Basics about Diamonds

Definition of Diamonds
Diamond is the only mineral made of one element i.e. Carbon. In
other words, it is the purest form of carbon (99.5%). The chemical
composition, structure and formation make diamond the hardest
mineral.
For example, Diamond and graphite are isotopes of carbon

Diagram showing structural and chemical composition of diamond

and graphite
Formation of diamonds
Diamonds in nature are formed in the upper mantle of the earth’s
crust, at a very high temperature of 1500°C to 1800°C and under
high pressure of 45 to 65 kilobars

1 kilo bar = 1000 atmospheric pressure

Location
Atomic Structure

Unit Cell: Smallest unit of a mineral which has characteristic

chemical composition and crystal structure of the parent mineral.

1 Tetrahedron:

4 Tetrahedron = 1 Unit Cell

Crystal Lattice: Crystal lattice is the external framework of

Crystal. It is formed when unit cells are arranged in a regular
orderly manner and in a repetitive arrangement.

Diagram showing the grain structure of Diamond

 Crystallography

A. Definitions

Crystallography:
Crystallography is the scientific study of geometrical forms of
crystals. The properties by which gemstones are identified are
entirely based upon their crystal structure.

Crystal:
A crystal is formed due to very slow cooling of mineral. Therefore,
it has definite and regular arrangement of atom in it structure.
E.g.: Sugar, Diamonds, gemstones, etc.

Amorphous:
Amorphous substances are formed due to fast cooling of minerals
resulting in a haphazard orientation of the crystal structure.
E.g.: Salt, talc powder, etc.
 B. Crystal System

Different minerals (Gemstones) crystallize in different systems.

Diamond crystallizes in Cubic system

Cubic System (Isotropic System):

A1=A2=A3
∠ A1^ A2 =∠ A2^A3 =∠ A3^A1 = 90°

Crystallographic Axes: 3
Planes of Symmetry: 9
Axis of Symmetry: 13
Center of Symmetry: 1

Crystallographic Axes: They are direction along which a crystal

grows. They definite size and angle. They are generally 3 or 4 in
number.

Plane of symmetry: Plane that divides the stone into two

mirrors like images.

Axis of symmetry: It is an imaginary line along which if you

rotate a crystal one part can be seen many times.

Center of symmetry: It is the Central point of symmetry.

 C. Forms

Diamond always shows closed formed generally Cube,

Octahedron and Dodecahedron & sometimes fancy (Macles).

Cube:

Faces:
Points:
Edges:

Octahedron:

Faces:
Points:
Edges:

Dodecahedron:

Faces:
Point:
Edges:
D.Crystal Habits

Internal Directions:

1. Cleavage Direction (Octahedral Direction)

 Diamonds can be cleaved along octahedral direction

i.e. 8 octahedral phases are cleave directions.

 Cleavage directions in a crystal are those directions

where the atoms share the weakest possible bonds.
It is easier to split or cleave a crystal along these
directions.

 In diamonds, the octahedral phases can be identified

with the growth marks called “Trigons”

 Trigons are inverted triangles on octahedral phases.

 Diagrams showing octahedral phases and Trigons
2. Polishing Direction (Dodecahedral Direction)

 Dodecahedral directions are the softest directions

in a diamond Crystal. Therefore, it is most suitable
for polishing along these directions.

 They can be found with the help of growth marks,

i.e. Parallel grooves.

Diagram showing parallel grooves in diamond crystal

3. Sawing Direction (Cubic Direction)

 Sawing directions are directions along which we can

saw our stone.

 They can be found with the help of cubic

depressions.
 Diagram showing Cubic depressions in diamond crystal

Physical, Chemical and optical properties of Diamond

A. Hardness: Resistance from being scratch. The harder the

stone better the polish.

Causes of hardness in gemstone:

The nature of bond (ionic/covalent)
The length of the bond (distance between two atomic layers
held by the bond)

The reason for supreme hardness in diamond

Covalent bond
Very short length of the bond(only 0.154 nm - nano meter).

Moh’s Scale of hardness [Relative Scale]

A set of 10 minerals in the order of increasing hardness for
the comparison of hardness of unknown gem minerals.

Minerals Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Orthoclase Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum (Ruby/Sapphire) 9
Diamond 10
B. Toughness (Tenacity): Toughness refers to the ease which
a break of any kind can be prepared in the stone.
Diamond has excellent toughness when compared with other
gems.

C. Cleavage: Cleavage refers to the tendency of a stone to

break or split along smooth flat planes parallel to the atomic
plane.

It is the direction along which a stone has weakest possible

bonds. It can take place in any plane parallel to cleavage
direction.

