TAVS 1-1 (2010) 1-11

Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences

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Original Article

Effects of Alternative Protein Sources on Nutrient Digestibility, Performance,

Carcass Traits and Serum Hormone Profiles of Growing-Finishing Pigs
Philip THACKER 1*
1
Department of Animal Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A8

Received:28.07.2010 Accepted:10.08.2010 Published:13.08.2010

Abstract
This trial was conducted to compare nutrient digestibility, performance, carcass traits and serum hormone profiles of pigs fed four alternative
protein sources with that of pigs fed soybean meal. Sixty crossbred pigs weighing an average of 24.3 + 2.6 kg were assigned on the basis of
sex, weight and litter to one of five dietary treatments in a 2 x 5 factorial design experiment (N=12). The main effects tested were sex of pig
(barrows vs. gilts) and protein source. The control diet was formulated using ground barley and soybean meal while four experimental diets
were formulated in which 20% of canola meal, wheat distillers grains with solubles, or 50:50 combinations of co-extruded full-fat flax seed
and peas (Linpro) or co-extruded canola seed and peas (Extrapro) was substituted for barley and soybean meal. During the entire
experimental period (24.3-112.5 kg), there were no differences in weight gain or feed intake due to treatment. Feed conversion was
significantly (P<0.05) improved for pigs fed the soybean and Linpro treatments compared with the other three protein sources. The
digestibility coefficients for dry matter, crude protein and energy in the Extrapro and wheat distillers grains with solubles diets were
significantly lower than for the other three treatments (P<0.05). There were no differences due to treatment in carcass traits. Plasma
prostaglandin was significantly higher for pigs fed Extrapro and Linpro than for pigs fed soybean meal. Plasma levels of growth hormone,
IGF-1, cortisol, interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 were unaffected by dietary treatment. The overall results of this experiment indicate canola
meal, wheat distillers grains with solubles, Extrapro and Linpro all have considerable potential to replace soybean meal in diets fed to
growing-finishing pigs. Although, some of the protein sources reduced nutrient digestibility, the growth rate, feed intake and carcass traits of
the pigs were not affected by feeding the various protein sources. Further research should be conducted to determine whether or not dietary
inclusion of protein sources containing high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, alters immune function in pigs.

Keywords: Canola Meal, Extrapro, Linpro, Soybean Meal, Wheat Distillers’ Grains with Solubles
*
Corresponding author:E-mail: phil.thacker@usask.ca, Phone: (306) 966-4159, Fax (306) 966-4151

INTRODUCTION

Soybean meal is the most commonly used source of
supplementary protein for swine and it is generally a
consistent, high quality product (Swick 1994). However, as
transportation costs for feeds increase, swine producers will
have to maximize the use of locally produced feedstuffs.
Therefore, it is important that alternative sources of protein be
developed for use in swine production.
One potential alternative to soybean meal is canola meal
(Thacker 1990). Canola was initially derived from rapeseed
(B. napus and B. campestris) and was bred using standard
plant breeding techniques to have low levels of erucic acid
(<2%) in the oil and low levels of glucosinolates (<30
µmol/g) in the meal (Newkirk 2009). Canola meal is
produced from canola seed after a series of preparatory
physical processes followed by multi-stage extraction of its
oil under hygienically controlled conditions (Newkirk 2009).
Another potential substitute could be distiller’s grains.
There is increasing interest in producing ethanol from cereal
grains for use in motor fuels (Thacker 2006). In Western
Canada, wheat is the most common substrate used to produce

