă ŌŚŇāʗă ȕāŌāĹɑĹŜāŗŜă ŌǳŪŉāŉŜă ŎĿŎāřŜāŗŜāŘŜă ŘŬĹŜāŗŜāȢŬă ŗŬŇāȢŬă ĸāɀĹāŗŜă ŖȋŬāȢŬŘă ɀĹāȢŬă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāĹɖŎāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŎŐǓāȠŢŇāĹŢŜāĿŬŜāŉŬāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă 4. ŞāŗŜāĹŢŜāȘŢāŎŐǓāȠŇāĹŢāŘŬĹŜāŊŬāŗŢŉāŉŬāŎĻāĻāŞŪāŚŪŜă
2. ŞāŗŜāǨŉāŎŬāŉĻāĻāɆŇāŉŬāřŬāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă 5. ŞāŗŜāĹŢŜāĹŬŉāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āĹŬŉāʗāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
3. ŔŢāŎŬāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŌǧŬŘāŉŬāɖāŘŪŇă 6. řŎāŊāĹŢŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĹŢāŉĻāĻāŌŔĹāŉŬāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
Exercise 2
In order: ņŬŌāŉŬă ŌɜŘāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŗŬŇāŉŬă ņŬŉāŗŬŇāŉŬă ɜřāŎāĹŅŬĻāŉŬă ŖȖŢāŉŬă ȕŢŉāŉŬă ŚŪŜāŉŬă ŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŇŌĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ņŬŌāŉŬă ŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă řŬŉāŉŬă
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Exercise 3
1. ĸāȂĻāŔāŗŜāŕŬŘāĹŬŉāʗāĿŬāŉŬāĻāŗŢŉă ȉŢŎāŉŜāŖɁĹāŉŬāǨŉāŎŬāŗŢŉă
2. ʂāřŪŉāŉŬāɓĹāȄŢāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă řŎāŉŜāŜŪŎŜāŖĽŬŘāŎĸŉāřŎāŊāŘŪŇă
3. ŐǓĻāȢĹāĹŢāŖȋŬāŎĸŉāŞāļŪāŘāʑāŎŬāĹĿŢŜāķāŘŪŇă ĻāŉĻāŉŜāŖɁĹāŉŬāŗŢŉă
4. ŗĹāŉŬāŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāŎŐǓāŎŬāŘāŇŪāŎŬāŎŢŉāŉŬāɈŘāĹŪŖŢāȘŢĻāȜŢĻāŕŬāŘŪŇă
5. ŇĻŬŜāŊŬāĿŬāŉŬāŞāȲāŘāǪŬŘāŎŬāǵŪŘāŉŬāĻāŗŢŉă
6. ȖŢŜāŉāŎȋŬĹŜāŉŬāɈŘāĹŪāŗŢŉă ŐǅāŘŢĻāŇřāŉŬāŘŪŇă
7. ȗŬāǷŉāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāȊŢŇāŉŬāŘāȝŬŌāŎāĹɖŎāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāȨŬĻāŉŬāŘŪŇă
Exercise 4
1. …řŜāŉŬ…řŜāŉŬă 6. …ŕŪŘāŉŬ…ŖɀĻŜāŉŬă
2. …ŎŪŇāŉŬ…ŗŬŇāŉŬă 7. …ĹŚŬŌāĹŅŎāŉŬ…ŗŢŇāĽŪŜāŉŬă
3. …ŌȂŬŉāŖʁŜāĽŪāŉŬ…ŌȂŬŉāŖʁŜāȷĻāŉŬ…ɗŘāŌȂŬŉāŗŜāŉŬāĹŢ 8. …ŖȋŬāŉŬ…ŕāŉŬă
4. …ŌķŇāŉŬă 9. …ɀŌāŉŬ…ĻāȢřāĽŪă
5. …ĿŬŜāŉŬ…ŌķŬřāŉŬă 10. …ŌŇŎŜāŉŬă
Exercise 5
1. ȉŢŎāŐĻāŔŢāřŢāĹĿŢŜāŗŬŇāŉŬāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜā… 6. ȝŬŌāȮŘāŖȌŬāŎŢāŇĹŖāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŔāŗŜāĹŕŢĹā…
2. ŌŬŇāŊāʗŉāɁāŚāŕāŎĸŉāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜā… 7. ŌŬŇāŊāʗŉāɁāȂŎāŊāŕāŉŬāĹŢŜā…
3. ŘŬĻāŜāŉāŖɁĹāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŔŢĻāŌāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜā… 8. ȉŢŎāŐĻāʈĹŜāŕŬĹāŎĻāŉŬāĹŢŜā…
4. ʗŉāɁāȅāŜāŖȋŬāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŐǓĻāŌāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜā… 9. ŔŢĻāŌāǭŬāŖŐǓĻāŉŬāŇŪŜā…
5. ŖȖŬĹāŊāȢāŗŢĹāŎŢāŚŪŜāŉŬāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜā… 10. ŎľřāŌāŌǴŜāŉāņĻāĽŇāŗŬŇāŉŬā…
Exercise 6
1. …ʑĻāŉŬ 4. …ŚŪŜāŉŬ 7. …ŜŪŎŜāņŬĹŜ 10. …ŖŇĻāĽŪāŉŬ
2. …ŖŐǓĻāŉŬ 5. …ĿŬŜāŉŬ 8. …ŘŢĹāŉŬ
3. …ɀĹāŉŬ 6. …ŗŬŇāŉŬ 9. …ȤŢĹāřŎāŎāŖĹřāŉŬ
Exercise 7
1. …ɈŘāĹŪŖŢāǨŇāŊŬāɈŘāĹŪāŎĹŬāĹŗŬĹŜāŉŬŘā… 8. …ĸāȂĻāȨĻŜāŉŬāŐĻāŎā…
2. …ŇĻŬŜāŊŬāĻāŘŪŎāŎāŇĹŬŜāŉŬā… 9. …ȲŘāĹŪāŜŪŎŜāȲŘāĽŪāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŇĹā…
3. …ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķŜāŚŪŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȘŢā… 10. …ĻŜāřŜāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āřŜāķāĹŕŢĹā…
4. …ȘŢāȐĻāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉŬŘā… 11. …ȘŢāŗĹāŉŬā…
5. …ĻŜāřŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŉŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉā… 12. …ȘŢāʗŇāŌŕĻāŉŬā…
6. …ŇĹŪāǨŉāĹŜřāŌŬāŚŪŇāŌŚŇāŉŬāŇŪŘā… 13. …ȘŢāȗŬāŖĸŪřāɀŌāŜāĻāŇĹŖāŉŬā…
7. …ȘŢāĸāŗĹāŗŢŉāŉŬŘā… 14. …ĻŜāřŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŉŬāĹŕŢĹā…
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Exercise 8
1. …ȕŢŉāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă 6. …ņŬŌāŉŬă 11. …ĹĿŬĹāŉŬ‫ؙ‬
2. …ŖŇŬŇāŉŬă 7. …ȞāŉŬ…řŬŉāŉŬă 12. …ŖőƾŉāŌɏĻāŗŜāŌŅĻāŉŬ…ŐǓĻā
3. …ŖȕŪŇāŉŬă 8. …ŇĹŬŜāŉŬă ȢĹāŉŬāĹŕŢĹ
4. …ŖľŬĹāŉŬ…ŗŬĻāŉŬă 9. …ŖĹŬāŉŬă
5. …ŖȖŢāŉŬă 10. …ŗŬŇāŉŬă
Exercise 9
In order: řŎāȉŢŇāŉŬă ȍŜāŉŬă țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāǧŬŘāŉŬă ŕŜāŉŬă ŕŬŜāŉŬă ŘŢĹāŉŬă ĹŬāŉŬă ȘŬĻāŉŬă ŜŬĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŖŇŬŇāŉŬă ŗŢŉāŉŬă ŊŘāȗĻŜāŉŬă ȨĻŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
ŌŚŇāŉŬă ŖȉŪŘāŉŬă ŗŬŇāŉŬă ŎĸŬāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŚŪŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
Exercise 10
1. …ŖŇŬŉāŜāŉ 4. …ŌǸŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ 7. …ŜŬĻāŜāĹŢ…ŖȖŢāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬă
2. …ŖɁĹāŜ…ȨŬĻāŜ 5. …ŖŌŌāŜā…ŗŬŇāŜ 8. …ŖɁĹāŜŘ…ȖŬāȂŪāŜ
3. …ŗŬŇāŜ 6. …ĸāŊŘāĹŅŬĻāŜ 9. …ĿŬāŜ…ĹŬĻāŌŇŪāŉŬā
Exercise 11
Do by yourself.
Exercise 12
In order: ŖĹŬŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŖȋŬāŜă ȠŢŇāŜă ŗŢŇāŇŌĻāŖĽŬŘāŜă ȠŢŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŗŬŇāŜă ŗřāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŖɁĹāŜāĹŢ ȨŬĻāŜă ȨŬĻāŌāŗŜāŌŅĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ȉŢŇāŉŬă
ŗŬŇāŜă ŗŬĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŖĹŬāŉŬă ŗŬŇāŜŘă ŗŜāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŌķĻāŗŬŇāŉŬă ŖɀĻāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŗŬĻāŜă ŘŢĹāŜŬĻāŉŬă
Exercise 13
1. …ȠŪŜāŜ…ȠŪŜāŜă 9. …ȠŢŇāŉŬ‫…ؙ‬ȜŬāŖŌŌāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
2. …ŗŬŇāŜ…ŎŪŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă 10. …ĹŉŜāŘāŖȋŬāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
3. …ŎĻāŜă 11. …ŖőǅŎāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
4. …ŖőǓŎāŉŬŘă 12. …ĹĿŪŉāǵŬŉāŗŜāŉŬ‫…ؙ‬ȠŢŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
5. …ʗĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŜă 13. …ŌķŬřāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫…ؙ‬ŌķŬřāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
6. …ȠŪŜāŜŘă 14. …ǺĻāŌāȠŢŇāŉŬ…ŖŇĻāȢĹāŎŪŇāŉŬ‫…ؙ‬ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĸŬŎāŊă
7. …ŘŢĹāŉŬă 15. ...ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĸŬŎāŊ
8. …ŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫…ؙ‬ȗŬŘāŖŌŌāŉŬă
Exercise 14
1. …ɑɐāȓŬĹŜāŉŜāŖʁřāŌāĹŕŢĹāņŬŉāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āǧŌŜāŌ… 6. ĻŜāŇĹŬĻāľāĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜāĸāŊŘāŌŅĻāŉŬā…
2. …ǪŬŘāȲĹāĻŜāǱŪŇāŉŬāǪŬŘāŎŬāĹŢŜāŌķĻāŗŬŇāŉŬ… 7. …řŜāķāĹŢāĹɎĹāĹāɓŜāŉāŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāĹŚŪāĹŚŪāĹŅŬĻāŉŬāĹŕŢĹā
3. …ĻŖŢāřŜāŘŬĹŜāŉāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬā… ŘŪŇă
4. ŜĻŜāȢŜāŎŐǓāŎřāĸĻāĹŢāŉĻāŉāŌŏřāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŔŢāřŢ… 8. …ŘŪɐāŎŢĹāɈŘāĹŪŜāŌŏřāŌŏřāŌŅĻāŉŬā…ĻŜāĸāǧŬĻāŗŜāŇĹŬŜā
5. ĸāȂĻāŌǱŉāŖȔŢŉāŉāǴāŉŬāɈŘāĹŪāŘŪŇ… ŉŬ…
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9. …ȍŬĹāŌǱŉāȠŢŇāŊŬāĻāŌǴŜāŉŬāŇŪŖŢā… 14. …ȜĻāŉāŜŢřāŅŬĹāŌŏǓĻāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȠŪŜāŊā…
10. …ŔāŗŜāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜāŎŪŘāŌŅĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ā… 15. ĻŖŢāȉŢŎāŎŐǅŜāĹŢāŉāŉŢĻāĹŉŜāņĹāŘŢĻāĹŕŢĹāĹāɆŇāŜŬĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŔŢā
11. ĻŜāĹŬāŇĹŬŜāŉŬāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āǧŇāŘŪŇ… ŎŬ…
12. …ɑřāǧŬŘāŌāŜāĹŉŜāĹŢāņŬŉāȄŜāȉŇāŊŘāļŉāĿŬŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŉŬ… 16. …ŇķŘāŗŬřāʕĹāŌŏǓĹāŗŢŉāŉŬ…
13. …ŐǓĻāĸĻāŉĻāŉāĹŬĻāĹŅŎāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȠŪŜāŊāŇŪā…
Exercise 15
In order: ŕŬŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ĸāŊŘāĹŅŬĻāŜă ŖȉĹŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ĹļŬŇāŉŬă ņĹāŘŢĻāŉāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ŗŬŇāŜă ŖŐǓĻāŜă ŘĻāŎĹŬāŎŢāņŬŉāŉŬă ĽŇāŊāŌļŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă
ȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŜāȢŬ‫ؙ‬ă ĹĿŢŇāŉŬă ĿŉāŉŬă ĹĿŢŇāŜŬĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ȖŢŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ȕŢŉāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ȌĹŜāŊāŇĹŖāŉŬă ǲŢĻāȂŪĻāŉŬă
Exercise 16
In order: ŜāǲŢāŎŬāŗŢŉāŜă ŇĹŬŜāĹŢāŎŪŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ĻāŘĻāĹŢāŖȋŬāɓĹŜāŌȂŢāŎĸŉāŎŢŉāŉŬāĹŕŢĹ ȍāŌŏŖāřŪŉāɀŌāŇĹŬŜāŉŬă ȉŬŜāŇŪāŎŬāŎŢāřŜāŉŬă
ȕŪŇāņŌŜāĹŬāĽŬŇāŗŢŉāŉŬă ȊŢŎŜāņĹāŌļŇāŉŬă ŔāŗŜāĹĿŢŜāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă ĸāřŜāŇŘāŉŬă ĸāŊŘāŘāĿŉāŉŬă řŬāȷĻāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇāŉŬă
ŇĻŬŜāŌŬāŎĻāĻāȉŬŇāŖŌŌāŉŬă ĻāŘāŖȖŪřāŌāŗŬŇāŉŬă řŬāŌȢŇāŘāĹŗŬĹāŗŜāŌŅĻāŉŬă ŔāŗŜāĹĿŬŘāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āǪŬŘāŎŬāŇĹŬŜāŉŬă
