Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263

www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Damping behavior of continuous fiber/metal composite materials

by the free vibration method
E.C. Botelhoa,c,*, A.N. Camposb, E. de Barrosb, L.C. Pardinia, M.C. Rezendea
a
Divisão de Materiais, Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço, CTA, Praca Mal, Eduardo Gomes, 50 Vila da Acacias,
CEP 12.228.904 São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
b
Divisão de Integração e Ensaios, Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço, CTA, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
c
Fatigue and Aeronautic Material Research Group, Department of Material and Technology, UNESP, Guaratinguetá, 01419-901 SP, Brazil
Received 14 November 2004; accepted 25 April 2005
Available online 16 September 2005

Abstract

Fiber metal laminates (FML) offer significant improvements over current available materials for aircraft structures due to their excellent
mechanical characteristics and relatively low density. Non-destructive testing techniques are being used in the characterization of composite
materials. Among these, vibration testing is one of the most used tools because it allows the determination of the mechanical properties. In
this work, the viscoelastic properties such as elastic (E 0 ) and viscous (E 00 ) responses were obtained for aluminum 2024 alloy; carbon
fiber/epoxy; glass fiber/epoxy and their hybrids aluminum 2024 alloy/carbon fiber/epoxy and aluminum 2024 alloy/glass fiber/epoxy
composites. The experimental results were compared to calculated E modulus values by using the composite micromechanics approach. For
all specimens studied, the experimental values showed good agreement with the theoretical values. The damping behavior, i.e. the storage
modulus and the loss factor, from the aluminum 2024 alloy and fiber epoxy composites can be used to estimate the viscoelastic response of
the hybrid FML.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: A. Hybrid; B. Mechanical properties; B. Vibration

1. Introduction composites, and contribute significantly to weight savings in the

Fiber–metal laminate (FML) composites are composed of
alternating layers of fiber-reinforced polymer prepregs and
aluminum 2024-T3 alloy sheets. These hybrid materials offer
superior mechanical properties over the conventional polymer
composite laminates and the high-strength monolithic alumi-
num alloys. In the case of FML, the aluminum skin sheets are
the outer layers and they protect the core composed of
polymeric composites. As a consequence, the resistance to
environmental attack and foreign object impact can be
enhanced. The specific stiffness and strength in the fiber
direction of reinforced-polymeric composites are improved
over the high-strength aluminum alloys used in the FML
* Corresponding author. Address: Divisão de Materiais, Instituto de
Aeronáutica e Espaço, CTA, Praca Mal, Eduardo Gomes, 50 Vila da
Acacias, CEP 12.228.904 São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail address: ebotelho@directnet.com.br (E.C. Botelho).
1359-8368/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2005.04.003
design of tension-dominated stresses in structural components.
Also, the fiber-bridging mechanism that occurs in the composite
laminae reduces crack growth and propagation in the
aluminum–alloy layers under tensile fatigue conditions [1–9].
Fiber/metal laminates, in the form of glass/epoxy layer
interleaved by thin aluminum sheets, were originally
developed at Delft University of Technology at the
beginning of 1980 [10–12]. These hybrid materials are
divided into three groups according to the type of fiber-
adhesive layer used, as follows: reinforced with aramid
fibers (ARALL); glass fibers (GLARE) and carbon fibers
(CARALL) [10–12]. Their main attribute is the improved
fatigue resistance and they are promising candidates for the
structural materials of advanced aircraft.
Elastic properties of composites can be determined by
semi-static or dynamic mechanical tests. Static mechanical
tests are destructive while majority of dynamic mechanical
test offers the advantage of being non-destructive. Nowa-
days, various experimental methods potentially applicable
to determine dynamic moduli and damping of composites
256 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263