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Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences 1-1 (2010) 1-11
ethanol. This in turn will lead to substantial quantities of
wheat distiller’s grains with solubles being made available to
the livestock industry for use as animal feed.
Full-fat canola (rapeseed) and flax (linseed) contain
approximately 20-25% crude protein and 40-43% oil (Novus
1994). The oils of these seeds are also rich in α-linolenic acid
with canola and flax containing 10-12% and 48-52% α-
linolenic acid respectively (Lee et al. 1991). α-Linolenic acid
is a metabolic precursor for the synthesis of the omega-3 fatty
acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid
(Romans et al. 1995ab). Health authorities in many countries
are advising people to consume more of these fatty acids
because they are thought to be important for normal growth
and development (Simopoulos 1999). Incorporation of full-
fat flax and canola seeds into diets fed to swine has been
shown to significantly increase the incorporation of omega-3
fatty acids into carcass tissues (Cunnane et al. 1990; Romans
et al. 1995ab; Mathews et al. 2000). Consumption of pork
from pigs fed these products could be a potential mechanism
with which to increase the levels of omega-3 fatty acids in the
human diet.
It can be difficult to incorporate full-fat canola and flax
into swine diets as the meshed screen on a hammer mill has a
tendency to become plugged when processing these products.
Handling problems during grinding and storage attributed to
the high oil content of these seeds can be counteracted by
mixing these products with other ingredients such as ground
peas (Thacker and Qiao 2002; Thacker et al. 2004).
An additional concern with canola and flax seeds is the
presence of anti-nutritional factors. Canola seed contains
glucosinolates, sinapine and tannins (Bell 1993; Campbell
and Schone 1998) while flax contains mucilage, phytic acid,
goitrogens, and anti-pyridoxin (Thacker et al. 2004; Bhatty
and Cherdkiatgumchai 1990). As a consequence, the
performance of pigs fed full-fat canola seed and flax may be
improved by heating. One method of providing heat is
through extrusion processing (O’Doherty and Keady 2000).
Two alternative feeds have recently been developed involving
50:50 combinations of co-extruded full-fat flax seed (Linpro)
or canola seed (Extrapro) and peas (Thacker and Qioa 2002;
Thacker et al. 2004, Kiarie and Nyachoti 2007). The
objective of the present trial was to compare the nutrient
digestibility, performance, and carcass traits of pigs fed these
alternative protein sources with that of pigs fed soybean meal.
In addition, the effect of the two high α-linolenic acid feeds
on serum hormone profiles was determined.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Acquisition of Protein Sources
The two high α-linolenic acid containing feeds tested
during this experiment are recently developed, commercially
available products marketed under the brand names of
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P. Thacker
Linpro® and Extrapro® (Oleet Processing Ltd., Regina,
Saskatchewan). Linpro is an extruded product produced
using a combination (50:50) of full-fat flax and peas, while
Extrapro is an extruded blend (50:50) of full-fat canola seed
and peas. In order to produce the final product, the
appropriate amount of peas were ground, mixed with the
various high oil products and then the mixtures were
extruded for 5-10 sec using an Instapro Extruder (Instapro
Inc., Des Moines, Iowa) at a temperature of 120-135 C. The
wheat distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS) used in this
study were obtained from the Husky/Mohawk ethanol plant
located in Minnedosa, Manitoba. The canola meal was
obtained from a local feed mill (Cargill Crush Plant, Clavet,
Saskatchewan). A chemical analysis of the main ingredients
used in this experiment is shown in Table 1.
Growth Trial
The pigs used in this study were housed and managed
according to the Canadian Council on Animal Care (1993)
guidelines. A total of 60 crossbred pigs (Camborough 15
Line female x Canabred sire, Pig Improvement Canada Ltd,
Airdrie Alberta) weighing an average of 24.3 + 2.6 kg were
assigned on the basis of sex, weight and litter to one of five
dietary treatments in a 2 x 5 factorial design experiment. The
main effects tested were sex of pig (barrows vs. gilts) and
protein source in diet.
The control diet was formulated using ground barley and
soybean meal while four experimental diets were formulated
in which 20% of canola meal, wheat distiller’s grains with
solubles, Linpro or Extrapro was substituted for barley and
soybean meal. During the growing period (24.3 to 55.6 kg),
the experimental diets were formulated to supply 1.10%
lysine, 0.70% threonine and 0.75% methionine and cystine
while in the finishing period (55.6-112.5 kg), the diets were
formulated to supply 0.70% lysine, 0.55% threonine, and
0.60% methionine and cystine. These amino acid levels met
the requirements for pigs with a lean growth potential of 325
g day-1 as recommended by the National Research Council
(1998). Synthetic lysine was added to some diets to ensure
that all diets provided a similar balance of amino acids.
Canola oil was also added where necessary to ensure that all
diets provided a similar level of energy as the control diet.
All diets were supplemented with sufficient vitamins and
minerals to meet or exceed the levels recommended by the
National Research Council (1998). The diets were pelleted
using low-pressure steam at approximately 60oC.
The pigs were housed in unisex groups of four in 2.7 x 3.6 m
concrete floored pens and were provided water adlibitum.
The pens were equipped with four individual feeders. Each
pig was allowed access to its own individual feeder for 30-
min twice daily (08:00 h and 15:00 h). Individual body
weight, feed consumption and feed conversion were recorded
weekly.
Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences 1-1 (2010) 1-11 P. Thacker

Table 1 Chemical and amino acid analysis of ingredients used to determine the effects of alternative protein sources on nutrient
digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing finishing pigs 1

Soybean Canola Wheat

Barley Linpro Extrapro
Meal Meal DDGS
Chemical analysis (% as fed)
Moisture 9.59 7.89 7.77 7.50 10.56 7.35
Ash 1.91 6.54 3.35 4.11 7.26 4.61
Crude Protein 10.91 47.43 21.36 19.91 36.61 35.67
Neutral detergent fibre 17.46 8.67 13.50 16.50 25.84 33.16
Ether extract 1.89 1.04 19.24 20.50 2.27 5.38
Calcium 0.05 0.34 0.19 0.22 0.65 0.18
Phosphorus 0.34 0.72 0.45 0.52 1.14 0.91

Amino acid analysis (% as fed)

