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Rings of Continuous Functions

Research · July 2007

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17009.99687

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 Lecture Notes
on

Rings of Continuous Functions

Lectures Delivered by
Professor K. Varadharajan
University of Calgary
Canada

Notes Prepared by
S. Ramaswamy, Former Director, RCHM
and
C. Ganesa Moorthy, Department of Mathematics,
Alagappa University

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS
ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
(Accredited with ’A’ Grade by NAAC)
KARAIKUDI
2010
 Preface

Professor K. Varadharajan, University of Calgary, Canada, was a visiting

Professor at the Ramanujan Centre for Higher Mathematics, Alagappa Uni-

versity from July 2007 to November 2007. He gave a series of lectures on

“Algebraic Topology” for Mathematics research scholars. He was also invited

to deliver lectures for post - graduate students of Department of Mathemat-

ics, Alagappa University on “Rings of Continuous functions”. His lectures

were collected; and they are brought now in “Lecture notes” form. Mr. CT.

Ramasamy, Research Scholar and Mr. A. Ranjith Kumar, M.Phil Scholar

were helpful to us in typing work of this lecture notes.

S. Ramaswamy C. Ganesa Moorthy

Former Director Professor
Ramanujan Centre for Higher Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Alagappa University Alagappa University

i
Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 RX , C(X), C ∗ (X) 5

3 Zero sets and Z-Filters 10

4 Z-ideals 17

Reference 22

ii
Chapter 1

Introduction

This lecture notes is based on a series of lectures given by Professor K. Varad-

harajan, University of Calgary, Canada, on 5th, 8th, 15th and 22nd October
2007, at Department of Mathematics, Alagappa University. His lectures were
based on the book [1] of L. Gillman and M. Jerison: Rings of continuous
functions. Although the topics covered in this lecture notes can be discussed
through Functional Analysis, they have been discussed through algebraic
structures. The second chapter discusses the lattice structure of the function
spaces RX , C(X), C ∗ (X). RX is the collection of all real valued functions on
a set X. C(X)(C ∗ (X)) is the collection of all real valued (bounded) func-
tions defined on a topological space X. Each function f ∈ C(X) gives a zero
set f −1 (0). Filter bases with members as zero sets are called Z-filters. The
connections between Z-filters and ideals in C(X) are established in the third
chapter. Every ideal in C(X) defines a Z-filter. But, a Z-filter corresponds
to a collection of ideals in C(X); the maximum member of this collection is
called Z-ideals. Z-ideals are studied in the fourth chapter.

Definition 1.1 A non empty set R is said to be a ring if in R, there are

defined two binary operations denoted by + and · respectively, such that for
all a,b,c in R satisfies the followings:

1
 (i) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

(ii) a + b = b + a

(iii) There is 0 ∈ R such that a + 0 = a ∀ a ∈ R

(iv) For each a ∈ R, there is an element −a ∈ R such that (−a) + a = 0.

(v) a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c

(vi) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c

(vii) (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a

Definition 1.2 A ring R is called commutative ring if a · b = b · a, for all

a ∈ R, b ∈ R.

Example 1.3 Let R be the set of even integers under the usual operations of
addition and multiplication. Then R is a commutative ring but has no unit
element.

Example 1.4 The set R of integers mod(7) under the addition and multi-
plication mod(7) is a ring.

Definition 1.5 A non empty subset U of a ring R said to be a right ideal

of R if

(i) for all a, b ∈ U ⇒ a − b ∈ U

(ii) for all a ∈ U , r ∈ R ⇒ a · r ∈ U

A non empty subset U of a ring R said to be left ideal of R if

(i) for all a, b ∈ U ⇒ a − b ∈ U

2
 (ii) for all a ∈ U , r ∈ R ⇒ r · a ∈ U

A non empty subset U of ring R is said to be two sided ideal if

(i) U is a subgroup of R under addition.

(ii) for all a ∈ U , r ∈ R both a · r, r · a ∈ U .

Remark 1.6 A right ideal need not be a left ideal; and a left ideal need not
be a right ideal. In a commutative ring every left ideal is a right ideal.

Definition 1.7 An ideal M 6= R in a ring R is said to be a maximal ideal of

R, if whenever U is an ideal of R such that M ⊂ U ⊂ R, then either R = U
or M = U .

Definition 1.8 An ideal P in a ring R is called a prime ideal if (i) P 6= R

and (ii) if a · b ∈ P then either a ∈ P or b ∈ P .