ĸŬāŐĻāĹŢŜāĿŬŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŇĻŬŜāŌŬāŘāĹŬŉāʗă ĻŜāŏāĹŪāŏƾāĹŪāĹŕŢĹāĹŬāŉŬă ĹŉŜāŘāŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜāŉŬāŔŢāŎŬă ɔřāŉŜāŖɁĹāŉŬă ȉŬŇāĹĿŢŜāķāʗāŗŬŇāŉŬă
ɈŘāĹŪāĻāŖŇĻāŗŬŇāŜă ȉŬŇāǨŉāǨŬŉāĹĿŢŜāķāĹĿŬŘāŉŬă ɭĹāʗāŗŢŉāŉŬă ŔŢāŎŬāŌŇŖāŉŬă
Exercise 17
1. …ȌŬāŘāŉŜāĹŢŜāʁŌāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȂŎāŊ… 7. …ɓĹāȘŢāĹŔŉāŊāĹŢŜāŌŚŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŚāŕāŉŬ…
2. …ȍŬĹāȈŇāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāŌŬŇāŎĻāĻāĹŢŜāŚŪŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă 8. …ŇŪĻāŜĻāȐāȢāĹŢāǵŪĻāŉŜāŇĻŬŜāŊŬāĿŬāɀŌāŉŬāĹŜŘāŌǯŪ…
3. …ȢāǧŇāȨŬĻāŉŬāĹŔŉāŊāŎŢŉāŎŐǓāŎŬ… 9. …ĻāŘāĻŖŢāǨŉāŎŬāŜŢřāŅŬĹāĿŬāĹŢāŜŬĻāŜāŉāŜŢřāŅŬĹ…
4. …ŞāŎŇŬāŉāŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŐǅāŘŢĻāȅāŜāŉŜ… 10. …ĻŜāŇŪĻāŎāɓĹāŖŐǓŜāŜŖŢāɓĻāŌ…
5. …ʘāȂřāŇŘāŜāŘŪŌāĹŬĻāŘŬĻāŎāŖȖŬĹāĹŢāŜāĽ… 11. …ĽŬřāĸāĹɖŎāĹŢāŉĻāŉŜāȘŢāȌĻŜāĽŪāŉŬāŜāȢāĽŪāŉŬāĸŎŜāŘŪŇă
6. …ȮāŌāŕŬāŖɁĹāŜāŘāȝŬŌāȨŬĻāŗŜāŜ… 12. ŊŪāļŢŉāŉāŖȋŬāʗŜāŕŪŘāŉŬāȨŢŉāŊāŘāŞāȲāĹĿŢŜ…
Exercise 18
1. …ŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬă 6. …ŌķŬřāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬ…ŌŚŇāŜă 10. …ŉŬ…ŌŅŬŉāŉŬă
2. …ŗŬŇāŉŬ…ŗŬŇāŉŬ…ŗŬŇāŉŬă 7. …ĸŬāŐĻāĹŢāŖȐāŊŘāŔŢĻāĸāȉŪŘā 11. …ȅāĹŢŜāȠŌŜāŌŅĻāŉŬă
3. …ŌŅŬŉāŜă ŇĹŬŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă 12. …ŋĹāŚāŎŢāŕāŉŬ…ŉŬă
4. …ȘŢāŌŚŇāʗāĽŪāŉŬ‫ؙ‬ă 8. …ŗŬŇāŉŬ…Ŝă
5. …ȅāŜŘāŜŬĻāŉŬ…ŜŬĻāŉŬă 9. …ĿŬāŇĹŬŜāŉŬ…ŗŬŇāŉŬă
Exercise 19
1. ...ȠŪŜāŉŬāŎĿŎă 5. ...ŜŬĻāŉŬāŇřāŎŬāŘŪŇă 9. ...ŖɅŘāŉŬāŇřāŎŬāŘŪŇă
2. ...ŖĸŬŘāŉŬāŇřāŎŬāŘŪŇă 6. ...ŌŇĹāȠŬĻāŗŜāŉŬāȞă 10. ŖȔŢŉāŗŢĹāŖȔŬŇāŉŬāŎȋŬĹŜă
3. ...ŌǧŬřāŉŬāŔŢŎāŊŬāŘŪŇă 7. ...ŖȐŪŜāŉŬāŌǳŉāŊŬāŘŪŇă
4. ...ȖŢŜāŉŬāŌŕĻāĹŢ 8. ...ŋŎāŉŬāɀ‫ؚ‬
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāŌŔŢāŌĴ
Exercise 1
Do by yourself.
Exercise 2
In order: ľŪāŎĻāă ľŪāŎĻāĻāŜŬĻāă ǵŌŜāľŪāŌŇŪŘă ľŪāŌķŬřāŘă ľŪāŎĻāă ǵŌŜāľŪāŎŢāŌŇŪāŘŪŇă ľŪāȢŜă ŖŇŬŇāŊāľŪāĽŪă ľŪāŎņŬŘă ľŪāŎĻāĻāă
ľŪāŎŢāŖŇĻāŘŪŇă ľŪāȹĻāĻāɆŇāŜŬĻāă ľŪāŗŬŇāŘă ľŪāȝāŘŪŇă řŜāřāľŪāŌȂŬŉāŘŪŇă ľŪāŎĻāŘŪŇă ľŪāŎĻāĻāă ľŪāɗŘāŘă ľŪāŎĻāĻāă
Exercise 3
1. …ŇĹŪāɓĹŜāŊāĹŢāȜŬřāĹŅŬŇāŎĸŉāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŖĹŬāŎāŘŪŇă 7. …ȗāŎāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎņŬŉāŊŬŘāŌȂŢāŉŬāŗŢŉă
2. …ŌŬŇāĹŢāŌŏŉāŊŬāŇŌĻāĽŪāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă 8. …ŌŬŇāȘŢāŕŬŜāĹŬĻāŌȱŘāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŗŜāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
3. …ŖɋĹŜāʖŉāĹŢāņŬĹāŉŜāȘŢāȕŜāǯŪŜāĽŪāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă 9. …ɁŜāŘŌŜāǭŬŉāŎāŞāŎŇŬāŉŜāŎĸŜāŊāŞāȿāĹŢŜāȋĹŜāļŉā
4. …ŎĸŜāŊāŖʀŘāǷŬĹāŞāȿāĹŢŜāĽŪāŉŬāŘŪŇă ĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
5. …ĹŅŎāʗŇāŉĻāĹŢāŎŢāǺāŞāȿāĹŢŜāȋĹŜāļŉāŘŪŇă 10. …ŇŪĻāŘŌŜāĹŢāȂŬŎāŊāŊŬāŚŉāɔĹŜāĽŪāŚŬŜāŗŢŉă
6. …ǹřāŖȕŬŘāŌāŇķŖāřŜāŞāȿāĹŢŜāȘŬĻāŉŬāŘŪŇă
Exercise 4
1. …ŚāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŕāŉŬ…ă …ŚāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎŢāŕāŉŬ… 7. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāʈĹāŚŬŜ…ă …ŜāĽāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎŪŇāŊŬā…
2. …ȘŢāŎĻāŚŬŜ…ă …ŘŢĹāŉŬāȹĻāŚŬŜ… 8. …ȞāŚŬŜ…ă …ĻŉāŚŬŜ…ă
3. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāĹŬŉāĹŢāŗŬŇ…ă …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāĹŬŉāŉŬ… 9. …ŎĻāŚŬŜ…ă …ĹřāĽŪāŚŬŜ…
4. …ŗĹāŚŬŜ…ă …ŗĹāŚŬŜā…ă 10. …ŖŐǓāŉāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŖŇŬŇāŜ…ă ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŖŐǓāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇāŜ…
5. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŖőǅŎāŉŬ…ă ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎŢāŖőǅŎāŉŬ… 11. …ŖȉĹŜāŚŬŜ…
6. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎņŬŉāŊŬ…ă …ŘŢāŎņŬāŚŬŜā…
Exercise 5
1. …ŘŢĹāŊāǹŬāŚŪŜāŘŪŇă …ŖŌŌāŚŜāĽŪă 6. …ŖľŬŉāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă …ŗŢŉāŚŜāĽŪă
2. …ȢřāĸŌāĽŪāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă …ĿŬāŚŜāĽŪă 7. …ĽŪāŚŬŜāŗŢŉă …ŕāŚŜāĽŪă
3. …ŘŢāŎņŬāŚŬŜāŗŢŉă …ŇĹŖāŚŜāĽŪă 8. …ĽŪāŚŬŜ…ă …ŗŢŉāŚŜāĽŪă
4. …ŌŕĻāŚŬŜāŗŢŉă …ŖȋŬāŚŜāĽŪ…ă 9. …ȘŢĻāȌĹŜāĽŪāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă …ȠŪāŚŜāĽŪă
5. …ŖȉĹŜāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă …ʗĹŜāŖȔŬŇāŚŜāĽŪă 10. …ŎĻāŚŬŜ…ă …ŗŢŉāŚŜāĽŪă
Exercise 6
In order: ǵŬŌŜāĽŪāŚŬŜāŘă ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎŪŇāŊŬă ǵŬŌŜāľŪāĽŪă ʗāľŪāŗŬŇă ŗŬĻāǪŬāľŪāĽŪă ľŪāŎĻāă ľŪāŎĻāŘŪŇă ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŇŎŖāŎŬă ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŇɆřāŌŬă
ŐŌŜāĽŪāŚŬŜă ľŪāŎņŬŘă ŚŜāĽŪă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ľŪāʈĹ ľŪāŇķŖāŘŪŇă ǵŬŌŜāĽŪāŚŬŜă ľŪāʈĹāĹ ĹŉŇāŖĹĹāŞāȿāĹŢŜāĽŪāŌŬāŘŪŇă
Exercise 7
Do by yourself.
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Exercise 8
1. ĻŜāřŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŚŬŜāȕāŌāŇŬŉāǲŢĻāļŉāŘŪŇă 6. ȘŢāĹɏĹŜāĽŪāŚŬŜāȲŘāĹŪāŎāŘŪŇă
2. ĻŜāŌǴŜāŉāɆāŎŬāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŗĹāŎāŐǅāŘŢĻāĹŢāȜŢĻāŎŬāŘŪŇă 7. ŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāȘŢāĻŜāŘŢĹāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŉĻāŉŜāŜŪŎŜāŌŕĻāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă
3. ŌŬŇāǧŇāȨŬĻāȢŬāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŇķŖāŎŬāŎāŘŪŇă 8. ŇŎŪāŌāŌŬŇāĹŢāŜāĽāŞāȿāĹŢŜāȠŢŇāŜāŎāŘŪŇă
4. ŎŬĹāŎŬĹāŌŬŇāĹŢāŕāŎāĻāŇĹŖāŚŬŜāŗŢŉă 9. ȤŬřāŎāĹŢāȕŇāĹɏĹŜāĻŜāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎŢāŌǯŪŇāŉŬāŘŪŇă
5. ĻŖŢāŘŬĹŜāŊāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŇĹŖāŌŬāŌŬŇāŘŢĹŜāŎŢŉă 10. ɼĻāĹŬāĹŢāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŉĻāŉŜāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŖŇŢāȷĻāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă
Exercise 9
1. …ȲŘāĹŪāŜŬĻāŉāŇřāŚŬŜāŘŪŇă 6. …ŗŬŉāŅŉāȘŢāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŗŢŇāŎŢāĽŪŜāŉŬāŘŪŇă
2. …ĽŬŜāŖŋĹŜāŌŅŬŉāŉāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎȋŬĹŜāŉŬāŘŪŇă 7. …ŚāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎŢāŕāŉŬāŌŬŇāȘŢŘāŎŐǓŉāŉāȉŢāŚāŘŪŇă
3. …ŉŎāŎĸŖāŞāȿāĹŢŜāǭŬŉāŊŬāŌŬŇāŉāŗŬŇă 8. …ŇŊřāǷŉāȅāŎŬāʑĻāŎāŌŬŇāȘŢāĹŢŜāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŌǵŪŉāŉŬāŘŪŇă
4. …ĹŕŢāŐāǸŪāŇȳāŜāĽāŗĹāŚŬŜāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă 9. …ȲŘāĹŪāŌǵŉāŊāĹŢāɱŉāŗāŗŢŉāŚŜāĽŪă
5. …ŎŐǓāȠŢŇāĻāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŜŪŎŜāŖĽŬŘāŜāŘŪŇă 10. …ȘŢĻāȜŢĻāĹɖŎāŊŬ‫ؙ‬āŉĻāŉŜāŘŪāŌāļŉāŊŬāɈŘāĹŪāŘŪŇă
Exercise 10
1. …ǴŬŜāŉ…ȹĻāă 5. …ŌɭŘāŉ …ĽŪă 9. …ǴŬŜāŉāŔŢāřŢŘ…ŔŢāřŢŘāǴŬŜāŉ…ă
2. …ŌɭŘāŉ…ŎĻāă 6. …ŉāǴŬŜāŉ…ă 10. …ŉāŌɭŘāŉāȐŬŉāŊŬāŗŢŉă
3. …ǴŬŜāŉ…ĹŏǓāĽŪă 7. …ĻāŌɭŘāŉ …ȹĻāă 11. …ĻāŌɭŘāŉ…ŎĻāă
4. …ŖŪāǴŬŜāŉ…ĽŪă 8. …ŉāǴŬŜāŉ…ŎĻāă 12. …ǴŬŜāŉ…ŕă
Exercise 11
1. ĻāŇȕŘāĹŉĻāĻāɑɐāŉŜāĿŢŉāŎāɖŎāȶāĹŢāŗŉāŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇă ŇĹŬŜă
2. ĻāŎŪŇāŊŬāŗŢŉă ĸĻāȍāǪŬŘāŎŬāɖŎāŌȢāĹŢāŗŉāǵŪŘāŎŢāɀŌă 7. ŜāŖŇŢāȠŢŇă ĻāŖŇŢāŉŜāĿŢŉāŎāĹɖŎāĹŢāŎŉāŎŢāŖɁĹ
3. ĽĹŜāĹŗŢŜāȞŢŉāɖŎāȶāĹŢāŎŉāĹŢŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŎŢāņŬŉă 8. ȝŬŌāŎāŐǅāŘŢĻāřŬāȷĻāŉāŘāĹɏĹŜāɅāŌŬāĹŢāŎŉāŎāŘŪŇă
4. řŜāŎŢāŚŪŜāŉāřŜāķāȂāŎŬāĹŢāŗŉāŇķŖāŎŬāŎŪŇă 9. ŐǅāŘŢĻāŘŢĹāŊāĹŢāņŬĹāŉŜāɅāŌŬāĹŢāŗŉāŎāŘŪŇă
5. ȝŬŌāȮā˪āͨΨāν ĹŢāŗŉāŉāȝŬŌāȮāŎŪŇă ȝŬŌāȮāŐĻāŎāȞāŉāņĻāŘă 10. ĸŎŜāŉŜāŜāĽāĸāŗŜāŜāŎĹŬāɈŜāǵŬĻāĹĿŢŜāĹŢāŗŉāŘŪŇă
6. ŞāŎŇŬāŉŜāŔāŗŜāŘŢĹŜāĹŢŜāřŬāŌȢŇāĹŢāŗŉāŉāȝŬŌāȮāŖŇŬŉā
Exercise 12
1. ȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŉŜāĸĻāŌȂŪĹŜāŕŬāǭŬŉāĽŇāŘāŎņŬă ŇŪĻāŜĻāȅĹāĹŢŜāŎņŬă
2. ŌŬŇāǧŇāŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă ȢāǧŇāȅĹāȿāŇķŖāŎŬāŘŪŇă
3. ȚāŌāŜŖŢāĹŬāřāĹŢāŘŜāņĹāŘŢĻāă ĹŕŖāŎŢĹāŇŎŘāȅĹāĹŢŜāņĹāŘŢĻāă
4. ĻāŖľŘāŊŉāĹŢāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāŇĹŖă ŞāŎŪāŘŢāĸŖŢāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāȅĹāȿāŇĹŖă
5. ŜāŎņŖāŉŜāŖŐǓāŌāȂāŎŬāŎāŘŪŇă řŬāǨŜāŉāȅĹāȿāŎāŘŪŇă
6. ŘŬĹŜāŊāŗŢŉāŉāȓŢāņĹāŘŢĻāŇĹŬŜă ŌŕŖāȚāŗŢŉāŉāȅĹāȿāŘŢĻāŇĹŬŜă
7. ȕāŌāŖŇŢāȊŢĹŜāŜŪāŘŪŇă ȅĹāĹŢŜāŇķŖāŎŬāĻŜāŎŢāȉĹ
8. ǪŬāŉŜāŎŢāŖȉĹŜāĹŢ ŉĻāŉŜāȅĹāȿāŎŢāŖȉĹŜă
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9. ŕāŎā˞āȲāĸāŎŬāŘŪŇă ŕŬŜāŉŢāŘāĻāȅĹāĹŢŜāǧŬŎāĹŢ
10. ŞāŎāŘŢĹāŉŢāŘāŔāŗŜāȅĹāȿāŌŜŬŇāņřă
Exercise 13
1. …ǴŬŜāŉ…ă ɁŜāŐǓŇāɀĻāă 6. …ľŪāŎĻāŘŪŇ…ľŪāĽŪ…ă
2. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāŖȉĹŜă 7. …ȅĹāĹŢŜāŎŢāŎņŬă
3. …ǴŬŜāŉāŇŇāŊāĽŪă 8. …ȘŢĻāľŪāĽŪā…ȅĹāȿāŇķŖāŎŬ…ă
4. …ȅĹāȿāȹĻ…ľŪāȹĻā…ă 9. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜāĽŪāŌŬ…ŞāȿāĹŢŜ…ă
5. …ŞāȿāĹŢŜā…ă 10. …ĹŢāŗŉāŉāŇĹŬŉāŊāĽŪ…ȅĹāȿāŘŢĻā…ă
Exercise 14
1. ȘŢāʈĹāŊŬāŜŪŎŜāȠŢŇāŉŬāȘŢāŎŪŇāŊŬāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉāŉāņĻāă ȘŢāĿŎŜāȷĻāŖŇŢāřāĿŪāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇă
2. ŔāŗŜāŖŇŢāĹŔŉāŜŪŎŜāĽŪāŉŬāȲŘāĹŪŖāŢ ŞāŋāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă ɑřāǧŬŘāŌāŖŇŢāĹŔŢāŌŇĹāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŘāŎŘāŘāŖȋŬă
3. ɃāŌŬāȷĻāĻŬāŖľŬŉāņĻāɅāŌŬāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă ŘŬĻāŌāŕŬāŘāŖȖŬĹāŊāŕŬāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎȌŬŉāȂŢŜāĽŪă
4. ĻāȲŘāĹŪāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŐǓŉāŊŬāŗŢŉă ŔŢāřŢāŘāŞāŋāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāĸāŗĹāĽŪă
5. ȉŬŇāȲŘāĹŪāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāǪŬŘāŎŬŘāŎŢāŌŜŪŘă ȘŢāŇŬŉāŊŬāŕŪŘāŉŬāŐƾĹāņŬĹāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă
6. ŔāŗŜāŖŇŢāĹĿŢŜāķāȝŬŌāĹŜŬāņŬŌāŉŬāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŔāŗŜāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă ȢřāĸŌāŖŇŢāŖʀŘāǷŬĹāɼĻāĹŬāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāĽŪă
7. ĻŖŢāŞāŋāĿřāȢŬŘāŇĹŖāŉŬāȉŬŇāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă ŎŪŇāŊŬāʈĹāŊŬāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŇāŐƾŎāĸāŎŢāŇķŖă
8. ɈŘāĹŪāɈŘāĹŪŖŢāŞāŎāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāǧŇāŗĹ ȘŢāȌĹŜāļŉāȘŢĻāĹŢŜāŖŌŬŇāȢŬāȘŢāȘŢĻāŎŪŇāŖŌŬŇāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāȂāŎŬāŎŢŉă
Exercise 15
In order: ŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹ ŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹ ŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹ ŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŢāĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 16
1. ŌŬŇāĹŢāȠŪŜāŊāĹŢŜāȉŢŎāřŜāȠŪŜāŎāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāřŜă 6. ŖȖŬĹāŜāŉŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāʗĹāŎŢāĽŪă
2. ŌŬŇāŉŜāŔŢāŎŬāŕŬāȝŬŌāȮŘāŔŢāřŢāŕŬāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŖȋŬă 7. ŌŬŇāĹŢāȩāŉĹāŇŪĻāŜĻāŘŜāȳŘāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŘŢĹāʗāŎŪŇă
3. ŘāŎāŌʑŉāŎŬāɓĹāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă 8. ŞāŎŇŬāŉŜāŉŜāĸŎŜāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāřŬĻŜāȦŬŇāŗŜă
4. ŘŬĻāŌāŕŬŘāŖȖŬĹāŊāŕŬāĹŢāʈĹŜāŕŬĹāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎĻāĻāŎŪŇă 9. ŞāŎŇŬāŜāŎĹŬāŇɆŜāĹŏĻāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŎņŬă
5. ŌŬŇāŎŢāĹŢŜāǭŬāŐǓŇāȢāŎŢāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŕă 10. ȢāŎŢāĹŢŜāŚāŌŬŇāŎŢāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŕă
Exercise 17
1. ĻāȝŬŌāĹŜŬāȝŬŌāȷĻāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāņŬŌāŗŬŇă 5. ȲŘāĹŪāȘŢāȠŢŇāŊŬāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāȞĻāŎŬāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
2. ĻŜāĿŢŉāȌĻŜāĻāřŜāķāɁŜāŐǓŇāĹɖŎāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. ĻŖŢāɓŜāŇŪĻāŎāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă
3. ĻāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāĽŬŜāȌĹŜāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŇĹŖă 7. ĻŜāŌŬŇāĹŢāŕāŎāŇŪĻāŎāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāȐŉāĹŢ
4. ĻŖŢāȈŇāŊāĻŖŢāɃāŌŬāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŎȋŬĹŜă 8. ĻŜāŌŚŇāŉŬāȲŘāĹŪŜāŌŚŇāŉŬāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāȞāĹŢ
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Exercise 18
1. ŌŬŇāǧŇāŇȕŢŉāǧŇāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŇķŖāŎŬāŎāŘŪŇă 5. ȲŘāĹŪāȂŢŜāŘŢĹāŇȕŢŉāŗŢĹāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāȨŬĻāȢŬŘāŎŢāŇĹŖă
2. ȓŢāȢřāĹŢāĸĻāȍāŌŬŇāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢāŇŎŖă 6. ŘŬĻāŉŜāǳāȐŪřāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāĹŬāĽŬŇāŎŢŉă
3. ȓŢāȢřāŌāĹŢŜāŖŬāŕŜāŕŬŜāŉāŌŬŇāȘŢāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă ȅĹāȿāŕă 7. ȅāŜāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŉāŌŬŇāŎŢāȢāŎŢāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŎĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
4. ǧŎŜāŚāɓĹāŚāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŐǓŉāŊŬāŎāŘŪŇă 8. ŞāŎŇŬāŉāŇɼĹŜāľāŘĻāĹŖŢāŖŬāľāĹŢāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŖɀĻāĹŢāŎŪŇă
Exercise 19
1. ŇȕŢŉāľŢāŜāȢāȷĻāŉāŘāŝŬāřŉāŉāǴŬŜāŉāĽŪă 5. ŌŬŇāŘāǴŬŜāŉāĻāȅĹāĹŢŜāŜŬĻāŉāŖŇŬŇāŜāŎŪŇă
2. ɘāɒāɖāŞāŎŪāŘŢāĸŘāǴŬŜāŉāŐŉāŘŢĹāřĹāȂřāȅĹāĹŢŜāŎŢāŎņŬă 6. ȘŢāɒřāŎāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜ"řŜāȢŬŘāǴŬŜāŉāŖɁĹāȢŬāĹřāĽŪă"ŕŪŘă
3. ɼĻāĹŬ‫ؙ‬āŘŢĹāĹŉŜāŞāŎŪāŘŢāĸāĹŢāŘŢĹāĹŉŜāǴŬŜāŉāȉŌāŎŢāĽŪă 7. ŔŢāŎŬāŖŇŢŜāŔāŗŜāŔŢāŎŬŘāǴŬŜāŉāŔŢāřŢāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. ŖŇŢāĹĿŢŜāķŘāǴŬŜāŉāȉŬŇāĹĻāŇĹŬŜă 8. ȘŢāřāřāĹŢŜāŐǅāŖŇŢŘāǴŬŜāŉāŐǅāȓŢāŎāĹřāĽŪāŕŪŘă
Exercise 20
1. ŔŢāŎŬāĹɏĹŜāļŉāŇŪāĹɏĹŜāɈŜāĹĿŢŜāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă 5. ĸŬāŐĻāŌļŖāŇĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă ŇāŌŬāĹŏĻāŎāŘāŘŪŇă
2. ŔŢāřŢāŋŬāǪŬāļŉāŇŪāřŬāɖŎāȶāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă 6. ĹŉŎāʁāŇŪŖŢāĹŬĻāǪŬŘāŎŬāȕŪāŌāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă
3. ŇŬāŐƾĹŜāĻŖŢāŗŬĻāǪŬāŉāŉŢĻāĹŢāŗŬĻāǪŬāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă 7. ɈŘāĹŪāŔŪāŌŕĻāŉŬāɈŘāĹŪŖŢāŞāļŪāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă
4. ʂāŎāŇŪŖŢāǧŇāǲŉāŎŬāŇŪĻāŎāĹŢŜāŘāŎŢāŐŇă 8. ĻāȠĹāŉŬāȗāŖȉŎŜāŉŬāĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă
Exercise 21
Do by yourself.
Exercise 22
1. …ŎŐǓāǭŬŉāŊŬāĹŢāĽŪāŎĿŎāŎŪŇ…ŎāŋŎāĹɑāŎŐǓāĹŢāĹřāĽŪāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
2. …ŇŪŖŢāǭāŎĿŎāŎŪŇ…ȋŬāŐĻāǶŬāǯŪāŖĽĻ…ĹŢāȘŢĻāȌĹŜāĽŪāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
3. …ŇŪŖŢāŎņŬāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
4. …ȋŬāŐĻāĹŢāŇŘāŎĿŎāŎŪŇ…ŎĹŬāřŬĹāĹŢāŇŘāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
5. …ŇŪŖŢāĽŪāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
6. …ŘŬĻāĹŢāŇĹŬŉāŊāĹŢāŎĻāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
7. …ŘŬĻāĹŢāȝŬŌāŎāĹŢāĽŪāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
8. …ĹŢāȐŬāŎĿŎāŎŪŇă
Exercise 23
In order: ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŗŉă ǴŬŜāŉă ȅĹāȿă ŚŬŜă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŚŬŜă ľŪă ľŪă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă
ȅĹāĹŢŜă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ǴŬŜāŉă ŗŉă Ŏŉă ĹŢŜāŎŢāŐŇă ŚŬŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ȅĹāȿă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ĹŢāŗŉă ŎĿŎāŗŬŇă
ĹŢ ŎĿŎāŎŪŇă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ŚŬŜă
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Exercise 24
1. ŇŪĻāŜĻāŌŬŇāĹŢāŜāĽāŇŪĻāŎāŘāŎŢāĹļŢĹ ŘŪŇă
2. ĻāŘāĻŖŢāɱŉāŗāŖőƾŉāȮāŎŢāĹļŢĹ 6. ŇŪĻāŜĻāŖŐǓāŌāȠŢŇāŉŬāŘāŜŪŎŜāŇřāŉŬāŇŪĻāŎāŘāŎŢāĹļŢĹ
3. ŇȕŢŉāǧŇāŘāŌŬŇāǧŇāȨĻŜāŉāŇķŖāŎŬāĹļŢĹāŖȐāŎŢŉă 7. ȘŢāľŪāŐǓŘāĹŅŬĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āņŬĹāŉŜāŚāǺĹāŘāȓŪāĹļŢĹāŎŢŉă
4. ʂāŎāŖŇŢŖŢāǧŇāŇŪĻāŎāŘāĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă ľŪāŗĹāŘŪŇă 8. ʈĹŜāřŜāŘāŔŢĻāřŜāŇķŖāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉŬāĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹāŎŢŉă
5. ȝŬŌāȨŬĻāĹŢāņŬĹāŉŜāĸŬāȝŬŌāȌŬĹŜāĹŔŉāŊāŘāĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹāŎā
Exercise 26
ŖȐ / ŖȐāŖȐ ŘŢĹŘŢĹāŖȐ
1. ķŬāĹŢāȅŎāŖŇŢāŘāŘŜāĹŢāȅŎāĹŉāȞāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉŬāŖȐāŖȐāŘŪŇă 1. ĻŖŢāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŘāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĽŪāŉŬāŘŢĹāĹŢ
2. ŇŪĻāŜĻāĹŢāȦŢāŐǓĹŜāŘāŇŪĻāŎāĹŢāȦŢāŐǓĹŜāŎŢāŖȐă ŇŪĻāŜĻāȦŢā 2. ȢřāĸŌāŜŬāŜŬ‫ؙ‬āȢřāŇŘāŎŇŬĹāŘāŇȕŢŌŜāŎŢāŘŢĹāĹŢ
ŐǓĹŜāŝŬĻāĹŢŜāŇŘă 3. ĹŗĹāŘāŎőǓāɊĹŜāķāŘŢĹāŖȐāŎāŘŪŇă
3. ŌŬŇāŗŢĹāŘāŇȕŢŉāŗŢĹāŌǶāȧŬŇāŇķŖāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉŬāŖȐāĹŢ 4. ŎŐǅāŎāĹĿŢŜāķāŘŢĹāŖȐāŎāŘŪŇă ĹļŢĹāĽŪă ĹļŢĹāȷĻāă
4. ĻŖŢāŞāļŪāŘāɃāŎŬāĻŬāȷĻāŗŢŉāŉŬāŖȐāŖȐāŎāŘŪŇă 5. ĻŖŢāŇŊŪāĽāŘāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŇŪāŎŢāŘŢĹāĹŢ ĻŖŢāŇŪāŎɀĹāĹŢ
5. ȢřāĸŌāŇŘāȢŜāļŉāŘāȢřāĸŌāŎŪŇāŊŬāȝŬŌāĹŜŬāȞāŉŬāŎŢāŖȐă 6. ŖȐāŊŘāŖŇŢāĹĿŢŜāŎŢāŘŢĹāĹŢ ĹļŢĹāŉāŉŢĻāĹŢ ĹļŢĹāŇŬāŐƾĹŜāĹŢāŘŪŇă
6. ȓŢāȢřāĹŢāȘŢāŘāŌŬŇāĹŢāȘŢāĹĿŢŜāķāŌȂŢāŌȱŘāĽŪāŉŬāŖȐāĹŢ 7. ŖľŘāŊŉāŊāŘāɼĻāĹŬāŌāŘŢĹāŖȐāŘŪŇă ĹĿŢŜāķāŞāŚŪāŗāĹŢāȘŢāŘŪŇă
7. ɼĻāĹŬāŉŜāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŐĻāŎāŖȐāĹŢ ŐĻāŎāŞŘāŖŇŎāŘŪŇă 8. ȢāŎŐǓāĹŢāŎŇŬĹāŘāĹŉŎāŎĸŖāĹŢāŎŇŬĹāŘŢĹāĹŢ ǭŬŉāŊŬāŘŪŇă
8. ȜŬĹāĽĹŜāŘāȘŢāŎĸŖāŇɆĹŜāŇĹŬŜāŉŬāŖȐāŖȐāŘŪŇă
Exercise 27
In order: ĹļŢĹāŖȐă ĹļŢĹāŖȐă ĹļŢĹ ŎŢāĹļŢĹ ŎŢāĹļŢĹ ŖȐāŖȐă ŘŢĹāŖȐă ŎŢāĹļŢĹāĹŢ ŎŢāĹļŢĹ ŘŢĹāŖȐă ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŉŢāŎāŘŪŇă ĹļŢĹ
ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă ŖȐāĹŢ ŎŢāĹļŢĹāŜă ĹļŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇă ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇă ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŅĹāŅĹ
Exercise 28
ŘŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇ / ŖȐāŖȐāŚŪŇ ǴŘāŘ / ǴŘāŚŪŇ

