MINI ACE

İçindekiler

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Winglet function
Winglets are aerodynamically efficient surfaces added to wingtips. As it is known,
the high pressure airflow below the wing surface tries to escape upper part of wing
where there is lower pressure at the wing tip. This flow creates wing tip vortices which
is the reason of induced drag. Winglets at the tip of the wings act as a dam to prevent
or lessen this flow to decrease the wingtip vortices, eventually the induced drug to
increase the efficiency of wings.

Fly by wire technology

FBW technology replaces the conventional manual flight controls, such as tubes,
rods or bell cranks. By means of this technology, pilot’s or autopilot's control inputs are
converted into electronic signals and transmitted to actuators attached to control
surfaces by wires. That is why this system is called FBW. This system helps designers to
reduce weight of aircraft. On the other hand the main concern is reliability. While
traditional mechanical or hydraulics system fails gradually, FBW system may collapse
immediately and cause the aircraft be uncontrollable. To prevent this situation,
redundant systems have been developed such as completely independent computers,
wirings, actuators to take over in case one system fails. On the other hand, in some
aircrafts a mix of FBW and conventional systems are used as back up. Airbus 320 is
using this kind of system. However, Boeing 737 is not using FBW technology.

Lift
Lift is the force that is generated by the pressure difference between the upper and
lower surface of airfoil that is facing the air with a certain speed. This pressure
difference can be explained in such way that an airfoil is cambered on its top side and
flattened on its bottom, so the air facing airfoil separates into two parts . The air on top
of the wing travels faster than the air on the bottom. Faster air produces less pressure
than slower air as in the Bernoulli principle. Lift can be formulated as= 1/2 CLxSxqxV2,
where CL is the coefficient of lift. CL depends upon the angle of attack and shape of
that specific wing. By moving the elevators, basically AOA is changed therefore the lift.
Lift is assumed to be acting on center of pressure of the airfoil. CP moves forward as
the AOA increase and moves backward as the AOA decrease.

ETOPS (Extended range twin engine operations

standards)
According to ICAO standards, a twin engine aircraft operator shall plan its route to
land an aerodrome within 60 minutes in case OEİ. However ETOPS may increase this 60
minutes time limitations to 180 minutes or more.

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Stall
Stall is occurred when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. After this point, the
airflow above the upper surface of airfoil begins to separate therefore lift production is
decreased dramatically. This affect is called stall.
Stall speed is affected by various factors.
1. Weight; as weight increase, stall speed increase. When weight of aircraft
increases, AOA needs to be increased too to maintain the lift. Part of that lift is used to
overcome the disadvantage of excess weight. Eventually stall speed is increases.
In addition to weight affect, forward CG also increases the stall speed. As the CG
moves forward, stabilizer needs to produce more downward force to balance the nose
down attitude. This creates more effective weight, so the weight increases and stall
speed increases.
2. Icing conditions, dirt or any FOD over the wings eases the separation of airflow
and increases the stall speed.
3. Turbulent air creates up or down winds causing the relative wind change rapidly,
which may lead AOA to exceed critical angle and stall. Therefore turbulent air increases
the stall speed.
4. As Density of air increases, stall speed decreases. Actually stall speed is given in
term if CAS or İAS. Although it is a constant value at higher altitudes density of air
decreases resulting TAS increase. So at higher altitudes stall speed increases.
5. Flaps; flap usage decrease the stall speed. Since flap extended wing produces
higher coefficient of lift. Aircraft can fly at lower speed without exceeding the critical
angle.
6. Load factor; stall speed is directly proportional with load factor.
Vs=sqrt(n)*Vs where n is the load factor. As a result as the load factor increases stall
speed increases. For example at the absolute ceiling of an aircraft turn maneuver
becomes impossible because of stall.

High lift devices

High lift devices are moving or stationary components used to increase lift during
certain flight conditions.
1. Trailing edge flaps increases the lift by extending from the trailing edge of the
wing and has five types.
A. Plain flaps; just change the chord line therefore AOA and lift increases.
B. Split flaps; almost same as the plain, produce just a bit more lift but more drag
as well.
C. Slotted flaps; is like plain flap with gaps between wing and leading edge of
flap. Slotted flap change the chord line thus the AOA and lift. Besides, the gaps provide
higher pressure air to flow upwards of wing to accelerate the boundary layer over the
wing to delay separation of airflow.
D. Fowler flap; is a type of slotted flap change both chord line and area of the
wing, thus increases lift.
E. Slotted fowler flap; is like fowler flap associated with some slots on it to delay
separation of airflow.

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 2. Leading edge flaps; leading edge flaps increases the lift by extending from the
leading edge of the wing and has four types.
A. Fixed slot; a nozzle shaped opening that ducts the air onto the top of the wing
to increase the lift at high AOA.
B. Movable slot; is like fixed slot but this time it is deployable by the operator.
C. Leading edge flaps; is used to increase the camber of the wing to increase
AOA and lift.
D. Leading edge cuffs; are fixed aerodynamic devices, that bends the leading
edge, to increase both CL and camber of the wing. It delays stall.