Definition 1.9 A ring D is an integral domain if a · b = 0 then either a = 0

or b = 0.

Definition 1.10 An integral domain D is said to be of characteristic zero

if the relation ma = 0, where a 6= 0 is in D, and where m is an integer can
hold only if m = 0.

Definition 1.11 Let X be a non empty set and F be a family subsets of X.

Then F is said to be a filter if it satisfies the followings:

(i) ∅ 6∈ F

(ii) F ∈ F , H ⊃ F ⇒ H ∈ F

(iii) A ∈ F , B ∈ F ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ F

3
Definition 1.12 A relation ≤ on a set, A is called a partial ordered relation
if it is reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive and in this case the set, A is
called a partially ordered set and is denoted by the symbol (A, ≤).

Definition 1.13 A lattice is a partial ordered set hL, ≤i in which every pair
of elements a, b ∈ L has a greatest lower bound, it is denoted by a ∧ b, and
has a least upper bound, it is denoted by a ∨ b.

Definition 1.14 A sub collection L0 of a lattice L is said to be a sub lattice

of L, if a ∧ b ∈ L0 and a ∨ b ∈ L0 whenever a, b ∈ L0 .
An order preserving mapping from a lattice in to a lattice is a lattice
homomorphism if it preserves ∧ and ∨.

Definition 1.15 A collection F of non-empty subsets of a non empty set

X is called a filter base, if for F1 , F2 ∈ F , there is an F3 ∈ F such that
F3 ⊆ F1 ∩ F2 .

Definition 1.16 An ideal I in a commutative ring R with a multiplicative

identity is called a radical ideal, if x ∈ I whenever xn ∈ I for some natural
number n.

Remark 1.17 Every radical ideal in a commutative ring is an intersection

of prime ideals.

4
Chapter 2

RX , C(X), C ∗(X)

Let X be any non-empty set; RX be the set of all functions from X in to R.

RX is a ring under the addition and multiplication defined by (f + g)(x) =
f (x) + g(x), (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) for all x ∈ X. The unity element in RX is
the function 1 given by 1(x) = 1 for all x ∈ X. The zero element 0 ∈ RX
is given by 0(x) = 0 for all x ∈ X. The additive inverse of f is given by
(−f )(x) = −f (x) ∈ R for all x ∈ X. f ∈ RX admits a multiplicative
1
inverse f −1 ⇔ f (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ X, in which case f −1 (x) = for
f (x)
all x ∈ X. We define a partial order in RX by f ≥ g ⇔ f (x) ≥ g(x) in
R for all x ∈ X. For any f, g in RX , f ∨ g and f ∧ g exist in RX . In fact
(f ∨ g)(x) = max(f (x), g(x)) for all x ∈ X and (f ∧ g)(x) = min(f (x), g(x))
for all x ∈ X. It is clear that RX is a partially ordered ring. Since it is
a lattice under this partial order, it is a lattice ordered ring. To every real
number r, let r denote the constant function defined on X which assumes
the constant value r at every point of X. Let X be a non-empty topological
space. Let C(X) be the set of continuous functions from X to R. Let C ∗ (X)
be the set of bounded real valued continuous functions from X to R. It
is clear, that C(X) is a sub ring of RX and that C ∗ (X) is a sub ring of
C(X). The unity elements of C ∗ (X), C(X) and RX are all the same as the