1. ŞāŋāŘāŔŢāřŢāŘŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇāŖȋŬāĹŢ 1. ŜĻŜāȢŜāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŞāŋāĹŢāǴŘāŘāǭĹŜāŊāŌļŖāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. ȜŬĹāĽĹŜāĸāŗŜāŘāȘŢāŖȐāŖȐāŚŪŇāŎĻřāŘāĽĹŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 2. ŞāŎŪāŘŢāĸāĹŢŜāŇȕŢŉāľŢāĹŢāǴŘāŘāŇȕŢŉāǧŇāŌķŬřāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. ĻāŇŬŉāŖʁŌāŘāŘŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇāȷŘāȟřă 3. ĻŖŢāɱŉāŗāĹŢŜāĻāǴŘāŚŪŇāɓŜāȂřāŌāŗŜāŉāŖŇŬŇă
4. ĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāɁŜāŐǓŇāŖȐāŖȐāŚŪŇāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŘāņŬŉă 4. ɈŘāĹŪāȘŢāŎĹŬāǵŬĻāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāǴŘāŚŪŇāŝĻāȟřāŘŪŇă
5. ɱŉāŗāĹĿŢŜāķŜāŇȕŢŉāǧŇāŞāȄāŖȐāŖȐāŚŪŇāŌŚŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă 5. ĻŖŢāɱŉāŗāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŉāȚāŎĻāĻāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāǴŘāŚŪŇāĻŬāȷĻāă
6. ȉŢŎāŖŇŢāŉŜāȘŢāŜŬāŜŬāĹŢŜāřŜāķāŖȐāŖȐāŚŪŇāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. ȲŘāĹŪāĹŔŢāŌŇĹāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāǴŘāŚŪŇāĹĻāŜāĹĻāĻāŖȋŬă
7. ŎŐǅāŎāĹĿŢŜāķŜāĹŬŉāʗāŘŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇāĹŬŉă 7. ȁŉāĹŜŪŘāĹŢāǴŘāŘāĹŬĻāĽŪāĹŢ
8. ǪŬŘāŎŬāŐĻāŎāřŜāķāŌāŕŬŘāŖȐāŖȐāŚŪŇāŌĹŬŜāŌŅĻāă 8. ȘŢāɒŜāǿřāĹŢāǴŘāŚŪŇāŐǅāņĹāŎŢāŘŢĻāă
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Exercise 29
1. …ɈŘāĹŪŖŢāŞāŎāĹŢāŗĹāŎĿŎā…ă 4. …ŎŢāŖȐ…ĹļŢĹāŘŪŇă 7. …ȲŘāĹŪŖŢāǴŘāŘāřŜāŎŢāĿŉă
2. …ɈŘāĹŪŘāǴŬŜāŉāŌǸŇāŉŬā…ă 5. …ȲŘāĹŪāŘāĹļŢĹāŎŢŉă 8. …ĹļŢĹāŖȐāŚŪŇ…ĹļŢĹāŖȐā
3. …ŘŢĹāŖȐāŎāŘŪŇă 6. …ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹāŘŪŇă ŚŪŇ…ă
Exercise 30
In order: ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ȅĹāȿă ĹŢāŗŉāŉă ȅĹ ŗŉāŉă ŖȐāŖȐă ǴŬŜāŉă ŞāȿāĹŢŜă ȅĹ ŗŉāŉă ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŖȐāŘŪŇă ǴŬŜāŉă
ĹŢāŗŉă ȅĹāȿă ȅĹāĹŢŜă ŎŢāĹļŢĹāĹŢ ȅĹāĹŢŜă ĹŢāŎŉă ȅĹāȿă ŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŘāĹļŢĹ ĹŢāȅĹ ľŪă ĹŢāŎŉă ĹŢāǴŘāŘă ǴŘāŚŪŇă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌļŬāǬāŌĴ
Exercise 1
1. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŌɁŉāŊāĹŢāǵŪĻāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 5. ĹŬŉāʗāŎɀĹāŊŬāŖȉŪŘāŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă
2. ŇĻŬŜāŌŬāȂāĽŪŉāŖŇŢāŎŢāĿŬă 6. ȉŬŜāŌŚŇāŉŬāŎŢāĹŬāĹŢ ŖŇŢāŉŜāɐŘāȤāĽŪāĹŢ
3. ʗĹŜāȧŬŇāŐŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ŇŊŪāĽāŖŇŢāŇŊŘāĹŢāŖȉŪŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. ŇŪĻāŜĻāŇĻŬŜāŌŬāŗāŎŐŘāŎĻāĻāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 8. ŇĻŬŜāŌŬāʗāɱŜāļŉāŖľŘāŎŉāŉāřŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 2
Do by yourself.
Exercise 3
1. ȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŉāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜāŌǴāʗāŗŢŉă 5. ȲŘāĹŪŘāŎāŌŚŇāŉā˪āŎŢāņĻāă
2. ĻāȅāŜāŉāŗŬŇāɁŜă ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŘŬĹŜāŊŘāĸāŊŘāŌŅĻāĻāă 6. ŕāŎāŌǧŬřāŗŬŇă ŘŪŇāȐāŞāŋāŎŢāņŬŉāĹŢ
3. ŇŊřāŖȕŬŘāĸŪŘāŘŬāŌŜŎŜāŎŜāĸŬŘāɑĹāŌȄŇāŌŅĻāă 7. ȘŢāĻŉāŊāŇŪāĸāŎāŇɻă ȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŎĿŎāŊŜāŖȋŬāŘāŎāŖȋŬă
4. ŇȕŘāĹŉĻāĹŢāǧŌŜāŌāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāȢŬāŎŢāŚŪŜă 8. ɈŘāĹŪāȠŢŇāĹŢāŎŪŇă ȕāŌāŖŋŪŉāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 4
1. řŬāŅŬĹāȚāŌāŌɁŉāŊāĹŢāŉĻāĻāŖȖŪĹāʗāŘŪŇă 5. ȤŬřāŎāĹŢŜāŌŚŇāŉă țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĹŢāŊāŜŪāŐĻāŎāĿŬāʗŜāŕŪŘă
2. ŇŬŉāŇĹāŇāŌŚŇāŉāǭāŜŬĻāă ĹɎĹāŉŜāŌŚŇă 6. ŉĻŜāķāɑřāǧŬŘāŗŜāŉāŖȌŢĹāĹŢ ŉŎāȚāŌŕĻāŉă
3. ȲŘāĹŪŘāǪŬŘāŎŬāȕŢŉāȕŢŉāŌŅĻāă ŇāŌŬāŎĹŬāŎŢāņŬŉāŉāŌķŬŇāŊāŎŪŇă 7. ŔāŕŜāŕŬāɑřāǧŬŘāŘāŎŢāȉŢŇă ĸŬāŕŬāɭĹāŅĹāŅĹāŘŪŇă
4. ŕāŎāŐĻāŎāĿŬŜāŗŬŇă ŇĻŬŜāŌŬāĹŔŉāŊāļĻāŎŢāŇĹŬŜă 8. ĻāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āǭŬŉāŉāȉŢŎāŎāņŬŉāŉāŕāŎāŌǧŬřāŗă
Exercise 5
In order: ĿŬŜă ĿŬāŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă řŪŉāŇĹŬŜă ŕāŎāǧŬřāȢŬŘă ŇĹŬŜāĹŢ ǪŬāŌȢŌāŗŬŇāĹŢ ŌȶĹāŗŬŇă ĿŬŜāŗŬŇă ǱŪŇāȢŬă ŌŚŇāŉāŞŪāĽŬĹ ŌȶĹ
ȌāȤŢĹāŗŜāŎŪŇă ĿŬă ĿŬŜāŗŬŇă řŪŉāŇĹŬŜă ĿŬāŇĹŬŜă ĿŎŜāřŪŉāŗŜāʗāŗŢŉă ŇĹŬŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă ŘŢĹāŞŪāɀŌă ȐŉāʗāŘŪŇă
ĸāŊŘāĹŅŬĻāă ŗŢāĹŪāĹŅŬĻāă ǴāȠŬĻāŗŜāŇĹŬŜă
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Exercise 6
1. ȦŢŉāņĹāĹāĿŉāŉŜāŇȕŢŉāǧŇāȨŬĻāŇĹŬŜă 5. ŗŢāĹŪāŌɜŘāŉŜāĻŖŢāŋāŎāĹĿŢŜāķāʗāŎŐŉāŌŚŇāŇĹŬŜă
2. ȁŉāĸāŎŬāŗŢŉāŇāŎŢŉāŇāŖɀĻŜāŉŜāŉŇāŌļŖāŇĹŬŜă 6. ĸāŗĹāŌŚŇāŉŜāǪŬŘāŎŬāřŪŉāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. ǪŬŘāŎŬāŌŜĹŜāŉŜāŞāŎāȁŉāŊŘāǵŬŉāŇĹŬŜă 7. ǪŬŘāŎŬāɁŜāņŬĹāĹāȕŢŉāŉŜāȝŬŌāȮāřŜāĹŢāŖȸĹāʗāŘŪŇă
4. ŖʁřāŌāŕŬāĽĻāŎĻāĻāʌŇāŉŜāŌŕŢāĹŢāŖȸĹ 8. ŔŢĻāĻāȷāŌŅĻāŉŜāřŬāŅŬĹāǧŎāĹŢāŖȸĹāĹŢāŎŪŇă
Exercise 7
1. ĹŅŪŘāĸāŌǥŬŜāŉŜāĸŬŘāɑĹāľŪāŌŏǓĹāŘŪŇă 5. ȧĻāŌŬāĸāŇɻŜāŉŜāŇāŖȋŬāĸāĿŉāĹŢāŎŪŇă
2. ĽĻāŖɀĻŜāŖɀĻŜāŉŜāȓŢāĿŢŉāŇŬŉāŇĹāŕŬāŎŢāȐŉāĹŢ 6. ŔāŗŜāĹŚŪāĹŚŪāŌŅĻāŉŜāȘŢāǺāɀĻāĹŕŢĹāĹāĿŉāŗŬŇă
3. řŬāʗŜāŌŚŇāŉŜāŎņŖāŎŘāɈŘāĹŪŜāȝŬŌāȮŘāŖȋŬāȢŬāĸŜā 7. ȁŉāĸāŎŬāŖɀĻŜāŖɀĻŜāŉŜāŉŇāŊāŔŪāŎľŪŇāĹŢāŗŬŇă
ȗĻŜă 8. ȘŢāĹŢāĻŉāŅĹāŅĹāřŌāŉŜāŇāĸŬāŘĻāĹŪāĸāřŜāŇĹŪāĹŢāŎŪŇă
4. ȲŘāĹŪāŎĹŬāǧŬŘāŌŅĻāŉŜāŇāĻŘāřĻŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă
Exercise 8
1. …ɜŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă …ĸāŊŘāŌŅĻāŌŅĻāă 5. …ŌŚŖāĹŢāŗŬŇă …ŌɼŜă
2. …ŎŢāȠŪřă …ŕŪŘ…ŌǯŪŜāŌŅĻāă 6. …ŇŇāŊāȕŪŇă …ĸāŌǱĻŜă
3. …ĹŅŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă…ĿŬŜă 7. …ŇĹŖāĹŢāŗŬŇă …ȐŢŜ…ŎāŚŪŜă
4. …ŕāĹŢāŎŪŇă …ŌȢŌ…ȘĻŜă 8. …ŖŇŪŎāĹŢāŗŬŇă…ŎāȕŢŉ…ŎāȗĻŜă
Exercise 10
1. …ǧŬŘă …ŎŢāŖĸŬŘă 5. …ǲřāĹŢāŗŬŇă …ĿřāĹŢāŗŬŇă
2. …ǧŬřāĹŢāŎŪŇă …ĸŬřāĹŢāŎŪŇă 6. …ŌŅĻāă …ŖĹŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. …ŚŢāŜŬĻāă …ŌŜŇāŌŅĻāă 7. …ŌʘŘāŗŬŇă …ŖʀŘāŗŬŇă
4. …ʂāřŪŉ …ʂāȌĹŜāĹŢ 8. …ŌȣŪřă …ŖȋŪř…ă
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāʅĹāŊĴ
Exercise 1
In order: ŌŬă ĽŪāŌŬă ĽŪāŌŬă ŉŬă ĽŪāŌŬă ŊŬă ŉŬă ŊŬă ŌŬă ŜŪŘāŘŬāŌŬă ŌŬă ŌŬă
Exercise 2
1. ȅāŜāĻāŜŬĻāāŉāŖŇŬŇāŜāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă reason: ȅāŜāĹŉŜāŎĽŬĹāŘŪŇă
2. ŌŬŇāĹŢāŎŘāĻāŇĹŖāŉŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă ŌŬŇāĹŢāŎŘāȐŢāŎāĸāŎŬāŘŪŇă
3. ȂŎāŊāĻāŇĹŖāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă ŇŪāŔŢŎāŘāŔŢŎă ǴŬĹŜāĹŜŬŇāŘāĽŪă
4. ŘŪŌāĹŬĻāĹŢāĹŬāŘŪāĻāŇĹŖāŉŬāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă ŘŪŌāĹŬĻāĹŢāĹŬāŘŪāĽŪāŜŬĻāă
5. ŞāŎŇŬāĹŢāɀĹāŊāĻāŇĹŖāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă ŇŪāŔŢŎāŉŬāȉŇāŊŘāŌāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
6. ŜŢřāŅŬĹāĻāŇĹŖāŜāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă ŜŢřāŅŬĹāĹāȖŬāŌāŎŪŇāĹŢ
7. ɓĹāŚāŘāĻāŎŢāŇĹŖāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă ɓĹāŚāŕŬŜāŕŬŜāŉŜāŇāŕāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇāĹŢ
8. ǧŎŜāŚāĻāŎŢāŇĹŖāŜāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă ǧŎŜāŚāŎŢāŔŢŎāʗāŎŪŇă
9. ĻŖŢāŇĹŪāǨŉāĻāŇĹŖāŜāŗŢŉă ȲŘāĹŪāȘŢāŌŕĻāĹŜŪŘāŗŢŉă
Exercise 3
1. …ĹĻŜāŘŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă type of place: ŇŪāĹŉŜāŎĽŬĹāŘŪŇă
2. …ŘŢāŞāȿāĹŢŜāŎņŬŉāŊŬāŌŬāŘŪŇă ȘŢāŎĻāĻāŖĹŬŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
3. …ŌŬŇāĹŢāŜāĽāĹŢāŎŐǓāĽŪāŌŬāŘŪŇă ŇŪāɑřāǧŬŘāŘāŖȋŬāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
4. …ŎŐǓāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă ŌŬŇāȘŢāŎľřāǧŬŘāŘāŖȋŬāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
5. …ŋŬāȖĻāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă ŇŪĻāŎāŌŬŇāĹŢāŌŏŉāŊŬāŕŬāŌɎĹŜāŜāŘŪŇă
6. …ɑřāǰŬĻŜāŗĹāŜāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă ȢāŎĻāĻāǴāǧŬŘāŘāŗŬĻāŜāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
7. …ŞāŎŇŬāĹŢāŇĹŬŉāŊāĽŪāŌŬāŘŪŇă ȮāŌāŌļŖāŜāŇĹŖāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
8. …ǳŪŉāĸĻāȅāŜāŉāŗŬŇāŉŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă ȁŬŉāřŎāȢĹāŜāŇĹŖāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
9. …ŞāŎŇŬāĹŢāŘŢāȋĹŜāļŉāŊŬāŘŪŇă ŇŪāĹŔŢāŌŇĹāĹŕŢĹāŖɁĹāŜāŘŪŇă
Exercise 4 In order: ĹŕŢĹ ĽāŏƾĹ ĹŕŢĹ ĽāŘŪă ļĻāă ĽāŏƾĹ ĸāŗŜă ļĻă ĸāŗŜă ŇŪă ĹŕŢĹ řāřă řāřă ļĻāă ĸāŗŜă ĽŪāŌŬă ĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 5
In order: ŌŬă ĽāŏƾĹ ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪă ŇŪă Ĺŉă ŇŪă ŌŬă ĸāŗŜă ļĻāă ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ řāřă ļĻă ŇŪă Ĺŉă ĹŕŢĹ Ĺŉă ĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 6 In order: ĹŕŢĹĹŕŢĹŉŬă ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ ļĻă ŇŪă ĹŕŢĹ ŉŬă ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪă ĽāŘŪă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŇŪă ŉŬă ŉŬă
Exercise 7
In order: ļĻāă ļĻāă ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ĽāŏƾĹ ĸāŗŜă ĽāŏƾĹ ĸāŗŜă ŌŬă řāřă ĸāŗŜă ļĻāă ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ļĻāă řāřă ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ŇŪă
Exercise 8
In order: ŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ ĽāŏƾĹ ŇŪă ŇŪă ŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ŘŢĹŜāĹŪ