Arginine 0.57 3.58 1.79 1.34 2.41 1.59
Histidine 0.32 1.21 0.48 0.53 0.99 0.77
Isoleucine 0.39 2.41 0.57 0.94 1.49 1.42
Leucine 0.85 3.91 1.24 1.65 2.62 2.45
Lysine 0.38 3.15 1.12 1.40 2.06 0.92
Methionine+cysteine 0.45 1.51 0.60 0.68 1.67 1.50
Phenylalanine 0.48 2.30 0.74 0.86 1.49 1.03
Threonine 0.33 1.93 0.80 0.81 1.77 1.12
Valine 0.58 2.43 0.68 1.21 1.87 1.64
1
All analysis were conducted in duplicate

Six castrates and six gilts were fed each diet. Pigs were
assigned to feeders in such a way as to minimize the potential
for treatment effects to be confounded with environmental
effects.
At the conclusion of the experiment, all pigs on the
soybean, Extrapro and Linpro treatments were bled by vena
cava puncture. Approximately 10 ml of blood was collected
from each pig into a heparinised vacutainer tube (Becton
Dickinson Vacutainer Systems, Franklin Lakes, NJ). The
samples were centrifuged (2500 x g for 10 min) to separate
plasma. The plasma from each pig was stored at -80oC until
analysis.
Digestibility Determination
Total tract digestibility coefficients for dry matter, crude
protein and gross energy were determined using four barrows
per treatment starting at an average weight of 41.8 + 2.60 kg.
The pigs were housed under identical conditions as those used
in the growth trial and were fed the same diets as those used
during the growing stage modified only by the addition of
0.35% chromic oxide as a digestibility marker. Marked feed
was provided for a seven-day acclimatization period,
followed by a three-day faecal collection. Faecal collections
were made by bringing animals into a clean room
immediately after feeding and recovering freshly voided
feces. The faecal samples were frozen for storage. Prior to
analysis, the samples were dried in a forced air oven dryer at
66oC for 60 h, followed by fine grinding (0.5-mm screen).
3
Digestibility coefficients were calculated using the equations
for the indicator method described by Schneider and Flatt
(1975).
Carcass Measurements
All pigs were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir at an
average weight of 112.5 + 2.9 kg. Carcass weight was
recorded and dressing percentage calculated. Carcass fat and
lean measurements were obtained with a Destron PG 100
probe placed over the 3rd and 4th last ribs, 70 mm off the
midline. These values were then used in calculating Carcass
Value Indices according to the table of differentials in effect
at the time of the experiment (Saskatchewan Pork
International 2005).
Chemical Analysis
Samples of the main ingredients as well as the grower
and finisher rations were analyzed according to the methods
of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (2007).
Analyses were conducted for moisture (AOAC method
930.15), crude protein (AOAC method 984.13), ash (AOAC
method 942.05), ether extract (AOAC method 920.39) and
neutral detergent fibre (AOAC method 202.04) The calcium
and phosphorus content of the experimental rations were
determined using the nitric-perchloric acid digestion method
of Zasoski and Burau (1977) with calcium determined on a
Perkin-Elmer Model 4000 Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AOAC method 968.08) and total
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Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences 1-1 (2010) 1-11
phosphorus determined colorimetrically (Pharmacia LKB
Ultrospec III, Uppsala, Sweden) using a molybodovanadate
reagent (AOAC method 965.17). Amino acids were assayed
using ion-exchange chromatography with an automatic
Amino Acid Analyser (L-8800 Hitachi Automatic Amino
Acid Analyzer, Tokyo, Japan) after hydrolyzing with 6 M
HCl for 24 h at 110 C. Sulphur-containing amino acids were
analyzed after cold formic acid oxidation for 16 h before acid
hydrolysis.
Digestibility Determination
For digestibility determinations, samples of the grower
diets and feces were analyzed for moisture, gross energy,
crude protein and chromic oxide. An adiabatic oxygen bomb
calorimeter (Parr; Moline, Illinois) was used to determine
gross energy content while chromic oxide was determined by
the method of Fenton and Fenton (1979).
Hormone Analysis
All hormone analysis were conducted with commercially
available kits. Plasma interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 were
analyzed using a swine interleukin ELISA kit (Bio-Source,
Camarillo, CA). The minimum detectability of interleukin
was 15 pg/ml with an inter-assay CV less than 10%. Plasma
prostaglandin E2, cortisol, growth hormone and IGF-1 were
analyzed using 125I radioimmunoassay kits. Porcine
prostaglandin was analyzed with a kit obtained from the
College of Medical Science of Suzhou University (Jiansu,
China) and the minimum detectability of prostaglandin E 2 was
6.25 pg/ml with an intra-assay CV less than 10%. Plasma
cortisol was analyzed using a kit from the Beijing Beimian
Dongya Institute of Biological Technology (Beijing, China)
and the minimum detectable dose of cortisol was 1 ng/ml with
an intra-assay coefficient of variation of 5%. Plasma growth
hormone was measured using a kit from the Beijing North
Institute of Biological Technology (Beijing, China). The
assay used human growth hormone and antibodies against
human growth hormone as the standard. The assay was
sensitive to 0.1 ng/ml of growth hormone with an intra-assay
CV of less than 10%. Plasma IGF-1 was analyzed using a kit
from Biocode S.A. (Liege, Belgium). In the assay,
recombinant human IGF-1 and mouse anti-IGF-1
monocolonal antibody were used as the standard. Recovery
ranged from 92.3 to 110.0%. The within assay CV was less
than 10% and the minimum detectable concentration of IGF-1
was 5 ng/ml.
Statistical Analysis
The data from the performance trial and carcass data
were analysed as a 2 x 5 factorial using the General Linear
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P. Thacker
Model procedure of the Statistical Analysis System
Institute, Inc. (SAS 1999) with the factors in the model
consisting of diet and sex of pig as well as their interaction.
Digestibility data were analysed as a one-way ANOVA.
Differences were considered significant when P<0.05.
Since pigs were fed individually, pigs were considered the
experimental unit for all statistical analysis and pen was
never considered in any analytical model.
RESULTS
The chemical analysis conducted on the growing and
finishing rations verified that the diets met the specifications
called for in the diet formulation (Tables 2 and 3). The fibre
content of the canola meal and wheat distillers’ grains with
solubles diets were higher than the other diets reflecting the
higher level of fibre in these ingredients. The ether extract
content of the diets containing canola meal and wheat
distillers’ grains with solubles were also higher reflecting the
fact that canola oil was added to these diets in order to
balance for digestible energy.
The amino acid analysis of the diets (Table 4) verified
that the diets met the requirements for pigs with a lean
growth potential of 325 g day-1 as recommended by NRC
(1998). However, it should not be forgotten that lysine-HCL
was added to the diets containing wheat distillers’ grains
with solubles to ensure that all diets supplied approximately
the same level of this first limiting amino acid.
The effects of the various protein sources on nutrient
digestibility are shown in Table 5. The digestibility
coefficients for dry matter, crude protein and energy in the
Extrapro and wheat distillers grains with solubles diets were
significantly lower than for the other three treatments
(P<0.05).
The effects of soybean meal, Linpro and Extrapro on
plasma hormone levels are presented in Table 6. Plasma
prostaglandin E2 was significantly higher for pigs fed
Extrapro and Linpro than for pigs fed soybean meal. Plasma
levels of growth hormone, IGF-1, cortisol, interleukin-1 and
interleukin-6 were unaffected by dietary treatment.
The effects of the various protein sources on pig performance
are presented in Table 7. During the growing period (24.3-
55.6 kg), there were no significant differences in pig
performance due to either sex of pig or dietary treatment.
However, there was a trend (P=0.11) for the feed conversion
of pigs fed Extrapro, canola meal and wheat distillers’ grains
with solubles to be poorer than pigs fed soybean meal or
Linpro. There were no significant differences in the
performance of barrows and gilts during the growing period.
Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences 1-1 (2010) 1-11 P. Thacker
Table 2 Ingredient composition and chemical analysis of grower diets (24.3 to 55.6 kg) formulated to determine the effect of
alternative protein sources on nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs

Soybean Canola Wheat

Linpro Extrapro
Meal meal DDGS
Ingredients (% as fed)
Barley 69.19 58.07 60.74 60.54 60.58
Protein source 0.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
Soybean meal 22.82 16.94 14.61 10.37 11.08
Limestone 0.91 0.94 0.94 0.97 1.27
Dicalcium phosphate 1.11 1.05 0.99 0.64 0.71
Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Vitamin-mineral premix1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Canola oil 4.47 1.50 1.22 5.98 4.55
Lysine-HCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31

Chemical analysis (% as fed)2

Moisture 10.14 9.85 9.83 9.92 8.98
Ash 6.12 5.67 6.21 6.32 6.11
Crude protein 19.60 19.37 19.25 20.44 20.27
Neutral detergent fibre 17.31 16.57 16.82 19.81 21.17
Ether extract 6.93 6.85 8.24 10.10 8.38
Calcium 0.88 0.77 0.85 0.91 0.89
Phosphorus 0.69 0.60 0.69 0.63 0.65
1
Supplied per kilogram of diet: 8250 IU vitamin A; 825 IU vitamin D 3; 40 IU vitamin E; 4 mg vitamin K; 1 mg thiamine; 5 mg riboflavin; 35 mg
niacin; 15 mg pantothenic acid; 2 mg folic acid; 12.5 μg vitamin B12; 0.2 mg biotin; 80 mg iron; 25 mg manganese; 100 mg zinc; 50 mg Cu; 0.5
mg I; 0.1 mg selenium.
2
All analysis were conducted in duplicate

