Knowledge Sharing Guide

This guide has been developed using
materials provided by the Overseas
Knowledge Sharing Guides Development Institute's Research and

Policy in Development (RAPID) Programme
List of Guides:
Practical Guides
Food Security Information for Action
Action Learning Sets
After Action Reviews and Retrospects
Challenge Sessions
Communities of Practice
E-mail Guidelines
Group Development
Mind Maps
Online Strategies
Peer Assists
Six Thinking Hats
Social Network Analysis
Stakeholder Analysis
Storytelling
ABOUT THE GUIDES
These practical guides were developed to accompany the e-learning course entitled "Collaboration and
Advocacy Techniques" published by the EC-FAO Food Security Information for Action Programme and
available at www.foodsec.org. This guide and the associated e-learning materials are based on the ODI's
Research and Policy in Development (RAPID) programme publication by Ben Ramalingam entitled "Tools
for Knowledge and Learning: A guide for development and humanitarian organisations" available at
www.odi.org.uk/rapid.
The EC - FAO Food Security Information for Action Programme is funded by the European Union and implemented by FAO
Action Learning Sets Development Institute's Research and

WHAT THEY ARE BENEFITS
Action Learning is a powerful approach for working on difficult

Action Learning Sets are a structured method enabling problems in professional practice and helps set standards for
Practical Guides
small groups to address complicated issues by meeting good practice in organizational learning.
regularly and working collectively.
This tool is especially geared to learning and personal The following are some of its most relevant benefits:
development at the professional and managerial levels.
it offers participants an opportunity for personal
development;
Action learning sets are particularly appropriate for profes-
it improves problem solving, as well as questioning
sional and managerial-level learning and personal develop-
and listening skills;
ment work. They are most often used:
it helps participants tackle complex tasks; and
on work-based projects where action learning set
members are involved and are able to influence the it allows participants to learn from other organiza-
outcomes. tions facing similar challenges.
for issues concerning how specific action learning
set members operate in the work context (e.g.
creating partnerships).
KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
THE PROCESS Action Learning Sets are most effective when they are
voluntary.
The Action Learning process is a cyclical one, giving each
member the opportunity to present a problem and comment They should focus on real-life practice-related problems,
on others: especially those which are open-ended in nature and do
not have a right or wrong answer.
Start-Present your challenge,
problem, issue or your question. The ground rules for action learning sets should include:
– being honest with oneself and others;
Mark learning, draw Set members question you – respecting others and their viewpoint; and
conclusions, define learning constructively to challenge – taking responsibility for our own actions.
from experience. Integrate new views and understanding,
knowledge into your practice. perceptions, assumptions.
Others share knowledge-
invited by presenter of issue.
Bring results back to set-what

worked/didn't? Why?
Insight? New understanding,
ideas on taking action?
Test out taking action in the

workspace.
[www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Tools/Toolkits/KM/Action_learning.html]
FIND OUT MORE

RAPID Toolkit - Tools for Knowledge and Learning: A guide for development and humanitarian organisations, Ben Ramalingam, July 2006
www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Publications/Documents/KM_toolkit_web.pdf
EC-FAO Food Security Information for Action Programme e-learning course: Collaboration and Advocacy Techniques www.foodsec.org/DL
CECLAC - Collecting and Exchangeof Local Agriculture Content www.celac.or.ug
BOND Action Learning Programme, focuses on UK NGOs - Networking for International Development www.bond.org.uk/lte/alsets.htm#aboutal
Karamagi Akiiki, E. 2006. Towards improving farmers’ livelihoods through exchange of local agricultural content in rural Uganda. KM4D Journal 2(1): 68-77
www.km4dev.org/journal/index.php/km4dj/article/viewFile/53/150
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

This practical guide was developed to accompany the e-learning course entitled "Collaboration and Advocacy Techniques" published by the EC-FAO Food Security
Information for Action Programme and available at www.foodsec.org. This guide and the associated e-learning materials are based on the ODI's Research and Policy
in Development (RAPID) programme publication by Ben Ramalingam entitled "Tools for Knowledge and Learning: A guide for development and humanitarian
organisations" available at www.odi.org.uk/rapid.
After Action Reviews and Retrospects Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IS AN AAR? BENEFITS
The After Action Review is a powerful tool because it

Organizational learning requires a continuous assessment produces quick results in a short time and can be applied to a
Practical Guides
of organizational performance, looking at successes and broad range of activities.