5
function 1. For f ∈ RX , |f | satisfies. |f |(x) = max(f (x), −f (x)) = |f (x)|
for all x ∈ X so that |f | = f ∨ (−f ) in RX . If f ∈ C(X) (respectively
C ∗ (X)) it is clear that |f | ∈ C(X) (respectively C ∗ (X)). For f, g in RX
1
we have (f ∨ g)(x) = max(f (x), g(x)) = 2
{f (x) + g(x) + |f (x) − g(x)|}.
(f ∧g)(x) = min(f (x), g(x)) = 12 {f (x)+g(x)−|f (x)−g(x)|} for every x ∈ X.
Hence f ∨ g = 21 {f + g + |f − g|} in RX . f ∧ g = 21 {f + g − |f − g|} in RX . If
f, g are in C(X) (respectively C ∗ (X)) it is clear that f ∨ g, f ∧ g are in C(X)
(respectively C ∗ (X)). It follows that C(X) and C ∗ (X) are sub lattices of
RX , in particular C ∗ (X) is a sub lattice of C(X). We call X pseudo compact
if C(X) = C ∗ (X). For any f ∈ C(X) (respectively C ∗ (X)) and n ∈ N,
f n ∈ C(X) (respectively C ∗ (X)) is defined in any ring as (f.f.....f ) n-times.
1
If n is odd, we have a well-defined continuous function r 7→ r n of R → R.
1 1
Thus we can defined f n for any f ∈ C(X). Since r 7→ r n is continuous it
maps compact sets of R into compact sets, hence bounded subsets of R in
1
to bounded subsets. Thus f ∈ C ∗ (X) ⇒ f n ∈ C ∗ (X). If X is a discrete,
topological space, then C(X) = RX . In particular for N(with the discrete
topology) we can identify C(N) with the ring of sequences (r1 , r2 , .....) of real
numbers with co-ordinatewise addition and co-ordinatewise multiplication.
C ∗ (N) is the sub ring of C(N) consisting of all bounded sequences of real
numbers.

Definition 2.1 A topological space X is said to be countably compact if every

countable open cover of X has a finite sub cover.

Proposition 2.2 If X is countably compact then X is pseudo compact.

Proof: Let f ∈ C(X). Let Un (f ) = f −1 (−n, n) = {x ∈ X/−n < f (x) < n}.
Then {Un (f )}n∈N is an open cover of X. Since X is countably compact we
can find an integer k ∈ N such that X = ∪ Un (f ). This means X = Uk (f )
1≤n≤k
∗
or |f | < k for all x ∈ X. Hence f ∈ C (X). 

6
 Let us observe that in a partially ordered ring A, the set {a ∈ A/a ≥ 0}
completely determines the partial order on A; namely x ≥ y in A ⇔ x−y ≥ 0.
In the case of C(X) (respectively C ∗ (X)) an element f is ≥ 0 ⇔ f = g 2 for
some g ∈ C(X)(respectively C ∗ (X)). Actually if f = g 2 with g ∈ C(X) and
f ∈ C ∗ (X), then automatically g ∈ C ∗ (X). An immediate consequence of
this observation is the following:

Proposition 2.3 If α : C(Y ) → C(X) is a ring isomorphism.(i.e., α is an

onto ring homomorphism with kerα = 0) Then α is an order isomorphism,
in the sense that α : C(Y ) → C(X) and α−1 : C(X) → C(Y ) are order
preserving.

Proof: To check that α is order preserving we need only show that f ≥ 0 in

C(Y ) ⇒ α(f ) ≥ 0 in C(X). If f ≥ 0 in C(Y ), there exists some g ∈ C(Y )
with (g ≥ 0 and) f = g 2 . Hence α(f ) = α(g 2 ) = (α(g))2 ≥ 0. Thus
α : C(Y ) → C(X) is order preserving. Similarly α−1 : C(X) → C(Y ) is
order preserving. 

Theorem 2.4 Every ring homomorphism t from C(Y ) or C ∗ (Y ) into C(X)

is a lattice homomorphism.

Proof: f = g 2 in C(Y ) (or C ∗ (Y )) ⇒ t(f ) = t(g 2 ) = (t(g))2 . Hence f ≥ 0

in C(Y ) (or C ∗ (Y )) ⇒ f = g 2 in C(Y ) (or C ∗ (Y )). Hence t(f ) = t(g)2 ≥ 0
in C(X). Hence t is order preserving. For any g in C(Y ) (or C ∗ (Y )) we
have (t(|g|))2 = t(|g|2 ) = t(g 2 ) = (t(g))2 . Since |g| ≥ 0, from the paragraph
above t(|g|) ≥ 0. Thus t(|g|) is the positive square root of (t(g))2 . For any
h ∈ C(Y ) (or C ∗ (Y )) we know that |h| is the positive square root of h2 .
Hence t(|g|) = |t(g)|. From g ∨ h + g ∨ h = g + h + |g − h| for any g, h in
C(Y ) (or C ∗ (Y )) we see that t(g ∨ h) + t(g ∨ h) = t(g) + t(h) + t(|g − h|) =
t(g) + t(h) + |t(g − h)| = t(g) + t(h) + |t(g) − t(h)| = t(g) ∨ t(h) + t(g) ∨ t(h).

