CONSTANTA MARITIME UNIVERSITY SHIP THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION PART 2- SHIP HYDRODYNAMICS Draft Edition Naval Architect and Marine Engineer IORDAN NOVAC Ph.D. CONSTANTA 2013“This page intentionally left blankCHAPTER 1 WATER FLOW, FOILS AND WAVES. SUMMARY er looks at the base physeal properties ffl ow that create the dynamie forces lavotvec in a ship's motion, propulsion and tering. It also describes some base propertis of ner wes and thee propegit ‘We star’by considering how hydrostatic pressure, ating equally in all ection for «| particala depth of water, la converted lta dynamle pressure when water fore. Bernoull's brine for water fow and haw i effects the pressure around an obstacle is deserbed ‘The water properties of surface tension and viscosity ae examined with regard to thelr effect ‘spon wster flow and he transition from laminar to turbulent ow i explained. ‘The efft ofa ow separating asymmetrically around a fllshaped obstacles examined and the smerathn oft and drag forces described. This the bass for understanding the action of Propel and rudders ‘Water vaves are desribed and rdatonshps between wave speed length and period are derived. The elect of water depth on wave sped, direction and behaviour are cuamined andthe ‘hapler ends with a bre description of ho they spread out fom ther source. (The ove Behaviour described heres diet relevant to bth the resistance of driving a ship {hrougthe water and othe maton of hips hey ses) CONTENTS Stati and dynamie pressure of water eroal ound ship's all The frees tha act between moecies Viscosity, and laminar or turbulent Maid ow ‘The flew around xo Defnions of fll measurements ‘The factors effecting the performance ofa fll The end effect of flow around fll al aspect rat, atack angle and tll angle ‘Waterflow around afi! CCompresbilty and density Citation Waterwaves Phase locity af deepwater waves “The shape of the sen surace in dep water ‘The energy fa doap water wave Phase slits af shalow water eaves ‘The effects of shallow water and eurrets on waves ‘The formation of and make up of real sea conatens Wave prediction cures Wave propagation 0 ‘ave group velocity “The oblique wave ely xAnyone wo has played around switnming under wate ina swizming po! wil have flan increase ‘npressras they have swum dwn towards the tom ofthe poo. The presse. the weight of ‘eters wn cheer) ee et option ee a waters Soenselachoutaaeccro ‘worTormaTen coun = ma 8 somarsane=me. tin? se ss rare ny Ma 52 tenes (enc ur ry on w= ton " mee ob orn ‘PRESSURE = pah Nim? ‘The peste under depth of waters mensere ofthe potential energy pr unit volume, othe “energy lens af wate a a ep If we have water sored os age ask, wich then develope avery Sal hoe inthe bot oft de state prosare forces out at of wate andthe potenti nergy is {avert Knesic eneay i the owing wate. The sai rsmre athe hotom of the ank at. uly inal directions bute ec wl only exer pressure inthe dtecton off, which only Aly expsiened by bringing the flow completly fo «top and sof called the ‘sagntin pressure’ POTENTIAL ENERGY @ DEPTH N= KINETIC ENERGY WET mon = mv? Treriow ano araonn as (WATER STREAM OF MASS YF Te raGHATION PRESSURE! [AT ANT INSTANT, THE STATIC PRESSURE poh = Lp V" THE JETS STAGNATION PRESSURE‘BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE “Tag conversion of potatlenrgy to Kinetic energy in the low of us was fst examined bythe 18 Contry Sis sient Danie! Beroul, Ia flow stones, the eneray per cubic mete wt steady low is conserved and consequently Beroulli sated hatin such flow the sum of ‘Stagation su ste presses taken a any pont lng the ow ial constant. rico nM ow is known 5 iscows fretion' an anne be gored nether pumping fu rdving machines ‘hzough them (eich sip trough water er era hough the arospbere). However, Bemus ‘ini expans why theresa drop inthe pressure acting perpendicular oa low when it inst ‘oct clea by pasing the ow trough ede sectional ara Bermeull ory considered the tend flow condions of lige, which re effectively incompressible ands of onan diy. The leaking unk, shown on the cious page, ot te steady ow Suton the pressure of the jet reduces withthe fling water lve the tank I, though, he ble |s very sal compared othe an’ surface ae, i pyoximate a steady ow over shor periods ‘frm ad the ey sll dowaward velocity af tbe water sige the unk an be nore. A xe ‘ospete pcre of Bemoul's principle is given by considering the way in which low meter wor ORT a ‘A CONSTRCTEO LENGTH OF KNOWN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA Ms 18 NSERTED INTO THE PIPE, ‘nc ais PL VLD FO ACCeLGRATE Pu V° TO VME RESULTING ORO Luau DeNsiTY =p! svecwauusraners pam + Sot = pats + Som %0 pathy) = Epcvat-w) 45 THEUDUO 8 NCOUPRESSELETHEVOLIMETRE FLOWRATE = AW © A 80 4% wetin fw(8S 100 consouenny enn = (A) 20 w= [2938 Tarra) ‘avo conseouewny, He voLuMeTmic rLow Rare = a1 [293% Tara) ‘A consti in flow i known a "entra he dopin atic presse that it cases i calla the emt effec ans lso applicable to gases provide tht changes in density with changing Presse re alowe for. The venur fect used in reat variety of eves, fen o mix Wo ot tre is geter. Foam making fie base nrzes have vena od the lial fear ingredient andar ino fhe steam of water fom anormal fie hos to produce fam fr fighting ol based Tes‘Te Bornoul water ow around a ship's bal) We ew apply Bernoulli's picile o water owing pst ship, whether its moving trough sill valerorat anchor in caret, an either situation the ships underwater hulform constr te ow THE BERNOULLI PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER FLOW AROUND A HULL <> STREAMLINES, SHOWNG WATER FLOW AROUNO THE HULL (© STAGNATION POINTS WHERE FLOW VELOCITY 22RO Soseecnencnacrotatatanae a p= waren peNsirY te mmestacnavion pressure = Sov! where = Seep ys teeenre aeranee aie ene aes iia ra owrem eermetecune ete rear Besparep tnt ies Cainnone Soseenn wen Bemis principles, of couse a simplification of reality beaut we anno ignore he ffs of frit acing against the mein of the hl ough water. Although he