failures. This ensures that learning takes place and
supports continuous improvement. The After Action Review
Its strengths are the following:
(AAR) is a simple tool that facilitates this assessment.
it allows team members to immediately apply
It works by bringing together a team to discuss a task, lessons learned;
event, activity or project, in an open and honest way.
it gathers the group’s intuitions about the strengths
and weaknesses of an activity or a project;
it gives team members an opportunity to share their
THE PROCESS views and ideas and thus develop a common
perspective on which they can base their future work.
There are many different ways to conduct AARs.
The whole process should be kept as simple and as easy to
remember as possible. The essence of an AAR is to bring
together the relevant group to think about a project, activity, KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
event or task, and reflect on the following simple questions:
Post the questions on flipchart sheets prior to the
session. Write answers on the sheet as the session
What was supposed to happen? progresses.
What actually happened?
The facilitator should prepare some lead-in questions
Why were there differences? and may have to directly solicit answers.
What worked?
If there are issues with either openness or time, it may
What didn’t? be worthwhile to gather individual ideas first and then
Why? facilitate a group discussion.
What would you do differently next time?
An uninvolved note-taker should be asked to take
minutes for the session. This will make sure lessons
A Retrospect has a similar format to an After Action Review, learned are captured.
but asks the following more detailed questions:
Actionable recommendations should be as specific as
possible. For example, an AAR could have the following
What was the objective of the project? recommendation: 'Make contact with the organizing
What did we achieve? body representative and ask about the range of
participants before planning the workshop.'
What were the successes? Why? How can we repeat
the success? Participants of an AAR should include all members of
What was disappointing? Why? How can we avoid the team.
them in future?
AARs should be carried out immediately, while the team
‘Marks out of 100’, what would move it closer to 100?
is still available and memories are fresh.
FIND OUT MORE

USAID After-Action Review Technical Guidance, February 2006 http://pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNADF360.pdf
Knowledge Sharing Toolkit. An Evolving Collection of Practical Knowledge Sharing Techniques www.gesci.org/files/Knowledge%20Sharing%20Toolkit.pdf
The Gurteen Knowledge Website - Introduction to After Action Reviews, January 2000 www.gurteen.com/gurteen/gurteen.nsf/id/X00006DDE/
Collison C. and Parcell G., 2001, Learning to Fly: Practical Knowledge Management From Leading and Learning Organizations, Oxford: Capstone. 2004.
ISBN: 1841125091 2nd Edition
Whiffen, P. (2001) ‘Seizing Learning Opportunities at Tearfund’, Knowledge Management Review, Nov/Dec.
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Challenge Sessions Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS
A Challenge Session is a structured problem-solving

Practical Guides
framework which aims at creating changes in the way

groups or individuals think about and solve problems.
It is well established that groups and individuals think by

recognizing and reacting to patterns, with most reactions
emerging as a result of building on past experiences in a
logical and linear fashion.
Although such thinking is a necessity in certain situations,

individuals and groups often get stuck in such modes of
thinking, and do not attempt to think beyond them.
THE PROCESS
The process for a challenge session is as follows:
Identify the problem - This should ideally be a well

defined problem or issue faced by a team or organization.
Brainstorm a series of challenge statements - This

may be done by the whole group or sub-groups.
Use the challenge statements to generate new

ideas.
Prioritize the best ideas - Use pilots to test them out

in a live environment
The basis of a challenge session is to generate a series of Rollout the improved procedures widely.
challenge statements, defined as deliberately provocative
statements about a particular situation.
This process helps individuals and groups move away from As with other lateral thinking techniques, using challenge
conventional modes of thinking, and provides a starting point sessions does not guarantee good or relevant ideas.
for creative thinking. Frequently, though, it can help generate completely new ideas
and concepts. The key is effective facilitation of the group
through the creative thinking process.
FIND OUT MORE

De Bono, E. (1993) Serious Creativity: Using the Power of Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas, New York: Harper Business
RAPID (ODI's Research and Policy in Development programme) - Euforic AGM 2005 - Identifying effective networking and communication strategies in a
European development context www.odi.org.uk/rapid/Events/EUFORIC/Index.html
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Communities of Practice Development Institute's Research and

WHAT ARE COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE THE PROCESS
Communities of Practice usually go through three phases:

Communities of Practice (CoPs) have been defined as:
Practical Guides
“groups of people who share a concern, a set of Phase 1 - Birth

problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen Communities of practice emerge in an organic fashion and cannot in
their knowledge and expertise by interacting on an general be managed into existence. They can, however, be fostered, by
ongoing basis”. identifying areas where knowledge might be better shared and used.
[Etienne Wenger]
Phase 2 - Development and growth
After the initial excitement there is a need to ensure that the Communities
Communities of Practice are important to the functioning of of Practice members maintain their interest and commitment. CoPs need
any organization, but they become crucial to those that to be actively developed and sustained.
recognize knowledge as a key asset. People belong to
communities of practice - where they develop the knowledge
Phase 3 - Closure
that lets them do these other tasks - at the same time as they
Communities and networks can come to a close naturally as its members
belong to other organizational structures, such as:
reach their purpose. When a community fades, it is important to celebrate
business units, where they shape the organization; its life and achievements, and to ensure that the relevant body of
knowledge is captured and transferred.
teams, where they take care of projects; and
networks, where they form relationships.
Knowledge is created, shared, organized, revised, and