7
 1
Thus 2t(g ∨h) = 2(t(g)∨t(h)); multiplying by the constant function 2
we get
t(g∨h) = t(g)∨t(h). The equality g∧h = −((−g)∨(−h)) and t(−g) = −t(g),
t(−h) = −t(h) yield t(g ∧ h) = t(g) ∧ t(h). 

Theorem 2.5 Any ring homomorphism t from C(Y ) or C ∗ (Y ) into C(X)

takes bounded functions to bounded functions.

Proof: t(1) = t(1 · 1) = t(1)t(1). Hence t(1) is an idempotent element in

C(X). Hence for every x ∈ X, the real number (t(1))(x) is an idempotent in
R. It follows that t(1) cannot take values other than 0 and 1 on X. For any
n ∈ N, the function n = n1 satisfies t(n) = nt(1) hence cannot take values
other than 0 and n on X. Let g ∈ C ∗ (Y ). Then |g| ≤ n1 for some n ∈ N.
Since t is order preserving Theorem 2.4 we get t(|g|) ≤ t(n1) = nt(1) ≤ n1.
But t(|g|) = |t(g)| as in the proof of Theorem 2.4. Thus |t(g)| ≤ n1; This
proves Theorem 2.5. 

Corollary 2.6 If X is not pseudo compact, then C(X) is not the image of
C ∗ (Y ) for any Y under a ring homomorphism from C ∗ (Y ).

Proof: Suppose there exists a surjective ring homomorphism f : C ∗ (Y ) →

C(X), from Theorem 2.5, f (C ∗ (Y )) ⊆ C ∗ (X). Hence C(X) ⊆ C ∗ (X).
Always C ∗ (X) ⊆ C(X). Thus C(X) = C ∗ (X). This means that X is pseudo
compact, contradicting the assumption that X is not pseudo compact. 

Corollary 2.7 C(X) and C ∗ (X) are isomorphic as rings if and only if
C(X) = C ∗ (X).

Corollary 2.8 Any ring isomorphism t : C(Y ) → C(X) satisfies t(C ∗ (Y )) =

C ∗ (X).

Proof: Let t−1 : C(X) → C(Y ) be the inverse of t. From Theorem 2.5,
t(C ∗ (Y )) ⊆ C ∗ (X) and t−1 (C ∗ (X)) ⊆ C ∗ (Y ). Hence t(C ∗ (Y )) = C ∗ (X). 
The next result is stronger than corollary 2.8.

8
Theorem 2.9 Let t : C(Y ) → C(X) be a ring homomorphism satisfying.
t(C(Y )) ⊇ C ∗ (X). Then t(C ∗ (Y )) = C ∗ (X).

Proof: By hypothesis, there exists some f ∈ C(Y ) satisfying t(f ) = 1

(because 1 ∈ C ∗ (X) and t(C(Y )) ⊇ C ∗ (X)). Here 1 is the function X → R
carrying x to 1 for all x in X. The element 1 in C(Y ) is the function Y → R
carrying y to 1 for all y inY . We will show that t(1) = 1. We have, t(1) =
1t(1) = t(f )t(1) = t(f 1) = t(f ) = 1. Hence t(n) = t(n1) = nt(1) = n for
all n ∈ N. In this equation the first n is the function Y → R mapping every
y ∈ Y to n, and the second n is the function X → R carrying every x ∈ X to
n. From Theorem 2.5, t(C ∗ (Y )) ⊆ C ∗ (X). To prove Theorem 2.9, we need
to show that any φ ∈ C ∗ (X) could be written as t(f ) for some f ∈ C ∗ (Y ).
By assumption, there exists some g ∈ C(Y ) with t(g) = φ. Since φ ∈ C ∗ (X)
there exists an n ∈ N satisfying. |φ| ≤ n1. Let f = ((−n1) ∨ g) ∧ n1. Then
f ∈ C ∗ (Y ). By Theorem 2.4 t(f ) = (t(−n1)∨t(g))∧t(n1) = ((−n1)∨φ)∧n1.
Since |φ| ≤ n1 we see that ((−n1) ∨ φ) ∧ n1 = φ. 