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Exercise 9
1. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă 4. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă 7. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă 10. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă
2. …ŐĻāŎă 5. …ļĻ…ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă 8. …ŐĻāŎ…ȹĻāȹĻāă 11. …ŐĻāŎ…ȹĻāŚŬŜă
3. …ȹĻāŚŬŜă 6. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜ…ȹĻāŚŬŜă 9. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜ…ŐĻāŎāĹŢŜă 12. …ļĻā...ŐĻāŎă
Exercise 10
1. …ŐĻāŎ…ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ 6. …ļĻā…ŎĻāŚŬŜă
2. …ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ…ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă 7. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜ…ȹĻāȹĻāĹŕŢĹ
3. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜ…ȹĻāȹĻāă 8. …ȹĻāŚŬŜ…ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă
4. …ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă 9. …ȹĻāŚŬŜă
5. …ȹĻāŚŬŜ…ŐĻāŎă
Exercise 11
In order: ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ŖŇŢāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ŖŇŢāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ ŌŬă ĹŔŉāŊāŕŬă ŊŬă ĹŕŢĹ ļĻāă ŌŬă ĹļŢĹāĹŬ ĹŕŢĹ ĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 12
1. …ŌŬ…ŖŇŢāǶŬĹāĹŬ…ĹŔŉāŊāĹŕŢĹ…ă 6. …ĽāŏƾĹ…ĹŔŉāŊāŕŬă
2. …ĹŉāǶŬĹāĹŬ…ĹļŢĹāĹŬ…ă 7. …ĹŉāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ…ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ
3. …ŇŪāǶŬĹāĹŬ…ĹŔŉāŊāŕŬ…ă 8. …ŖŇŢāŘŢĹŜāĹŪ…ĹŔŉāŊāŕŬă
4. …ļĻā…ļĻā…ă 9. …ĽāŏƾĹ…ļĻ…ĽāŏƾĹ
5. …ĹŉāǶŬĹāĹŬ…ĹŔŉāŊāĹŕŢĹ
Exercise 13
In order: ĹļŢĹ ļĻă ĹļŢĹāŘă ĹļŢĹāŘă ŇŪă ĹļŢĹāŘă ŖŇŢă ĹŕŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŘă ŇŪă ĽāŏƾĹ ŇŪāŕŬă ĹļŢĹāŘă
Exercise 14
1. ŇŪāŌāŐĻāĹŢāʈĹŜāŕŬĹāĹļŢĹāŘāŎāɓŜă 6. ȲŘāĹŪŜāřŜāķāĹļŢĹāŘāŎāřŜă
2. ȉŢŎāŐĻāŇŪŘāļĻāŘāŎŪŇāŜŬĻāă 7. ŉŇāŊāȠŬŉāļĻāŎŪŇāŕŪŘă
3. ŇŬŉāĻŬāŎāĹŢŜāȲŘāĹŪŜāļĻāŘāŎāŌŚŇă 8. ȲŘāĹŪŜāĹļŢĹāŘāŚŪŜāĹŢāŎŪŇāĹŢ
4. ȲŘāĹŪāņŪŘāŎāɑĹāĹļŢĹāŇĹŬŜă ĹĿŢŜāŎŢāŇĹŬŜă 9. ȲŘāĹŪŜāŇāņŪĻŜāĹļŢĹāŘāŎŢāĿŬāŕŪŘă
5. ȷāǥāĹŢāŉĻāŉāȷāļĻāŘāŎŪŇă
Exercise 15
In order: ĽāŘŪă ŇŪă ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪă ŇŪāŕŬă ŐĻāŎă ĽāŘŪă ĹļŢĹāŘă ĽāŘŪă ļĻāă ĹŕŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŘă ļĻă ŐĻāŎă ĹļŢĹāŘă ļĻāă ŇŪă ĹŕŢĹ ĹļŢĹāŘă ĽāŘŪă
ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪă ɖă ŇŪāŕŬă ŇŪă ŇŪă
Exercise 16
In order: ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŪŖŢă ŎĻāĽŪāŚŬŜă ŇŪāŘŢĹŜāĹŢŜă ŘŢĹŜāĹŪŜă ĹļŢĹāŘă ļĻāă ĹŕŢĹ ŌŬă ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāǶŬĹāĹŬ ĹŕŢĹ ŇŪāǶŬĹāĹŬ ŇŪă ŊŬă ļĻāă ŇŪāǶŬĹāĹŬ
ŖŇŢāǶŬĹāĹŬ ĹŉāǶŬĹāĹŬ ļĻāă ŌŬă
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāŌɁŉāŊĴ
Exercise 1
Condition: Contrast:
1. ĽŘāŌāŌŌŜāŉāĻŪŇāĹĿŢŜāķāɁŜāņŬĹāĹāȉŢŎāŎāņŬŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 1. ǨŇāŊŬāȢāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŉāŘāɈŘāĹŪāŘĻāŌŬŇāŘŪŇă
2. ĻŜāǪŬŘāŎŬāŎāŌŜĹŜāŉāřĹāȉŪŘāĸāŊŘāŇŪāŇāŌŬāȲĹāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 2. ȤŬřāŎāĽāȟŪŉāĹŢŜāŎŢāŖŇĻāă ɈŘāĹŪŖŢāȞĻāŎŬāŖŇĻāŉāŘă
3. ȉŬŇāȂŪāĹŢāŖȋŬāŉāĻŜāȉŬŇāķāŘāŎŢāĿŬă 3. ɱŉāŗāĹĿŢŜāķāŘŢĹāŉāŘāŞāŉāŎāŉāŎāŘŪŇă
Purpose: Reason:
1. ǨŉāŎŬāŖŇŢāŐāŌŬŘāǴāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘāȓŢāȢřāŘāŜŬĻāă 1. ɈŘāĹŪŜāȕāŌāŇķŖāŜŬĻāŉŬāĹŢŜāŌʕŘāŌŅĻāă
2. ĽŬŜāȤŬŉāĹŢŜāŇĹŬĻāľāŌǧŬřāʗŖŢāĽŪŇāŘāɗŌāĿŬŜāņřă 2. ĻŜāŌŕŖāŎŢāŕŬāȐŉāŉŬāĹŢŜāĹŕŖāŖĸŬŘāĹɎĹāŎāǴāĹŢāŖȋŬāʗŜă
3. ĻāŖʁřāŌāĹŕŢĹāřŪŉāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘāĹŉŎāʁāņĻāĻāŖȋŬāŇĹŬŜă 3. ǵŬŇāĿŢāŎāȅāŜāĹŉŜāŎĽŬĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāĹŢŜāŌŬŇāŐĻāŎāŎľřāĹŢāŖȋŬă
Temporal:
1. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŎāņŬŉāĹŬĻāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāȌŬřāņřă
2. ņĹāĹļŬŇāŎāŗŜāĹŬĻāŖŇĻāŔŢŌāŎŬāŚŪŇāȢŬŌŜă
3. ĻŜāŇĹŬĻāȋĻŜāĻāŎāĿřāĹŬĻāĸāŉĻāŖɿŇă
Exercise 2
In order: ĹŢāŘŜă ĹŢāŘŜă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă ǭŬŉāŉă ŘŢĻāĻāă ɁŜă Ŏă ĹŬĻāă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ŉŜāŌɏĻāă Ŏă ĹŬĻāă ĹŢāǧŌŜāŌă ɁŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜă
ĹɎĹāŉŜă ŔŬŘāŘă ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻāă ĹŢāǭŬŉāŉă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă ɁŜă ŘŢĻāĻāă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă
Exercise 3
1. …ĹŢāǭŬŉāŉă 5. …ɁŜă 9. …ɁŜă
2. …ĹŢāǭŬŉāŉă 6. …ŘŢĻāĻāă 10. …ĹŢāǧŌŜāŌă
3. …Ŏ…ĹŬĻāă 7. …ɁŜă
4. …ĹŢāǧŌŜāŌă 8. …ǧŌŜāŌ…ĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜă
Exercise 4
1. ɈŘāĹŪŜāřŬāĹɖŎāĹŢāǭŬŉāĹŢāŘŜāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāȨŬĻāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ĸĻāŌāʕĹāŌŏǓĹāŖŇŢāĿŢŉāŎāŌɁŉāĹŢāŘŢĻāĻāŌļŖāŇĹāŎāŌļŜă
2. ĻāȢřāĸŌāŖŇŢŘāŗŬĻāŉŜāŌɏĻāřŬāĹɖŎāŎāŚāŎāŕŬŜă 8. ŇĹŪāŖɁŉāĽŬŜāŖŋŪřāŚŢāɁŜāřŬāȷĻāă
3. ĻŜāȢřāĸŌāĹŢāȕāŌāřŜāŔŬŘāŘāŔŬŘāřŜāŘāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 9. ɈŘāĹŪāɱāɖŇāɀĻāŉŬāĹŢŜāǨŇāŊŬāĹŢŜāȵāǧŇāŚŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă
4. ŇāřŬāĹļŢĹāŖĹŬŘāɒĻāĹŢŜāĸŬāŕŬāŜāŖŇŢāŉŜāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 10. ĻŜāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŇŪāŌķŬřāĹŢāŘŜāȠŬŉāĹļŢĹāŘāŎāʊĻāă
5. ȲŘāĹŪŜāŞāŋāŎŪŇāŉŬāņŬŉāŘŪĹāĹŪŘāŎāŚŪŜă 11. ŇĻŬŜāŌŬāŞāȄāŗŢŉāŉāŉŎāŗŢŉāŉāŘāĽĹāʗāŖľŢĹāʗāŎŪŇă
6. ŔŢāřŢāŖŇŢāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŞāŋāȓŢāȢřāŉāŗŬŇāɁŜāȠŪŜă 12. ȉŬŇāŋāɑɐāŌāŖȋŬāɁŜāĻāĸāŊŘāĹŕŢĹāņŬĻŜă
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Exercise 5
1. ŔŢāřŢāŊŪāļŢŉāŉāŗŬŇāŉŬāĹŢŜāȲŘāĹŪāŊŪāļŢŉāŉāŗŬĻāă 8. ŌŏǓŉāŎāŖŇŢāǪŬŘāŎŬāŌɚŜāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȟŪŉāĹŢŜāŌŏǓŉāŉāŌȶĹāŉŢāŘŪŇă
2. ŔŢāŎŬāŖŇŢāŘŢĹāŊāŎŢāǹŬāŉŬāĹŢŜāȂŢŜāŘŢĹāĹļŢĹāŘāŎŢāŚŪŜă 9. ŕāŎāŎĻāŜŬĻāŉŬāĹŢŜāĻāŋŬāŌāŎŢāŌŇŪāĹŢ
3. ŐǅāȓŢāŎāĹŢāŇŬŉāŉāŌŬŇāŎĻāĻāĹŢŜāŘŢā˗ĹŜāŎŢāĹŜŬŇă 10. ĻŜāŔŢāŎŬāŗĹāŎāŇŪāŘŢĹāŉāŖŇŬŇāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āǵŌŜāĹŢŜāŎŬāŐĻāŗŬŇāŜā
4. ǧŬŎāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȟŪŉāĹŢŜāĻŜāȷāŘāȷāȐŉāĹŢ ŚŪŜāŉāŖŇŬŇă
5. ȉŬŜāɁāŌāŖņŪŉāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āǵŌŜāĹŢŜāȍŬāŖŇŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŌŏǓĹāĹŢ 11. ȲŘāĹŪāŋŬāŗĹāŗŢŉāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȟŪŉāĹŢŜāĽŬŜāŇŊřāŘāŜŪŎŜāŖĽŬŘā
6. ȉŬŇāȝŬŌāȊŢŇāĹŢāĹɎĹāĹāɓŜāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬāĹŢŜāŘŪŎāŎāŜŬĻāă ŎĸŉāŎĻāă
7. ŔŢāřŢāȝŬŌāȮŘāŖȋŬāɀŌāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŉāŞāŋāĹŢŜāŔŬŘāřŜāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 12. ǪŬŘāŎŬāŌŬŘāŜŬĻāŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŉāŜŪŎŜāȲŘāŎāŗŜă
Exercise 6
1. …ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘă 3. …ŉŬāĹŢŜă 5. …ŉŬāĹŢŜă 7. …ŉŬāĹŢŜă
2. …ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŉă 4. …ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŉă 6. …ĽŪŇāŘă 8. …ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȟŪŉāĹŢŜă
Exercise 7
In order: ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŉă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ĹŢāȟŪŉāĹŢŜă ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȟŪŉāĹŢŜă ĹŢŜă ŇŬŉāŉă ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āǵŌŜāĹŢŜă ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ĹŢāĽŪŇāŘă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ĹŢāŇŬŉāŉă
Exercise 8
1. …ŗŜāŉāŘāʗĹŜāřŬāȋĻŜāĻāŎŢāŖȔŬŇă 7. …ŗŢŉāŉāŘāřŜāķāřŜāŉŬāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāřĹāŘŬĹŜāŘŪŇă
2. …ŇķŖāŉāŘāŖȖŬĹāŊāŕŬāŜāĽāĹŔŉāŉāŖȋŬāŜāŎŪŇă 8. …ȍŪĻāņřāŉāŘāŖȖŜāɆāĹļŢĹāŘāŎŢāŗŬĻāă
3. …ŗŢŉă ŗŢŉāŉāŘă ȲŘāĹŪŜāŔŢĻāŌāŕŬāȘŢĹāŉĻāĻāŎŢāŖľŬĹ 9. …ŎņŬă ŗŢŉāŉāŘă ŜāŎĹŬāŇŪŖŢāŐǓŇāĹŢŜāŎŢāŖȉĹŜă
4. ĻāǴŬĹŜāĹŢ ŗŢŉāŉāŘă ȉŢŎāŉāŕāʗāĹļŢĹāŘāŎŪŇă 10. …ŎņŬă ŗŢŉāŉāŘāŘĻāŎĹŬāņŬŉāĹŢāŎŪŇă
5. …ŘŢĻāŉāŘāŖŐǓāŌāŘŬřāŜāȠŢŇāŊŬāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă 11. …ŗŢŉāŉāŘāǧŇāļŉāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă
6. …ŖĹŬāŌāŗŢŉāŉāŘāĸāǯŪāŎŢāŇŘă 12. …ŚŪŇāŎŢāǧŬŘāŉāŘāŇřāĹŢāŎāŖȸĹ
Exercise 9
1. …ŘŪŇāȐāŐĻāŎāŇŪāŎŬāŎāŘŪŇă 5. …ŘŢĻāă ŗŢŉāŉāŘāŇŪāŌŕĻāĹŢāŖŇŬŇāŎĸŉāŇŪĻāŜĻāľŪāȹĻāŘŪŇă
2. …ŎŢāȍŪĻāŉāŘāŇŪĻāŜĻāŏƾŜāŏāĹŕŢĹāŖʀŘāĹŢāŗŬŇă 6. …ŎŢāřŜă ŘŪŇāȐāȓŢāřŬĹŜāŉŜāřŜāŎĸŉāĸŬāŕŬāŘŪŇă
3. …ŗŢŉă ŗŢŉāŉāŘāĸŬāŕŬŜāřŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŉŬāŗŢŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 7. …ŌŚŇă ŗŢŉāŉāŘāŌŚŇāŎĸŉāľŪāŎĻāľŪāŎĻāŘŪŇă
4. …Ŀŉă ŘŪŇāȐă ŇŪāŋŬāŎŬāŖȐāŎĿŎāŗŢŉāŎŢŉāĹŢāŇŬŉāŇĹāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă 8. …ŎĻāŉāŘă ȝŬŌāĹŜŬāņŬŌāŎĸŉāŕŬŜāŘāȕāŌāǱŪŇāĹŢāŎŪŇă
Exercise 10
1. ŔŢāŎŬāŇŪāŗĹāŉāĹŢāŘāȅāŎŬāŘŪŇă 6. ŞāŋāŌŏŉāŉāĹŢāŘāȢřāŌŬāŘŪŇă
2. ŌŬŇāŖȉĹŜāŉāĹŢāŘāŔŢāŊŬāřŢāŗāŘŪŇă 7. ȂřāȨŬĻāŌāŇŪāŎȋŬĹŜāŉāĹŢāŘāȍŬĹāŘŪŇă
3. ȝŬŌāŎāŖŇŢāŗŬŉāŅŉāŗŬŇāŉāĹŢāŘāŇĹŪāŌŚŪŜāŘŪŇă 8. ŞāŎāǨŉāŎŬāŖŐǓāŌāɭĹāŉāĹŢāŘāŇȘřāŌāŉāŗŬŇāĹŢ