passed on within and among these communities. This KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
informal fabric of communities and shared practices makes Well established frameworks for creating and sharing
the official organization effective and, indeed, possible. knowledge are particularly important.
The key is not to stifle social relationships at the heart
BENEFITS of the network by the imposition of too strong a
managerial imperative.
The main benefits of collaborating in CoPs are: The real challenge is to develop the community and
the practice simultaneously:
practice, collaboration with others allow us to test
our ideas, get feedback and interact in ways that we community development requires the continued
might not be able to do if we were working or development of skills of the people involved in the
learning alone; and coordination, facilitation and knowledge management
of the community; and
connections, the relationships we make during this
process not only help us, but also indirectly help practice development requires that the resources,
those outside the immediate community as we information and knowledge, as well as processes and
become more effective. practices within the community are captured and
enhanced over time.
FIND OUT MORE

RAPID - Successful Communication Online Toolkit, Networks: Bridging Research and Policy www.odi.org.uk/RAPID/Projects/PPA0103/
DFID (UK Department for International Development) Good Practice Guide (2004) www.livelihoods.org/info/tools/Networks.pdf
Etienne Wenger: Cultivating a Community of Practice: A quick start-up guide www.ewenger.com/theory/start-up_guide_PDF.pdf
Etienne Wenger www.ewenger.com/theory/index.htm
Knowledge Management Specialist Library www.library.nhs.uk/knowledgemanagement/ViewResource.aspx?resID=88442&tabID=290&catID=10408
Hovland, I. (2005) Successful Communication: A Toolkit for Researchers and Civil Society Organisations, ODI Working Paper 227, London.
www.odi.org.uk/publications/rapid/tools2.pdf
Perkin, E. and J. Court (2005) Networks and Policy Processes in International Development: A Literature Review, ODI Working Paper 252, London: ODI.
www.odi.org.uk/Publications/working_papers/wp252.pdf
Wenger, E. (2002) Cultivating Communities Practice, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

This practical guide was developed to accompany the e-learning course entitled "Collaboration and Advocacy Techniques " published by the EC-FAO Food Security
E-mail Guidelines Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS
Check through these folders occasionally to remove any
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is one of the most commonly stored messages that are no longer required.
Practical Guides
used communication tools in the modern business

environment, increasing the speed and ease with which If you are not going to be checking your e-mail for any length
information can be shared by users across the globe. of time, an automatic response message can be a good way
of informing correspondents that their mail will not be read
immediately.
Although an essential business tool for many, the explosion in It can be helpful to develop guidelines and/or set up an e-mail
the use of e-mail has led to e-mail overload, as many people policy for your organization.
are unable to deal effectively with the volume of e-mail that
they receive. This should be accompanied by training on the range of tools
included in your organization’s software.
THE PROCESS Staff should also be made aware and/or receive training and
the latest anti-virus software should be provided.
Check your e-mail regularly. Once you have read them reply
or take action as required. Once done you should either
delete the e-mail or store them in mail folders. KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
Consider a company-wide policy on volume unsolicited

or ‘spam’ e-mail, including:
appropriate anti-spam software such as ‘block lists’
Email Deleted Permanently
arrives items Deleted or ‘Bayesian filters’ (which calculate the probability of
email deleted, a message being spam based on its contents);
a policy of deleting spam e-mail without responding.
or
For guidance on the best software to protect your
systems, refer to an organization such as BestPrac.org.
reply sent, Sent items
copy saved
in Sent items Consider the following questions when composing an
Sent Items e-mail:
Permanently Deleted
Inbox
or moved to
or Personal Folders Why do I need to send this email?
Who needs to receive this email?
email moved to
Personal Folders Stored on CD
What actions (if any) do they need to take on reading
Personal Personal Folders
this email?
Folders burnt to CD when full
What attachments do I need to add to this email?
Do all of the recipients need to read these?
[Source: www.usq.edu.au/users/hoeyw/email_best_practice.htm] Is this a priority email?
FIND OUT MORE

Plain English campaign www.plainenglish.co.uk
Essential Email Filing Practices www.usq.edu.au/users/hoeyw/email_best_practice.htm
Hovland, I. (2005) Successful Communication: A Toolkit for Researchers and Civil Society Organisations, ODI Working Paper 227, London
Bestprac.org, Best Practice in Email Spam Prevention and Eradication www.bestprac.org/
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Group Development Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS
This tool enables teams to work through five stages towards a 'shared responsibility'. Either face-to-face or virtually, teams
Practical Guides
can go through the five stages assessing where they lie in terms of different areas including atmosphere and relations; goal
acceptance; information sharing; decision making; reaction to leadership; and attention to the way the group is working.
THE PROCESS
Group development, in the case of virtual and face to face teams, can be described as a process consisting of five stages,
from a simple ‘membership’ group to a ‘shared-responsibility’ group (see columns in table).
The different stages of groups differ in terms of characteristics, which vary as a group develops and grows (see rows in table).
STAGES
Shared
Membership Sub-grouping Confrontation Differentiation
responsibility
CHARACTERISTIC
Cautious, Increasing
Supportive, open,
feelings closeness within Hostility Confident,
Atmosphere & expressive, varied;
suppressed, low sub-groups, cross- between sub- satisfied, open,
relations disagreement
conflict, few group criticism, false groups honest, diverse
resolved promptly
outbursts unanimity
Goal Increasing clarity, Up for grabs, Agreed on by Commitment to