9
Chapter 3

Zero sets and Z-Filters

For studying the connections between the topological properties of X and

algebraic properties of C(X) it is natural to investigate subsets of X of the
form f −1 (r) = {x ∈ X/f (x) = r} for any f ∈ C(X) and r ∈ R. Clearly,
f −1 (r) = (f − r1)−1 (0) and f − r1 ∈ C(X). Thus the family of subsets
{f −1 (r)/f ∈ C(X), r ∈ R} agrees with the family {g −1 (0)/g ∈ C(X)}. We
call g −1 (0) the zero set of g and denote it by Z(g) or by ZX (g) if we need
to indicate that we are working in C(X). Z(g) is a closed subset of X for
each g ∈ C(X) . A subset of X of the form Z(g) for some g ∈ C(X) is
called a zero set in X. Z : C(X) → the set of zero sets in X is a surjective
map. Clearly Z(f ) = Z(|f |) = Z(f n ) for any n ∈ N. Z(f g) = Z(f ) ∪ Z(g)
Z(f 2 + g 2 ) = Z(f ) ∩ Z(g) = Z(|f | + |g|). If f ∈ C(X), g = f ∧ 1 is in C ∗ (X)
and Z(f ) = Z(g) . Thus the collection of zero sets {Z(f )/f ∈ C(X)} agrees
with the collection {Z(g)/g ∈ C ∗ (X)}. From Z(f ) = ∩ {x ∈ X/|f (x)| < n1 }
n∈N
we see that each Z(f ) is a Gδ .(i.e., a countable intersection of open sets
in X) The equalities {x ∈ X/f (x) ≥ 0} = Z(f ∧ 0) = Z(f − |f |) and
{x ∈ X/f (x) ≤ 0} = Z(f ∨ 0) = Z(f + |f |) show that sets of the form
{x ∈ X/f (x) ≥ 0} and {x ∈ X/f (x) ≤ 0} for any f ∈ C(X) are zero sets,
hence for any r ∈ R, {x ∈ X/f (x) ≥ r} and {x ∈ X/f (x) ≤ r} are zero sets

10
in X. For any r < s and f ∈ C(X) the set {x ∈ X/r ≤ f (x) ≤ s} is a zero
set in X.Complements of zero sets in X will be referred to as co-zero sets in
X. For any f ∈ C(X), posf = {x ∈ X/f (x) > 0} = X\{x ∈ X/f (x) ≤ 0}
negf = {x ∈ X/f (x) < 0} = X\{x ∈ X/f (x) ≥ 0} are co-zero sets in X.
Observe that neg(f ) = pos(−f ) and X\Z(f ) = pos(|f |)

Units in C(X) (respectively C ∗ (X)):

An element f ∈ C(X) is a unit in C(X) ⇔ f (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ X.
1
In this case f −1 (x) = for all x ∈ X . We can restate this as follows:
f (x)
f ∈ C(X) is a unit ⇔ Z(f ) = ∅. If g ∈ C ∗ (X) is a unit then it is true
that Z(g) = ∅. However if g ∈ C ∗ (X) satisfies Z(g) = ∅, in general it is
1
not true that g is a unit in C ∗ (X). If Z(g) = ∅ it is true that f (x) =
g(x)
for all x ∈ X yields an f ∈ C(X) with f g = 1. However, f need not
be bounded. Let X = N with discrete topology. Then j = { n1 }n∈N is an
element in C ∗ (N), Z(j) = ∅ but j does not have an inverse in C ∗ (N) .
The inverse of j in C(N) is the sequence {n}n∈N or is the inclusion function
i : N → R . It is not bounded. It is easy to see that an element g ∈ C ∗ (X)
is a unit in C ∗ (X) ⇔ |g(x)| ≥ δ > 0 for all x ∈ X ( for some δ > 0
independent of x ∈ X). For any subset E of C(X) we write Z[E] for the
family {Z(f )/f ∈ E} of zero sets of X. In fact when we regard Z as a
map from C(X) into the set of zero sets in X, the image of E under the
map Z is precisely Z[E]. When E = C(X) we will write Z(X) instead of
Z[C(X)]. We have already established that Z[C ∗ (X)] = Z[C(X)] = Z(X).
From Z(f g) = Z(f ) ∪ Z(g) and Z(f 2 + g 2 ) = Z(f ) ∩ Z(g), for any two f, g in
C(X) we see immediately that Z(X) is closed under finite unions and finite
intersections. Z(X) is closed under countable intersections. To prove this,
consider fn ∈ C(X) for n ∈ N, Let gn = |fn | ∧ 2−n and g =
P
gn . Then
n≥1

11
g ∈ C(X) and Z(g) = ∩ Z(gn ) = ∩ Z(fn ). Every singleton subset of R is
n≥1 n≥1
a zero set in R. But Q is not a zero set in R. Thus Z(R) is not closed under
countable unions. Let X be a nonempty topological space; write C for C(X)
and C ∗ for C ∗ (X). If I is an ideal of C then I ∩ C ∗ is an ideal in C ∗ .