(free vibration, rotating-beam deflection, forced vibration
response, continuous wave or pulse propagation technique)
have been used and reviewed [13–18,19].
One of the most used tests is the vibration damping. The
measurement principle consists of recording the vibration decay
of a rectangular plate excited by a controlled mechanism to
identify the elastic and damping properties of the material under
test. The frequency amplitudes are measured by accelerometers
and calculated by using a digital method [19–25].
In the present study, the dynamical mechanical proper-
ties were obtained by free vibration damping test of the
following materials: aluminum 2024-T3 alloy; carbon
fiber/epoxy composites; carbon fiber/aluminum 2024-
T3/epoxy hybrid composites and glass fiber/aluminum
2024-T3/epoxy hybrid composites. The results of the elastic
and viscous response of these new materials were compared
with the conventional polymer composites.
where E 0 is the elastic modulus; f is the natural frequency; I
is the inertial moment; M is the accelerometer weight; m is
the specimen weight and L is the specimen length.
The loss factor, tan d, can be calculated from the
decaying-oscillatory damping curve as follows:
lnðd1 =dn Þ
tan d Z (3)
np
Loss modulus (E 00 ) can be calculated by equation 4:
E 00
tan d Z (4)
E0
The term [ln(d1/d2)]/n, also known as the logarithmic
decrement (D), can be obtained by fitting the experimental
data. Tan d values can also be obtained theoretically by
using the rule of mixtures. So, the parameters found in this
work were the E 0 , E 00 (loss modulus) and tan d values.

2. Theoretical analysis
3. Experimental
A theoretical analysis of internal damping and dynamic
stiffness for aligned continuous fiber composite was 3.1. Materials
developed based on micromechanics models for the
complex moduli. The viscoelastic response of Carbon fiber/epoxy (CF–E) and glass fiber/epoxy
materials under stress can be modeled as depicted in (GF–E) prepregs with F155 specification were used for
Fig. 1, where L is the length; h is the thickness, b is the the composite manufacture. The prepregs were supplied by
width, dx is the deformation in x and y is the deflection of the Hexcel Co. The fiber reinforcement was plain weave
beam [23–25]. fabrics. The aluminum alloy 2024-T3 sheets (with 0.50%
The free vibration method results generally present a of Fe; 0.15% of Ti; 1.2–1.8% of Mg; 0.3–0.9% of Mn;
logarithmic damping (D) given by Eq. (1) [23–25] 0.50% of Si; 0.25% of Zn; 3.8–4.9% of Cu and 0.10% 0f Cr)
    were supplied by Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica
d 1 d
D Z ln 1 Z ln 1 (1) (EMBRAER). The aluminum surfaces were prepared for
dn n dn the adhesive bonding either by etching or anodizing process
where n is the number of peaks; d1 is the amplitude of the in Chromic Acid Anodizing (CAA) at Embraer facilities.
first peak and dn is the amplitude of the final peak analyzed. These acid etching and anodizing processes generate
The storage modulus (E 0 ) was obtained for a rectangular microrough morphologies, which have been shown to
specimen having 250 mm of length, 25 mm of width and yield the best overall bond durability. Details of this
2 mm of thickness, according to equation 5 [23–25] methodology are already described the in the literature [26].
   
4p2 f 2 33 D2 3.2. Hybrid composites processing
EZ MC m L3 1 C 2 (2)
3I 140 4p
The hybrid composites were prepared by stacking
alternating laminae of the prepregs and the aluminum
CDP
sheet. The lay-up scheme of the hybrid composites was 3/2,
b
as follows:
h y(X)
L
Hybrid 1 Al/CF–E/Al/CF–E/Al
x
dx y(L) η K Hybrid 2 Al/GF–E/Al/GF–E/Al