Low, fuzzy
acceptance misperceptions fought over most overarching goal
Intense, but high Similarities within

Information
distortion and sub-groups not as Poor Reasonably good Excellent, rapid, direct
sharing
low disclosure great as perceived
Based on By consensus,
individual collective when all
Fragmented, Dominated by
Decision Dominated by expertise, often by resources needed,
deadlocks, to the most powerful,
making active members the boss in individual when one is
boss by default loudest
consultation with an expert (not
subordinates necessarily the boss)
Power General support,
Tested by Highly supportive, but
Reaction to Resisted, often struggles, individual
members, free to disagree on
leadership covertly jockeying for differences in
tentative issues
position influence
Alternates
Noticed but avoided, Discussed if needed,
Attention to Used as between uncritical
discussed outside to aid work
way group is Ignored weapon against or over-
meetings in small accomplishment;
working opponents compulsive
groups anyone can initiate
discussion
This table can be used to identify where a group is located along these different dimensions, and where it needs to improve to
operate more effectively.
FIND OUT MORE

Bogatti ‘Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing’ Approach www.businessballs.com/tuckmanformingstormingnormingperforming.htm
Bradford, D. and A. Cohen (1998) Managing for Excellence, New York: John Wiley and Sons
Duarte, D., L. Spink and S. Song (2001) Strengthening Virtual Collaboration and Teamwork
Maxwell, S. (2001) ‘Organizational Issues in Food Security Planning’ in S. Devereux and S. Maxwell (eds) Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa, London: ITDG Publishing
Awesome Library, Stages of Intercultural Sensitivity www.awesomelibrary.org/multiculturaltoolkit-stages.html
Bennett, M.J. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 10 (2), 179-95
Bennett, M.J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience.
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Mind Maps Development Institute's Research and

WHAT ARE MIND MAPS

Ligh
ten Up
Break
Boundaries t
cia a
e
Mind Maps are a powerful graphic technique that can be s, ... d- e As
so dd
branches
Practical Guides
lor s Min ing Fre

applied to all aspects of life where improved learning and use cocrayon e
81
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br
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2
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It is a non-linear way of organizing information and a Think
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of ide explosion f
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Mind Maps can be used by individuals or by groups for:

simple tasks, such as writing a memo; BENEFITS
complex tasks, such as getting a shared perspective of
a complex project. The main benefits of using Mind Maps are the following:
THE PROCESS the process of creating a mind maps is more interest-

ing and entertaining than a standard chart or table;
The process for creating a mind map can be described in
eight steps: their visual quality permits users to highlight and
review key points easily and more quickly than with
Step 1 - Centre first
Mind mapping begins with a word or image, placed in the middle of the standard sets of notes;
page, that symbolises what you want to think about.
they facilitate recall, because the association of ideas
Step 2 - Lighten up! mirrors the way the brain works; and
Start with an open, creative attitude. Let go of the idea of solving the
entire problem, or writing a report that everyone will love. This is simply a they help groups make sense out of things and help
brain dumping process that helps stimulate new ideas and connections. establish priorities.
Step 3 - Free associate
Put down all ideas without judgement or evaluation. As ideas emerge, write
one or two word descriptions of ideas on lines branching from the central KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
focus. Allow the ideas to expand outward into branches and sub-branches.
In the centre of the page draw an image that describes
Step 4 - Think fast
the general theme of the mind map.
Your brain works best in five to seven minute bursts, so capture the ideas
as rapidly as possible. Keywords, symbols and images provide a mental Create sub-centres for sub-themes.
shorthand for recording ideas as quickly as possible.
Use key words or images.
Step 5 - Break boundaries
The bigger the paper, the more ideas you'll have. Use different colours and styles. Use lower case letters as they they are more visually
distinctive and easier to remember.
Step 6 - Don’t judge
Put everything down that comes to mind even if it is completely unrelated. Use colour to identify themes and associations.
Step 7 - Keep moving Use visual aids (e.g. arrows) to link the various
Keep your hand moving. If ideas slow down, draw empty lines, and watch
your brain automatically find ideas to put on them.
elements.
Step 8 - Allow organization

When one area is exhausted go to another branch.
Sometimes, you see relationships and connections immediately and you can If you run out of space, don't start a new sheet; paste
add sub-branches to a main idea. Sometimes you don't, so you just connect
the ideas to the central focus. Organization can always come later; the first
more paper onto the map.
requirement is to get the ideas out of your head and onto the paper. Be creative! Creativity supports memory.
FIND OUT MORE