Definition 3.1 A non empty subfamily F of Z(X) is called a Z−filter in

X if

(i) ∅ 6∈ F

(ii) Z1 , Z2 ∈ F ⇒ Z1 ∩ Z2 ∈ F , and

(iii) Z ∈ F , Z 0 ∈ Z(X), Z 0 ⊇ Z ⇒ Z 0 ∈ F .

Observe that ∅ ∈ Z(X) and X ∈ Z(X) (Z(1) = ∅; Z(0) = X). From (iii)
we see that X ∈ F for every Z-filter. Because of (iii) condition (ii) can be
replaced by (ii) Z1 , Z2 ∈ F ⇒ Z1 ∩ Z2 contains a member of F .
Let B be a family of zero sets of X having the finite intersection prop-
erty.(i.e., Bi ∈ B for 1 ≤ i ≤ k, k ∈ N ⇒ ∩ Bi 6= ∅). Then there is always
1≤i≤k
a Z-filter F onX with B ⊆ F . In fact if E is the collection of all finite
intersections of sets from B, and F = {Z ∈ Z(X)/Z ⊇ E for some E ∈ E },
then F is the smallest Z-filter on X containing B. We say that B generates
the Z-filter F . If B is closed under finite intersections we call B a base for
F . If X is discrete, a Z-filter on X is the same as a filter on X. If X is any
non empty topological space and G any filter on X, then F = G ∩ Z(X) is a
Z-filter on X. Conversely, if F is a Z-filter on X, then G = {G ⊆ X/G ⊇ F
for some F in F } is a filter on X. It is the smallest filter on X containing
F and satisfies G ∩ Z(X) = F .

Theorem 3.2 (a) Let I be an ideal in C(X), then Z[I] = {Z(f )/f ∈ I} is
a Z-filter on X.

12
 (b) If F is a Z-filter on X, Z −1 [F ] = {f ∈ C/Z(f ) ∈ F } is an ideal in
C.

Proof: (a) Z(f ) = ∅ ⇔ f is a unit in C. For any ideal I of C(X), since

I doesn’t contain any unit of C we see that Z(f ) 6= ∅ for all f ∈ I. Let
Z1 , Z2 be in Z[I]. Then Z1 = Z(f1 ), Z2 = Z(f2 ) with f1 , f2 in I. From
Z1 ∩ Z2 = Z(f12 + f22 ) and f12 + f22 ∈ I we see that Z1 ∩ Z2 ∈ Z[I]. Let
Z ∈ Z[I] and Z 0 ∈ Z(X) satisfy Z 0 ⊇ Z. Let Z = Z(f ) with f ∈ I and
Z 0 = Z(g) for some g ∈ C. Then Z 0 = Z 0 ∪ Z = Z(gf ) and gf ∈ I. Hence
Z 0 ∈ Z[I]. This proves that Z[I] is a Z-filter.
(b) f1 , f2 ∈ Z −1 [F ] ⇒ Z(f1 ) ∈ F , Z(f2 ) ∈ F . Also Z(f1 − f2 ) ⊇
Z(f1 ) ∩ Z(f2 ). Hence Z(f1 − f2 ) ∈ F orf1 − f2 ∈ Z −1 [F ]; f ∈ Z −1 [F ], φ ∈
C ⇒ Z(φf ) ⊇ Z(f ) ∈ F . Hence Z(φf ) ∈ F or φf ∈ Z −1 [F ]. If f is a unit
in C, then Z(f ) = ∅, hence Z(f ) 6∈ F . Thus f ∈ Z −1 [F ]. It follows that
Z −1 [F ] is an ideal in C. 
Let f, g be any two elements of C. Let (f, g) denote the ideal generated by
f and g in C. If I = (f, g) 6= C, then Z[I] is a Z-filter; hence Z(f )∩Z(g) 6= ∅.
Conversely, if Z(f ) ∩ Z(g) 6= ∅, every h ∈ (f, g) will vanish on Z(f ) ∩ Z(g).
Hence h is not a unit in C. In particular 1 6∈ (f, g); thus (f, g) 6= C ⇔
Z(f ) ∩ Z(g) 6= ∅. (f, g) 6= C ⇔ Z(f ) ∩ Z(g) 6= ∅ ⇔ Z(f 2 + g 2 ) 6= ∅ (or
Z(|f | + |g|) 6= ∅) ⇔ f 2 + g 2 is not a unit of C (|f | + |g| is not a unit of C). As
remarked already Z : C → Z(X) is a surjective map. Hence for any subset
E of Z(X), Z[Z −1 [E ]] = E . The following is an immediate consequence of
the equality Z[Z −1 [E ]] = E for any E ⊆ Z(X), “E is a Z-filter ⇔ Z −1 [E ] is
an ideal I 0 of C”. In this case Z[I] = E . In general, for any ideal I of C we
have Z −1 [Z[I]] ⊇ I. The inclusion could be strict.