PAPİ, VASİ, PVASİ

PAPİ; precision approach path indicator lights are used for visual precision approach.
Four light system are normally installed left of the runway with a glide angle of three
degrees. These lights are visible from 5 NM in day and 20 NM at night. “Two white two
red on the path”
VASİ; Visual approach slope indicator lights has two types. One is two bar VASİ and
the other one is three bar VASİ. VASİ lights are normally visible from 3-5 NM in day and
20 NM at night. Two bar VASİ is set to 3 degree glide slope. Short description for two bar
VASİ is “red over white you are all right".
PVASİ; pulsating visual approach slope indicator lights are visible from 4 NM in day and
10 NM at night. “Steady white you are all right."

CFIT
Controlled flight into terrain; describes an accident in which an aircraft under pilot
control is unintentionally flown into the ground, mountain, water or an obstacle. Main
causes for CFİT accidents are fatigue, loss of SA, disorientation, misinterpreting charts
or ATC clearances. To reduce the risk of CFİT, using GPWS and obeying the İCAO rules
are important.

GPWS
Ground proximity warning system is a system designed to alert pilot if aircraft is in
imminent danger of flying into ground or an obstacle. This system combines the data
which are R/A, barometric altitude, configuration, vertical speed, glide slope deviation,
present position, gear position, approach minima, flap position, throttle position, and in
enhanced mode DTED, to warn pilot about the closure of impact. In EGPWS system
wind shear is also shown. EGPWS reduces the risk of CFİT almost 50 times. GPWS is
mandatory on public transportation aircraft over 5700 kg.
Isolated aerodrome
The destination aerodrome is called Isolated aerodrome, when there is no alternate
aerodrome. It depends on the distance to nearest aerodrome, fuel and time required.
Additional fuel will be required to fly for two hours at normal cruise power for turbine
power aircraft.

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Hypoxia
Hypoxia; is basically lack of oxygen. Symptoms may change individually, however
the common symptoms are headache, euphoria, cyanosis, increased response time,
impaired judgment, limping muscles, drowsiness and dizziness. There are four types of
hypoxia.
A. Hypoxic hypoxia: when there are not enough oxygen molecules in sufficient
pressure. This can occur very suddenly at rapid decompression or relatively slower at
lower altitudes on extended period of time.
Altitude. Time of useful conciseness
45000. 9-15 sec.
40000. 15-20 sec.
35000. 30-60 sec.
30000. 1-2 min
25000. 3-5 min
18000. ~40 min
B. Hypemic hypoxia: blood carries CO easier than O2, so in case of CO amount is
greater than O2 hypemic hypoxia occurs. This can be seen in piston engine aircrafts
with faulty cabin heating system.
C. Stagnant hypoxia: circulation problem leads this kind of hypoxia. Especially,
during G maneuvers, cold weather operations or heart problems may increase the risk.

D. Hystotoxic hypoxia: this kind of hypoxia happens when the cells are unable to use
O2 effectively. Alcohol, drug or smoking may increase the risk.

Supplemental O2 usage
For pilots over 10000 feet of cabin pressure and for passengers’ over 13000 feet of
cabin pressure supplemental O2 usage is required.

Atmosphere layers
Troposphere 0-36000 feet
Stratosphere 36000-160000 feet
Mesosphere 160000-280000
Thermosphere 280000-~
Ozone layer is characterized by high concentration of O3, with maximum
concentration of O3, with maximum concentration about 80000 feet. This special type
of oxygen molecule absorbs the harmful solar energy and accounts for the increase the
temperature in that part of atmosphere.
TS occurrence
TS's is one of the most dangerous weather hazards that pilots should avoid. It
occurs in these conditions;
1. Unstable lapse rate (instability)
2. Some type of lifting action
3. High moisture content

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 Embedded TS is one which is obscured by massive cloud layers and cannot be seen.
There are three steps of TS which are cumulus stage, mature stage, dissipating
stage. Wind shear areas can be found on all sides TS and directly under it. There are
several hazards of thunderstorms which are wind shear, gusty winds, hail, icing
conditions, lightening, turbulence, reduced visibility and radio/com interference. Pilots
should avoid TS at least 20-25 NM.

Turbulence
Turbulence is the eddy motions in the atmosphere. It may cause stress on the
airframe. There are several types of turbulence which are low level turbulence, clear air
turbulence and mountain wave turbulence.
Low level turbulence may be faced less than 15000 feet and occurred because of
surface heating, friction, or ground shapes. Wake turbulence is considered as low level
turbulence. İt is generated by preceding aircraft's wingtips. That is why it is also called
wingtip vortices. The greatest vortex strength occurs when the preceding aircrafts is
slow, heavy, clean configuration and at high angle of attack.
Generally wingtip vortices suspend in the air for several minutes. According to İCAO
rules, there is supposed to be separation between the aircrafts. These are; light to light,
medium to medium and heavy to heavy none on the other hand, medium to heavy 3
and light to heavy 5 minutes.
Reporting of turbulence;
Light- Sudden movements
Moderate- altitude and attitude change
Severe- Difficult to control
Extreme- impossible to control

CAT
Clear air turbulence. It is commonly thought as high altitude turbulent air
phenomena. There is no visual warning for CAT. So it is hard to detect CAT is usually
found in jet streams. This kind of turbulence is mostly 2000 feet deep, 10-20 miles wide
and 50 miles long. Long streams of cirrus cloud formation may show jet stream CAT.
CAT is usually faced above 15000 feet.
Turbulence penetration
Maintain level attitude, use maneuvering as penetration speed (rough air speed)
and accept variations in airspeed and altitude.
If you encounter turbulence during approach, increase the airspeed slightly above
normal approach speed to attain more positive control.