The hand lay-up of the hybrid composite materials was

made as depicted schematically in Fig. 2. After the lay-up
process, the laminates were fit inside a vacuum bag and
M placed in an autoclave system. The curing cycle was done at
I,m
a heating rate to 2.5 8C/min up to 120 8C and held at this
final temperature for 1 h. The pressure and the vacuum used
Fig. 1. Voigt–Kelvin model for free vibration method [22–25]. were kept at 0.69 and 0.083 MPa, respectively.
 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263
Fig. 2. Configuration of continuous fiber/metal/epoxy hybrid composite (3/2 lay-up).
3.3. Evaluation of fiber/aluminum 2024-T3/epoxy hybrid
composites process
Micrographs of the cross section of the hybrid
composites were observed by optical microscopy (OM) in
order to evaluate how homogeneous was the lamination and
the curing process. The morphological evaluation was done
in a Digital Scanning Microscopy from Zeiss Company,
model 950.
3.4. Measurement of dynamic moduli
The dynamic elastic modulus was determined by
vibration damping measurements. The measurement prin-
ciple consists of recording the free vibrations of a prismatic
cantilever beam excited by tapping it with an appropriate
hammer, as shown in Fig. 3. The amplitude decay as a
function of time and the vibration modes were detected by
an acquisition data system from Spectral Dynamics
Company and recorded using a software LMS CADA-PC.
The test parameters were: analyses range of 1000 Hz;
acquisition time of 200 ms; rectangular observation window
and frequency resolution of 5 Hz. The amplitude decay was
measured using a 0.6 g accelerometer. Beam dimensions are
shown in Table 1. Following the testing procedure, two
types of curves were obtained: damping free vibration and
frequency response function profiles.
The length, width and thickness were measured along the
beam specimens. Average values for the thickness, width
Fig. 3. The experimental set-up.
257
and standard derivation were calculated from 10 measure-
ments. The upper and lower limits of the standard derivation
of the sample dimensions were considered for the
calculations.
The vibration test gives the free vibration damping decay
and the frequency response function (FRF), simultaneously
as a result. Considering a linear system of a single degree of
freedom, the FRF response is the decomposition of the
natural frequencies of a structure or specimen, which
corresponds to a typical fingerprint identity of the vibration
modes. The number of vibration peak frequencies (vibration
modes) and the shape of the FRF response are a direct result
of the rigidity of the material.
Most of the materials studied have considerably more
compliant than aluminum hence would present less problem
of parasitic loss [27–30]. Due to the eventual problems
related to parasitic damping, this work will not approach
damping factor values. In the present work, only E 0 , E 00 and
tan d values are presented. All the tan d values calculated for
the tested materials were compared to aluminum 2024-T3,
because it is easy to find the tan d values for this material in
the literature.
3.5. Theoretical calculations
In order to compare the experimental results of CF–E and
GF–E composites in relation to theoretical values, the
Fabric Geometry Model (FGM) Code were used [31]. The
program allows predicting the stiffness of composite
258 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263

Table 1
Dimensions and weight of specimens used in damping tests

Specimen Length, L (m) Width, b (m) Thickness, h (m) Weight (g) Inertia (m4)
GF–E 0.210 0.020 23.1!10K4 19.0!10K3 1.33!10K11
CF–E 0.210 0.015 18.0!10K4 9.06!10K3 0.73!10K11
Aluminum 2024-T3 0.211 0.020 10.4!10K4 12.4!10K3 0.19!10K11
Hybrid 1 0.202 0.021 19.5!10K4 18.3!10K3 1.26!10K11
Hybrid 2 0.211 0.021 17.2!10K4 16.8!10K3 1.02!10K11

materials having spatially oriented reinforcements, from
constituent material properties using composite microme-
chanics approach. The FGM Code allows the calculation of
the elastic constants for the fiber/epoxy fabric composites,
taking into account the fiber orientation. The elastic
constants calculated for the polymer composites and the
elastic constants of the aluminum 2024-T3 were used to
estimate the E modulus for the hybrid composites by using
the rule of mixtures. The E modulus of the hybrid composite
was calculated considering a volumetric content of the
aluminum 2024 (w57%) and the fiber/epoxy composites
(w43%).
The theoretical calculations show that the CF–E composite
has an elastic modulus (E) similar to the aluminum
(w72.0 GPa) one and, consequently, it is expected that for
the hybrid composite, the elastic modulus would be
equivalent. On the other hand, the low elastic modulus
(30.6 GPa) of the GF–E composite tends to lower the elastic
modulus of hybrid composites made with these two
components (GF–E laminae and aluminum). A similar
behavior can be observed for shear modulus results.
Aluminum has a shear modulus of 28.0 GPa and the hybrid
composites exhibit a shear modulus of 18.0 GPa [26].

