COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02

circuits
SUBJECT: semiconductors components TITLE: Semiconductors
and devices components

TRAINING AIMS:
� Draw semiconductors schematic and symbol
� Locate specifications from data-sheet
� Implement semiconductors in different circuits
� Test semiconductors components ( diode, LED,...)
� Test bipolar transistor (NPN, PNP)
� Analyze operating characteristic

DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:

Introduction :

Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a
"conductor" and an "insulator". They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence
their name "semi"-conductors).

1). Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and Electrons
Electrons.

2). The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

3). A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type
doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.

4). A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type
doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

5). The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion
region.

6). The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.

7).When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural
Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to
0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.

8). When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region
reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.

Page 1
 9). When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region
increases and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very
small leakage current).
The PN junction

Reverse Biased Junction Diode Forward Biased Junction Diode

The PN junction : DIODE

Page 2
Applications 1 : Power Diode Rectifier

1- Build this circuit :

� AC power supply : 12 v
� Diode 1N4007
� R = 1K Ω

2- Draw the input and output waveform

3- Comment :
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

Page 3
Applications 2 : Full Wave Rectifier

1- Build this circuit :

� AC power supply : 12 v
� 4 Diodes 1N4007
� R = 1K Ω

2- Draw the input and output waveform

3- Comment :
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

Page 4
 The Zener diode

The Zener diode is the simplest types of voltage regulator and the point at which a
Zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" ( Vz ).

Zener Diode Regulator

Page 5
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

These diodes are made from a range of semiconductor materials,

depending on the colour of light required.

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) = Red

• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) = Green

• Gallium Indium Phosphide (GaInP) = Yellow

Making the tests

The diagram below shows how to connect a digital meter to test the diode. There are a
number of things to remember:
• Make sure you are using the diode range.
• Using a digital meter, connect the black lead to the cathode and red to the anode
(forward bias - around 1kΩ).
• Reverse the meter connections (reverse bias - infinity reading).
REMEMBER - If you are using an analogue meter the above polarities are reversed.

Page 6
Bipolar Transistor Basics

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing

three connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from
the other two. These three terminals are known and labeled as the Emitter ( E ),
the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.

Page 7
 Testing BJT

Use a multimeter switched to a range suitable for testing transistor junctions .Follow the
numbered sequence of tests in Figure to find out if the transistor is good or faulty.

Before you begin these tests, make sure you know which of your meter leads is positive
and which is negative. Remember that analogue meters may have the polarity of their
red and black meter leads reversed when measuring resistance.

Test for short circuit between collector and emitter.

1. Test the resistance between collector and emitter.
2. Then reverse the positive and negative meter connections and test again.
If the meter reads zero or a few ohms in tests 1 and 2, there is a short circuit between
collector and emitter and the transistor is faulty. If both readings are infinity, continue
with test 3.

Test forward resistance of base−emitter and base

base− −collector junctions.
base−
3. Now connect the positive meter lead to the base, and test the resistance of both
junctions by connecting the negative meter probe to one of the other two pins. It
doesn't really matter whether this is the collector or the emitter, this test is the same for
any junction.
4. Now leave the positive lead on the base, and move the negative lead to the other
untested (collector or emitter) pin, and measure the resistance of this junction.
For tests 3 and 4 you should get a typical forward resistance reading of around 500 to 1K
ohms in both cases. A reading of zero ohms indicates a short circuit and a faulty
transistor. In this case, as a double check, continue with tests 5 and 6.

Page 8
Test reverse resistance of base−emitter and base
base− −collector junctions.
base−
5. Now connect the negative lead of your meter to the base and the positive lead to
another pin as shown at 5 in Figure above.
6. Finally connect the positive probe to the other untested pin as shown at 6 in Figure
above.
In tests 5 and 6 both junctions should read infinity. If all of these six tests are OK you
have a good transistor. If one or more of the tests has failed, so has the transistor!