Diamond possesses an octahedral cleavage i.e. it cleaves in

four directions parallel to the octahedron faces. The
cleavage of diamond is perfect, but not very easy. In the
trade, the cleavage of a diamond is sometimes called the
“Grain”

D. Twinning: When crystals begin to grow, they generally do

not grow alone. Due to dislocation of lattice, many times two
or more crystals grow next to each other. This is known as
twinning & each number of that twinned crystal is known as
twin.

Diamond crystals are sometimes found as contact twins

known as Macle.

Macle – A flat triangular twinned crystal which is formed

when an octahedron takes a 180 ° turn during its formation
and it is most suitable for fancy shaped stone.
E. Specific Gravity(Density): Specific Gravity is a ratio
comparing the weight of a material (in air) to the weight of
an equal value of water at 4°C

Weight of a substance in air_____ = Specific Gravity

(Weight in air – Weight in water)

Specific Gravity of Diamond – 3.52 ± 0.01

F. Fracture: The breaking of a gemstone with a blow or impact

producing irregular surface.

Diamond shows even type of fracture i.e. step like fracture

only and only shown by diamond.

Diagram showing Step-like fracture seen from microscope in

a cavity.
G. Electrical Conductivity: Most gemstones are electrical
insulators. However, a few gemstones are electrically
conductive.
In diamonds, only Type II b blue diamond’s shows this
property.

H. Thermal Conductivity: It is the ability of a material to

conduct heat.
 Diamond is a supremely good conductor of heat. Only
natural Type II b blue diamond can conduct heat as well as
electricity.

Optical Properties seen in Diamond

1. Luster: Reflection of light from the surface of the stone.

Diamond has supreme luster known as Adamantine Luster
(Mirror-like luster).

2. Life (Brilliance): A gemstone acquires Life after it is

designed into a Faceted Cut. The life of a gemstone is
regarded as the amount of white light, which after falling on
the stone is reflected back to the viewer.

Brilliance (Amount of Life) depends on

 Refractive Index (R.I.) of the gemstone – Higher the R.I.
better the brilliance.
 Proportion of the cut – Diamond show total internal
reflection(TIR) because of which it is able to reflect
maximum light.(Ideal Cut)

3. Fire (Dispersion): It is a visual effect of a combination of

bright flashes and colored flashes emanated from a
gemstone as it is moved to different positions or when it is
viewed from different angles.

The dispersive power of diamond – 0.044

 Intensity of fire depends on:
 Dispersion value of stone
 Proportion of the cut

4. Reflectivity: It is a qualitative term. It can be measured in

absolute term as the ratio of the intensities of the reflected
and the incident rays.

Reflectivity = Intensity of reflected ray

Intensity of incident ray

Diamond shows a reflectivity – 17%

Parameters of reflectivity
 Internal:
Refractive Index
Transparency
Molecular structure
 External:
Polish of the surface

SUMMARY
Hardness: 10
Specific Gravity: 3.52
Luster: adamantine
Refractive index: 2.417
Dispersion: 0.044
Reflectivity: 17%
Colour: All
Chemical composition: 99.5% carbon
Crystal System: Cubic System

Mines to market – flow chart of diamond processing

Mines
⇓
Rough Diamond Assortment
_________________________________________________________
⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓
⇓
Saw able Cleavable Makeable Fancy
Rejection
⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑
⇑
⇓
Planning and Marking
⇓
Sawing/cleaving
⇓
Re-Assorting
⇓
Polishing
⇓
Polished Grading
⇓
Market
 IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING & MARKING

In nature it is not possible to find any two diamonds having same

shape, colour, weight and clarity. That is why; a rough should be
planned in such
a way that we get maximum weight without compromising with
the clarity, as result increasing the value of the diamond. So the
process of planning and marking is the epitome of the rough
diamonds.

Because of the market competition, planning of roughs is very

important as there is a repeated increment in the price of the
rough. The second reason is that diamond is a very precious
mineral and thus cannot be cut or polished repeatedly. The
repeated cutting and polishing causes weight loss. And also to
reach the ever increasing demand of polished diamonds, planning
plays a very important role. (For e.g. If there is a demand for
fancy stones we do not take a plan thinking about Round Brilliant
cut and vice versa. ) These are the main reasons why modern
computerized planning machines are used so that maximum
profit can be made from the rough stone and also the manual
planner & marker gets confidence in his planning.