Mind Tools - Mind Maps: A Powerful Approach to Note Taking www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newISS_01.htm
Americans for the Arts: Animating Democracy - An Overview of Mind Maps ww3.artsusa.org/animatingdemocracy/pdf/resources/tools/mindmap_overview.pdf
Richard Hawkins- ICRA Learning Resources - Systems Diagrams Guidelines www.icra-edu.org/objects/anglolearn/Systems_Diagrams-Guidelines1.pdf
Buzan, T. (1995) The Mind Map Book, London: BBC Books
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Online Strategies Development Institute's Research and

WHY DEVELOP AN ONLINE STRATEGY
Intranets can have a great impact on knowledge management, particularly in the fields of information collection, collabora-
Practical Guides
tion and communication, and task completion. An online strategy can substantially increase the likelihood of developing an
effective, useful Intranet system within an organisation.
Online tools to support knowledge management need to be applied carefully and in response to clearly specified needs. In the
development and humanitarian world however, there is a highly variable level of resources available for investing in such tools.
Whether the organization is a globe-spanning donor with its own dedicated satellite space, or a local NGO whose field staff have
to use internet cafes to go online, there are some core principles and processes. If these are followed, they substantially
increase the likelihood of an effective and useful system for knowledge sharing.
At the outset, it is worth establishing exactly how an intranet might benefit your organization. Three of the most frequent
applications are:
information collection;
collaboration & communication; and
task completion.
While it is clear that no intranet will focus on only one of these applications, most successful intranets have a primary focus on
one approach, with others playing a supporting role. This needs to be determined by the overall organizational strategy for
knowledge and learning. Each approach has different resource implications.
THE PROCESS
There are at least nine key activities which should be taken into account if an intranet is going to meet organizational objectives:
Strategy based on considerations of content and process requirements, technology

1. Develop a 2-3 year intranet strategy and other resources, and governance mechanisms.
Ensure there is senior management sponsorship, and that the sponsor has budget
2. Obtain a sponsor control.
The intranet needs to match existing and future organizational needs, and not just be a
3. Match information to business needs random collection of information.
The roles, skills and responsibilities for contribution and maintenance should be
4. Recognise authorship included in job descriptions and reviews.
The intranet should provide access to external information, such as donor and partner
5. Provide access to external information, country-specific reports, funding information, research websites,
environment databases, etc.
This should be as simple and easy to communicate as possible, and ideally should not
6. Develop clear ‘information architecture’ replicate the existing organisational structure.
There should be regular and systematic feedback loops from users to ensure the
7. Undertake regular usability testing information and the system as a whole can meet changing user needs.
Promote the intranet through a strong brand identity and internal marketing plan, with a
8. Establish a marketing strategy focus not just on the ‘new information’ but how the tool can be applied in day-to-day work.
The performance of the intranet needs to be measured against objectives, using surveys,
9. Assess the impact success stories and failure stories.
FIND OUT MORE

Lash, J (2003) ‘Three Strategies to Intranet Development’ www.digital-web.com/articles/three_approaches_to_intranet_strategy/
Council for Health Research on Development, Information & Communication Technologies in Knowledge Management
http://cohred.org/cohred/content/733.pdf
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Peer Assist Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS
2. The participants consider the problem, and discuss issues

The Peer Assist is a tool which supports a ‘learning before of interest - namely, what has been covered, and what
Practical Guides
doing’ processes in which advice is sought from someone

hasn’t been covered.
else, or a group that has/have done something similar.
3. The participants consider what the learning team might
This tool encourages participatory learning, by asking
those with experience in certain activities to assist those need to know to address the problem and where they
wishing to benefit from their knowledge, through a might find that knowledge.
systematic process, towards strengthened mutual learning.
4. The participants reflect on what has been learned from the
others and examine options. Again, the learning team
In order to conduct a successful peer assist, a team first needs
should not be the focus here.
to identify the right group of people, and then use a systematic
method to benefit from their insights and experience. 5. The participants should present feedback to the learning
team and answer specific questions. This should be
THE PROCESS informal and deal with what has been learned, what
options are available and others’ experiences.
The Peer Assist process involves the following steps:
1. Developing a clear definition of the problem 6. The team who called the peer assist should acknowledge
the contribution of the participants. Finally, all the partici-
2. Enrolling participants
pants should be invited to reflect on what they learned,
3. Timing the meeting carefully and how they might apply it going forward.
4. Running the peer assists meeting
5. Developing a set of lessons from the peer assist and KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
noting the options.
Ensure everyone is clear about the purpose of the Peer
BENEFITS Assist and their roles:
– learning team listens in order to understand and learn;
– participants share knowledge and experience to help
The benefits of a Peer Assist: resolve the challenge without adding to the workload.
Targets a specific task or technical challenge. Participants should be given briefing materials in
Gain assistance and insights from people outside the advance so they have time to prepare.
team. As well as the participants themselves, an external
Identify possible approaches and new lines of inquiry. facilitator and note-taker are essential. In particular, the
facilitator should be from outside the team concerned,
Promote sharing of learning.
in order to make sure the diverse needs of the partici-
Develop strong networks amongst people involved. pants are met.
Allow time for the teams to socialize. Rapport is
essential for open learning.
Effective peer assist meetings have six parts:
Although the peer assist process is designed to provide
1. The learning team presents the context, history and ideas input for a specific purpose or project, consider who
regarding the task or issue at hand. This should occur in else might benefit from the lessons learned.
an open and flexible manner to allow its redefinition during Always look out for opportunities to share and reuse
the session. knowledge and learning.
FIND OUT MORE