presure dtibuon prediedby Beroll's principle i ray rs, ctonal resiance to the ll oad motion ase the high presure recovered a the stm which seit th motion fo be less tha th igh pressure a th bw (which reiting th motion). Th ul effect offi ron re ite complex nd we wl Be looking a cher amore dei ater on inthis chapter ad in chapter 2 ‘The Bemolli pressure diferent slang the bl wil increase with the shi’ speed through the water snd sprint in understanding some porta aspect ofthe bbaviouro the hl. When shi ‘movie relatively last in lone proximity to snotervesel or» seabed restriction eich aso shoa) the ‘esting pattem of presi and wan stron wil sean afc the vse teeing. [Asa ship moves into more restricted and shallow water, the vent effec that develops between the ‘owom othe hl nthe seabed amplifies the Boro presure atibuton.lnieasingsecleration ofthe fow under and around the midi region of the bleu giant depression of the ‘waeie ands the vss! bly sinks loser othe seabed. All hose iterscton phenomena can nave contributed o collision nd groundings awl be ‘considered in mre deal n huper 8‘Ths Receul water Now around ship's ll (con) The Berl pesueifferential i so important in ait causes the ships motion wo gener a ptm of water waves that moves long athe same speed asthe sip. Again this wil be discussed ‘or flyin te neat hap bt suffice to say forth moment the pysial popes of the wae andthe lergth of the wave determine the speed at which waves can Fave across the wae sre ‘This pts i effective limit onthe maximum speed at which» displacement ull can move rough the seater (4 iplacmen hls nen whch th estes eight i tonal epporedby the weight of Ahyplaced water a described by Archimedes’ principle. There ational sapor provided ‘hamie If acing on the ship's bottom and generated by the ship's speed) |The gemrtin of toe wave ater las ake ep coe bch the ship ton se provide vo ie soto fom af resintance The flow of water around th hips hl given isc othe veel sing ‘srance rom to ferent phys phenome. 1) ctl resistance betwee the water ad the hl 2} Wavemabing resitance du to cation of wae pater, 3) Resisance duet envronmental fore, sich as waves and wind generate bythe weather. ‘These dient causes of resistance depend upon physical popes of the ullorm and weiter in lereat ways hey are considered sepa. u scr )LECULES ‘Though ths may seem strange th! the movement of 250,00 T deadweight tanker is imped bythe accumulated eet of minuscule fre, tonal resistance very much depen ponte fre Uhataetat x molecular level Thee ae forces of atacton acing tetween ater meses heeses tnd betwen the water molsculs andthe molecules of ay solid uric thats passing hough he liu: Bot of hese intermolecular feces are important © understanding Tacoma reves Surface Tssion We an sta by considering the sinple phenomenon of Surfice Tension which allows many very sal aninss totaly "walk on water This ease sito frm onthe surface of hay of water thas song enough to suport the weight o set, sch as water boatman ft i does require ny speci ale onthe pat ofthe inst They have such age src re for this body weight, ‘hat they cis nome fal tough the surfice tension skin nto the undying boy of water than We ‘an ill ugh he Moor that we re standing on. Surface terion t measured a the force that exists across a ninth of quid suriace (Clean water ‘ny a site tension of75 miro-Newion millet or 7.5 10" Newtons mete) mnidions KK ‘overt mrauance or ronces AcTG ‘B83 enon ProcuceD eee Me © sisca scum THIS CREATES A SKIN EFECT THAT STRONG © wremoR wouecuiEs (ARGE SURFACE AREA TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO +> ariractiveronces42 Tenslon (con Sure eoson sets towards pling a water a iterice into shape with he smalls possible ren ert ole, hence water droplets andr bubbles wibin water ae bth pia. IF we ean somehow tea the water srfice apart. and inser addtnal uta ars, then we ae doing Work 2sisturface tension and the energy expended would incense With he sion suace ae, In ‘oc we ae spreading the body of water further ou, which what mos poope do when they Spread futaspdl of water with a mop. The following diagram shows arabe artical craic of ths in hich te ditional surface are is rectangular in spe to maketh sums easy "THE WORK BONE AGAINST SURFAGE TENSION "Te TOTAL FORCE “FvOUE To SURFACE TENSION Toa MUST OVERCOME 6, Fr=Lx7Sx107 Newtons WORK DONE = Fr x soutes t UxBx7.5x10% Joules AE Rowe REQUIRED 700 TH EQUAL TO POWER = WORK OONE XSPEED Watts DUT Ve L = RATE AT ween Tie SURFACE “VIS THE RATE AT WHICH 1S NEREASING Breas moreasns THE POWER REQUIRED TO CREATE ADOTIONAL WATERIAR SURFACE AREAIS GIVEN AS\- POWER = 7.5% 10% x RATEOF NGREASE I SURFACE AREA wile) Watts ‘ASE ONY CREATES AGOITONAL SURFACE AREA AT A SGNFCANT RATE PENT A ship noving trough til water experiences very small opposing frce on he bow de ose ‘enson ait enzps the water’ surface bur hiss equaled bythe forward ps gains the stem a the water surface 2p’ bck up withthe passing a he ship. However, surtae tensions sgn when {Sips seaming against hay head yeas ad retng spay In these stations the wale sure ot merely beng separated, is being smashed up nto very tiny agent ant consti as tlons f say droplets. Eneray i taken ont ofthe shit motion both oi he weight of sea) ‘te ypino tear and aso ofr te greatly inreased surface re ofthe water when itis, ‘raged in copies of ent abot one mln in diameter. This isresses fe surface area of the wnt affected by about one thousand fl an 0 can pode a considerable force oops the shilsmeon. Isnt suprising tha sip scm o shudder and srl slow down when ue in wave tha eae pit ety spay Surface son in qui i due tote Liquid’ molecules Being atwated to ech ter bat the stacton between the Liquid and slid molecule also sgifent. Water sully wets solid sfces ‘hati cones in contaet with Became thee high atacton betwee he water aed isl molesVises, nd eins or turbulent ald It weal analoet oul immersed plank of wood though te water, the traction betwen water ‘molecules nd those ofthe plank causes the innermost water melecles to atch