Wind shear and microburst

Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind direction and speed. İt may be
upward or downward. This can cause the aircraft to gain or lose sudden altitude and
change airspeed. Microburst is one of the most dangerous types of wind shear. This
type of wind shear reaches the ground and blow away in all directions. It is intense,
localized down streams as strong as 6000 fpm.
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 An aircraft can face microburst especially at takeoff or landing. So if GPWS alerts the
pilot about wind shear, the only way to recover is to go around. Wind shear may be
encountered around virga, cumulus formations, rain shaft or dusting.
Visibility, RVR
One of the most common weather hazards is low visibility. Two types of visibility are
defined; prevailing visibility and flight visibility. Prevailing visibility is the distance that
an observer can see % 50 of horizon and published in METAR in meters.
Flight visibility is defined as average forward distance that can be seen from the cockpit
of aircraft. So RVR is reported by a runway number and visual range. RVR value
represents the horizontal distance that a pilot should see down the runway from the
approach end of runway. Fog, haze, dust, smoke, smog reduces the visibility.

Hydroplaning.
It is caused by a thin layer of standing water that separates the tires from the
runway. It causes the reduction of friction between the tires and runway surface. High
aircraft speeds, water, slush, and runway texture are the effects for hydroplaning.
Breaking action is reported by ATC as" poor, good, fair, nil". If it is nil, directional control
may be impossible. If hydroplaning occurs, landing roll may be longer than the one on
smooth ice. To estimate the minimum hydroplaning speed, square root of tire pressure
(in PSI) times 8,6 formula is used.

Precision and non-precision approach

Precision approach, as it is understood from its name, is more precise and has lower
minimums than non-precision approach. The easiest way to distinguish between
precision and non-precision approach is to look up chart's minima part. If DA(H) is
published it is precision approach. If MDA(H) is published, it is non-precision approach.
Glide slope information is provided for precision approaches.
The types of precision approach are İLS, MLS, PAR and WAAS GPS RNAV. The types of
non-precision approach are NDB, VOR, LOC and GPS RNAV.
Final approach segment for a precision approach begins with intercepting the glide
slope at designated altitude.
On the other hand final approach segment for a non-precision segment begins at
designated FAF or at a point when you establish final approach course. When FAF is not
designated, final approach begins at final approach point (FAP) where procedure turn
intercepts the final approach course inbound.
Straight in landing
When the final approach course is aligned with the runway within 30 degrees and
minimum maneuvers required to align the aircraft with the runway, it is called straight
in landing. It means no circle to land maneuver is required. But if the final approach
course is not aligned with the runway or if it is desired to land another runway, circle to
land minimums apply.

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Straight- in approach
It means that, it is not required nor approved to execute course reversal or
procedure turns even the published ones. Approach may be initiated from a fix closely
aligned with final approach course, DME arc or radar vectors to final.

First aid kit requirements

According to JAR -OPS 1745, first aid kit requirements is dependent upon the
number of passenger seats installed. For 0-99, 1 kit, 100-199 2 kits, 200-299 3 kits and
for 300 and more 4 kits are required.

TCAS-ACAS
A Traffic Collision Avoidance System is an aircraft system based on secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) transponder signals, which operates independently of
ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft
that are equipped with SSR transponders.
It is mandated by the International Civil Aviation Organization to be fitted to all
aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of over 5700 kg (12,586 lbs) or
authorized to carry more than 19 passengers.
TCAS 1 provides TA-traffic information only to a range of about 40 miles.
TCAS 2 provides TA+RA (vertical)-traffic information and additional maneuver advice
for vertical separation.
TCAS 3 provides TA+RA (vertical+horizantal)-traffic information and additional
maneuver advice for vertical and horizontal separation.
TCAS 4 provides TA+RA and uses additional information encoded by the target
aircraft in the Mode S transponder reply that additional position information encoded on
an air-to-air data link to generate the bearing information, so the accuracy of the
directional antenna would not be a factor.
TA - Traffic Advisory
RA - Resolution Advisory

TORA-TODA
TORA - Takeoff Run Available is the usable length of the runway available.
The physical length of runway pavement.
TODA - Takeoff Distance Available=TORA+Clearway / 1,5xTORA
Clearway - Obstacle-free area at the end of the runway with the dimension of 75 m.
Either side of the extended runway centerline.
TORR - Takeoff Run Required is the measured run required to the unstick speed (Vr)
plus one-third of the airborne distance between the unstick and the screen height.
ASDA - Acceleration Stop Distance Available=TORA+Stopway
EMDA - Emergency Distance Available=ASDA
Stopway-Unprepared surface at the end of the runway in the direction of takeoff
supporting the aircraft can be stopped in case of an abandoned/rejected takeoff.
BALANCED FIELD refers to TODA=ASDA

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 LDA - Landing Distance Available is the length from 50 ft above the surface of the
runway threshold (screen height) to the end of the landing runway.
LDR - Landing Distance Required is the length from 50 ft above the surface of the
runway threshold (screen height) to the point where the aircraft reaches a full stop.