NHS Knowledge Management Specialist Library - Peer Assist www.library.nhs.uk/knowledgemanagement/ViewResource.aspx?resID=125167
University of Ottawa Centre for e-Learning and Bellanet Peer Assist learning module:
www.saea.uottawa.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=682&Itemid=649
Collison C. and Parcell G., 2001, Learning to Fly: Practical Knowledge Management From Leading and Learning Organizations, Oxford: Capstone. 2004.
ISBN: 1841125091 2nd Edition
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Six Thinking Hats ® Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS BENEFITS
The main benefits of the Six Thinking Hats method are the
The Six Thinking Hats tool is a powerful technique used following:
Practical Guides
to look at decisions from different points of view. This

helps us move away from habitual thinking styles and allows you to say things without risk;
towards a more rounded view of a situation.
generates understanding that there are multiple
perspectives on an issue;
There are six different imaginary hats that you can put on or is a convenient mechanism for “switching gears”;
take off. Each hat is a different colour and represents a
different style of thinking. focuses thinking;
leads to more creative thinking;
When we change hats, we change our thinking.
improves communication; and
THE PROCESS improves decision making.
You can use Six Thinking Hats on your own or in meetings,

where it can minimize the confrontations that happen when
people with different thinking styles discuss the same problem. KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
Each hat represents a different style of thinking: This technique allows the necessary emotion and
scepticism to be brought into what would otherwise be
purely rational decisions, thus opening up an opportu-
White hat
Objective, neutral thinking in terms of facts, numbers and nity for creativity within decision making. It also helps,
information. for example, persistently pessimistic people to be
With this thinking hat, you focus on the data available. positive and creative.
Red hat Plans developed using the Six Thinking Hats technique
Emotional, with judgements, suspicions and intuitions.
will be sounder and more resilient than would otherwise
'Wearing' the red hat, you look at problems using intuition, gut
reaction and emotion. be the case. It may also help you to avoid public
relations mistakes, and spot good reasons not to follow
Black hat a course of action before you have committed to it.
Negative, sees risks and thinks about why something will not
function. Using this hat, look cautiously and defensively at all In a Six Thinking Hats session the facilitator must:
the bad points of the decision. Try to see why it might not work.
define the focus of your thinking;
Yellow hat
Positive, optimistic, clear, effective and constructive. plan the sequence and timing of the thinking;
This hat helps you to think positively and to see all the benefits
of the decision and the value in it.
ask for changes in the thinking if needed;
handle requests from the group for changes in the
Green hat
Creative, seeks alternatives. The green hat is where you can thinking; and
develop creative solutions to a problem. It is a freewheeling way
capture periodic or final summaries of the thinking
of thinking, in which there is little criticism of ideas.
for consideration by the team.
Blue hat
Or Meta hat, thinking about thinking.
It is well worth reading Edward de Bono's book 6
The blue thinker’s role is to keep an overview of what thinking is Thinking Hats (see below) for more information on this
necessary to scout the subject. technique.
FIND OUT MORE

Edward de Bono’s own webpage www.edwdebono.com
de Bono Consulting - Six Thinking Hats www.debonoonline.com/Six_Thinking_Hats.asp
Mind Tools - Six Thinking Hats: Looking at a Decision From All Points of View www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_07.htm
de Bono, E. (1999) Six Thinking Hats, New York: Back Bay Books
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Social Network Analysis Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS
– Designing and implementing actions to bring about

The Social Network Analysis (SNA) is a research desired changes.
Practical Guides
technique that focuses on identifying and comparing the