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

• Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

• Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

• Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

1- The Common Base Transistor Circuit

Common Base Voltage Gain

Page 9
2- The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

Page 10
The NPN Transistor Configuration

Example 1

An NPN Transistor has a DC current gain: β = 200. Calculate the base

current Ib required to switch a resistive load of 4mA.

Example 2

An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input base
resistor, Rb of 100kΩ. What will be the value of the base current into the transistor.

Page 11
 The PNP Transistor Configuration

The construction of a "PNP transistor" consists of two P-type semiconductor materials

either side of an N-type material as shown below.

Identifying the PNP Transistor

We saw in the first tutorial of this transistors section, that transistors are basically made
up of two Diodes connected together back-to-back. We can use this analogy to
determine whether a transistor is of the PNP type or NPN type by testing
its Resistance between the three different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector. By
testing each pair of transistor leads in both directions with a multimeter will result in six
tests in total with the expected resistance values in Ohm's given below.

1. Emitter-Base Terminals - The Emitter to Base should act like a normal diode and
conduct one way only.

2. Collector-Base Terminals - The Collector-Base junction should act like a normal

diode and conduct one way only.

3. Emitter-Collector Terminals - The Emitter-Collector should not conduct in either

direction Between Transistor

PNP NPN
Terminals
Collector Emitter RHIGH RHIGH
Collector Base RLOW RHIGH
Emitter Collector RHIGH RHIGH
Emitter Base RLOW RHIGH
Base Collector RHIGH RLOW
Base Emitter RHIGH RLOW

Page 12
 The Transistor as a Switch

Operating Regions

The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the "Cut-off" region while
the blue area to the left represents the "Saturation" region of the transistor. Both these
transistor regions are defined as:

1. Cut-off Region

Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero
output collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a
large depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor
is switched "Fully-OFF".

Cut-off Characteristics

hen we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" when using a bipolar transistor as
a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.

Page 13
 The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )
Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
Transistor is "fully-OFF" ( Cut-off region )
No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
VOUT = VCE = VCC
Transistor operates as an "open switch"

2. Saturation Region

Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is
applied, resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector
emitter voltage drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible
and maximum current flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is
switched "Fully-ON".

Saturation Characteristics

The input and Base are connected to VCC

Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
Base-Collector junction is forward biased
Transistor is "fully-ON" ( saturation
region )
Max Collector current flows
( IC = Vcc/RL )
VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
VOUT = VCE
Transistor operates as a "closed switch"

Then we can define the "saturation region" or "ON mode" when using a bipolar
transistor as a switch as being, both junctions forward
biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must
be positive with respect to the Base.

Page 14
Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit

Example : Sound generator

Description
An electronic version of a chirping canary. May be used as an alarm, a sound effects
generator or perhaps a replacement doorbell.

Circuit Notes

This circuit is a modified Hartley oscillator with a couple of extra components included.
The transformer is a small audio transformer, type LT700. The primary is center tapped
with an impedance of 1Kohms at 1KHz . The secondary has an impedance of 8 ohms.
The inclusion of R1 and C1 give this oscillator its characteristic "chirp". As the 100u
capacitor charges via the 4.7K resistor, R1 the bias for the transistor is cut off. This
causes the oscillation to stop, the capacitor discharges through the base emitter circuit
of the transistor and oscillations start again. Altering these components alters the
frequency of the chirp. The chirp is also voltage dependent. When the push button
switch is operated the 100u capacitor is charged. When its released, the oscillation
decays and the chirp becomes faster.

Page 15
Application :

Motor Speed Controller LED Illuminator

Page 16
COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02
circuits
SUBJECT: Work on AC-DC/DC-AC power TITLE: Power supplies
supplies
TRAINING AIMS:
� Draw schematic diagram of common types of power supply
� Test components
� Construct and build power supply circuit 12VDC
� Analyze the function of each section
� Draw waveform of each section
� Diagnose abnormal function
� Replace defective component
� Repair defective connection
� Check circuit worked before applying power

DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:

Power supplies in recent times have greatly improved in reliability but, because they have to
handle considerably higher voltages and currents than any or most of the circuitry they supply,
they are often the most susceptible to failure of any part of an electronic system.
Modern power supplies have also increased greatly in their complexity, and can supply very
stable output voltages controlled by feedback systems. Many power supply circuits also
to prevent dangerous over voltage or over current automatic safety circuitscontain
situations.