4. ŔāŗŜāŖŇŢāĹŢŜāŕāŉāĹŢāŘāȦĻāķŢāŘŪŇă 9. ĻāŇĹŖāŜŬĻāŉāĹŢāŘāǺĻāŌāŔāŗŜāŘŪŇă
5. ŜāŖŇŢāņĹāŘŢĻāŉāĹŢāŘāŇɆŜāŘāŇɆŜāŘŪŇă 10. ŞāŎāĹŢāĹŚŪāĹŚŪāǹŬāŉāĹŢāŘāŐǅŘāŎāŘŪŇă
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Exercise 11
1. …ŇķŖāŉāĹŢāŘāŇŪāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŇķŖāȢŬāŗŢŇāŘāŎāŚŘă
2. …ŎŢāŖȐāŉāĹŢāŘāǧŇāŘŢĹŜāŎŢāĹļŢĹāŉŬāŎāŘŪŇă
3. …ŉāĹŢāŘāĻāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
4. …ĽŪāŉāĹŢāŘāŎŪāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŘŪŇă
5. …ʗāŌāȞāŉāĹŢāŘāĻŜāřŬāŌŔŢŘāĹŬŉāŌŅĻāĹŕŢĹ
6. …ǭŬāņŢĻāŜŪāŗŬŇāŉāĹŢāŘāȧŢŉāȕŪɐāŎĹŬāĹŕŢĹāŘāŎŢāŘŢĹāĹŢ
7. …ȂŢŜāŘŢĹāŇķŖāŉāĹŢāŘāĻŜāŌŌāĹŢŜāȨŬĻāŉāŎŢāŖŇŬŇă
8. …ĽŪāŉāĹŢāŘāȘŢāŘŢĹŜāĹŢŜāɈŘāĹŪāȕŎŜāŜŪŎŜāȤŬřāŎāŘŪŇāŕŪŘă
9. …ĻŖŢāɱŉāŗāŇȕŢŉāǧŇāŘāȞāŉāĹŢāŘāŇȕŢŉāǧŇāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŋāǧŇāŖȐāŎāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă
10. …ŌŚŇāŉāĹŢāŘāĻŜāĿŉāŉāŘāŎŢāŖŇŬŇāĹŢ
Exercise 12
In order: ŉāĹŢāŘă ŇŪŖŢāǵŌŜāĹŢŜă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŉāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŉāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŗŢŉāŉāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŉāŘă ŗŢŉāŉāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŇŪŖŢāǵŌŜāĹŢŜă
ŉāĹŢāŘă ŗŢŉāŉāŘă ŉāĹŢāŘă
Exercise 13
1. ĸŬāŐĻāĹŢāɒāŉĻāŉāȝŬŌāȮāŗŬŇāŉă ŖȖŬĹāŊāȷĻāȷĻāŖŇŢāȝŬŌāȮŘā 5. ŘŢāŇŪāŎņŬāŉāĻāŖĹŬāʗāŗŢŉă
ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 6. ɈŘāĹŪŖŢāŎɁŉāŉŜāɭĹāĹŅŎāŌŚŇāŉāŞāŎāŜŪŎŜāɭĹāʗā
2. ŖȖŢāŘāȍĻāŌǸŪŌŜāŉāʗŇāŊāŎőǓāŗŢŉă ŘŪŇă
3. ŔāŗŜāȝŬŌāȮŘāŎŢāȠŪřāŉāȜŢŇāĹɎĻāĹŢŜāŌŏŉāŊŬāŗŜāĹŢāŗŬŇă 7. ȂŢŜāŘŢĹāȨĻŜāŉāĻāŎĹŬāŉāĹŢ
4. ɈŘāĹŪŜāŐǅāŌǳŉāȗŬŘāŌŌŜāŉă ĸŬāĹĿŢŜāķāŇĹŖāŘŬĹŜāĹāĿŉā 8. ȲŘāĹŪŜāĽĻāŗŬŇāŉŬāŚŪŜāŉāŖɀĻāʗāŘŪŇă
ŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 9. ȷāǱŬĹāŇŪāŖɀĻŜāŉāȉŬŇāŋŬāŌāŉāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 14
1. …ǪŬŘāŎŬāŗŬŇāŉ…ă 4. …ŉ…ă …ŉ…ă 7. …ŎāŗŜāŉ…ă …ŎāŖȔŬŇāŉ…ă
2. …ʈĹŜāŕŬĹāŗŬŇāŉ…ă 5. …ŉāŘ…ă…ŗŬŇāŉ…ă 8. …ŉ…ă
3. …ŉ…ă 6. …ŉ…ă…ŎāĿŬŜāŉ…ă
Exercise 15
1. ȲŘāĹŪŜāǪŬŘāŎŬāŗŬŇāŉāŘāȉŬŇāŎŢāŌȠŢă 7. ʗāŉŬŘāȢřāŌŬ‫ؙ‬āŎőǓŇāŗŢŉāŉāŘāŖľŢĹāǳŪŉāŖĸŬŘāŌāŎŢāŖĹŪĻāĹŢ
2. ȉŬŇāĸāŇŎāŉāŘāĹŜĻāĹŅŎāŖŇŢāŚŪŜāŎŢāĿŉă 8. ŇĻŬŜāŌŬāŖŇŢāȉŬŜāřŬāĹɖŎāŎāȂŎāŊāŕŬŜāŉāŘāŎŢāȉĹ
3. ǨŉāŎŬāŎŢāŖņŇāŉāŘă ŇŬŉāŖŇŢŖŢāņŬĹāŉŜāĻāȗŬāȂāŌǳŉă 9. ȲŘāĹŪāȘŢāŌŕĻāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŉāŘāĻŜāȲŘāĹŪāĸŜāŎŢāřŪŉă
4. ĸĻāŌāĹŢāĹŬĻāȌŬĻāȉŪŘāŉŜāŝŬĻāĹŢŜāŎņŬāŉāŘāȲŘāĹŪŜāĿŬāŚāǵĹāŘŪŇă 10. ȓŢāȢřāŘāɁĻŜāĸāŗŬŇāŉāŘāĻāŇŪāŚŪŇāŖȋŬāŎŢāɀŌă
5. ĻŜāŘŬĹŜāŊāĹŢāřŜāǧřāřŜāŉāŘă ȲŘāĹŪŜāȐŢŉāŎŢāŚŪŜă
6. ĻŜāȜŬĹāĹŅŬĻāŇĹŬŜāŉāŘāŔŢāŎŬāŖŇŢāŘāŖȌŬĹāʗāŗŢŉă
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Exercise 16
1. …ŎņŬāŉāŘ…ă 4. …ʗĹŜāȧŇāŉāŘ…ă 7. …ŉāŘ…ă
2. …ŗŬŇāŉāŘ…ă 5. …ŎŢāŇĹŬŜāŉāŘ…ă 8. …ŗŢŉāŉāŘ…ă…ŉāŘ…ă
3. …ŗŬĻāɀŌāŉāŘ…ă 6. …ŇķŖāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉāŘ…ă
Exercise 17
1. ȝŬŌāŗŬŉāȕŢŉāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāĻŖŢā…ă 6. řĹāȉŪŘāŗŬŇāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāȢřāĸŌ…ă
2. ĽŬĹāŎĽŉāŗŬŇāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāŔŢĻāŌ…ă 7. ȦŢāŐǓĹŜāŌŇŪă ŇŊřāŖȕŬŘāȢŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāŎĻāŐǓĹŜāŎŢāȠŢŇă
3. ĹĿŪŉāȤŢĹāĹŢāŗŢāĹŪāŗŬŇāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāŎȌŬŉāĸĻā…ă 8. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŖŇŢāȲŘāĹŪŜāŎŢāĿŬă ĹŬĻāŇķŖāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
4. ĻŖŢāŔāŗŜāǪŬŘāŎŬāŇĹŬŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāĻāŗŬŇāŜŘāŎŢāŗŬĻāă 9. ŇŬāŇĹŬĻāĹŢāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāŗĹāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāǴāĹŢāŎŢāŖȋŬă
5. ŕāŎāĹŏĻāŎāŚŪŇāŕŬŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜāŎŢāȞă 10. ĻāŜāŖŇŢāŉŜāȠŢŇāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă ĻāȓŢŘāŘāŜŬĻāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 18
1. …ŎŢāĸŬŎāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă 4. …ŎŢāĽŇāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă 7. …ɁĻŜāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
2. …ŎŢāǴŬĹŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă 5. …řŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă 8. …ŕāŎāŐĻāŎāŕŬŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
3. …ĸŪŘāŘŬāŗŢŉāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă 6. …ŌļŬŜāʘŘāŗŜāŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
Exercise 19
1. ŉ 3. ɁŜ 5. ɁŜ…ŉ 7. ŉ
2. ŉ…ŉ 4. ɁŜ…ŉ 6. ŉ / ɁŜ 8. ŉ
Exercise 20
In order: ŉă ŉāŘă ŉă ŉāŘă ŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă ŉāŘă ŉă ŉă ŉāŘă ŉāŘă ŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
Exercise 21
1. ŘŪŇāāȐ 6. ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŎŢāŐŇ…Ř 11. ĹĻāǴŘāŉāŘ…ŇŪŖŢāņŬĹāĹ
2. ŇŪŖŢāŎŢāŐŇ 7. ŇŪāŎŢŉāŇ 12. ŘŪŇāȐ…ĹĻāǴŘāŉāŘ
3. ĹĻāǴŘāŉāŘ 8. ŗĻāŎŢŉāŇ…ŗĻāŎŢŉāŇ 13. ĹĻāǴŘāŉāŘ
4. ĹŢāŎŢāŐŇ…Ř 9. ĸŪŘāŘŬāŎŢŉāŉ…Ř 14. ŘŪŇāȐ
5. ŇŪŖŢāŎŢāŐŇ 10. Ř…Ř
Exercise 22
In order: ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻāă ŇŪāŎŢŉāŉă ĹŢāŘŜă ŉāĹŢāŘă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă ĹŢāŘŜă ĹŢāǧŌŜāŌă ĹŢāŎŢāŐŇă Řă ŘŢĻāĻāă ĽŪŇāŘă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ɁŜă
ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āǵŌŜāĹŢŜă Ŏă ĹŬĻāă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ŇŪŖŢāȟŪŉāĹŢŜă ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āĹɎĹāŉŜă ȟŪŉāĹŢŜă ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āĹɎĹāŉŜă ĹŢāŇŬŉāŉă ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻāă ŘŪŇāȐă
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Exercise 23
1. ŗŢŉāĹŢāŘŜ 8. ŌŏǓĹāŊŬāŗŢŉāŉāŗŢŉ 15. ŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜ 22. ŎāŗŬĻāĹŬĻ
2. ŔŬŘāŘ 9. ɁŜ 16. ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŘŢĻāĻ 23. ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻ
3. ŉāŘ 10. ŉŬāĹŢŜ 17. Ř…Ř 24. ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āŇŬŉāŉ
4. ŉāĹŢāŘ 11. ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŎŢāŐŇ…Ř 18. ŉ 25. ĹĻāǴŘāŉāŘ
5. ŉ 12. ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘ 19. ĹɎĹāŉŜ 26. ŇŪāŎŢŉāŇ
6. ŇŪāŎŢŉāŇ 13. ŗŢŉāŉāŘ 20. ŉāŘ
7. ŖȋŬāŉāŎŢāŖȋŬāŉ 14. ŇŪŖŢāǭŬŉāŉ 21. ŉāĹŢāŘ
Exercise 24
In order: ĹŢāŘŢĻāĻāă ɁŜă ĹŢāŘŜă Ŏă ĹŬĻă Ŏă ĹŬĻă ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āŘŢĻāĻāă ŉŜāŌɏĻāă ŇŪŖŢāŎŢāŐŇă ĹɎĹāŉŜă ŘŪĹāĹŪŘă ŔŬŘāŘă ŉŜāŌɏĻāă ŉă
Exercise 25
In order: ŉŬāĹŢŜă ŉŬ‫ؙ‬āȟŪŉāĹŢŜă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ŉŬāĹŢŜă ĹŢāŇŬŉāŉă ŉŬāĹŢŜă
Exercise 26
1. …ŉāĹŢāŘ…ă 3. …ŉāŘ…ă 5. …ŉāĹŢāŘ…ă ŘŪŇāȐ…ă 7. …ŉāĹŢāŘ…ă
2. …ŗŢŉāŉāŘ…ă 4. …ŘŪŇāȐ…ă 6. …ŘŪŇāȐă
Exercise 27
1. …ŉāŘă 3. …ŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă 5. …ŉāŘă …ŉă
2. …ŉă 4. …ŉ…ă 6. …ŉāŎāĹŅŬĹŜă
Exercise 28
1. ĻāřŬāĿŢāɔāĹŢāǭŬŉāŉāŖŇŢŘāŗŬĻāɁŜāřŬāŌļŬāǬāŗŢŉă 11. …ȕŢŉāŉŬāĹŢŜă ĻŜāɁŜāŐǓŇāĹɖŎāŎāȖŢŜāŌŅĻāă
2. ĻāŌŬŇāǧŇāȝŬŌāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘāŌŬŇāŘāŗŬĻāă 12. …ŇķŖāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉāĹŢāŘāȲŘāĹŪŘāŕāŎāŕāĸŬŎāŘāŎŪŇă
3. …ŕŬŜāŉŬāĹŢŜāĸŬĹāŊāŌŇŪāĹŢāŎŪŇă 13. …ŗŜāȢŬ‫ؙ‬āĽŪŇāŘāǥĻāņĻāĻāȦŢāřŪāĿŢāɔāŗŬĻāă
4. …ŎŪŇāŉāŘāĻŜāřŜāŌŅĻāă 14. …ŖȌŢŎŜāŔŬŘāŘāŔŬŘāřŜāŗŜāŘŜāǪŬŘāŎŬāŌŏřă
5. …ŖɀĻāŉāŘāŎŐŎŜāŎŐŎŜāŎāŎŢāŖɀĻāķāŎŪŇāŘŪŇă 15. …ȓŢŉāĹŢāŘŜāȓŢŘāŘāȝŬŌāȮŖŢāŉĻāĻāŎāŜŬĻāă
6. …řŜāŔŬŘă ŔāŗŜāĹĿŬŘāŔŬŘă ɈŘāĹŪāŌŌāĹŢŜāĸŬŎāĹŢāŎŪŇă 16. …ĹŕŢĹāɃāŌŬāĹĿŬŘāʗŖŢāŇŬŉāŉāȝŬŌāȮŘāŎāŜŬĻāă
7. …ņŬŉāɁŜāŇāŌŬŇāǧŇāŚŪŜāŉŢāŗŢŉă 17. …ŌŏǓĹāŉāŘă ĸŬĹāŖľŎ…ă
8. …ŜŬĻāă ŘŪŇāȐāȉŬŇāŞŪāŇĹŬŜă 18. …ŖŇŢāŎȋŬĹŜāŉāĹŢāŘāțĻŜāŖĸŬŘāŎāŘŪŇă
9. …ŗŬŇāŉŬāĹŢŜāŕāŎāŎŪŇāŉāřŜāķāřŜāɀŌāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 19. …ŘŪŇă ŗĻāŎŢŉāŇāĸŬāŐĻāŘāŗĻāŎŢŉāŇāȉŬŇāŐĻāŘŪŇă
10. …ŎĸŉāŗĻāŎŢŉāŜĻŜāȢŜāŘāŗĻāŎŢŉāŇķŬŉāŎĽŬĹāŘŪŇă
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ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌļŬāŌȢŇāŊĴ
Exercise 1
1. …ŅĹāŅĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāĻŖŢāŗŢŇāŘāŎāŚŘă 7. …ŌɁŉāȶāȅĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāŔŢŌāŖȸĹāĹŢāŉĻāŉāŌǵŉāŗŬŇă
2. …ŗŢŉāŉŬāĻŜāŎāŚŪŜă 8. …ŎŢāŎĻāŉŬāŐĻāŎāĹŢŜāŚŪŜāʗāŘŪŇă
3. …ŗŬŇāŉŬāȘŢāŎĻāĻāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜāŚŪŜāĹŢāŎŪŇă 9. …ĻŜāŌŬŇāĹŢāŖȖŬĹāŊāŕŬāŇȕŘāŜāŘāŇȳŉāŜāĹĿŢŜāķāŗŬŇāŉŬāŎāŚŪŜă
4. …ŗŢŉāŉŬŘāĻŜāŗŢŇāŎŢāĽŪŜāĹŢ 10. …ŌŬŇāĹŢāŜāĽāŉāŔŢĻāŜāŜāȢāȦŢāĹŢāŌȢāĽŖŢāĹļŢĹāŗŜāŎŜāŗŢŉā
5. …ŌŔŢāŗŢŉāŉŬāȘŢāŎĻāĻāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜāŎŢāŚŪŜāŉŬāŘŪŇă ŉŬāŇĹŪāǨŉāĹŢŜāŌŚŇāņřă
6. …ŗŬŇāŉŬāŇŬŉāŇĹāĻŬāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 2
1. ĸŬāȘŢāŇĹŖāĹŕŢĹāŗŬĻāʗāŗŢŉāŉŬāĻŜāĹŉŖāĹŕŢĹāŉŜāŚŪŜāŗŬŇă 4. ŔŢĻāŌāŕŬāĹŉŎāŖľŬāĽŪāŇĹŬŜāŉŬāŇŬāŐƾĹŜāņŉāŊāĽŪāŉŬāĹŢŜāŘŪŇă
2. ȉŬŜāȢāŗŢĹāŖŇŢāŎŬāŞāȄāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŜāŉŬāŗāŎŐŘāŘŪŇă 5. ĻāǪŬŘāŎŬāĹŗŬŘāʗāŎŪŇāŉŬāȉŬŇāņŪĻŜāŎĻāĻāŌŚŇāŌŅĻāă
3. řŪĹŜāȠŪŜāŌɜŘāŎĸŉāȉŬŇāŗŢŉāŉŬŘāĻāŇŬĹŜāŊāŎāȠŪŜă 6. ȉŬŇāŇŪāŘŢĻāņŬŉāŌŅĻāŉŬāŔŪāņĹāĹŢŜāȞāĹŢ
Adjective clause included