ILS CATEGORIES
DH. Visibility. RVR
CAT I. >200 ft. >800 m. >550 m.
CAT II. 200 ft.>x>100 ft. - >350 m.
CATIIIA. <100 ft. - >200 m.
CATIIIB. <50 ft. - 200 m.>x>50 m.
CATIIIC. NON. – NON
Category I ILS has minimums of 200 ft DH and 800 m visibility or 550 m RVR.
Category II ILS has minimums of 100-200 ft DH and 350 m RVR.
Category III has three sub-categories.
III A ILS has minimums of below 100 ft DH and 200 m RVR.
III B ILS has minimums of below 50 ft DH and 50-200 m RVR.
III C ILS has no minimums.

Q CODES
QDM - Magnetic bearing (radial) TO the station
QDR - Magnetic bearing (radial) FROM the station
QFE - Zeros the altimeter on the airfield
QNE - 29.92 set by the transition altitude
QNH - Local altimeter setting that altimeter indicates AMSL
QUJ - True bearing TO the station
QTE - True bearing FROM the station

CIVIL AVIATION HISTORY

Paris Conference (1919) - First international scheduled air service began.
Warsaw Convention (1929) - Ticket / Baggage / Liability
Chicago Convention (1944) - International Air Navigation (Major rules are set by this
convention - ICAO was formed.- Five Freedoms of the Air
1. Fly across
2. Using facilities
3. Fly A=>B
4. Fly B=>A
5. Fly anywhere
Tokyo Convention (1963) - Jurisdiction (authority, governance) of PIC- National
jurisdiction
Hague Convention (1970) - The act of unlawful seizure (hijacking of aircraft)
Montreal Convention (1971) - Complements the Hague Convention

ORGANISATIONS MEMBERS
IATA - The International Air Transport Association Airline companies
ECAC - European Civil Aviation Conference All EC countries
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 JAA - Joint Aviation Authorities. ECAC
EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency. - Replacement of JAA
Euro Control.- Plan/optimize European air traffic management

CABIN PRESSURIZE SYSTEM

Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into an aircraft cabin to
maintain a safe and comfortable environment for crew and passengers when flying at
altitude.
Pressurization is essential over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above sea level to protect
crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the
low outside air pressure above that altitude; it also serves to generally increase
passenger comfort. The essential physiological problems are; hypoxia, altitude
sickness, decompression sickness, barotraumas
The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed air extracted
from the compressor stage of a gas turbine engine. At least two engines provide
compressed bleed air for all of the plane's pneumatic systems, to provide full
redundancy. Compressed air is also obtained from the auxiliary power unit (APU), if
fitted, in the event of an emergency and for cabin air supply on the ground before the
main engines are started. Most modern commercial aircraft today have fully redundant,
duplicated electronic controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual
back-up control system.
The cabin altitude of an aircraft planning to cruise at 40,000 ft (12,000 m) is
programmed to rise gradually from the altitude of the airport of origin to around a
maximum of 8,000 ft (2,400 m) and to then reduce gently during descent until it
matches the ambient air pressure of destination.

WEIGHTS
Aircraft Authorized gross weight limits are laid down in the aircraft flight manuals
(AFM). The authorized or permitted limits may be equal to or lower than the structural
design weight limits.
Maximum weights established, for each aircraft, by design and certification must not
be exceeded during aircraft operation (ramp or taxiing, takeoff, en-route flight,
approach, and landing) and during aircraft loading (zero fuel conditions, centre of
gravity position, and weight distribution).
Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW)-(Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW)) is the maximum
weight authorized for maneuvering (taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground as
limited by aircraft strength and airworthiness requirements. It includes the weight of
taxi and run-up fuel for the engines and the APU.
It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during
the taxi and run-up operations. 10 to 15 minutes allowance of taxi and run-up
operations.
Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW)-(Maximum Brake Release Weight) is the maximum
weight authorized at brake release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll.
The maximum takeoff weight is always less than the maximum taxi/ramp weight to
allow for fuel burned during taxi by the engines and the APU.