themselves he lnk. The atached molecules exert a dag on adjacent molecules outboard of them du othe “tracsive fares hetween the water moles themstvex This rests nthe fraton of ger of ‘water moving pat te plank ating speeds. The innermost lye i stationary, relative ote plank Sar we move ouhourd the layer lip are of he plank wth increasing veloc unl we each ‘undisturbed water, whichis passing aster atte phnks speed through the wate. This situation ‘owns laminar flow and overs because atrctive foees er beween the wer moles 0 ‘taser eneny fom the plank motion to the sureunding water. Thi nt, crete arse Sclidboaier moving through water ate flowing pt said rics (uch a pipe lows ec). The penomencn ofthis id rons known as ‘sco A very viscous ids one in which te ‘stemolecar tractive forms re high and consegorly the estance o flows omseable (og treacle or mate, ‘Viscosity na Mid flow is related tothe velocity gradient within the hid he are f contact and he ‘chon fee a shown the following gram. UR agus RENTAL FATES OF AREA AE SEPARATED BY IE STANCE Tig PLATE. SOA VELOCITY GRADIENT IS SET UP AS THE LAYERS OF INTERVENING FLUID SLIDE. vem exeH OTHER THE MONON BETWEEN THE PLATES Ts OFOED BY PRUTIONAL FORGE ARLUO’s DYNAMIC MscOSTTY W'S DEFNED AS THERATIO SEEARSTREES gq yy = EU 50, TEFMCTONALFoREE F = nA ‘Stic spesking, viscosity an he evel of resistance are cto the interaction of the Md with he solid surface aswel as the forces acing etwoen the molecules within the fd ele If water Tchad ike mereuy wenn contact wit ste! plating the con resistance to moving «sip through water would be ver low indeed. Crain plastic costings such a PTFE and Plyetiyen repel mae, bu tis impact nan such nt setingcotings onthe underwater areas of ‘eigoing vee. Roughness of he slid surface als very pot, es ough surface wil dag tore water long wth than a smooth oe. The change frm veted hls oll welded constcton has consdenbly reduced roughness but oth corrosion abd murine growth can sigan icresse ‘The laminar ow station isnot table because, ashe ayers f waterside past sch other their relive vlstis como ochange asthe ine ayers continue to slow down the yes idly ‘utboard of them The mas of inermos wate that iter moving slong wit the pln or neatly so nil ed ores ther long the pak’ length crest lw pressure arn of I te plank Jing enough or moving sien fat tis wl eventual ea to he oer layers tumbling awards inser of ss lhe oud and the ow is hen sd Wo have bese be”Viscosity, an laminar or turbatent fad ow con ‘When ow ums turbulent transfer of icional nergy i no longer via viscous fres between order ayes of uid moving a ferent velois. Thre snow a det exchange of Kinetic eatay beeen fs molar colding with slower nes a they move randomly within the eon of ture fe leo he pank Resitance downstream of the testo er aia o turbulent ‘ow inreats considerably ovary approximately wih de square of he average No veo ‘The regia of disurted Mi Mowing around a solid obstacle is known asthe Boundary ape where Berouls bw does ot apply as energy is being dsiatd trough ition an heat in bth laminar ‘nd urbe flow codons ihn te layer. The boundary ayer canbe considered ana thickening lth seston dimensions th Bem fw comtone exiting besos he ua er ak ‘ot within The steamlne around the downstream end f the obatuction do tally converge 50 ‘Reoteryprestr redced al eit ote flow conssgucnyiereases. Thi own 38 orm ras conser furor is chapter 2 The reranant ofthe boundary lye ls ase ofthe hip ‘bund of enol wate a i Kowa the oe! {VISCOUS FLOW OF WATER AROUND A PARTLY INNERSED PLANK “31 = WATER FLOW VELOCITY RELATIVE TO THE PLANK (MRE = BOUNDARY LATER LamMMAR PLOW — REEEEED> TURBULENT FLOW FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE = VELOGTY'V | FRICTONAL RESISTANCE = (vELOGHTY'V}* [hs UNGAR LAYER AN IF NEREAGES IN OTH AS MOVES PURER ALONE THe LENGTH OP Te LAN PARTICULARLY A? THE TRANGITON PROM LAMINER TO TORBULENT FLOW Laminar ad bales fw canbe iene raion four five le meray alana ow ‘condions, sped of wai inerete in ode sep as we move frm he sow lane tothe fst, lane ut wisn each Lane, the veces move ath sume spend However one bake dow ot Very slow moving vebcle wll at sa Yrbulence' tigger ash wale behind it mst change lane 0 get ‘stand mnt spec Ith nly happens ccesionally rhe af i lal ig the Dow ‘Setles down gin othe laminar copdiion but at very slow moving vehicles besome mre gues ‘rth wfc more das, there is a tendency fr lane changing Wo ints More and more crs ae ‘Speeding up hen slowing downs hey move in Between the nes, mare cers ie Being expended by ‘hose changes of speed andthe Mw is becoming tbl Highway ls and tafe plce, combined ‘ith firamount of driver common sens, prevent rac fom becoming completly cht. Water ‘molecule, however, ck thet amrble consi nd ae different road rages they ost Jo thee ‘own tng A it of random mod al collision beak ot the unary ayer moles ‘move aroun to occupy ay avaible pace nd the flow as len,Veo ae 4 Oud lw (cont “Lamior fw contins have on been sought ae fo high perfomance raft moving hough 2 ‘id, parila which ute tof evelopment has buen carried out on ana flow ‘ings Te U.S avy has alo cared out considerable esearch nt the possilty of maining Jamia ly over submarines and, n parte, opeoes, though laminar ow 3, we wl seater on ismot abnays so advantageous. ‘The ose ofturblencein water fw around the ll canbe delayed if any disturbing ger is removed fe the flow 8 soo asi osu. One way of achieving tis sw suck thecal dstutance ‘nt he ull which a teehnigue tat as been employed in aireraf, The motoray equivalent of this ‘youl be tolmmecitly aii any broken dows vice ef the ead. Ate approach could bo havea fexble spongy coating that allows the hull surface to contour the ow. This would be Ike ‘nstamlyading and removing rf anes locally on the motorway to suite the tai conditions. ‘an as fen looked toate fr ideas on hw to make things work beter and oa lng tie, ‘twas bleed thatthe fat layer, just beneath the outer ska ofa dolphin, acted as such damper Similar spongy lier have ls ben found