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Processing of hybrid composites

Fig. 4 presents a cross section of the Hybrid 1 (Fig. 4a)

and Hybrid 2 composites (Fig. 4b). Fig. 4 shows the distinct
layers of the polymer composite laminae and the aluminum
foil. The thickness of the polymeric composites between the
aluminum 2024-T3 layers, were 0.24 and 0.36 mm, for
carbon fiber and glass fiber laminae, respectively. Con-
sidering that both fabrics have the same style, differences in
the thickness of the polymer composite laminae are due to
the monofilament mean diameters (carbon fiber is w8 mm
and glass fiber is w15 mm) [10]. SEM evaluation shows that
in both cases, using carbon fiber or glass fiber, it was
possible to produce a hybrid laminate with adequate
consolidation between the continuous fiber, metal and
epoxy resin layers.

4.2. Vibrational tests

Fig. 5a–e and Table 2 present the resonant frequency

results of all specimens studied in this work. The first mode
of vibration was used in order to calculate the E 0 and E 00
moduli.
The beam specimens have the frequency scanned up to
500 Hz.

4.3. Determination of elastic module (E 0 )

Fig. 4. Optical Micrographs of continuous fiber/metal/epoxy composite
The theoretical elastic constants calculated by using materials: (a) carbon fiber reinforcement (Hybrid 1); (b) glass carbon
composite micromechanics approach are shown in Table 3. reinforcement (Hybrid 2).
 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263 259

(a) 800
700
600
500
400

FRF (g/N)
300
200
3° mode
100
0
–100 1° mode 2° mode
–200
–300
–400
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency (Hz)
(b) 800
(c) 800
600
600

400
400
FRF (g/N)

FRF (g/N)
200
200

0
0
3° mode
–200 –200 1° mode
1° mode 2° mode 2° mode
–400 –400
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency (Hz) frequency (Hz)
(d) 800 (e) 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
FRF (g/N)

300
FRF (g/N)

300
200 200 2° mode
100 100
0 0
–100 –100
1° mode 1° mode
–200 –200
2° mode
–300 –300
–400 –400
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency (Hz) frequency (Hz)

Fig. 5. Resonant frequency results from composite laminate specimens studied: (a) aluminum 2024-T3 alloy; (b) GF–E; (c) CF–E; (d) Hybrid 1; (e) Hybrid 2.

Four primary mechanisms have been suggested to
contribute to damping in composites: viscoelastic response
of the constituents, friction and slipping at the fiber–matrix
interface, thermoelastic damping due to cyclic heat flow and
damage initiation and growth. Excluding the contribution
from any cracks and other defects, the internal damping of a
composite is determined by the following variables:
properties and relative proportions of the matrix and
the reinforcement; dimensions of the inclusions; orientation
of the reinforcement with respect to the loading axis; surface
treatments of the reinforcement and void content [18]. In the
case of aluminum, the viscoelastic response can be
attributed to effects of microdefects, such as dislocations,
heat treatment, corrosion and damage initiation. The loss
factor can vary from 10K2 (aluminum alloy) to 10K6 (pure
aluminum) [27–30]. Besides the individual damping
260 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263