Table 3 Ingredient composition and chemical analysis of finisher diets (55.6-112.5 kg) formulated to determine the effect of
alternative protein sources on nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs

Soybean Canola Wheat

Linpro Extrapro
Meal Meal DDGS
Ingredients (%)
Barley 80.70 69.59 72.25 72.07 71.46
Protein source 0.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
Soybean meal 12.79 6.91 4.58 0.33 1.22
Limestone 0.94 0.96 0.97 1.00 1.20
Dicalcium phosphate 0.72 0.66 0.60 0.24 0.34
Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Vitamin-mineral premix1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Canola oil 3.35 0.38 0.10 4.86 3.97
Lysine-HCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31

Chemical analysis (% as fed)2

Moisture 9.93 9.28 10.19 10.82 9.22
Ash 4.28 4.43 4.32 4.61 4.36
Crude protein 15.77 15.60 15.23 16.60 15.79
Neutral detergent fibre 15.61 15.52 15.84 19.35 19.83
Ether Extract 3.59 5.61 5.98 6.65 6.57
Calcium 0.64 0.81 0.67 0.81 0.74
Phosphorus 0.48 0.51 0.44 0.51 0.49
1
Supplied per kilogram of diet: 8250 IU vitamin A; 825 IU vitamin D3; 40 IU vitamin E; 4 mg vitamin K; 1 mg thiamine; 5 mg riboflavin; 35 mg niacin; 15
mg pantothenic acid; 2 mg folic acid; 12.5 μg vitamin B12; 0.2 mg biotin; 80 mg iron; 25 mg manganese; 100 mg zinc; 50 mg Cu; 0.5 mg I; 0.1 mg
selenium
2
All analysis were conducted in duplicate

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During the finishing period (55.6-112.5 kg), there were
no significant differences in pig performance due to dietary
treatment. However, again there was a trend (P=0.06) for the
feed conversion of pigs fed Extrapro, canola meal and wheat
distillers’ grains with solubles to be poorer than pigs fed
soybean meal or Linpro. Barrows consumed significantly
more feed and had higher weight gain than gilts (P<0.05).
During the entire experimental period (24.3-112.5 kg),
there was no difference in weight gain or feed intake due to
treatment. Feed conversion was significantly (P<0.05)
improved for pigs fed the soybean and Linpro treatments
compared with the other three protein sources. Barrows
consumed significantly more feed and had higher weight
gain than gilts (P<0.05).
The effects of the various protein sources on carcass
traits are shown in Table 8. There were no differences due to
treatment in carcass traits. Gilts had significantly higher
carcass value index, lean yield, and loin lean but lower loin
fat than barrows.

Table 4 Amino acid analysis (% as fed) of diets formulated to determine the effects of alternative protein sources on nutrient
digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs1

Soybean Canola Wheat

Linpro Extrapro
Meal Meal DDGS
Grower Diets (24.3 to 55.6 kg)
Arginine 1.57 1.54 1.34 1.32 1.18
Histidine 0.66 0.55 0.55 0.61 0.54
Isoleucine 1.13 1.02 0.97 1.04 0.95
Leucine 1.80 1.63 1.57 1.66 1.63
Lysine 1.26 1.08 1.19 1.22 1.15
Methionine + cysteine 0.92 0.87 0.77 0.88 0.79
Phenylalanine 0.68 0.58 0.55 0.61 0.58
Threonine 0.91 0.78 0.74 0.79 0.69
Valine 1.14 1.27 0.95 0.96 1.06

Finisher Diets (55.6 – 112.5 kg)

Arginine 0.88 0.90 0.81 0.85 0.70
Histidine 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.40 0.33
Isoleucine 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.64 0.54
Leucine 1.14 1.06 1.09 1.17 1.05
Lysine 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.73 0.69
Methionine + cysteine 0.60 0.58 0.59 0.73 0.64
Phenylalanine 0.87 0.82 0.82 0.84 0.80
Threonine 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.63 0.51
Valine 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.87 0.76
1
All amino acid analysis conducted in duplicate

Table 5 Digestibility coefficients for dry matter, crude protein and energy of diets containing alternate protein sources fed to
growing-finishing pigs1

Soybean Canola Wheat

Linpro Extrapro SEM P value
Meal Meal DDGS

Dry matter (%) 79.16a 78.68a 74.73b 77.18a 73.03b 0.73 <0.01
Crude protein (%) 79.71a 77.51a 72.08b 77.86a 73.70b 0.91 <0.01
Gross energy (%) 79.41a 78.32a 74.79b 77.79a 73.32b 0.71 <0.01
1
Within treatment, means followed by same or not letter do not differ (P>0.05)

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Table 6 Plasma hormone levels in growing-finishing pigs fed alternative protein sources1