1. ĽŘāŌāĸāȂĻāŌŌŜāŉŬāĽŪāĹŢ 5. ĸĻāŌāřŬāɖŎāŌȢāĹŢāǭŬŉāŉāřŜāŉŬāŇāŌŬāŘāȞāŎŬāŘŪŇă
2. țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĻŜāĿŬŜāŉŬŘāǪŬŘāŎŬāŖɆŎāĹĿŢŜāȕŢŉāŌŅĻāă 6. ŎŐǅāŎāȓŢāȢřāŉāŖɁĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬāŎŐǅāŎāĹĿŢŜāķŖŢāŉĻāŉŜāĽŪāŌŬā
3. ŇŊŪāĽāĻŖŢāŐāŎŬāĹŢŜāŖŇŬŉāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬāĽŬŜāȌĹŜāĹŢŜāȖŢŜă ŘŪŇă
4. ŖȐāŊŘāȗĻŜāŉŬāȞāŉŬāȗāŎāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāŖȐāŊŘāŘŪŇă
Exercise 3
1. ŔŢāŎŬāŖŇŢāȐĻāŎŬāŗŢŉāŉŬŘāĻāŇĹŖāĹŢ 4. ŇŊŪāĽāŖŇŢŜāȍŪĻāŗŬŇāŉŬāĸŬāŖȖŬĹāŉŜāřĹāĽĹŜāȜŬřāŘŪŇă
2. ŐǓĻāŌāŖŇŢāʗāļŉāŗŢŉāŉŬāŇŬŉāŇĹāŖŇŢŘāŖȖŪřāŌāŎŪŇă 5. ȲŘāĹŪāŜĻŜāȢŜāĹŢāŞāŋāŗŢŉāŉŬāĸāņĹāŘŪŇă
3. ĻāŉĻāŌǵŉāŊāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāĻāŌŬŇāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŉŬāĹŢŜāŎāŘŪŇă 6. ĻŜāĹɎĹāŉŜāĿŬāʗāŗŢŉāŉŬāȉŬ‫ؙ‬āŎŢĹāŚŪřāŗŢŉă
Personalized clause included
1. ĻāĽŇāĹŢ țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāǧŬŘāŉŬāĽŬŜāŇŘāŗŢŉă 4. ŇŬāŇĹŬĻāŉŇāŊāʑĻāŉŬāȉŬŇāŗŢŉă ɑɐāŌāŖȋŬāŉŬāĻāŗŢŉă
2. ŇĹŪāŌŚŪŜāĽŪŉāŎŬāŇŪāŘŢĻāĹŢāŘŜāŎŪŇă ȕāŌāŐĻāŎāřŜāŉŬāĻāŗŢŉă 5. ȐŬŜāľāǧŬřāŉŬāŇāŌŬāņŬŉāĹŢāŎŪŇă ŔŢĻāŌāŕŬāǧŬŎāĹŢāŗŬŇă
3. ŇŪāŘŢĻāŉāŌŅĻāŉŬāŇĹŪāǨŉāĽŬŜāŎŐǓāŘŪŇă ɈŘāĹŪŜāŌŬŇāŗŢĹāĹŢā 6. ŘŢāŎŬāŖŇŢāŖȖŢāŉŬāŘŌāŖȕŬŘāŗŢŉă ȖŢŜāŉŬāŗĹāĹŢāŉĻāă
ȝŬŌāȊŢŇāŗŜāŎŢāɀŌă
Exercise 4
1. …ŉŎāŖȋŬāʗāŗŢŉāŉŬ…ă 6. …ĽŪŉāŎŬāŇĹŬŉāŊāĹĻāŉŜāŖŐǓĹāʗāŗŢŉāŉŬ…ă
2. …ɖāŗŢŉāŉŬ…ă 7. …ŉĻāĹŢāĹĻāŉŜāĿŬŜāŖɁĹ…ă
3. …ǵŪĻāŉŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāĹŢāǧŬŘāŌŚŇāŉŬ…ă 8. …ǪŬŘāŎŬāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāȕŢŉāŉŬ…ă
4. …ŉāȘŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇāŉŬ…ă 9. …ȉŬŇāŔŢāřŢāĹĻāĻāŇĹŖāŉŬ…ă
5. …ŇĹŪāǨŉāɖāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă
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Exercise 5
1. ŐǓĻāŌāŖŇŢāŐǅāŇŊřāŗŢŉāŖɁĹāĻŜāŎāŚŪŜă 6. …ŕāɀŌāŎŢāɀŌāĸŬāņĹāŘŪŇă
2. …ŖŐǓĹāʗāŗŢŉāŎŢŉāņĹāĽŬŇāŘŪŇă 7. …ŇĹŬŜāŖɁĹāǪŬŘāŎŬāĹŢāĸāŉāŗŬŇă
3. …ŗŬŇāŎŪŇāȘŢāŐĻāŎāĹŢŜāŚŪŜă 8. …ŉāŗŬŇāŎŪŇāȘŢāĹŔŉāŉāȐŢŜă
4. …ŗŬĻāŎāŗŬĻāȐŢŜāŉāŚŪŜă 9. …ȘŬĻāŎāȘŬĻāŇŬĹŜāŊāĹŕŢĹāŎŢŉă
5. …ŎĻāŎŢāŎĻāŌŚŇāŎŢāŇĹŬŜă
Exercise 6
In order: ŉŎāȚāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ ŉŎāŖȖŪĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāŖȖŪĹāĹŢāŗŬŇāŖɁĹ ĸŬāŕŬŘāĸāŊŘāŗŬŇāŎŪŇă
ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉŬă ĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŗŬŇāŉŬă ŉŎāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ ŉŎāŗŢŉāŎŢŉă
Exercise 7
1. ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āǨŇāŊŬāȘŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă 6. …ĽāȟŪŉāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹ…ă
2. …ŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă 7. …ǵŪŘāŇĹŬŜāŎŢŉ…ă
3. …ȞāŎŢāȞ…ă 8. …ŜŬĻāŉāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă
4. …ŖȉŪŘāŇĹŬŜāŎŢāŇĹŬŜ…ă 9. …ȝŬŌāȮāĹĻāĹŢāŇĹŪāǨŉāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă
5. …ŖĹŉāŜŪŎŜāŗŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă
Exercise 8
1. ĻāĹĻāĻāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇāŉāŖŇŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă 5. ĻŜāŌŇŪāŉāŌŚŇāŎŢŉ…ă
2. ĻŜāĹŬŉāʗāĿŬŜāŉāŖŇŬŇāŎŢāŖŇŬŇā…ă 6. ĻŜāĿŬāŎŢāĿŬ…ă
3. ĽŪāȷĻāŜŬāŌɁŉāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă 7. ŇĹŬŜāŎŢāŇĹŬŜ…ă
4. ȉŬŜāĿŬŜāŉāĽŬĹāŎŢŉ…ă 8. ȉŬŜāŖŇŬŇāŊāŌŅŬŉāĽŬĹāŎŢŉ…ă
Exercise 9
1. ŎŐǓāŎŬāȘŢāĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă 9. …ŜŬĻāȘŬĻāŎāȘŬĻ…ă 17. …ļĻāŎŪŇāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă
2. …ɀĹāŉŬ…ă 10. …ĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă 18. …ŜŪŎŜāŖĽŬŘāĹŢāŗŬŇāŖɁĹ…ă
3. …ĿŉāŉŬ…ă 11. …ŌȂŢāŌȱŘāŗŜāŎŢŉ…ă 19. …ŖȋŬŇāŊāŗŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă
4. …ŜŬĻāȘŬĻāŎŢŉā…ă 12. …ŎĸŉāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă 20. …ŜŪŎŜāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă
5. …ĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă 13. …ĹŕŢĹāŉŜāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă 21. …ɁĻŜāĹŢāŗŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă
6. …řĹāŖĸŬŌŜāĽŪāŎŢŉ…ă 14. …ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă 22. …ȢĹāȢŬŘāŖņŇāŎŢāŖņŇ…ă
7. …ŖȐāŗŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă 15. …ĽāʗŜāŗŬŇāŎŪŇ…ă 23. …ŌļŖāĸāĿŉāŎŢāĿŉ…ă
8. …ĽŢāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă 16. …ĹŏĻāŎāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŖɁĹ…ă 24. …ĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉāŎŢŉ…ă
Exercise 10
1. ŖȖŢāȢŬāȲŘāĹŪŖŢā…ă 4. țĻŜāŖĸŬŘāĹŗŬŘāȢŬ…ă 7. ǪŬŘāŎŬāŖőƾŉāȢŬ…ă
2. ʂāŇȕĻŜāřŪŉāȢŬ…ă 5. ĿŬāĽāȢĹāȢŬ…ă 8. ɁŜāŐǓŇāŌȢŇāĹŢāǵŪĻāĻāņŬŉāȢŬ…ă
3. ȂāŖɋĹŜāŗŜāȢŬ…ă 6. ŕāŎāǧŬřāȢŬ…ă
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Exercise 11
1. ĻŜāȲĹāŎāĿŬŜāŉŬāŎŇŬĹāŉĹāŊŬāŘŪŇă 6. ĻŜāŌȝŌāȕāĹĻāřŪŉāȢŬāņĹāĹļŬŇāȂāŎŬāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă
2. ȝŬŌāȮāȉŬŇāŜŬĻāŉŬāŎņŬāŖȖŢĻāĹɖŎāŊāŞŪāŗŢŉă 7. ĸāȂĻāŌŚŇāŉŬāȝŬŌāĹŜŬāĹŢāǧŬŘāŘŪŇă ŇŪāŘŢĻāŌŚŇāȢŬāŘŢĹāĹŉŜā
3. ŇāŉĻŜāĻŜāȗŬŘāŖőƾŉāȢŬāǲŉāĻĹāŖŇŢāŗŢŉă ĹŢāǧŬŘāŘŪŇă
4. ŔŢāřŢāŇŪŜāǧŇāĽāŌŏŉāŊŬāŚŪŇāŌŚŇāŉŬāŌŚŇāȜŬřāĹŕŢĹāŎāŘŪŇă 8. ȝŬŌāŎāŕŬŜāřŜāȕāȖŢŜāŉŬāŞāȄāŘŪŇă ĹɎĹāŉŜāŘāŇŪāŚŪŇāȔŢŜă
5. ĻŖŢāŐāŎŬāĹŢŜāȨŬĻāȢŬāȢāŗŢĹāŗŢŉă ɈŘāĹŪāɼĻāĹŬŘāŜŬĻāŉāŖŇŬŇă 9. ŇāȉŬŜāĽĻāŎŢāŖɀĻāȢŬāĻŖŢāŘŪāŌāŗŢŉă
Exercise 12
1. ȉŬŇāĹĻāĻāŜŬĻāŉŬā…ă 6. ŌŬŇāǧŇāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŚŪŇāȨĻŜāŉāȞāȢŬā…ă
2. ĻŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāʗāŗŢŉāŉŬā…ă 7. ɖāřĹāŖĸŬŌŜāĽŪāŉŬ…ă
3. ĻŖŢāǨŉāŎŬāĹŢŜāŕāŎāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāŌǧŬřāȢŬ…ă 8. ȉŢŎāĹŢāřŜāķāřŜāȢŬā…ă
4. ŇāȕāŌāřŜāŇĹŬŜāȢŬ…ă 9. řŬāŌȶāņŎāĹŢāĹɎĹāŉŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāȢŬ…ă
5. ȉŬŜāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāɀŌāŉŬāŘāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāŎŢāɀŌāŉŬ…ă 10. ĻŜāȍŬĹāŌǱŉāĹĻāĹĻāĻāŌǴŜāŉŬ…ă
Exercise 13
In order: ĿŬŜāŉŬă ĿŬŜāŉŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ȢŬă ȢŬ / ŉŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ȢŬ / ŉŬă ȢŬ / ŉŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ȢŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ȢŬ / ŉŬă ȢŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ȢŬă
ȢŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă
Exercise 14
1. ŞāŋāĹŢŜ"ŇŪĻāŜĻāĹŢāŔāŗŜāŕŬāȠŢŇāĹŢ"ŕŪŘă 6. ĻŖŢāǨŉāŎŬāĹŢŜā"ȉŬŇāŎŢāȐŉāĹŢ ŔāŗŜāȐŉāĹŢ"ŕŪŘă
2. ŞāŎāĹŢŜā"ĻŖŢāŘŢĻāĻāɭĹāŅĹāŅĹāŎņŬĻāă"ŕŪŘă 7. ŞāȲāĹŢŜā"ǭŬŉāĽŇāĻāŇŊŖāŌŬāņŬĻāŖőƾŉāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă"ŕŪŘă
3. ŞāŎāĹŢŜā"ȉŬ‫ؙ‬āǨŉāŎŬāĹŢŜāĻāŎŢāĹļŪŜă"ŕŪŘă 8. ŞāļŪāĹŢŜā"ȉŬŇāǪŬŘāŎāŖȋŬă ŇŪāŎŢŉāŖȉĹāʗāŘŪŇă"ŕŪŘă
4. ĻŖŢāŚāĿŪāĹŕŢĹāĹŢŜā"ȉŬŜāĻāĹŬāŎŢāĽŬŇă"ŕŪŘă 9. ǼŬāŌŬāĹŢŜā"ĽĻāȟřāȉŬŇă ȓŢŉāĽŇāŎāŖɀĻāă"ŕŪŘă
5. ȘŢāŘŢĹŜāĹŪŜ"ȉŬŇāȷĻāɁŜāŔāŗŜāȑāŐĹāĹŕŢĹāŗŢŉă"ŕŪŘă
Exercise 15
In order: ŕŪŘă ŌŚŇă ŕŪŘă ŌŚŇă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŌŚŇă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŌŚŇă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŌŚŇă ŕŪŘă ŌŚŇă
Exercise 16
1. …ȝŬŌāŎāŕŬŜāĹŕŖāŎȸĹāĹāĽŢāĹŕŢĹāřŜāŎŢāřŜāȐŢŜă 7. …ŇŪĻāŜĻāŌŬŇāŉāǮĹŜāǳāŔŬŉāʗāŗŬŇāŎŪŇāȍŪĻāă
2. …ȲŘāĹŪāĽŬŜāŇŘāŗŢŉāŎŢŉāȐŢŜă 8. …ɖŜāȖŢŜāŖɁĹāȐŢŜă
3. …ĻāȓŢāȢřāŜŬĻāȘŬĻāŎŢŉāȐŢŜă 9. …ȲŘāĹŪāŗĻāĹĻāĻāŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇāŖɁĹāȐŢŜă
4. …ĻāȚāŋŬĹŜāĹāǪŬŘāŎŬāɁāŗŬŇāŖɁĹāȐŢŜă 10. …ȲŘāĹŪŖŢāŎŢĹāŚŪřāɖŜāĹŬŉāŜŬĻāŎŢŉāŉāŖŇĻāŇŊŬĹāĹŢāŎŪŇă
5. …ȲĹāŎāŇŪāȘŢĻāȌĹŜāŗŢŉāŎŢŉāŌŚŇă 11. …ȌŬĻāȉŪŘāĹĻāĽŪāŖɁĹāȐŢŜă ĿŢĹāŗŬāĽŪă řŬŉāȿŉāĽŪă
6. …ŇŪāɁŜāɁŜāŐǓŇāɁāŗŢŉāŕŪŘă 12. …ȲŘāĹŪŜāŎāŚŪŜāŉŬāȲŘāĹŪŖŢāǨŉāŎŬāŐƾāɀĻāŗŢŉāŎŢŉāŗŢŉāŕŪŘă
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Exercise 17
In order: ȢŬă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ȢŬă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ŌŚŇă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ȢŬă ȢŬă
ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ŉŬă ȢŬă ŉŬă ŕŪŘă ŉŬă
ĳȝŬŌāŐŉāŌȶāŇȳāŌĴ
Exercise 1
1. …ŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇāʗāŉ…ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă 6. …ʗāŉă 11. …ʗāŉă …ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă
2. …ŗŬŇāʗāŉă 7. …ŗŬĻāʗāŉ…ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 12. …ʗāŉ…ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă …ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă
3. …ŎŢāǴāʗāŉă …ŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 8. …ʗāŉă …ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 13. …ŎŪŇāʗāŉ…ʗāŘŪŇă
4. …ǱŪŇāʗāŉă …ʗāŘŪŇă 9. …ʗāŉă …ʗāŘŪŇă 14. …ŎŢŉāʗāŉ…ʗāŎāŘŪŇă
5. …ȉŢŇāʗāŉă …ʗāŎāŘŪŇă 10. …ŗŬŇāʗāŉă …ǵŪŘāʗāŘŪŇă 15. …ʗāŉă …ʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 2
1. …ŎŢŉāʗāŉă …ǵŪŘāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 6. …ŎŢāȐŬāʗāŉă …ŖȋŬāĸāĿŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
2. …ŎŪŇāʗāŉă …ɀŌāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 7. …ŖȋŬāĹŢāŗŬŇāʗāŉă …ŌļŖāŇĹŬŜāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
3. …ŎŢāĹŬāʗāŉă …ŗŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 8. …řŬŉāĹŢāŎŪŇāʗāŉă …ɀŌāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
4. …ŎŢāŖŇŬŇāʗāŉă …ŌȠŢāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 9. …ŚŪŜāʗāŉă …ŗŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
5. …ŎŢŉāʗāŉă …ŚŪŜāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 10. …ŚŪŜāʗāŉă …ŌŚŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 3
In order: ņŬŌāʗāŉă ŖĽŘāĹŔŢāŎĻāĻāŖņŪŉāʗāŘŪŇă ŖɆŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă ŖɁĹāʗāŘŪŇă ĿŬāʗāŘŪŇă ŉă ĿŬāʗāŘŪŇă ŉă ŌļŖāʗāŘŪŇă ɀŌāʗāŘŪŇă
ŖʁŌāʗāŘŪŇă řŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŘŬĹŜāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă ȢŌāȠŬŘāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŔřāŖŇŪŌŜāȢĹāʗāŘŪŇă řŬŉāʗāŉă ŌŇĹāĹāŖőƾŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
ŘŬĹŜāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 4
1. …ŗŢŉāʗāŉ…ŗŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 6. …řŜāŉ…ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă 11. …ʗāŉ…ŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă
2. …ŖȋŬāŉ…ŖȉŪŘāʗāŘŪŇă 7. …ŉ…ǥĻāņĻāĻāŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 12. …ŖȋŬāŉ…ŖɁĹāʗāŘŪŇă …ŖɁĹāʗā
3. …ŚŪŜāʗāŉ…ȓŢŘāŘāŗŬĻāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 8. …ʗāŉ…ŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă …řŜāʗāŘŪŇă ŘŪŇă
4. …Ǵāʗāŉ…ǴāʗāŘŪŇă 9. …ŗŬŇāŉ…ŘŬĹŜāŗŜāʗāŘŪŇă 13. …ŌŇŪāʗāŉ…ĿŬāʗāŘŪŇă
5. …ŗŬŇāŉ…ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 10. …ŖŇŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă …ŖɁĹāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 5
In order: ŌķŬŇāȤŢĹāŗŜāŗŬŇāʗāŉă ȨĻŜāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ȨĻŜāŗŬŇāʗāŉă ȞāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ǱŪŇāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă řŬŉāŗŬŇāʗāŉă ŗŬĻāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
ŜŬĻāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŌǸŇāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ɀĹāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ĹĿŪŉāŌȤŢĹŜāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŢŉāŗŬŇāʗāŉă ɓŜāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă Ȟāʗāŉă ȖŬāŌāǷŉāʗāŘŪŇă
Exercise 6
In order: ȐŢŜāŉă ǫŉāŊāŖņŪŉāŉŢāŘŪŇă ȨĻŜāŉă ŎŢāŚŪŜă ȐŢŜāŉă ŌɟĹŜāŉŢāŘŪŇă ŖȌŢĹāŉă ŕŪŘă ŗŢŉāŗŬŇāʗāŉă ŌŔĹāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŗŢŉāŗŬŇāʗāŉă
ŌȶĹāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŌŅĻāŗŬŇāʗāŉă ŗŢŉāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŚŉāɔĹŜāņŪŌŜāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
•663•
Exercise 7
1. …ŖŇĻāŗŬŇāʗāŉă …ǧŬŘāŌāŌȢŌāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 7. …ŌŚŇāŗŬŇāʗāŉ…țŬŎāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă
2. …ŗŬŇāʗāŉă …ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă 8. …ŗŬŇāŗŬŇāʗāŉ…ĿŬŜāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă
3. …ĹɎĹāĹāĽŬŇāŉ…ņŬŉāʗāŘŪŇă 9. …ŚŪŜāŗŬŇāʗāŉā…ŇŎŘāŕŜāŌǧŬřāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
4. …ŌŚŇāŎŪŇāʗāŉ…ŚŪŜāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 10. …ŗŢŉāŗŬŇāʗāŉ…ŌȶĹāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
5. …ȂřāȨŬĻāŗŜāŗŬŇāʗāŉă …ŗŢŉāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă …ŔŉāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă 11. …ĹɎĹāĹāɓŜāŎŪŇāʗāŉā…ŘŪĹāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă
6. …ŌǵŉāŎŪŇāʗāŉă …ɀŌāŗŬŇāʗāŘŪŇă 12. …ŕŬŜāŎŪŇāʗāŉā…ŌķŇāŗŬŇāʗāŎāŘŪŇă
Exercise 8
In order: ŕŪŘāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŬŇāʗāŉă ŖȋŬāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŢŉāʗāŉă ŕŪŘāʗāŘŪŇă ŗŬŇāʗāŉă ŕŪŘāʗāŘŪŇă ŉŬĹŜāʗāŉă ɀŌāʗāŘŪŇă ŌȠŢŜāŉă ŎŢŉāʗāŉă
ǪŬŘāŌŬŜāŉă ȗŬŘāŖŌŌāʗāŘŪŇă ȗŬŘāŎāŌŌŜāŉă
Exercise 9
1. řĻŜāŎŢāŇĹŬŜāʗāŉ 4. ŖȋŬāʗāŉ 7. ĹŅŇāŗŬŇāʗāŉ 10. ʗāŉ
2. ŗŢŉāʗāŉ 5. ŖȉŪŘāŗŬĻāŗŬŇāʗāŉ 8. ŖȋŬāʗāŉ 11. ņŬŉāʗāŉ
3. ŗŢŉāʗāŉ 6. ŗŬĻāʗāŉ 9. ŎŢŉāʗāŉ 12. ŗŬĻāʗāŉ
Exercise 10
In order: ĻŬāȧŬŇāāŗŜāʗāŉă ŜŬĻāŉă ŗŬĻāʗāŘŪŇă ŖȋŬāɀŌāʗāŘŪŇă ŘŢĹāʗāŘŪŇă ŘŢĹāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŗŢŉāʗāŘŪŇă ŖȋŬāʗāŉă ŜŬĻāŉă ŎĻāŉă ʗāŎāŘŪŇă
ŖȋŬāʗāŉă ȷŘāŌȟřāŉă ŗŢŉāŉă ŇĹŖāŉă ŗŢŉāʗāŎāŘŪŇă ŜŬĻāŗŬŇāŉă ŌŚŇāʗāŘŪŇă ŖȋŬāɀŌāʗāŉă ŎĻāŉă ŎŢāŗŬĻāă ŖȋŬāʗāŉă
•664•
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AMDO TIBETAN LANGUAGE