– Mapping the network again after an appropriate period
relationships within and between individuals, groups and of time.
systems in order to model the real world interactions at
the heart of organizational knowledge and learning
processes.
BENEFITS
After social relationships and knowledge flows become

visible, they can be evaluated, compared and measured.
Essentially, SNA aims at illuminating informal relationships: ‘who
Results of the SNA can then be applied by individuals,
knows whom’ and ‘who shares with whom’. This allows leaders
departments or organizations to:
to visualise and understand the diverse relationships that either
facilitate or impede knowledge sharing.
identify who are the persons playing central roles
(thought leaders, knowledge brokers, information
THE PROCESS managers, etc.);
identify bottlenecks and those who are isolated;
The SNA process involves:
spot opportunities for improving knowledge flows;
Collecting information about relationships within a defined
target those areas where better knowledge sharing will
group or network of people. have the most impact; and
– Identifying the target network (e.g. team, group, raise awareness of the significance of informal networks.
department).
– Collecting data by interviewing managers and key
players regarding specific needs and problems. KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
– Outlining and clarifying objectives and the scope of
To conduct a successful SNA, It is important to know
analysis.
what information to gather in the first place. As a result,
– Determining the level of reporting required. it is vital to put a great deal of thought into the design of
– Formulating hypotheses and questions. the survey and questionnaire. Effective questions
typically focus on a variety of factors, such as:
– Developing a survey methodology and the questionnaire.
– Interviewing individuals in the network to identify – Who knows whom and how well?
relationships and knowledge flows. – How well do people know each others’ knowledge
and skills?
Mapping out the network visually: mapping responses
either manually or by using a software tool designed for – Who or what gives people information about a
specific theme/relationship/process?
the purpose.
– What resources do people use to find information,
Generating a baseline through the analysis of data from
get feedback/ideas/advice about a specific
the survey responses. theme/relationship/process?
Using this baseline for planning and prioritising changes – What resources do people use to share information
and interventions to improve social connections and about theme/relationship/process?
knowledge flows within the group or network. [Source: www.library.nhs.uk/knowledgemanagement]
FIND OUT MORE

Bogatti S., Brokerage, 2005 www.analytictech.com/essex/Lectures/Brokerage.pdf
Cross R, Nohria N, Parker A, 2002. Six Myths about Informal Networks - and How to Overcome Them. MIT Sloan Management Review 43 (3)
www.chsrf.ca/knowledge_transfer/pdf/digest_20051124_e.pdf
Freeman L.C. , Visualizing Social Networks, Journal of Social Structure www.cmu.edu/joss/content/articles/volume1/Freeman.html
Davies, R. , 2003. Network Perspectives in the Evaluation of Development Interventions: More Than a Metaphor www.mande.co.uk/docs/nape.pdf
The International Network of SNA, with a comprehensive list of resources www.ire.org/sna
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Stakeholder Analysis Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IT IS ORGANIZING STAKEHOLDERS
You can use the grid below to organize stakeholders accord-

Stakeholder Analysis is a tool for identifying the needs ing to their interest and power levels:
Practical Guides
and concerns of different stakeholders.
Stakeholder Analysis can be a useful tool for:

High
gaining understanding and building consensus; Engage
Keep Closely and
communicating the benefits of a proposed project; and
Satisfied Influence
building strong, inclusive campaigns that involve the public. Actively
Power
BENEFITS
Monitor Keep
Some common problems that could be resolved (minimum Informed
through stakeholder analysis are the following: effort)
an excessive focus on analytical tools; Low
issues are too large or complex for decision makers;
the scope of study is too large; Low
Interest
High
some stakeholders are left out;
there is no local ownership;
there is no commitment for implementation.
Power measures their degree of ability to help or have
an impact on your project.
THE PROCESS
Interest measures their degree of support or opposition
Stakeholder analysis is a relatively simple process that to your project’s goals and objectives.
involves the following three steps:
Step 1 - Specify the issue Stakeholders with high power and interests aligned with the
Stakeholders are defined and identified in relation to a specific issue –
purpose are critical to achieving your purpose. They will be
concentrating on people and groups that have a concrete "stake" in a
specific issue or topic. your primary audience and should include both the
immediate decision makers and opinion leaders - i.e. the
Step 2 - Develop a long list of stakeholders people whose opinion matters.
Gather a small group of informants, preferably with varied perspectives
and backgrounds, to brainstorm all the stakeholders or interest groups
associated with the purpose of your analysis. You should consider all Stakeholders with high interest but low power, or high power
possible stakeholders in the public sector, private sector and civil society. but low interest, should be kept informed and satisfied. Ideally
they should be supporters for the proposed programme or
Step 3 - Conduct stakeholder mapping
The long list of stakeholders can be analysed to determine “clusters” of
policy change. This is your secondary audience.
stakeholders with different levels of interest and levels of influence over
the issue.
FIND OUT MORE

Bogatti S., Brokerage, 2005 www.analytictech.com/essex/Lectures/Brokerage.pdf
Cross R, Nohria N, Parker A, 2002. Six Myths about Informal Networks - and How to Overcome Them. MIT Sloan Management Review 43 (3)
www.chsrf.ca/knowledge_transfer/pdf/digest_20051124_e.pdf
Freeman L.C. , Visualizing Social Networks, Journal of Social Structure www.cmu.edu/joss/content/articles/volume1/Freeman.html
Davies, R., 2003. Network Perspectives in the Evaluation of Development Interventions: More Than a Metaphor www.mande.co.uk/docs/nape.pdf
The International Network of SNA, with a comprehensive list of resources www.ire.org/sna
ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Information for Action Programme and available at www.foodsec.org.
Storytelling Development Institute's Research and