Soybean
Linpro Extrapro SEM Barrows Gilts SEM Treatment Sex TxS
Meal

Growth hormone (ng/ml 3.89 3.68 4.06 0.25 3.83 3.92 0.20 0.55 0.73 0.14
IGF-1 (ng/ml) 233.90 205.58 201.50 14.41 205.01 222.31 11.77 0.24 0.31 0.11
Cortisol (pg/ml) 68.17 46.90 49.09 12.06 52.95 56.50 9.85 0.40 0.80 0.05
Prostaglandin E2 (pg/ml) 31.18a 38.12b 40.03b 2.33 35.62 37.62 37.26 0.03 0.54 0.58
Interleukin-1 (ng/ml) 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.01 0.18 0.19 0.01 0.95 0.45 <0.01
Interleukin-6 (pg/ml) 222.04 234.92 219.43 43.99 222.17 228.76 35.9 0.96 0.89 0.33
1
Within treatment, means followed by same or no letter do not differ (P>0.05)

Table 7 Performance of growing-finishing pigs fed diets based on alternative protein sources1

Soybean Linpro Extrpro Canola Wheat SEM Barrows Gilts SEM Treatment Sex TxS
Meal Meal DDGS

Growing Period (24.3 to 55.6 kg)

Weight gain (g/day) 0.93 0.93 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.03 0.90 0.89 0.02 0.34 0.58 0.99
Feed intake (g/day) 1.67 1.68 1.60 1.65 1.64 0.07 1.64 1.66 0.04 0.91 0.79 0.79
Feed conversion 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.89 1.88 0.03 1.82 1.87 0.02 0.11 0.05 0.18

Finishing period (55.6 to 112.5 kg)

Weight gain (g/day) 1.18 1.14 1.09 1.09 1.03 0.04 1.16a 1.05b 0.03 0.08 <0.01 0.89
Feed intake (g/day) 3.25 3.19 3.24 3.23 2.99 0.10 3.39a 2.97b 0.06 0.36 <0.01 0.91
Feed conversion 2.78 2.80 2.97 2.98 2.93 0.06 2.94 2.85 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.36

Overall experiment (24.3 to 112.5 kg)

Weight gain (g/day) 1.07 1.05 1.00 1.00 0.96 0.03 1.05a 0.98b 0.02 0.09 <0.01 0.96
Feed intake (g/day) 2.58 2.55 2.59 2.60 2.46 0.06 2.66a 2.45b 0.04 0.55 <0.01 0.76
Feed conversion 2.42a 2.43a 2.59b 2.60b 2.56ab 0.04 2.54 2.50 0.03 0.01 0.37 0.35
1
Within treatment, means followed by same or no letter do not differ (P>0.05)

Table 8 Carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing alternative protein sources1

Soybean Linpro Extrapro Canola Wheat SEM Barrows Gilts SEM Treatment Sex TxS
Meal Meal DDGS

Slaughter weight (kg) 114.2 111.6 112.6 112.6 111.8 0.92 112.1 112.2 0.58 0.30 0.40 0.77
Carcass weight (kg) 88.4 85.3 85.9 86.0 86.0 0.86 86.1 86.5 0.55 0.13 0.63 0.28
Dressing percent (%) 77.5 76.4 76.3 76.3 77.0 0.49 76.3 77.1 0.31 0.36 0.07 0.32
Carcass value index 109.7 108.4 108.4 108.2 108.1 1.13 107.3a 109.8b 0.72 0.87 0.02 0.46
Lean yield 60.4 60.1 59.9 60.6 60.3 0.49 59.4a 61.13b 0.31 0.86 <0.01 0.64
Loin fat (mm) 18.5 19.0 19.5 17.6 18.0 1.00 20.2a 16.8b 0.63 0.65 <0.01 0.36
Loin lean (mm) 56.4 55.0 55.7 53.5 50.9 2.24 52.1a 56.5b 1.42 0.46 0.03 0.84
1
Within treatment, means followed by same or no letter do not differ (P>0.05)

DISCUSSION

The results of the present study indicate that feeding 20%
canola meal as a replacement for soybean meal had no
significant effects on nutrient digestibility, weight gain, feed
intake, or carcass traits. However, over the entire
experimental period, feed conversion was significantly poorer
for pigs fed canola meal than soybean meal. The poorer feed
conversion of pigs fed canola meal may be attributed to the
higher fibre content of the canola meal diet compared with
soybean meal. Fibre is not easily digested by the pig and its
presence also impairs the digestibility of energy and other
nutrients (Bell et al. 1983). Dietary fibre also reduces
nutrient digestibility due to its physiochemical properties,
leading to a more rapid rate of passage which limits the
amount of time available for nutrient breakdown (Burkitt et
al. 1972).