The author has pursued interests in ethnology, linguistics,

Introduction to Normative Oral Amdo

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AMDO TIBETAN LANGUAGE

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KEYWORDS: Tibetan, language, dialogue, grammar

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BACK COVER: ȂŬŎāŊāŊŬŖŢāŞāŋāŎŢĻāȜŢĻāŌɁŉāŇĻāŌɁŉāŊŬŖŢāɆāŘŌŜāŐāʗŇă The author's father and his six

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FUT Future tense form

Dr. CK Stuart Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an City

Dr. Gerald Roche Asia Institute, The University of Melbourne

 Objective Verb "to be":;A/  Existential Verb: ;R.

2.J-3R, %-35S-3R-;A/, 35S-3R, HR.-2.J-3R,

3<-$J-1R=-3-;A/, 3J-+R$-;$-0R-<J., 3J-+R$-HR:A-;A/,

1.1 -- Pronouns and possessive pronouns

Pronoun English Possessive pronoun English

3<-$J / 3R / #R-3R she; her 3<-$J:A / 3R:A / #R-3R:A her; hers

HR. you HR:A / HR.-$A your; yours

#R / #<-$J he; him #R:A / #<-$J:A his

%J.-(:R we; us %J.-(:R-$A our; ours

#R-(:R / #<-$J-(:R they (male); them

3R-$*A?-! / #R-3R-$*A?-! they; them (female

A-nJ-<A-#, ____________, _______________, ______________, ______________

B. Which continents are these countries located in?

.0J<-2eR., AJ-&A-$%-/-;R., AJ-&A-A-nJ-<A-#-/-;R.,

C. Where do you think the content of each picture is from?

2R.-#3?-?-(-(J-$9A$-;A/, 2R.-#3?-/-(R=-#-$?3-;R., (R=-#-$?3-0R-.2?-$4%-, #3?-<-A-3.R-;A/, .2?-$4%-

.2?-$4%-N%-$R-$A-2R.-uR%?-<J., .J:A-(2-YA., .0=-:LR<, <A$-$/?-$A-vJ-2-z-?-<J., z-?-2R.-uR%?-$A-zR-KR$?-/-

1.2 --Objective verb "to be": ;A/

Subject Complement Verb "to be" English Notes

?%?-o?-35S- .0=-w/-$A-Z%-3R- Sang rgyas mtsho is Dpal  put at the end

2R.-{.- 3<-$J:A-1-{.- Tibetan is her mother tongue.

.0J<-2eR., ;-\A%-\A%-(J/-$9A$-<J. / ;A/,

.0J<-2eR., Words to use: (J / ?-o / 2R., Sentence: 2R.-?-o-(J,

3. YR$-($? / A-nJ-<A-#/ /-;R. _______________________________________

4. <J. / /3-^ / SR/-0R / .J-<A% _______________________________________

5. /%-/ / $8%-12-#%-$A / ;R. / .$J-c/______________________________________

8. 3%-0R / o=-#2 / /2-KR$? / ;R. / / _______________________________________

9. A->J-; / o-$< / /-;R. _______________________________________

10. HR.-<-%:A / 2<-/ / ;R. / 1R=-3-35S _______________________________________

1.4 --Existential verb: ;R.

2R.- 3,R-|%-/- Tibet is on a plateau.  tells locality

A-1-<-A-3- HA3-/- (My) father and mother are at  possessive with

A-<-?- ;R., Russia is northeast of

Objective Verb "to be":;A/ Existential Verb: ;R.

3R-$A?-! / #R-3R-$A?-! they; them (female

A-nJ-<A-#, ____, _, , ______

?%?-o?-35S- .0=-w/-$A-Z%-3R- Sang rgyas mtsho is Dpal put at the end

2R.- 3,R-|%-/- Tibet is on a plateau. tells locality

A-1-<-A-3- HA3-/- (My) father and mother are at possessive with

7. 2R.-____;=-{.-$?3-, A-3.R-_A3-{.-2>., #3?-____#3?-{.-2>.,

8. %-<-%:A-8A-3R (2-3R) .-0-=A-_____, 0-=A-_MA-5%-3-n-</-?J:A-MA_____,

10. MA-<A$?-$J-VJ=-2-(J_#R-9R-(5S) PR$-3-:S-3R-_,

:.A-(:R-#J<-3-$4%-3--3--<J., These are not clean One denies subjectively,

#R-3-.$:, He was not delighted. 3 denies verbs in past

1. .J-<A%-$9:-0-?%?-<J., #-l%-$9:-3A$-.3<, /%?-!-$9:-*A-3,

%:A-MA%-5K-.0=-_____, %-2R.-_, %-@R%-0R-,:J-aR2-9-(J/-3R:C-.$J-c/-$9A$_____, aR2-

.0J<-2eR., $9$? / J?-0-:.A / 3,R, Question:J?-0-:.A-$9$?-AJ-3,R,

2. $R%-.!:-3R / *R / .%R?-0R ____ _

3. *=-#% / $&A$ / #%-2:A / /%-/ ____ _

4. aR2-9 / aR2-;R/-.!:-3R / <J. ____ _

5. aR2-;R/ / |R<-3R-s-2o / aR2-{2?-$&A$ ____ _

6. :IR-|R / (/-;R/ / 3A-<%-$A / 2R.-/? ____ _

7. 3$R/-0R-35S / =R-(% ____ _

8. =R-(J / 5%-3 / aR2-PR$? ____ _

9. .$J-c/ / 29% / 2R.-/? ____ _

10. 29%-%/ / :SJ?-3 / aR2-$?R ____ _

2. 3<-$J-o-$<-<-:IR-$A-;R., __ 4. 3<-$J-9A-=A%-/?-<J.,

3. 2/-.J-z-?-/?-<J., ____ 4. $;%-A.-3J-:#R<-$A-,R$-/-$A.-$A-3J., _

3 :.A-/-(R?-3R-35S-<-{=-29%-$A?-!-;R., #R-$A?-!-OA/-:.-/-:.$-$A-;R., (R?-3R-35S-#3?-/?-<J., {=-

3. {=-29%-<-#3?-/?-<J., ___ 4. #R-$*A?-!-HA3-5%-$&A$-/?-3-<J.,

1….35S-}R/-0R-/?-?-;R%-, _ 2….?-$*A.-$A-;R., _

3….?-$*A?-OA/-+:-/-:.$-$A-;R., 4….??-o-{.-2>.->J?, _____