Power Supply Block Diagram

Page 17
 Warning

Safety Information

If you are considering building or repairing a power supply, especially one that is powered from
mains (line) voltages the power supply modules on this site will help you understand how many
commonly encountered circuits work. However you must realize that the voltages and currents
present in many power supplies are, at best dangerous, and can be present even when the
power supply is switched off! At worst, the high voltages present in power supplies can, and from
time to time do KILL.

5V/9V/12V fixed power supply (Positive)

TP4
TP2 TP3
TP1

Circuit Diagram (Schematic Diagram)

L1 = Step down transformer with i/p of 230 AC 50 Hz and output of (XX ) - 0- (XX)) volts(rms).
XX = Required DC output voltage.

Page 18
 Here is the table for different voltages

Output voltage (DC Volts) Transformer rating (rms Volts)

5 230: 5-0-5
9 230: 9-0-9
12 230:12-0-12
15 230: 15-0-15

Components

D1, D2 = Diodes 1N4003

D3 = Diode 1N4003/ 1N4001 (optional)
C1 = 1000 µF aluminum electrolytic capacitor (For loads less than 100mA you can substitute
with 220 µF capacitor), Voltage rating = 2.5 times of Output Voltage.
C2 = 10 Micro Farad aluminum electrolytic capacitor
IC1 = 7805 for +5V DC output
=7809 for +9V DC output
=7812 for +12V DC output
=7815 for +15V DC output

Draw the waveform for each TP : Test Point

� Waveform on TP1 :

Page 19
 � Waveform on TP2 :

� Waveform on TP3 :

� Waveform on TP4

Page 20
 5V/9V/12V fixed power supply (Negative)

Circuit Diagram (Schematic Diagram)-2

L1 = Step down transformer with i/p of 230 AC 50 Hz and output of (XX ) - 0- (XX)) volts(rms).
XX = Required DC output voltages.

Output voltage (DC Volts) Transformer rating (rms Volts)

5 230: 5-0-5
9 230:9-0-9
12 230:12-0-12
15 230:15-0-15

We use the same components value as previous circuit, only the regulator change

IC1 = 7905 for -5V DC output

=7909 for -9V DC output
=7912 for -12V DC output
=7915 for -15V DC output

Additional note: It's safer to put one heat sink to 78XXX and 79XX IC for safeguarding the IC
from overheating
In case you are using both the power supplies the ground connection of both positive and
negative power supplies can be shorted.

Page 21
The Rectifier Stage

1- Half Wave Rectification

2- Full Wave Rectification

� With diodes

� With bridge rectifier (diodes)

Current Flow on the Positive Half Cycle

Current Flow on the Negative Half Cycle

urrent Flow on the Negative Half

Page 22
 Power Supply Basics Quiz

1.

Refer to Fig. 1.3.1.What is the function of block B?

• a) Rectifier.
• b) Reservoir Capacitor.
• c) Low Pass Filter.
• d) Regulator

2.
Refer to Fig 1.3.1. What is the function of block A ?

• a) Transformer.
• b) Full Wave Rectifier
• c) Bridge Rectifier
• d) Reservoir Capacitor

3.
Refer to Fig 1.3.1. What will be the approximate value of the DC component of the waveform at the output of
block A?

a) VPK x 0.318
b) VPK x 0.5
c) VPK x 0.637
d) VPK x 0.707

Page 23
 4.

Refer to Fig 1.3.2. If input B is more positive than input A, which diodes will be conducting?

• a) D1 and D2
• b) D2 and D3
• c) D1 and D4
• d) D3 and D4

5.
Refer to Fig 1.3.2. If D4 were to go short circuit, what would be the effect on the operation of the circuit?

� a) A decrease in the current through D1.