just beneath he skin f some sh. However, both sh and spt acheve propulsion by lexing pars of ther bodies so low condition round them ontioually shane. Experiment replete his Gamping effect n ei bodies sch as submarines hve not ee sucessful andthe flow around these anima ot ot aly understood ‘The nature fa ow and in pail, he ference tween laminar ane tubule low, was fist = Low PRESSURE PERPENDICULAR FORCE [Se mow pressune oisTIoUTION 4D = HGH PRESSURE PERPENDICULAR FORCE‘The flow acamd a fl cont) "he greater contain ofthe accelerated low tothe ree can be ater enhance by increasing ‘he face ma ofthe low presse side of fol relative othe high presureside (The elie ove being te presse diflrence maltiliod bythe area) Conseauealy the upper surface of an sireraf wings ore curved tan thundering and the frvard sie of shi’ propellers more ‘ured than 8 af face. These are foi that are generally designed to operate in one decion. Ships ‘adder, on the ote hand, must work equally well pring sideways thsi ether dection So they are bit wih sufces that are a miror image of each te. We woul expect the pressure change and, ence the perpen foe, to be greatest about the "cum sheenes ofthe fox section Inn es! wt i wo be conn at the ath out of aor tat wat symmetrical abuts vere av, as shown Below However, he iseous Foves ina el ad work ora low veleity ast moves further along the sue. This rats the ‘boundary ae tat becomes progresnvely cir as we move downatcars vo the ting bao the Tow prestrside ofthe fContribute to the than we cou expec fom an Wel lo. ‘Censoqunty i el Dui Now, thei free icone forward a he ipa of such fl SSS AA ae SO TS “The asym ofthe ow increases ifthe Now sis the fit ineresingl angles of tack an 0 ‘heli also ceases with the angle ack but oly up wo ceran angle. Atangies of tack grester than ths thew separates and the fl begins to tal Fow onthe fis high presre side oversils fom the Tow wessre surlace soe pressure dierent and nama ose are considerably reac ‘THEANGLE OF ATTAGKAND STALL CONDITIONS Fe an ISLess THAN Faz ar ISGREATER THAN > Fae ‘ merece a Se‘The diagrams blow define fo measurements they apply typical sections used ia marine aders nd proper Note pin thatthe dynamic force perpen the ante flow deco Sil calle the "if fore eves though is predominately horizontal when produced bya reer or propel _TVBCAL PROPELLER BLADE SECTION ‘DWBA AUODER SECTION BrevonmuareLy one DmECTON euT OLAS ZERO CAME HWE THEFLOW ' cal — oom —— "conn, —__} <= NOSE-ALUNE, ——— = CAMBERLUNE, == = cnORO UNE, = FT LE Seno eoge Te, = RARMGEDGE, 7 = MaXMNM CHORD THERESE AMBER IS & MEASURE OF HOW MUCH THE CURVATURE OF THE FOULS SURFACES ARE BUSED {omeouce un oxe recon a 6 MeNCUmED BETWEEN THE CAMBER LNE AKO THE “THE ltt nes aba BETWEEN Te Yor avo LONER SURFACES OFTHE FOL SO FHiSHAVE como CAUSE AND CAN GENERATE A IPT FORGE EQUALLY EFFECTIVELY METER [IRE HON THe SURPAGES ARE STILL CURVED AS THGRNESS VAOES ALONG THE CHORD. "ME PCSITIONS OF MAXIM CHORD THICKNESS LIE ALONG THE CHORO LIME (OR DIREGTAD) ‘The factr effesting the performance fa fl, The noma fret the foil fice produced bythe low ove fil vares withthe following fico: 1) Normal fore is dstionlly proportions othe sue of the Now velocity. 2) Narmal fre approximately poptonl othe angle of tack up tothe tal angle 3). Narmal frees directionally poportnsl othe fl wrac re. 4) Normal fore increases with he fo theknes sith iit. it : I) Aa ‘The pupse of oils sch tna and propels i to mos edly crete the it fee norma o ‘he unis flw rather athe foil surface. ceasing he angle of aac beyond aout 20° sues fem he nw of miishing etwas as the ce has decreasing HR nd inresing rag omponcri Aso erasing the sea ofthe fil othe low velocity cesses te fictional fses in the low. Al thse considerations must be ken ito seraun in the deson of rides ad propels.“The end ffs on low around afi ‘The higher pressure Hid wl also tendo sil ver onto the low pressure surface of olathe tp, This nodes a pil mation nto the flow that becomes ros marked in he rein ofthe tp where ‘teams alos ini The ratio of length to chord with s known sts aipec rao and she oss fi due to pees ‘can beminised by farming he surface area imo long and narrow fl (high spect at a). Alemaiely the frnaton of ip vorex can be reduces by ending he ol with «perpendicular 'ead Piste’ that feos the ow in nd oasis pra flow pater ight up othe ip, Sch end Piss, however, wil eet ext ition dag” FOUL ASPECT RATIO THe Evo PLATE renceswe mee rLow 70 ESP THe STREAMUNES SQUARE TO TE FOL. Jib ler manana menu To Tae PATE UT THERE ISA COSTIM EXTRA BRAGattack angle and sal ana ‘The end esses case the low across lt be dived toward is tp andso the ow velocity gains component ane the pan” ofthe fi A spiraling flow, or verte consequent shed rom the Fo tip andthe lit force is deceased because the angle of atac is efetively reduced. We can se thi ifwelook at the tre mensional gromety ofthe low moving onto the fi Low aspect fis re ofen made with curved taper towards the tp asthe pressure teeta is ‘reduces tars the end pds his ren of he Fo rea fective at proucing i This ea eat {nthe elpial vera wing that was so character ofthe famous Wola War Two fighter plane, ‘he Speman Spite: Hh shea fi ae mae erie generar of i the ae ‘sso end to alma sacar coosant chord wid along most Fhe Spa, ‘gr par oT THAT HE FLOW ACTUALLY FOLLOWS "THe EENDING OF THE FLOW TOWARDS THE TIP EFFECTIVELY NCREASES THE CHORO WIDTH YWHLST REDUCING THE ACTUAL ANGLE OF ATTACK, SO ANGLE IS LESS THAN ANGLE LORCEOSTREUTON —»«LQWASPECTRATIOWMG ——_LETZORCEDIETHAUTON ad EAL me oror0s reouceD LDPPERENTIA: DECREASES ou asPecr RATIO ING Drrerevnal Renan acwosr Bf [Fernarm —p! CONSTANT Pom OST GP HE SPAN <— 3m > THE HOMER ASPECT RATIO FOUL WILL PRODUCE A GREATER OVERALL PRESSURE DIFFERENTAL "THAW Tie LOW ASPECT RATIO FOL, S017 WL PRODUCE TE SAMELIFTFOR LESS FOL AREA ‘The ml high spect aio fis more efficient t generng i han lower aspect to i bat it ‘higher oad (eth presuediterce spre). This presents problems wth fils acting water as te alma othe extent at which presur