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 In operation, the maximum weight for takeoff may be limited to values less than the
Maximum Takeoff Weight due to aircraft performance, environmental conditions, airfield
characteristics (takeoff field length, altitude), maximum tire speed and brake energy,
obstacle clearances, and/or enroute and landing weight requirements.
Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)-The maximum weight authorized for normal
landing of an aircraft. The MLW must not exceed the MTOW.
The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight lower than the Maximum
Landing Weight by the most restrictive of the following requirements:
Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude and temperature:
landing field length requirements,
approach and landing climb requirements
Noise requirements
If the flight has been of short duration, fuel may have to be jettisoned to reduce the
landing weight.
Overweight landings require a structural inspection or evaluation of the touch-down
loads before the next aircraft operation.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)-The maximum permissible weight of the aircraft
less all usable fuel and other specified usable agents (engine injection fluid, and other
consumable propulsion agents). It is the maximum weight permitted before usable fuel
and other specified usable fluids are loaded in specified sections of the airplane. The
MZFW is limited by strength and airworthiness requirements.

MOCA, MORA, MCA, MRA, MHA, COP, MEA, MAA

MOCA ; minimum obstruction clearance altitude. Minimum altitude published on
routes or segments which provides obstacle clearance for the entire rote but provide
signal coverage only within 22NM of VOR. 7500T shows MOCA
MORA; minimum off-route altitudes is the minimum altitude published on rotes or
segments provides obstacle clearance 10 NM off the route in each side by 1000 or 2000
feet in mountainous area.
Grid MORA; minimum off- route altitude. İs the min altitude published on enroute
chart grid block that provides obstacle clearance of 1000 or 2000 feet in mountainous
area within the grid. İt is depicted in blue as first two digits.
MCA; minimum crossing altitude. İs the min altitude that has to be gained before
reaching that point.
MRA; minimum reception altitude is the lowest altitude that ensures adequte reception
of navigation signals to identify that intersection.
COP; change over point. Is the point that guiding frequency for that airway has to be
changed to the preceding navaid frequency.
MEA; minimum enroute altitude. İs the lowest altitude that is depicted on the airway
that provides signal coverage and obstacle clearance for that part of enroute segment.
MAA ; maximum authorized altitude is the maximum altitude for that airway that
provides accurate signal coverage for that part of airway. Above this altitude the
guiding signal may be confused with another navaid.

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Lightning Strike Protection
There are two ways to keep the aircraft out of lightning danger. Firstly, pilots should
avoid the areas where lightning is likely to occur. Secondly, some basic principles to be
utilized are as follows:
Most aircraft fuselages are made up of aluminum which is a very good conductor.
When lightning hits the aircraft the fuselage delivers the huge amount of energy back
to atmosphere from one of its extremities. The rule is to keep avionics and fuel systems
and wirings shielded so there is supposed to be no harm to vital systems.
I believe the best way is to keep the aircraft out of lightning areas.

Rate of Turn/Radius of Turn

ROT is number of degrees of heading change per time.
Formula: ROT=1,091xtangent bank angle/airspeed
As speed increases ROT decreases. Turn-1 rate is equal to 3 degrees per second.
Required bank angle for turn-1 rate is equal to TAS/ 10 plus 7.
Radius of turn is directly linked to ROT.
Formula: R=V2/11.26xTangent bank angle
As speed increases R increases.

Types of Turbine Engines

There are four types of turbine engines; turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and
turboshaft. Basically turbofan and turbojet engines are similar to each other. The only
difference is that the turbofan engine has additional fan in the inlet section that
separates the inlet air into two parts. One is bypassing the engine to provide engine
cooling and fuel efficiency and helps noise suppression. The second air flow just like
turbojet engine passes through the compressor, combustor, turbine and exhaust to
provide thrust.
Turboshaft and turboprop are basically the same. Turboshaft engine drives a shaft
that is connected to a gearbox or a transmission while a turboprop engine is connected
to a propeller.
There are five sections in an engine; inlet, compressor, combustor,
turbine(expansion) and exhaust.
ISA- İnternational Standard Atmospheric Conditions
At sea level, Density: 1.225 kg/m3 Press:29.92 inch mercury or 1013.25 mb Temp:
15 Lapse Rate : 2 C/1000feet

Vertical (Cross) wind component

Crosswind component of wind is computed as follows:
Sin(Runway heading-wind direction)x wind strength

Transponder codes
0000 Mode C malfunction
7700 emergency

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 7600 comm failure
7500 hijack
0033 parachute
7000 VFR when no other code has been assigned.
Although codes can be assigned from 0000 to 7700 the number of possible codes to
be set is 4096.
Mode A: 4 digit code entered by the pilot
Mode C: Pressure altitude information is sent
Mode S: selective interrogation facilitates to transmit 24 bit address length of data
to other aircrafts Xpndr, TCAS, ACAS, and ADS-B systems. The data to be transmitted
are callsign, heading , altitude .