Table 2 theoretical calculations from micromechanics approach,

Frequency values of materials analyzed up to 500 Hz
Specimen First frequency Second frequency
(Hz) (Hz)
GF–E 24 158
CF–E 35 223
Aluminum 17 108
2024-T3a
Hybrid 1 38 237
Hybrid 2 30 191
a
Literature value [27].
mechanisms of the composite laminae and the metal sheet,
in FML the interface between the distinct materials also can
have an influence on vibration damping.
Fig. 6a–e presents the vibration damping curves
representative of the composite laminate specimens and
aluminum 2024. The curves show an exponential decay of
maximum peak amplitudes as a function of time. The
amplitude decays of CF–E, Hybrid 1 and Hybrid 2
composites are more pronounced for higher stiffness.
It was observed that the damping behavior of the FML
composites depends on the fiber, the matrix and the aluminum
content as well. Associated with this effect, the surface
treatment of aluminum by CAA, carried out before molding of
the hybrid composites, can affect the interface bonding
between the metal and fiber/epoxy composites and so is the
damping behavior.
The GF–E and the Hybrid 2 composite behave differently
when submitted to damping experiments. In this case, the
effect of the interface on damping, which is in between the CF–
E laminae and the aluminum foil in the Hybrid 1 composite, is
more pronounced due to the lower E 0 value for the GF–E
laminae, if compared with the E 0 value for the CF–E laminae.
Using the rule of mixtures, the calculated elastic modulus
for Hybrid 1 composite was 2.3% higher than the
experimental result. The experimental modulus values
when compared with the theoretical values of polymeric
composites result in a decrease of 20 and 27%, for CF–E and
GF–E composites, respectively. The experimental modulus
values of aluminum 2024-T3, Hybrid 1 and Hybrid 2
composites result in a decrease of 5, 15 and 9, respectively.
Experimental measurements of elastic modulus of
composites tend to exhibit different values from the
because ideal bonding between fiber/matrix interface,
Third frequency perfect alignment of fibers and absence of voids and other
(Hz) defects are considered in the last. So, the differences
462 between E 0 experimental and calculated E modulus
– (Table 4) are expected. For the hybrid composites there is
306 an additional factor related to the influence of surface
treatment on the aluminum foil, which is not considered in
–
– the theoretical calculations. The result of the elastic
modulus for the aluminum 2024 alloy, Table 4, shows a
good agreement between the value found in the literature
and the experimental value [26].
4.4. Determination of loss modulus (E 00 ) and loss
factor (tan d)
Table 4 shows the values for the loss factor (tan d) for all
the tested materials. The loss factor obtained by aluminum
2024-T3 was 0.021. This value agrees with the values found
in the literature [26].
Using the rule of mixtures, the calculated tan d for
Hybrid 1 and Hybrid 2 composites were 10 and 29%,
respectively, higher than the experimental results. This
behavior is due to the influence of the interface between the
fiber/epoxy composite and aluminum alloy.
The loss modulus is proportional to the E 0 and tan d values,
and it is related to the energy dissipation mechanisms in
materials. In hybrid composites, such as FML laminates, the
loss modulus is also a combination of energy dissipation
mechanisms from the composite laminae, metal foil and the
interface between them. So, in this case, the energy dissipation
due to interfacial adhesion can play the role.
Table 4 also presents E 00 values for CF–E, GF–E,
aluminum 2024 alloy, Hybrid 1 and Hybrid 2 composites.
It can be observed in Table 4 that the E 00 values for CF–E
and GF–E composites were 0.86 and 1.15 GPa, respect-
ively. Thus, the GF–E composite dissipates more energy per
cycle of damping than the CF–E composite. The value of the
dynamic modulus of the GF–E composite is 34% higher
than the value of the dynamic modulus of the CF–E
composite. Moreover, the loss factor of the CF–E composite
is three times lower than for the GF–E composite.
Consequently, the energy dissipation in the CF–E composite

Table 3
Theoretical engineering constants calculated by micromechanics approach

Specimen Fiber content Al content (%) Ex (GPa) Ey (GPa) G12 (GPa) G13 (GPa) n12
(%)
GF–E 60.0 0.00 30.6 30.6 6.03 5.72 0.15
CF–E 60.0 0.00 71.3 71.3 3.86 3.39 0.03
Aluminum 0.00 100 72.4 72.4 28.0 28.0 0.33
2024-T3a
Hybrid 1 25.3 57.9 71.9 71.9 17.8 17.6 0.20
Hybrid 2 25.3 57.9 54.8 54.8 18.8 18.6 0.25
a
Literature value [27].
 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263 261