cat fall on he low presse side bere “vation occurs. Tis is whon the wate ally vaporss and x explained fueron the met page Cevitaton pts alin onthe loading tht hyo ean pert under and is eof he esos wy fos working in water (Ce roddes, propel et) tendo have eatey low aspect ie, Tho oth inci esc beng te limite space avaiable fo the adder and propel the te ofthe ship Althoughlow aspect ato oil ae les cent producing Ti he ffetive reason ofthe ane ‘of atk delay te nse of tl condo so they can operate overs large range of eack gl. Page 186ihstaes hs with respet apenas of besWater ow around fil {Upto mow, allie aspects ffl around a fil that we ave considered apis to all ids. There are, however some important difletencs hetween get ad igus pariulywater Peni Water, unlike i, can be considera a ncomprenible ot density constant in al he fw regions srounls fi Frtormor the density of water very mach grealr than at of ai ands relay Sal changes in water flow veloc cause eonshcrably preter changes in presse than would Be the ‘se forthe tne velocity changes ins alow. Consequealy,s hydrofoil working in eave show ‘ate flows smaller tha an afl roduc a sina io ths fore oma se aw. ane tion of mater es nthe om) Water fw arundel can be locally accelerated 0 sub an extent that the local pressure becomes almost a vacuum andthe wate ais’ (Le changes Sut rm gud water vapour or steam). The “cam mst fora in bubbles and hiss know as evita, which creates sperical wate vapour ‘oundary that wll be bet to sieface tension (ee page & 6) The resulting fore acs to shrink the Subble and so the vapour pres within mst he ale octet the srfceenson a well ashe mbent ow esse ofthe surrounding water. Vaporiaton esi there aaa gas babes [resentintheowat nthe cae neato erated weer. i station, wees vapour Sey ‘Scapes ino existing ai bubles. However ifthe ae not salable, vapour bubbles rit pos rm Sls nothing andtean be sbwa tht balancing tera bubble presse inversely proportional to “cra. Ths mem, paredonclly fa he nial internal pressure of very small vapour tubes ‘must be vey tgh even though the mmedite water pei tht ead to the vaporisatio ery ow [Bunles in such eicunstanes frm sm exionely the high neal pressor une he ble "0 go ray agninstasufice tension force that decreases with eretsing bubble ci Cavitation ins dhe it force as no farther eduction in rssuecan occur onthe lw pressure side of 1 ol one cantaton hs spread though th presse onthe igh pressure side ca sil increase Very low pressures ithe fo ar flea revit Yo a mal ope the ois race nd the vapour bubbles ilo when thy move dwn seam in higher ambient pressures As abubble ai ress Prieto dlarpearing othe itera peste increases py andthe babes colle zinta ‘race wi humane’ implosion wo caus damage apd Vibrato. Extensive cavitation cane 0 ‘he bubbles caescing ino a cotinuous ayer oF wate vapour hts known as ‘sheet cena” Cavitation cane Seen when wate oiled in an ordinary domestic Kee. As he water comes tthe boil bubbles ef xem erupt wii the body ofthe water These are partly olen ithe water ‘has sreay bem boiled once before Rebod wate cosine very ite dated a and there ore so existing butler within te water fr the vapour to combine with ‘SAVITATION: THE FORMATION OF VAPOUR BUBBLES INTHE WATER FLOW EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES W A BUBBLE RADWS = FORCE DUE TO VAPOUR Fonce:Fr ave ro sunrace PRESSURE ‘rexsion Fe"=XSECTIONALAREA Fe Fr Fr MORCUMFERENCE ‘rPnessure ‘SURFACE TENSION T” 50 Free Px ak? so Fre Tx 20k ur Fes Fr so PxR = 27, wence |p = 22 up. f Pi BUBBLE FORMATION aND COLLAPSE SS chr cleaChapter 2 Ocean Surface Waves (Ocean surface waves cause periodic loads on all vorts of man-made structures in the sa Tdoes not matter whether these structures are Sed, floating or sailing and onthe surface Ur deoper in the soa. To understand thewe loads, a good understanding of the physics of ater wave is nowessary ooking ovr the sea one gets the impression that there is an endlesly moving succession Of rregelarhumpe and hollows reeching fom horizon to horizon. Ifthe winds ae light, the ‘fregulartes are smal. If the winds are heary, you may be awed by the resulting gigantic omy sees Since water moves “easily” and flat calms seldom occur, an undisturbod ‘Mater srfice i rarely found at sea, Even when dtifting in glassy calm, one will usually {fad the ocran heaving itself in «long emooth swell whose source a storm which may Ihave ccctrred days before and hundreds of miles awa: (coun vutlace waves are generally distinguished in two states: sea or wind waves, when the wows are being worked on by the wind that raised them and swell, when they have CGuaped the inflame of the generating wind. Sea is usually of shorter period (higher frequency) than swell. As a rule of thumb, a period of about 10 seconds may be taken as pura ea from swel although one mst alow for considerable overlap. Sea is shorter rlougth, steeper, more rugged and tote confsed than swel. Since wind-generated waves ‘Dave their origin ia the wind - which is proverbally changeable they too are changeable, serying bath snsonally and regionally ‘Wind wanes, especialy, are abert crested and very iregular. Even so they can be seen na superpesiion of many simple, regular harmonic wave components, each with its own Smplitude length (or period of frequency) and direction of propagation. Such a concept fan be very bandy in many appliations; it allows one to predict very complex irregular behavior terms of the much simpler theory of regular waves B. Kinsman wrote Wind Waves - Their Generation and Propagation on the Ovean Surface sve be maa Profesor of Oceatogzaphy at The Jobs Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland The book, published in 1963 was complete for its time; the wit scattered ‘hroughost its contents makes is more readable than one might thnk at fret glance First, an introduction to the moet relevant phenomena i ver here fr the ease of regular ‘doop water waves; the (general) shallow water case wil be treated ina next lecture. ‘Then,CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES the superpmsiton principle wil be used to define the Iegular ocean surface waves 2.1 Regular Waves ‘Figure 2.1 shows a harmonic wave, ¢, as seen from two diferent perspectives: «Figure 2-0 shows what one would observe in a snapshot photo made loking at the side of @ Qrunspareut) wave Bums, the wave profile (with wave amplitude ¢, and ‘wave length A) is sown as a function of distance x along the fume at fixed instant in tine = Caco (2n-F ea) 4 Figure 21-0 is time record of the wave profile (with wave amplitude C, and wave fraquency s) observed at one location along the fume; it lols simile ia many ways to the fint figure, but the angle 2rx/X has been replaced by wt 2) ‘Figure 21: Harmonie Wave Definitions [Notice tht the origin ofthe cocedinnte system is at the sill water level withthe posit “pasts dzeeted upward; most relevant sales of = wil be negative. The still water level s {he ererage water level or the level of the water if no waves were present. The zis is postive inthe direction of wave propagation, The water depth, (8 postive value and Fait hee) is measured between the sea bed (2 = —/h) and the still water level (2 = 0)- "The highest point of the wave fs called its crest and the lowest point on its surface fs the trough, Il the wave is deseibed by a sine wave, then its amplitude C, is the distance fom the ml mater level to the crest or to the trough for that matter. The subscript a denotes ‘amplitude bere. The wave height H = 2C, is messured vertically from wave trough level to the ware crest level it ie the double emplitude. ‘The herimntal tance (measured in the direction of wave propagation) between any two suoeesive wave crests i the wave length, 1. The same distance along the time axis tthe ‘wave peri, 7. Since the distance between any two corresponding points on successive Sine waves is the same, wave legis and periods are usually actually measured between two consecutive upward (or downward) crossings of the stil water lee. Such points are ‘lo called wero-crosings, and are easier to detect in 8 wave root ‘Wave heights are always auch smaller than wave lengths. The rato of wave height to wave length isaften refered to asthe wave stepaess, H/A. When waves became too high, they24, REGULAR WAVES ‘become unstable with a tendency to fall apart at the slightest nuge. One theory - that of Stokes - ses the upper limit at H/= 1/7. Since tine o cosine waves are expressed in terms of angular arguments, the wave length, ‘and period are converted to angles using ar or: ura or: 3) in which kis the wave number (rad/m) and w is the circular wave frequency (rad/s). ‘Govivusly, the wave form moves one wave length during one period so tha its propagation, speed or pase velocity, eis given by: ea) Fortunately, the water pattices themselves do not move with this speed; only the wave oem {wave crests x troughs) mows with this phase velocity & Ifthe weve moves in the postive 2-drection, the wave profile (shape ofthe water surface) can now be expresed as function of both 2 and ¢ as follows tee 5) 2.1.1 Potential Theory ‘A velosty potential, 2(, 9,2), # function - a mathematical expression with space and tone variables which Valid inthe whole Suid domain. This potential function has bee Sefinad in uch a way that it bas ote very important property: in any point inthe fi, the derivaive of this function in a certain direction provides the velocity component of fluid partite in that point in that direction, ‘The wll be explained here by avery simple example. Suppose « uniform fow with a velocity U in the positive x-direction. Then, the velocity potential ofthe uid is # ~ Uz, because the velocity of each fd particle in the z-direction [bu d®/de— U. Por other potential flow elements, such as soures, sinks and vortices, reference i given to lecture notes on fluid dynamics. ‘The velodty potential ofa harmonic osclating fuk in the z-direction is given by = Uz-cosia. ithe magnitude ofthe potential & - the potential vale - willbe doubled, then the velocky component will be doubled too, u= dB de = U -cosut. This follows directly from the definition ofthe phenomenon "potential", so the potential has been deseribed ty # linear fonction. This means also that all potential flow elements (pulsating uiform om, sources, sinks, et.) may be superposed. In order to use the near potential theory fr water waves, it wil be necessary to assume that the water surface slope is very small, This means thatthe wave steepness i s small that tenzs in the equations of motion ofthe waves with a magnitude in the order of the steepneseaquared can be ignoredCHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES ‘Only the final result ofthe derivation ofthe velocity potential of a simple harmonic ware is gven hers A detailed derivation ofthis definition will be treated in a next lecture. Velocity Potential Inorder to se this linear theory with waves, it will e necessary to assume that the water tistae slope is very small. This moans thot the wave steepness is small that terms i the cquttons of the waves with a magnitude inthe order of the steepness-squared can Te igus Ung the linear thoory holds here that harmonic displacements, velocities td accdemstions of the water particles and also the harmonic pressures will havea linear elation wich the wave surface elevation. ‘The profil of @ simple wave with a small stoepness lols like a sine ora cosine and the ‘motion of « water particle in wave depends on the distance below the sil water lve. “This reason why the wave potential written as Bz, 3y8) = Ple) sin hs wt) (28) {in which P{s) is an (as yet) unknown function of z ‘The wlocty potential #.