ALDİS
LIGHT FORM GROUND AIR
Steady green Clear to take off Clear to land
Flashing green Clear to taxi Return and wait for landing
signal
Steady red Stop Give way to other aircraft
Flashing red Vacate runway Do not land
Flashing white Return to starting ----
point
Alternating red green Caution caution

ICING
There are mainly two types of icing. First one is induction, second one is structural
icing. Induction icing occurs in carburetor or air intake of the engine. It is most likely to
occur when OAT is between -7 and 21C and humidity is above 80%.
Structural icing builds up on any exposed surface of an aircraft causing lost of lift,
increase in weight and control problems. There are two types: rime and clear ice.
Rime ice is normally encountered in stratus clouds. İt has an opaque appearance.
Major hazard of rime ice is the change of the shape of the airfoil and destroy the lift.
Clear ice normally encountered in cumulus clouds or in freezing rain. It can glaze the
aircraft surface. It is the most serious form of icing because it has the fastest rate of
accumulation.
If you encounter freezing rain, temperatures are above freezing at some higher
altitude and freezing rain is most likely to have highest rate of accumulation.
Ice, snow or frost having a thickness of sandpaper can increase the drag by 40%
and decrease the lift by 30 %.
When you encounter icing immediate action is for cumulus clouds change of
route/course and for stratus clouds change altitude and switch on all deice systems.
When you encounter freezing rain immediately climb if not possible make a 180 degree
turn .
There are four types of icing; trace, light , moderate, severe icing.
Trace: no need for deice/anti-ice operation

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 Light Ice: for prolonged exposure (more than one hour)deice/anti-ice necessary
Moderate ice: Deice/anti-ice is immediately necessary
Severe: is beyond capability of deice/anti-ice systems
Frost is hazardous especially at take-off. It is essential to clear frost before take-off.
Anti-ice : prevents the formation of ice
Deice: remove the ice after it has been accumulated.
The devices used for deice/anti-ice are: Thermal anti-ice, pneumatic deice boots,
windshield anti-ice alcohol, windshield heater, pro heat, prop anti-ice
Estimating freezing level: (OAT/2)x1000 AGL . It is the altitude where you likely to
encounter icing.

ORİENTATİON PROBLEMS
Disorientation: Kinesthetic sense is the term used to describe the awareness of
position obtained from nerves, joints and muscles. This sense is unreliable because the
brain can not tell the difference between gravity inputs and g-load inputs. In VFR
conditions you obtain your orientation mainly through your vision, on the other hand in
İFR or at night your body relies upon your vestibular and kinesthetic sense. Since these
senses are unreliable disorientation occurs.
Fatigue, anxiety, workload, alcohol, drugs increase the probability of disorientation.
There are two types of disorientation; spatial and vestibular. Spatial disorientation
occurs when there is a conflict between central vision and peripheral vision. For
example one feels himself moving as the vehicle next is moving while he is in a
stationary vehicle.
Vestibular system in inner ear may send misleading signals to brain causing
vestibular disorientation. For example, a rapid acceleration during takeoff can create
the illusion of being a nose-up attitude and abrupt change from climb to straight and
level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. In prolonged constant rate
turn you will not sense the bank after a while and if you level the aircraft you will sense
as if you bank the opposite side.

OPTİCAL ILLUSİON
Of the senses vision is the most important for safe flight. Optical illusions are
primarily encountered during landing. These illusions are associated with runway width,
runway slope. A narrow runway leads to an illusion that aircraft is higher so you tend to
make a lower approach. Wider runway causes the opposite.
A down sloping runway leads to a higher approach whereas up sloping runway
causes the opposite.
To overcome optical illusions use VASİ, PAPI, check altimeter frequently, use glide
slope and utilize VDP.

IMSAFE Checklist
I- Illness M-Medication S- Stress A-Alcohol F-Fatigue E-eating

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SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
SA is basically, knowing the position and what is happening around. Monitoring radio
comm., weather discussion, and ATC comm can enhance SA by helping the pilot to
develop a mental picture of what is happening.

REQUIRED NAVİGATION PERFORMANCE - RNP

A specified level accuracy defined by a lateral area of confined airspace in which
RNP certified aircraft operates. Various RNP levels are required for different phases of
flight. For example in USA RNP-2 for enroute, RNP-1 for departure and arrival and
RNP-0.3 for approach is utilized.
HOLDING PROCEDURES;
İt is used to provide separation between traffics and smooth flow of traffic. There are
two types of holding; standard, nonstandard. İn standart holding right hand turns, in
non standard holding left hand turns are utilized. Each circuit of holding begins and
ends at a certain fix. These fixes may be navaid, intersection or a certain dme dlstance.
Unless otherwise is instructed or depicted standard holding is performed. İnbound leg
of holding is akways towards the fix. There are two ways of holding procedure; first one
is done by timing and the second one is done by leg length. İn timing procedure
outbound leg is flown one minute at or below 14000 feet and above 14000 feet one and
a half minutes. If holding is to be performed by leg length fix and end of outbound leg is
given in terms of dme. In this case no timing is required. Holding speed should be
adjusted according to holding altitude, if holding speed and altitude are not depicted on
the chart. Icao standard is 230 kts up to 14000 ft. There are three methods used to
enter a holding pattern. Parallel, direct and teardrop entry. The entry procedure
depends on your heading relative to your heading course.
EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
Weight has two adverse effect on performance in terms of amount and balance. Firstly
weight itself has an adverse effect on flight performance almost in every aspect. These
effects from take off to landing are as follows;
- higher take off speed
- longer take off run
- reduced rate of climb and angle
- lower maximum altitude
- lower cruise speed
- shorter range due to fuel consumption
- reduced manouvrebility
- higher stalling speed
- higher approach and landing speed
- longer landing roll
- excessive weight on landing gear
Secondly unbalnce of weight will affect flight characteristics adversely for example fuel
load unbalance will cause one wing heaviness or overload to aft will cause nose up
attitude or visa versa.
So before flight, loading of aircraft and computations of CG shall be checked according
to POH to keep in safe limits during all flight.
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METAR
Aviation routine weather report; is a report of observation of current surface weather.
METARs are issued normally hourly. A special METAR SPECİ is issued between routine
METAR reports. SPECİ is generated whenever a critical metorological condition exists
such as wind shear or microburst.
TAF
Terminal aerodrome forecast is the best source of weather forecast for that specific
aerodrome. İt is issued four times a day and valid for 24 hours and the other type is
issued for a nine-hour period updated every three hours