Example 3.3 Let i ∈ C(R) denote the function i(x) = x for all x ∈ R. Let
I = (i) the principal ideal generated by i. Since i(0) = 0, i is not a unit in

13
R. Thus I is a proper ideal of C(R). An explicit description of I is I =
{f ∈ C(R)/f (x) = xg(x) for all x ∈ R with g ∈ C(R)}. Also Z(i) = {0}.
Z(f ) ⊇ {0} for all f ∈ I . Since Z[I] is a Z-filter, all the zero sets of R
containing {0} should belong to Z[I]. Thus Z[I] is the collection of all the zero
sets of R containing the element 0 and Z −1 [Z[I]] = {f ∈ C(R)/f (0) = 0} .
If we write M0 = {f ∈ C(R)/f (0) = 0}, then M0 ⊇ I, but M0 6= I. Z[I]
1 1 1
is a Z-ultra filter on R. The function i 3 , where i 3 (x) = x 3 , belongs to M0 ,
1 1
but does not belong to I. If i 3 ∈ I then i 3 = ig for some g ∈ C(R) . But
1 1
i 3 = ig ⇒ g(x) = 2 for x 6= 0. There is no continuous function g : R → R
x3
1 1 1
with g(x) = 2 for x 6= 0. Thus i 3 6∈ I ; hence i 3 ∈ M0 \I. M0 is a maximal
x3
ideal of C(R). If f ∈ C(R)\Mo then f (0) 6= 0. Hence Z(f ) ∩ Z(i) = ∅ and
it follows that (f, i) = C(R).Hence (M0 , f ) ⊇ (i, f ) = C(R) .

In this example , Z −1 [Z[I]] = M0 ) I .The analogue of Theorem 3.2

is false for C ∗ (X). If J is an ideal in C ∗ (X) , conditions (ii), (iii) in the
definition of a Z-filter are valid for Z[J]. However condition (i) is not valid
in general. For, consider the set J of all sequences a = (a1 , a2 , ...., ) of real
numbers with lim an = 0. J is an ideal in C ∗ (X). j = (1, 21 , 13 , .....) is in J,
n→∞
and Z(j) = ∅. Hence ∅ ∈ Z[J], for this ideal J.
A Z-ultrafilter on X is a maximal Z-filter on X - i.e., it is a Z-filter on X
not property contained in any Z-filter on X. If X is discrete, Z-ultrafilters
are same as ultrafilters on X. Any filter F on a non empty set X is contained
in some ultrafilter. Let {Fα } be a totally ordered family of filters satisfying
F ⊆ Fα for all α.Then G = ∪Fα is a filter. By Zorn’s lemma there exists
an ultrafilter containing F . There could be many ultrafilters containing F .
Let now X be a non empty topological space. We have already seen that
any Z-filter F on X is of the form G ∩ Z(X) for some filter G on the set
X. Any Z-filter F on X is contained in a Z-ultra filter. In fact the proof

14
is exactly similar to the case of filters. If (Fα ) is any totally ordered family
of Z-filters with F ⊆ Fα , H = ∪Fα is a Z-filter. Hence by Zorn’s lemma
there exists a Z-ultrafilter on X containing F .
Let F be a Z-ultrafilter on X. The smallest filter G on X containing F
namely G = {G ⊆ X/G ⊇ F for some F in F } need not be an ultrafilter on
X. However there is an ultrafilter A on X with A ⊃ G . Then A ∩ Z(X)
is a Z-filter on X satisfying A ∩ Z(X) ⊃ G ∩ Z(X) = F . Since F is a
Z-ultrafilter we get A ∩ Z(X) = F . Thus given any Z-ultrafilter F on X,
we can find an ultrafilter A on X with A ∩ Z(X) = F .