15
10 (a) (b)
10
5

Amplitude, A(g)
Amplitude, A (g)
5

0 0

–5
–5
–10
–10
–15
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, t (s) time (s)
10
(c) 10 (d)

Amplitude, A (g)
5
Amplitude, A (g)

0 0

–5
–5

–10
–10
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
time (s) time, t (s)

10 (e)

5
Amplitude, A (g)

–5

–10

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

time, t (s)

Fig. 6. Damping behavior curves from composite laminate specimens studied: (a) aluminum 2024-T3 alloy; (b) GF–E; (c) CF–E; (d) Hybrid 1; (e) Hybrid 2.

is lower than the GF–E composite, as can be seen in the part of the loss is hysteretic, caused by dislocation
amplitude decay curves of Fig. 6b and c. Table 4 shows that movement.
the E 00 value for aluminum 2024-T3 (1.37 MPa) is in The value of E 00 was calculated by Equation 4. For the
between the GF–E and CF–E composites. In metals, a large Hybrid 1 composite, the value was 0.82 MPa. For the

Table 4
Damping results obtained for the composite materials studied

Specimen Inertia E 0 (GPa) Tan d E 00 (GPa) E (GPa)a

GF–E 1.33!10K11 26.7G2.3 0.043 1.15 30.6
CF–E 0.73!10K11 57.0G4.7 0.015 0.86 71.3
Aluminum 2024-T3 0.19!10K11 66.1G5.8 0.021 1.37 70.0
Hybrid 1 1.26!10K11 60.9G5.3 0.014 0.82 71.9
Hybrid 2 1.02!10K11 49.7G3.2 0.029 1.46 54.8
a
Calculated by composite micromechanics approach.
262 E.C. Botelho et al. / Composites: Part B 37 (2006) 255–263
Hybrid 2 composite, E 00 value was 1.46 MPa, which is
higher than for Hybrid 1 (44%). The damping of composites
is mainly controlled by E 0 of reinforcement fiber and
the interface between the reinforcement and matrix.
Therefore, in hybrid composites such as metal/fiber
composites, damping is controlled by E 0 of metal and
reinforcement, associated with the surface treatment of the
aluminum foil.
5. Conclusion
The damping behaviors of aluminum 2024 alloy, carbon
fiber/epoxy (CF–E), glass fiber/epoxy (GF–E), aluminum
2024 alloy/carbon fiber/epoxy (Hybrid 1) and aluminum
2024 alloy/glass fiber/epoxy composites (Hybrid 2) were
investigated. The dynamic elastic modulus (E 0 ) values from
these materials were compared with the theoretical
calculated values. The predicted E modulus from the
micromechanics approach model does not take into account
neither the presence of voids in the fabric reinforcement/e-
poxy composites nor the effect in the interface between
metal and fiber/epoxy due to the chemical treatment of the
metal (CAA). However, the approach of the rule of mixtures
can be applied to Hybrid 1 and Hybrid 2 individual
components in order to predict the E 0 modulus for these
hybrid composites.
The Hybrid 2 composite exhibit higher E 00 value (w44%)
than the Hybrid 1 composite due to the difference of
mechanical properties of glass and carbon fibers, which is
also associated with chemical treatment of the metal foil
(CAA). The damping of the studied composites in this work
is mainly controlled by E 0 of the reinforcement fiber and the
fiber/matrix interface. Therefore, in hybrid composites, such
as FML, the damping behavior is mainly controlled by the
storage modulus (E 0 ) of metal and reinforcement together.
The vibration testing response proved to be an effective
tool for measuring the damping properties of hybrid
composites.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support received
from FAPESP under grant 02/01288-3 and 03/04240-4 and
CNPq (grant 303528/2003-6). The authors are indebted to
Mr Rogério A. Silva and Dr José Maria Fernandes Marlett
from EMBRAER for helping to process the composite
materials used in this work.
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