� b) Fuse F1 would blow.
� c) A higher voltage across the load.
� d) A larger peak current through D2 and D3.

6.
What is the action of the reservoir capacitor in a basic power supply circuit?

• a) To de-couple the DC component of the rectifier AC output.

• b) To increase the DC component and reduce the AC component of the AC wave.
• c) To remove the DC component of the AC wave.
• d) To regulate the AC wave.

Page 24
 7.
Which of the following is an advantage of using a L C low pass filter rather than a RC low pass filter in a power
supply?

• a) The reactance of L will be much lower than the resistance of R at mains frequency.
• b) The reactance of L will be much higher than the resistance of R at mains frequency.
• c) An inductor can dissipate more power than a resistor.
• d) LC filters are less expensive than RC filters.

8.

Refer to Fig 1.3.3. What is the power dissipated in R1?

• a) 5W
• b) 2W
• c) 500mW
• d) 50mW

9.
Refer to Fig 1.3.3. What will be the approximate value of DC across C1?

• a) 3.8V
• b) 7.6V
• c) 10.8V
• d) 14.5V

Page 25
 Voltage Regulators

Table 1

Output Maximum Typical

Maximum
Range Voltages Input Dropout
Current
(VOUT) Voltage Voltage

5.0V,
6.2V,
VOUT +
LM78Lxx 8.2V, 100mA 35V
1.7V
9.0V, 12V,
15V

5V, 12V, VOUT +

LM78Mxx 500mA 35V
15V 2V

5.0V,
5.2V,
6.0V,
8.0V,
35 or 40V
8.5V, VOUT +
LM78xx 1A dependent on
9.0V, 2.5V
type
12.0V,
15.0V,
18.0V,
24.0V

Page 26
 Protection Diode Used With 7805 & Large Capacitors

In some circuits electrolytic capacitors may be used for C1

and C2 as an alternative to using tantalum or polyester
capacitors, but in this case the capacitance use will be
considerably greater, 25µF or more. However, in circuits
where C2 is 100µF or more, there is a possibility that if the
input is shorted to ground, either temporarily (or permanently
because of a fault) that the charge on C2 will cause a large
current to flow back into the I.C. output terminal, damaging
the I.C. To prevent this, a diode such as a 1N4002 can be
connected across the I.C. as shown in Fig. 2.4.3 so that if, at
any time the input terminal is at a lower potential than the
output, the diode will conduct any charge at the output
terminal to ground, rather than allowing the current to flow
though the I.C.

Effect of Open Circuit Gnd Connection on a 7812 IC

If a circuit panel is unplugged whilst the supply is live it

is possible that the ground connection to the I.C. may
be disconnected momentarily before the input as
indicated by Fig. 2.4.4. In such event the output
terminal can rise to the voltage level of the unregulated
input, which could cause damage to components being
supplied by the regulator. Also if the panel is plugged in
with power already present, the same situation, with the
ground connection momentarily open circuit, then
damage to the I.C. is likely.

Page 27
Page 28
 Application : multiple output power supply

Circuit Notes

This circuit uses a single DC input (nominally 12 Volt) and converts to four
simultaneous output voltages of 12, 9, 6, 5 Volt . The output voltages are controlled by
common 78xx series regulators, offering 12,9, 6 and 5 Volt DC outputs.