WS SİGMET
İs inflight advisory concerning convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all
aircraft. Report may be about severe icing, extreme turbulence, CAT, dust, sand stor,
volcanic ash or hurricanes.

Inversion
When there is an inversion in lapse rate, warm air cannot rise up and even
temperetture may increase with altitude. This is called inversion. Radiation cooling from
ground at clear cool nights and warm air mass over cold air mass cause inversion.
İnversion occurs at low levels acting like a lid for humidity and politants. İt usually
contributes to low visibility, fog, low ceiling with no wind and no turbulance conditions.

Dew point
İs the point below which water vapor will condense into liquid. Dew point is used to
calculate ceiling of clouds.
Air masses
Air masses are large body of air that have fairly same temperature and moist. An air
mass moving over a cold area creates stable airwith poor surface visibility and moving
over a warm area warming from below and cause a rapid rise of moist air. This creates
unstability, good surface visibility, cumulus clouds, turbulence and showers.

Fronts
Boundary between air masses is called front and generally brings hazardous weather.
The most reliable indication of frontal passage is shift in wind direction.
There are four types of fronts which are cold, warm, stationary and occluded fronts.
Warm front; occurs when a warm airmass moves and replaces the cold air mass.
Because of the density difference between the air masses, warm air slides over cold air.
This boundary is called warm front. On the front line visibility decreases rain or snow
occurs and low ceiling will be encountered. İf a pilot flies towards a warm front, he or
she will face cirrus, cirrostarus, altostratus and nimbostaratusclouds associating with
precipitation and low ceiling progresively. This wind blows from south, south east.
Cold front; cold front occurs when a cold air mass which is moving faster than warm air
mass movesand replaces the warm air mass. İt slides under the warm air mass. This
boundary layer is called cold front which brings towering cumulus, CB, heavy rain,
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lightining, thunderstorm, hail even tornadoes, low visibility and gusty winds. A pilot
heading cold front will face more cumuluform clouds with decreasing barometric
pressure and finally on the front vertically developed clouds, lightining, rain, gusty
winds, poor visibility, CB's and varipus weather hazards.
Cold fronts are fast approaching with little or no warnings and they make complete
weather change in few hours. Weather clears rapidly after passage of cold front and
unlimited visibility and dry air develops. On the other hand warm fronts provide
advance warning of their approach by developing startiform clouds and takes days to
pass through a region.
Stationary front; when the forces two air masses are equal the boundary lay remains
stationary and affects the local area for some time.
Occluded front; occurs when a fast moving cold air mass cathches up with slow moving
warm air mass. Warm front weather prevails and immediatly followed by cold front
weather.

Squall line;
It is a anarrow band of active thunderstorms. İt develops on or ahead of cold front
in moist and unstable air. This line is too wide to detour and too severe to penetrarte. İt
forms rapidly and reaches its maximum strength at late afternoon and first few hours of
darkness.
Fire types
There are 6 types of fire.
Class A; ordinary combustibles, such as wood cloth, paper, plastic etc. And the
extunguishers for class A fire contains water, foam, CO2, halon.
Class B; flammable liqids such as fuel, gasolin etc. And the extinguisher for class B
firecontains foam, CO2, halon
Class C; flammable gases such as neutral gas etc. And the extinguishers typically
contain dry powder.
Class D/F; electirical fire, such as overloaded equipments, wires. And the extinguisher
specifiied for this type of fire contains CO2 or halon.
Class D; combustible metal, such as potasium, magnesium, lithium etc. Extingusher
contains dry powder.
Class F; cooking oils or kitchen fires. This type of fires needs to be extinguished wit wet
chemical containing type extinguishers.