(2, 20) of the harmonic waves hns to full some requirements, ‘Mhich willbe treated in detail in enext lecture, The inviscid irotatonal fui supposed to be incampresibl, from which follows the so-called Continuity Condition and Laplace ‘Bauation, The vertical velocity of the fluid particles atthe sea bottom is ero; the bottom i impervious. The pressure atthe surface of the uid is equa to the atmospheric pressure; there ne pressure jump between the fid domain and the air domain. ‘These requrements bed to a more complete expression for the wlocity potential as will bbe explaited in a next lecture: ent es ou SESAME tet an “Waves are dispersive; they run at sponds which depend on their length (and water depth). ‘Thorelatiomip between ¢ and 2 in degp water, or equivalently between w and k, can be ‘tablished fem the condition that Suid partis in the surface ofthe fid remain there {he fui surface i impervious too) as Pa k-g-tanhkh es) “These relations are valld forall water depths, but the fact that they contain hyperbolic fimetions makes the cumbersome to use. Therefore we restrict ourselves in the following to deep water waves. For deep water, h—+ 00, this exprossion for the vlosty potential and the dispersion relation ruc tr pena] ot GEG ae ‘et gn oti vireo te ple ety in nation pee iE em24, REGULAR WAVES ‘Simple and very practical relations betwom the wave length (an) and frequency (rad/s) oF period (e) flow from this: ea eB wat Tesi om ‘Mind you that these relations between the wave length and the wave frequency or the wave period wre valid for regular deep water wares only. They may not be used as relations Between te average values of these phenomena in iregular waves, which are treated in 8 following ction. 2.1.2 Water Particle Kinematics “The kinematiy of a water particle i found from the velocity components in the 2 and ‘edrections, Obtained fram the velocity potential and the dispersion relation. Velocities “The resulting velocity components - in their most general form - can be expressed as: Pee SI oz di a. Ey _ b-3-Fl- An example of velocity eld is given In fgure 2.2 Beneath the eset of a wave the water movement is with the wave. Beneath the trough it ‘again the wave. This can be seen easly by watching a small object, such as a botle, Satin lew inthe water. It will move more or leas with the water particles, ‘Thecombned motions inthe 2-and =}= ree ex) ‘A numerkal example ofthis approach is given in the table below.CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES ware hee | wave beige | mamber | Requency intervals | average | of waves | quotient (cn) ox) a_| fe Da5075 | 05 15] v.00 075125 | 10 so | 0200 ras | 15 35 | 0367 175295 | 20 a | oo 295275 | 25 a4 | ones. 275335 | 30 9 | o0c0 325375 | 35 5 | 00s 375425 | 40 1_|_ 0007 total Tsp —[ 1.000 “The table shows that, fa =8.25 meter, the probability of finding a wave higher than that threshold sles given by this integral (or in this case) 083+ 0.007 = 0.04 P{i,> 325} =2ot= 008 or Pf fie 225} Significant Wave Height “The sc-ald sigaificant wave height, Hi, defind as the average (centroid) ofthe highest 1/3 ef the waves in the record. ‘Ths, in this case: 2.0-21425-1443.0-9435-5440-1 ee = 251m or from fle}: 20-0:140 + 25-0,009 + $0 01.060 +3.5-0033+ 40-007 7 ts 251m “The sinifcant wave height, Hyay plays an important role in many practical applications cleave satis. Otten there is fair corelation betwoen the slgniicant wave hight and { viualyestimnie wave height. This comes, perhaps, because higher waves make more fmmpreeion on an observer than do the smallest ones. 2.2.2. Superposition Wind waves especially, are very iregular. Ben so, they can be soen as a superposition ‘Gf many dimple, regula: harmonic wave components, each with its own amplitude, length, esd ur fequeney and direction of propagation. Such a concept can be very handy i aan’ apyliations: It allows one to predict very complex regular behavior in terms of auch canals tory of regular waves. This s-called superposition principle, fist introduced in odeedyeamics by (St. Denis and Pierson, 1969), is Mlusrated in gure 2.6cy Pure 26: A Sum of Many Simple Sine Waves Makes an Irregular Sea “This means thatthe regula waves canbe writen ete) = Sas comnt har + 2.2.8 Energy Density Spectrum Suppoce a time history, as given in figure 2.8, ofthe wave devation during a suficent log, se figure 27. ‘The intantanenns ware elevation has a Gonsan dition and sero mean. "The am Phiade can be cbained by a Pours els of heigl However, fren tle Me i the ine story ove yl nde new wie cf pins iy mean square val of, canbe fd: ‘When (an imeplr signal without preva requ, the average ales he to wp, will aot change mich as a function of the frequency; Cis a continuous funetion. ‘Theva of ofthis igual boy to the avenge velo oft aque of hn wave ceraion a=FCHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES Time Domain Measured Wave Recor Figure 2.7: Wave Reed Analysis i 5 Figure 28 Ragbtraton and Sampling of « Wave - yLeoweyee 1 few. and | {Ercmtt mere) x 29 Sen a "The wave amplitude, C,, eam be expres bya wave spect pension: Syun)-aw= Se $0) ex)22, IRREGULAR WAVES where Avis a constant difference between two successive frequencies; se figure 20, Mul tiplied with pg, thi expresion isthe enerey per unit area ofthe waves in the frequancy Interval A, which wil be treatod in detail in a next lecture. nus igure 2. Definition of Spectral Density Letting dw 0, the definition ofthe wave energy spectrum, So), becomes: Sen) atv = 5 ea 36 and the variance, f, of the water surfse elevation is simply equal to the area under the spectrum t= fstoy-ae am ‘Figure 2.7 gives a graphical interpretation of the meaning of a wave spectrum and how it relates to the waves. ‘The irregular wave history, ¢(t), in the time domain at the lower 1a eo ped fro coe in age ec ona ar ema ce itge mre fel nveCopontsch wth wee, gn enh eu domam They wl ape be ater ky ty Bones SON SL. ween ciao nem mapemetta ese: eet ‘wloay te ttl Orbe wer coay vores ich Tle conte, oy Sided eerie tennis En eer oem ioeaaaae ‘Wave Height and Period Relationships with etatistes ean be found from computing the moments of the area wader ‘the spectrum with respect to the vertical axis at = 0. fm denctes a moment of properties of the wave spectrum with respect to the vertical axis tw =0, then mge denotes the ni order moment given inthis case by = for a oxCHAPTER 2, OCEAN SURFACE WAVES ‘This meats that moc isthe area under the spectral curve, mm isthe first order moment (static moment) of this rea and mac isthe second order moment (mement of inertia) of this area. [As has already been indicated, mo; san indication ofthe variance squared, me = 02, of ‘the water surface elevation. OF courte this mac can alo be related to the various wave amplitude and heights: c= RMS= (Root Mean Square of the water surface tlevation) Fee =2 VA] Gefant wave mpi) TEp= Te] iiicant wave height) ez Characteristic wave periods can be defined from the spectral moments: mag = wx-mg with wy & spectral centroid mag = h-migg with wp i spectral radius of inertia em) [i = an (mean centroid wave period) Fm] meen rene) "The meen zero-crosing petiod, T, is sometimes indicated by Tz. One will often find the period asocited with the peak of the spectrum, Ty in the literature as well, 18 follows Rayleigh Distribution Expressed in terms of mag, the Rayleigh distibution i given by: {Hz} crweh asuson) 22) in which rs the variable being studied aod moc i the area under the spectral curve. ‘This distribution can be used for more or less narrow spectra. This is true for normal wave spertras they are not too wide. Generally, its frequencies vary between w = 0.2 and v= 1520, With ‘this distribution, the probability that the wave amplitude, ¢,, exceeds a chosen ‘threshold value, a, can be calculated using: P(>ay = f fe)-de Jools} re) " paar al-22, IRREGULAR WAVES P{.>al {==} oo) ‘The numberof times per hour that the threshold value, a, will be exceeded ty the waves fs this prosablity, P{C, > a}, times the number of osilations per bour, 3600/73 mone ax 2.24 Standard Wave Spectra Investigators have attempted to describe & wave freqienry spectrum in a standard form. ‘Two impertant ones often found in the terature are described here. ‘The mathematical formnlations of these normalized uni-directional wave energy spectra are based on two parameters: the significant wave belght, Hj, and average wave periods T'= T,, Ts or Ty: RO=%, 7e7) em) Nett th deftion meas tha he mya aes ae proportion stn gant ev he cred: in aber node Su) /fin be neon os and oy Bretschreider Wave Spectra Oneof the oldest and most popular wave spectra was given by Bretsthneide, Iti especially suited for open sea arent and mathematically given by tp {=tw} fe Re a ee pare eet rears n 086-Tr oT 72 T JONSWAP Wave Spectra {In 1968 and 1960 on extensive wave measurement program, known as the Joint North ‘Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP) wae carried ont along a ine extending over 100 miles into ‘the North Sea from Spe Island. Analysis of the data yielded a spectral formulation for fetchlimied wind generated as. ‘The follving definition of a Mean JONSWAP wave spectrum is advised by the 17th IPTC in 1984 fr ftch Eimited situations S(e) ae oe on {2 wt}en (2.38)CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES we 7 = 45 (pate) nen + o{-(&)} os = Ee ey ah = Latin ca a hn = OF tos otto sam ‘ing 152 rt min he Betis er ith in peak period, T,, Sometimes, a third fre parameter is introduced inthe JONSWAP wave spectrum by varying the peakedness factor, For not-runcated wave spectra, other wave period definitions can be used by eubstituting % 20-T, or Ty=1.287-Te Wave Spectra Comparison Figure 2:0 compares the Bretschneider and mean JONSWAP wave spectra fr three sex states with a significant wave height, Hy, of & meters and peak periods, 7 of 6, 8 and 10 moandk, repectively. "The figure shows the more pronounced peak of the JONSWAP spectrum, while the areas under all spoctral density curves are the same. igure 2.10: Comparion of Two Spectral Formulations 2.2.5 Wave Prediction and Climatology 1m 19, the British Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort devised an observation sale for measuring ‘winds at sa, Hie eeale measures winds ly observing tel effets on salling ships and waves22, IRREGULAR WAVES and is still used today by many weather stations. A definition of this Beaufort wind force scale is given in figure 2.1. ‘The pictures in figure 2.12 ive a visual impresion of the sea states in ration to Beauforts scale Short Term Wave Data An oni storm can be characterized by just ten mimhens ona related tthe wae eight ‘nd one to the wave period. It now becomes important to predict thse values from other data such as geographical and meterologkal information. Figure 2.18 for "Open Ocean “Areas” and "North Sea Areas’ gives an indication of an average relationship between the ‘Beaufort wind scale and the significant wave height Hs and the average wave periods 7, ‘nd Ty, defined before. [Notice that these short term or storm wave data are inked here to wind data. ‘Thisis quite ‘common n practice since wind data is often much more available or ean be proicted rather ‘easly ftom other amilable meteorlogial data. Bu, these relations are an indication ony. Fixed relations between wave height and period does not exist; the history and duration ‘of the witd plays an important role. Long Term Wave Data Longer term wave climatology is used to predict the statistical chance that fr instance fa given wavesemitive offshore operation ~ such as lifting a major topside element into place - wil be delayed by sen conditions which are too rough. Sets of characteristic wave ‘lta valu can be grouped and arranged in table such as that given below forall wave ‘directions in the winter season in arose 8,9, 16 and 16 of the North Atlantic coon. A "storm fare is nn arbitrary time period ~ offen of 3 or 6 hours fer which a single pair of values has been collected. The number in ach cell ofthis table indicates the chance that ‘significant wave eight is between the values in the left column and inthe range of wave periods Bited at the top ofthe table ‘These wave seater diagrams canbe wied to determine the log term probability fr storms ‘exceeding certain sea stats, Each ocl inthis table presents the probebilty of occurrence ‘ofits significant wove height and vero-comsing wave period range. ‘This probability ls equal