Page 29
 Variable DC Power Supply

• P1 500R Linear Potentiometer

• P2 10K Log. Potentiometer

• R1,R2 2K2 1/2W Resistors

• R3 330R 1/4W Resistor

• R4 150R 1/4W Resistor

• R5 1R 5W Resistor

• C1 3300µ F 35V Electrolytic

• C2 1µF 63V Polyester Capacitor

• D1,D2 1N5402 200V 3A Diodes

• D3 5mm. Red LED

• Q1 BC182 50V 100mA NPN Transistor

• Q2 BD139 80V 1.5A NPN Transistor

• Q3 BC212 50V 100mA PNP Transistor

• Q4 2N3055 60V 15A NPN Transistor

• T1 220V Primary, 36V Center-tapped

• SW1 SPST Mains switch

Notes:
•
P1 sets the maximum output current you want to be delivered by the power supply
at a given output voltage.
•
P2 sets the output voltage and must be a logarithmic taper type, in order to obtain
a more linear scale voltage indication.
•
You can choose the Transformer on the grounds of maximum voltage and current
output needed.
• Best choices are: 36, 40 or 48V center-tapped and 50, 75, 80 or 100VA.
•
Capacitor C1 can be 2200 to 6800µF, 35 to 50V.
•
Q4 must be mounted on a good heat-sink in order to withstand sustained output
short-circuit.
•
In some cases the rear panel of the metal box in which you will enclose the circuit
can do the job.
•
The 2N3055 transistor (Q4) can be replaced with the slightly less powerful
TIP3055 type.

Page 30
COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02
circuits
SUBJECT: Work on fundamental electronic TITLE: Fundamental electronic
circuits circuit

TRAINING AIMS:
• Draw semiconductors schematic and symbol
• Locate specifications from data-sheet
• Implement semiconductors in different circuits
• Test semiconductors components
• Analyze operating characteristic

DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:

Transistor as an amplifier

1- DC mode

• • Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

•
• • Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
•
• • Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

1- The Common Base Transistor Circuit

Voltage Gain

Page 31
2- The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Current gain

3- The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

Current Gain

Example

An NPN Transistor has a DC current gain, (Beta) value of 200. Calculate the base
current Ib required to switch a resistive load of 4mA.

Page 32
How to test a transistor :

1: emitter , 2: collector , 3 : base , the transistor is an NPN type

Make the same test for a PNP transistor type

Example 1

An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input base resistor,
Rb of 100kΩ. What will be the value of the base current into the transistor.

Page 33
 Application 1 :
Use ECG manuals, or transistor data-book, to locate data sheet for
C9013
C1061
2N3906
2N2222

Application 2 :
Use data-book, to locate data sheet for
IC 7805
IC 7809
LM 381

Example 2 : Darlington Transistor

Darlington Transistors simply contain two individual bipolar NPN or PNP type
transistors connected together so that the current gain of the first transistor is
multiplied with that of the current gain of the second transistor to produce a device
which acts like a single transistor with a very high current gain for a much smaller
Base current. The overall current gain Beta (β) or Hfe value of a Darlington device is
the product of the two individual gains of the transistors and is given as

Page 34
Application :

1- Calculate all labeled currents in this Darlington pair circuit (shown in this
schematic in conventional flow notation), assuming a typical forward base-emitter
junction voltage drop of 0.7 volts for each transistor:

2- Complete the table of output voltages for several given values of input voltage in
this common-collector amplifier circuit. Assume that the transistor is a standard
silicon NPN unit, with a nominal base-emitter junction forward voltage of 0.7 volts:

Page 35
 AC mode :

Build the circuit

R1 = 4.7 K Ω , R2 = 1 K Ω , RL = 4.7 K Ω , RE =1K Ω ,
Transistor with β = 100 ,
Vcc = 12v
C1 = 1 µF and C2 = 20 µF

Transistor as a switch

1- Cut-off Characteristics

• The input and Base are

grounded ( 0v )
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE <
0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse
biased
• Base-Collector junction is
reverse biased
• Transistor is "fully-OFF"
( Cut-off region )
• No Collector current flows ( IC =
0)
• VOUT = VCE = VCC
• Transistor operates as an "open
switch"

we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" when using a bipolar transistor as
a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.