CLOUDS
There are four fypes of clouds. These are low level, middle level, high level and
vertically developed clouds.
Low level clouds: this type of clouds are seen from ground to 6500' AGL. these clouds
may contain supercooled water droplets and create icing hazard. Types of low clouds
are stratus, nimbostratus, startocumulus and fog.
Middle clouds are seen from 6500' to 20000' AGL. İn these clouds, severe icing,
moderarte turbulence might be faced. Types of middle clouds are altostarus and alto
cumulus.
High clouds are seen above 20000'AGL.Turbulence andicing are seldom. Types of this
clouds are cirrus, sirrostarus and cirrocumulus.
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Vertically developed clouds areindependent of altitude. They show lifting and
unstability. All weather hazards such as icing, turbulence, lightinig, windshear etc can
be seen. Types are towering cumulus and cumulunmbus.
RVSM
Reduced vertical seperation minimum reduces the vertical seperation between flight
levels FL290 and FL410 from 2000' to1000' aand makes 6 additional flight levels
available for operation. Only aircrafts with specially certified altimeters and autopilots
may fly inRVSM airspace. Additionally, operators must receive approval to conduct
opertations in RVSM airspace. But state aircrafts exempted from this requirement.
Aircrafts to fly in RVSM airspace shall have the following equipment;
-2 independent working altimeterres.
- autopilot
- XNDR reporting altitude information
- altitude alertsystem.

DUTCH ROLL
Dutch roll is lateral and directional oscillation of aircraft. It resembles an eight on the
horizon with aircraft' nose. Especially high speed swept wing aircraft are susceptible to
dutch roll, rolling and yawing motion. This is due to smaller fin and rudder area. This is
a design compromise. Small fin and rudder are required for spiral instability but causes
dutch roll.
Yaw dampers prevent dutch roll. The recovery technique is to apply oppsite aileron
input assuming yaw dampers are not working.

HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

At sppeds over 260 knots, air is considered incompressible that is its density remains
constant but pressure varies. Air acts like water. Although aircraft is flying subsonic,
airflow over the wing may reach sonic speeds. When flow velocity reaches sonic speed
further acceleration results shock waveformation. This shock wave increases drag,
decreases stability and degrades controllability. Speed regimes are defined in general
as follows;
Subsonic - up to 0.75 mach
Transonic- 0.75-1.2 mach
Supersonic- 1.2-5 mach
Hypersonic - above 5 mach
When airfoil flowing over any part of aircraft, especially over wings, reaches sonic
speed, aircraft's speed is called critical mach number. Critical mach number is the
boundary between subsonic and transonic flight.
After critical mach number, drag rises sharply, trim and stability changes causing a
decrease in controllability.
As altitude increases, true air speed increases and local sound of speed decreases so
the mach number increases. To prevent speeding up beyond critical mach number, at
flight levels after mid twenties mach number is used.
İf an aircraft flies at absolute ceiling, it can not speed up due to critical mach number
and slow down due to stall speed restriction. This point is coffin corner.
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When airfow over any part of aircraft goes beyond sonic speed, a shock wave forms
between subsonic and supersonic areas. This wave causes an increase in drag, airflow
seperation, decrease control effectiveness.
To delay seperation so to increase critical mach number vortex generators are utilised.
İn addition to this swept back wing design is used to delay seperationand improve
aerodynamic performance.
PROCEDURE TURN
Procedure turn is used to reverse course and or descent to certain altitude. By means of
procedure turn, aircraft is established inbound to final approach. There are four types of
procedure turns.
Racetrack, teardrop, 45/180degrees and 80/260 degrees.

TOP OF DESCENT OR BOTTOM OF DESCENT

Top of descent is a point that an aircraft starts its descent to reach a point in a
designated altitude with a specific vertical speed or descent angle.
Bottom of descent
Bottom-of-descent point – The end point of the descent, as calculated by the FMS/RNAV.

CRITICAL ENGINE
The critical engine of a multi-engine, fixed-wing aircraft is the one whose failure would
result in the most adverse effects on the aircraft's handling and performance. Left
engine is the critical engine in Most of the aircraft due to conventional rotating
propeller.
ADVERSE YAW
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift or in other saying Outside
wing produces more lift and induced drag, the same wing slows down slightly. This
crates opposite side yawing motion. This is called adverse yaw. This is more common at
lower airspeeds. Application of rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw. As a result, all
the turns should be coordinated turns.

Compass errors
There are four types of errors regarding the compass.
Variation error;
Magnetic north and geographic north are different from each other. İn aviation
difference between true and magnetic pole is called variation. This variaton numbers
are depicted on the charts easterly and westerly. To calculate true heading, easter
corrections should be substracted, while westerly corrections be added to magnetic
heading. (i.e. 90 magnetic heading+4 Easterly variation= 94 true heading)
Deviation
Local magnetic fields in aircraft affect the compass. This error is called deviation.
Compass correction card is used to compansate the error. These errors are changable
according to intended heading.
Dip error
This error occurs because of the magnetic flux enters the nort pole vertically which
makes flux parallel to surface over equator and perpendicular over the poles. When
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performing a compass turn to northerly heading, you must roll out before reaching the
desired heading and visa versa in northern hemisphere.
Oscillation error
Oscilaation is acombination of the other errors. To compensate this error use the
average indication.
Other probable topics:
Drag, jet stream, Great circle, rhumb line, helicopter aerodynamics, pitot blockadge,
Visual descent point.
GOOD LUCK
By Eğilmez, Cırık, Gülen, Şamlıoğlu.

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