USING STORYTELLING TO SHARE KNOWLEDGE Sparknow Consulting’s Storytelling Template
Storytelling can increase the potential for knowledge sharing Title of story
in the workplace. Storytelling has numerous advantages over Name of storyteller
Practical Guides
more traditional organizational communication techniques. Name of listener

Landscape: set the scene in time and space
It makes it possible to articulate emotional as well Dwelling place: precise location where action occurred
as factual content, and thus allows for the expres- Characters: cast list, descriptive attributes and
sion of tacit knowledge that might otherwise be roles in story
difficult to share.
Challenge: problem or task that triggered the action
In providing information about the broader context in Action: sequence of events before, during and after
which knowledge arises, storytelling can increase your turning point
the potential for meaningful knowledge sharing. Turning point: the moment when the change happens
Resolution: ending, including moral, lesson learned
By grounding facts in a narrative structure, learning
or message
is more likely to take place and be passed on.
Key visual hooks: mnemonics to assist partner in
retelling the story
THE PROCESS
KEY POINTS AND PRACTICAL TIPS
Sparknow Consulting (www.sparknow.net) has developed a
method for using storytelling in a workshop. The story should have the following characteristics:
Be simple and powerful.
Introduce the workshop and storytelling theme. Be demand driven, and timed to coincide with specific
opportunities.
Ask participants to reflect on the change process,
Provide a solution to both immediate and broader
and details before, during and after the workshop.
problems.
Ask participants to pair up and share their stories. Be targeted at people with the power to make decisions
and change things.
Ask each participant to interview their partner and Play to what is already in people’s minds.
write down the story, using the story template (see
below) as a guide. This should make it easier to
capture more details.
Ask the pairs to find another pair, and ask each
participant in the new group of four to take turns
telling their partner’s story to the larger group.
Ask the group to identify any common points or
contradictions among the stories.
Ask each small group to present back to the
whole group.
FIND OUT MORE

RAPID Toolkit - Successful Communication: A Toolkit for Researchers and Civil Society Organisations, Ingie Hovland, October 2005
www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Publications/Documents/Comms_toolkit.pdf
NELHS (National Library for Health) - Knowledge Management Specialist Library, Storytelling
www.library.nhs.uk/knowledgemanagement/ViewResource.aspx?resID=93580&tabID=290&catID=10414
Sparknow publications page www.sparknow.net/publications
Building Bridges Using Narrative Techniques, by Stephanie Colton and Victoria Ward (Sparknow Ltd., London) and Jeannine Brutschin (SDC), Swiss Agency
for Development and Cooperation (SDC) www.deza.ch/ressources/resource_en_155620.pdf
ABOUT THIS GUIDE


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Knowledge Sharing Guides Development Institute's Research and

Action Learning Sets

After Action Reviews and Retrospects

Six Thinking Hats

Social Network Analysis

ABOUT THE GUIDES

Action Learning Sets Development Institute's Research and

WHAT THEY ARE BENEFITS

Action Learning is a powerful approach for working on difficult

Bring results back to set-what

Test out taking action in the

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After Action Reviews and Retrospects Development Institute's Research and

WHAT IS AN AAR? BENEFITS

The After Action Review is a powerful tool because it

of organizational performance, looking at successes and broad range of activities.

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Challenge Sessions Development Institute's Research and

A Challenge Session is a structured problem-solving

framework which aims at creating changes in the way

It is well established that groups and individuals think by

Although such thinking is a necessity in certain situations,

The process for a challenge session is as follows:

Identify the problem - This should ideally be a well

Brainstorm a series of challenge statements - This

Use the challenge statements to generate new

Prioritize the best ideas - Use pilots to test them out

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Communities of Practice Development Institute's Research and

WHAT ARE COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE THE PROCESS

Communities of Practice usually go through three phases:

“groups of people who share a concern, a set of Phase 1 - Birth

Knowledge is created, shared, organized, revised, and

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E-mail Guidelines Development Institute's Research and

used communication tools in the modern business

Consider a company-wide policy on volume unsolicited

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Group Development Development Institute's Research and

Goal Increasing clarity, Up for grabs, Agreed on by Commitment to

Intense, but high Similarities within

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Mind Maps Development Institute's Research and

WHAT ARE MIND MAPS

lor s Min ing Fre

Mind Maps can be used by individuals or by groups for:

THE PROCESS the process of creating a mind maps is more interest-

Step 8 - Allow organization

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Online Strategies Development Institute's Research and

WHY DEVELOP AN ONLINE STRATEGY

Strategy based on considerations of content and process requirements, technology

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Peer Assist Development Institute's Research and