7 A©ademy 2010
Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences 1-1 (2010) 1-11
The nutritional value of canola meal has been evaluated
many times for pigs and the vast majority of the published
information indicates that best results are obtained if canola
meal supplies only one half of the supplementary protein in
diets fed to growing pigs while it can be used to completely
replace all of the supplementary protein supplied by soybean
meal in diets fed to finishing pigs, (Baidoo et al. 1987; Bell et
al. 1988; Thacker 1990). The results of the current
experiment confirm these findings.
Feeding 20% wheat distillers’ grains with solubles as a
replacement for soybean meal significantly reduced the
digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and energy. These
findings support our previous work (Thacker 2006) and those
of others (Nyachoti et al. 2005; Lan et al. 2008; Widyaratne et
al. 2009) who have reported reductions in nutrient
digestibility of a similar magnitude to those observed in the
present study when wheat distillers grains with solubles
substituted for soybean meal in diets fed to growing pigs.
These findings are also consistent with other experiments
where increasing dietary fibre has reduced nutrient
digestibility (Bell et al. 1983; Kennelly and Aherne 1980).
In the present experiment, the significant reductions in
nutrient digestibility which occurred as a result of feeding
wheat distillers grains with solubles were not accompanied by
significant reductions in weight gain, feed intake or carcass
traits. However, over the entire experimental period, feed
conversion was significantly poorer for pigs fed diets
containing wheat distillers’ grains than soybean meal. These
findings support our previous work (Thacker 2006) and that
of others (Widyaratne et al. 2009) who reported significant
reductions in pig performance as a result of feeding high
levels (<20%) of wheat distillers’ grains with solubles to
growing pigs. Improvements in the feed conversion of pigs
fed wheat distillers’ grains with solubles have been reported
as a result of the inclusion of 5% canola oil in diets containing
wheat distillers grains (Thacker 2009).
Feeding wheat distillers’ grains with solubles had no
effect on carcass traits. In a previous study from our
laboratory, we reported a linear reduction in loin lean as the
level of wheat distillers’ grains with solubles in the diet
increased (Thacker 2006). The reduction in loin lean was
unexpected and we suggested an imbalance of amino acids
may have been the cause. Although the amino acid analysis
conducted indicated that the diets met the total amino acid
requirements of pigs over the weight range studied, Lan et al.
(2005) and Widyaratne et al. (2007) reported that the lysine in
wheat distillers grains with solubles was poorly available and
therefore we suggested that a reduction in the ileal available
lysine content of the diets containing wheat distillers’ grains
with solubles may have reduced loin lean (Thacker 2006).
However, based on the results of the present study and our
recently completed study (Thacker 2009), we conclude that
feeding wheat distillers’ grains with solubles does not
negatively impact the carcass traits of swine.
8 A©ademy 2010
P. Thacker
Feeding 20% Extrapro as a replacement for soybean
meal significantly reduced the digestibility of dry matter,
crude protein and energy. These reductions in nutrient
digestibility did not translate into reductions in weight gain
or feed intake. However, over the entire experimental
period, feed conversion was significantly reduced for pigs
fed Extrapro compared with soybean meal. These findings
support our previous work in which dietary inclusion of 20%
Extrapro significantly reduced nutrient digestibility without
significant effects on weight gain (Thacker and Qiao 2002).
Heat-labile, anti-nutritional factors occur in both canola
seed and peas. Glucosinolates, sinapine and tannins are
present in canola seed (Bell 1993; Campbell and Schone
1998) while peas contain lectins, protease inhibitors and
tannins (Castell 1990). As a consequence, the performance
of pigs fed canola seed (Froseth and Peters 1981) and peas
(O’Doherty and Keady 2000) has been shown to be
improved as result of extrusion heating.
The process of extrusion is not a new concept having
been used in the preparation of human foodstuffs for more
than 50 years. In the manufacturing process, the material to
be extruded is fed from a holding bin, through a mixing
cylinder and into the extruder barrel (Hancock and Behnke
2001). The extruder barrel houses a series of locks, dies and
orifices with greater and greater restrictions from inlet to
outlet. The material being extruded is subjected to increasing
pressure, friction and attrition as it passes through the
extruder barrel, such that the material is heated from room
temperature to 135 to 160 C at pressures of 15 to 40
atmospheres in as little as 30 seconds. As the extruded
material exits the extruder barrel, the sudden drop in pressure
results in violent expansion as the steam escapes from the
product. From a nutritional standpoint, desired effects
common to extruders are shearing and gelatinization of
starch, denaturation and shearing of protein, destruction of
microorganisms, destruction of anti-nutritional factors and
dehydration (Hancock and Behnke 2001).
In the present experiment, nutrient digestibility, pig
performance and carcass traits did not differ between pigs
fed soybean meal and Linpro. Linpro is a new vegetable oil
product, manufactured using a combination of full-fat flax
seed and peas (Pisum sativum L.) extruded under controlled
high temperature and pressure (Thacker et al. 2004).