Page 36
 2. Saturation

� The input and Base are connected

to VCC
� Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
� Base-Emitter junction is forward
biased
� Base-Collector junction is forward
biased
� Transistor is "fully-ON" ( saturation
region )
� Max Collector current flows (IC=
Vcc/RL )
� VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
� VOUT = VCE
� Transistor operates as a "closed
switch"

The Transistor Astable Multivibrator

The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching

circuit that has NO stable output states as it changes from one state to the other
all the time. The astable circuit consists of two switching transistors, a
cross-coupled feedback network, and two time delay capacitors which allows
oscillation between the two states with no external trigger signal to produce the
change in state.
Basic Astable Multivibrator Circuit

( We can chose the capacitors value : C1 = 10 nF, C2 = 47nF ) Place LEDs in the output

Page 37
 Fundamental circuit

Light/dark detector

You want do a dark sensor with a LDR, one transistor and one LED and you don't
know how to do it? In this small tutorial I will explain to you how you can do that even
if you know only the basics of electronic.

Parts you need:

1 Breadboard;
1 Power source of 12v;
1 Transistor (in this case we use the BC547);
1 Resistor of 330 Ω ( LED protection);
1 Resistor of 100K Ω (or potentiometer)
1 LED (in this case blue);
1 LDR:

1- build and test the circuit

2- What will happen if we swap the R2 and the LDR , as shown

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

3- What we call this circuit ?

........................................................

Page 38
Application : LED flasher

This circuit will flash a LED, using a single

1.5v cell.
The circuit takes about 2mA but produces a
very bright flash

• Built the circuit

• Test the voltage at collector of each transistor

• Measure the current on the cathode of the LED

• Replace the capacitors , did the flash timing still the same ?

Page 39
COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02
circuits
SUBJECT: Troubleshoot and repair TITLE: Troubleshoot and repair
electronic circuits
TRAINING AIMS:
� Operate and test electronics devices
� Adjust the controls for normal operation
� Identify common troubles
� Observe symptoms
� Replace damaged components
� Analyze default and determine the root cause
� Check and recheck the circuit

DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:
Application 1:

Transistor Amplifier

This simple amplifier that can be used for a variety of different things. Because the
8ohm speakers are very quiet, it wasn't worth connecting a 1/4 in. connect it to a very
simple transistor amplifier.

Materials:
-small audio transformer (too big makes it sound fuzzy)
-0.1µf ceramic disk capacitor (104)
-2n3904 NPN transistor
-two 8ohm speakers
-3.5 mm male audio jack
-wire
-SPST switch
-10k potentiometer

Page 40
 Application 2:

NOTE

1- An audio amplifier will amplify an

low voltage AC signal. The output will
be a larger version of the input signal.
The difference between these 2 signals
is called the Gain.
2- This is a general purpose amplifier
that will work at most voltages and
gives a Gain of about 75.
3- The gain of the amplifier can be
calculated as G = (R1/R3) x hfe

You can alter the values to adjust the

gain but do not exceed more than 150
as this can cause the circuit to become
unstable. The values chosen in this
case are to give an all round
performance at most voltage levels.

Signal In
This is the input signal and should not really be greater than about 100mV (0.1v), otherwise the
output could be distorted
C1 decouples the input from any DC signal. It should be removed if the circuit you are connecting to
also has a decoupling capacitor on its output.

Signal Out
The output will be an amplified version of the input and inverted (ie. when the input goes positive,
the output will go negative - and vice versa).

1- Increase the power supply voltage - but do not go above 18 volts.

2- Reduce the input signal using a volume control (preset or potentiometer).
3- Take out C1, does the circuit work normally ?

Page 41
 4- Change the value of resistance R2, what happen ?
5- Change the transistor by another, how the hfe of transistor affect on the output signal ?

Application 3 :
Circuit diagram of low power transistor amplifier.

Low power transistor amplifier

Notes.

� Use 9V DC for powering the circuit.

� All electrolytic capacitors must be rated 10 or 15V.
� An optional protection diode can be added in series to the positive supply line. This protects
the circuit from accidental polarity reversals.
� Type number of the transistors are not very critical. Replacement will not affect the performance
to a great extend.
� Powering the circuit using a mains adapter will induce some noise.
� Speaker impedance can be 64 ohms or more.

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