Summary:
Importance of planning and marking
  To get maximum profit
 To increase the best value of diamond
 To get maximum weight and clarity
 To satisfy supply against demand globally
 To keep in mind the importance of 4 c’s

Window Opening

When we observe diamonds with the help of eye glass,

sometimes we come across coated diamonds or diamonds
covered with the natural skin of diamond (i.e. surface non
transparent). These surfaces creates difficulty in taking plan of
such diamonds because we can’t see inside the stone clearly
making it difficult to judge:
1. Type of inclusion
2. Number of inclusion
3. Size of inclusion
4. Location of inclusion
5. Reflection of inclusion
So, window opening process is done to see the inclusion clearly.

Types of Window Opening

1. Normal Window Opening

2. Operational Window Opening(KK)
3. Laser Window Opening
 1. Normal Window Opening

The main reason of Normal window opening is to open (i.e. to

polish) a thin - non transparent layer/skin of diamond. After
Normal Window opening we can easily see the inclusions in a
diamond and take plan accordingly and thus, making planning
easy for such type of diamonds.
 2. Operational Window Opening(KK)

Any blemishes (cavity, layer of spray natts, coated layer, parallel

grooves, scratches, etc.) on the surface of the rough diamond
makes planning difficult. Therefore, in order, to make planning
easier in this type of diamonds operational window opening is
necessary.
 3. Laser Window Opening

After planning and marking, we generally send all diamonds to

the laser sawing department where the diamond are sawed into 2
pieces. Generally the surface from where the diamond is sawn a
blackish layer (like burn mark) is formed. Laser window opening is
referred to the process for removing (i.e. polishing) these black
burn marks formed during the process of laser sawing.
 How to Create a “PLAN”

 Observe the diamond carefully using eye glass for the

following things

1. Shape of diamond (E.g. Octa, Dodeca, Cube, Triangle,

irregular, etc.)

2. Colour of the diamond

3. Size of diamond

4. Inclusions(Internal) and Blemishes(External)

5. Location of inclusion, size of inclusion, number of

inclusion and type of inclusion

6. In short, the 4 c’s must be kept in mind.

 Some inclusions such as red soil, rainbow feather, broken

(crack), coated layer must be compulsorily removed.

 No inclusion at the culet.

 No cavity on the Crown/Table.

 If you are not sure about the inclusion go for window opening
first.

 Search for maximum diameter of girdle and accordingly

decide the height of the stone.
  Think about the shape of polished diamond (RBC or fancy),
keeping the 4 c’s in mind and also calculate the estimate
weight, and if we are getting weight of 45 – 50% or up yield
from the rough, we directly polish the diamond.

 We later decide whether manual or computerized planning &

marking, keeping in mind the maximum weight and clarity.

 In the next step, i.e. after planning, we decide which process

is needed (Cleaving or Sawing).

 Find for maximum profit from the rough.

Marking

After planning, we decide the location from where the diamond

has to sawed or cleaved. We make an outline, either from a
permanent marker known as manual marking or by using
machines known as computerized marking.

The marking line must be thin and straight because if the marking
line is not made properly (Zigzag) then there can be loss of
weight and it is difficult for the cleaver or sawer to process the
stone.
 Process of Diamond Cutting

There are two Methods of cutting a Rough Diamond

1. Sawing

2. Cleaving

Sawing

Sawing can be done by two methods:

1. Blade sawing
2. Laser Sawing

1. Blade Sawing (BS): In this method, we use a blade to saw

the stone.
Blade sawing is generally done on roughs of Octa, Dodeca and
Cube shape.
Blade sawing cannot be done where inclusions like crack feather,
twinning/macle line, twinned diamonds, etc are seen.
We get better Brilliance of diamond in blade sawing comparing
with Laser sawing.
The surface of the stone remains smooth from where the sawing
took place.
We get approximately only 1-2% weight loss in this method,
which is comparatively less than laser sawing.
However, this process is slow and requires more man power.

There are two types of Blade Sawing

1. 2 - point blade sawing
2. 4 - point blade sawing

2.Laser Sawing (LS):

The application of laser technology is increasing rapidly in various
fields including Diamonds. Machines with laser technology are
also used to Cut (Saw) diamonds, also increasing the speed of
diamond cutting comparing it with blade sawing. We can also
monitor the process of diamond cutting, helping us to see the
exact location in which the diamond is sawn. A Laser machine can
do the work of 10 – 15 employees in a day. In short, Laser is
faster, more accurate and more efficient.

 In laser sawing, laser rays are used to cut the diamonds.

 Laser Sawing can cut the direction in any direction.
 We can also saw twinned diamonds and diamonds with
twinning lines/Macle line.
 Laser Sawing can take place on any inclusion in a diamond.
 In Laser Sawing, approximately 2 - 4% weight loss is
observed.
 Laser sawing is used more widely and so the use of blade
sawing has been decreased rapidly and also advanced machinery
has been invented to reduce weight loss in diamonds.