Extrusion is used to destroy anti-nutritional factors in
flaxseed such as mucilage (Bhatty 1993), cyanogenic
glycosides (Conn 1969), allergens (Spies 1974) and vitamin
B6 antaogonists (Klosterman 1974). The product is superior
to full-fat flax as a feed ingredient as the heating process
used inactivates the enzyme lipase thereby improving the
storage capacity of the product while the incorporation of the
peas prevents the lipid in the product from leaching out of
storage bags (Thacker et al. 2004).
The finding that inclusion of 20% Linpro in the diet did
not affect nutrient digestibility, pig performance or carcass
Trends in Animal & Veterinary Sciences 1-1 (2010) 1-11
traits supports our earlier work in which we concluded that
Linpro was an acceptable alternative to soybean meal as a
protein supplement for use in growing-finishing swine diets
and can be incorporated at levels as high as 22.5% in the
grower period and 18% in the finisher period without
detriment affects on pig performance or carcass quality
(Thacker et al. 2004). Similarly, Htoo et al. (2008) reported
no negative effects on nutrient digestibility from dietary
inclusion of co-extruded flaxseed and field pea.
In addition to providing an alternative to soybean meal as
a protein supplement, several of the ingredients tested in the
current experiment may have beneficial effects on human
health. α-Linolenic acid is a metabolic precursor for the
synthesis of the long chain fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid
and docosahexaenoic acid (Romans et al. 1995a). These
omega-3 fatty acids are thought to be important for normal
growth and development, and in decreasing or delaying a
number of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease
and hypertension as well as autoimmune, allergic and
neurological disorders (Klatt 1986; Leaf and Weber 1988;
Goodnight 1993; Simopoulos 1999). As a result of these
benefits, several studies in meat producing animals have been
completed that have aimed at increasing the polyunsaturated
fatty acid content, and in particular the omega-3 content, of
meat and meat products (Enser et al. 1996; Wood et al. 2003;
Raes et al. 2004). The aim is to increase the polyunsaturated
fatty acid/saturated fatty acid ratio (P/S) of meat above 0.4
and to decrease the n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio to less than 4
(Wood et al. 2003).
One way of increasing the polyunsaturated content of pig
meat is to include α-linolenic acid in the pig’s diet (Mathews
et al. 2000). Full-fat canola (rapeseed) and flax (linseed) are
rich in α-linolenic acid with canola and flax containing 10-
12% and 48-52% α-linolenic acid respectively (Lee et al.
1991). Incorporation of full-fat canola and flax into diets fed
to pigs has been shown to significantly increase the
incorporation of omega-3 fatty acids into carcass tissues
(Castell and Falk 1980; Myer et al. 1992; Romans et al.
1995). This may make meat from swine fed flax and canola
seed a potential source of omega-3 fatty acids for the human
diet (Cunnane et al. 1990; Romans et al. 1995ab; Mathews et
al. 2000).
Although the potential to incorporate omega-3 fatty acids
into carcass tissues may be sufficient justification to
recommend the use of Linpro and Extrapro in swine diets,
there may be additional advantages to their use. It is possible
that the use of high-fat Linpro and Extrapro could play a role
in reducing dust levels in swine barns as Chiba et al. (1985)
reported significant reductions in aerial dust levels in swine
units when diets contained additional lipid. The
“prepackaged fat” in Linpro and Extrapro may also be of
benefit to swine producers who mix their own feed, and who
may not have sufficient production volume to justify keeping
a heated fat tank at their feed mixing facility.
9 A©ademy 2010
P. Thacker
Another potential benefit from the use of the alternative
protein sources Extrapro and Linpro is their potential effects
on the immune system. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
are important immuno-modulators of immune reactions
(Miles and Calder 1998). Human and animal studies have
provided a great deal of evidence that feeding diets rich in
omega-3 fatty acids alters the production of cytokines and
the functional properties of macrophages, lymphocytes and
other immuno-competent cells (Calder et al. 2002). Feeding
diets rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids generally
reduces inflammatory reactions and the production of
interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor (James
et al. 2000). Feeding omega-3 fatty acids to humans has
been shown to reduce plasma growth hormone, insulin and
cortisol levels (Bhathena et al. 1991) while α-linolenic acid is
a precursor for eicosapentaenoic acid formation which is a
precursor for prostaglandin synthesis (Petit and
Twagiramungu 2006). Unfortunately, under the conditions
of the present experiment, the only hormone which was
significantly affected by feeding the high omega-3
containing protein sources was prostaglandin.
CONCLUSIONS
The overall results of this experiment indicate canola
meal, wheat distillers grains with solubles, Extrapro and
Linpro all have considerable potential to replace soybean
meal in diets fed to growing-finishing pigs. Although, some
of the protein sources reduced nutrient digestibility, the
growth rate, feed intake and carcass traits of pigs were not
affected by the various protein sources. Further research
should be conducted to determine whether or not dietary
inclusion of protein sources containing high levels of omega-
3 fatty acids, alters immune function in pigs.
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