Theorem 3.4 (a) If M is a maximal ideal in C(X), then Z[M ] is a Z-

ultrafilter on X.

(b) If F is a Z-ultrafilter on X, then Z −1 (F ) is a maximal ideal of C(X).

The mapping Z is a bijection from the set of maximal ideal of C(X) to
the set of Z-ultrafilter on X.

Proof: Both Z and Z −1 preserve inclusions. For any ideal I of C(X) we have
seen that Z −1 [Z[I]] ⊇ I. If I = M is a maximal ideal, Z −1 [Z[M ]] = M . If
Z[M ] is not a Z-filter, there exists a Z-ultrafilter H with Z[M ] ⊂ H (strict
inclusion). Since Z : C(X) → Z(X) is surjective, we get Z −1 [Z[M ]] ⊂
Z −1 [H ](strict inclusion). But Z −1 [Z[M ]] = M is a maximal ideal; hence
there is no “ideal” in C(X) properly contained M . This contradiction shows
that Z[M ] is a Z-ultrafilter. This proves (a).
Let F be a Z-ultrafilter. Suppose Z −1 [F ] is not a maximal ideal in C(X).
Then there exists a maximal ideal M in C(X) with M ⊃ Z −1 [F ](strict
inclusion). Since Z −1 [Z[M ]] = M we see that
Z −1 [Z[M ]] ⊃ Z −1 [F ] (strict inclusion) (*)
Hence ZZ −1 [Z[M ]] ⊇ ZZ −1 [F ] yielding Z[M ] ⊇ F . Since F is a Z-
ultrafilter, Z[M ] = F . Hence Z −1 [Z[M ]] = Z −1 [F ], a contradiction to (*).

15
It follows that Z −1 [F ] is a maximal ideal. Since Z −1 [Z[M ]] = M for all
maximal ideals of C(X) and Z[Z −1 [F ]] = F for all Z-filters, in particular
for all Z-ultrafilters from (a) and (b) of Theorem 3.4, the last statement
follows immediately. 

Remark 3.5 Z[I] could be a Z-ultrafilter without I being a maximal ideal.

For instance I = (i) the principal ideal in C(R) generated by the function
t(x) = x for all x ∈ R, I is not maximal , but Z[I] the set of all zero sets of
R containing zero, is a Z-ultrafilter.

16
Chapter 4

Z-ideals

An ideal I of C(X) is called a Z-ideal if Z −1 [Z[I]] = I, equivalently f ∈

C(X), Z(f ) ∈ Z[I] ⇒ f ∈ I. For any Z-filter F , Z −1 [F ] is a Z-ideal of
C(X). We have already seen that Z[Z −1 [F ]] = F ; hence Z −1 [Z[Z −1 [F ]]] =
Z −1 [F ] or Z −1 [Z[I]] = I when I = Z[F ]. For any maximal ideal M of
C(X) we have already seen that Z −1 [Z[M ]] = M . Thus every maximal
ideal is a Z-ideal. Any intersection ∩ Iα with J 6= ∅ and Iα a Z-ideal
α∈J
for all α ∈ J is itself a Z-ideal. Let I = ∩Iα . From Z[∩Iα ] ⊆ ∩Z[Iα ]
we get Z −1 [Z[I]] ⊆ Z −1 [ ∩ Z[Iα ]] = ∩ Z −1 [Z[Iα ]] = ∩ Iα = I. Thus
α∈J α∈J α∈J
Z −1 [Z[I]] ⊆ I. For any ideal I of C(X) we know that Z −1 [Z[I]] ⊇ I. Thus
Z −1 [Z[I]] = I. If K is an ideal in C(X), Z −1 [Z[K]] is the smallest Z-
ideal containing K. In fact if I is any Z-ideal satisfying K ⊆ I we have
Z −1 [Z[K]] ⊆ Z −1 [Z[I]] = I. The map Z from the set of Z-ideals in C(X)
into the set of Z-filters on X is a bijective map. In C(R) the principal
ideal (i) (where i(x) = x for all x ∈ R) is not a Z-ideal we show that
Z −1 [Z[(i)]] = M0 = {f ∈ C(R)/f (0) = 0} % (i). Let S be any non empty
subset of X. Then I = {f ∈ C(X)/f (s) = 0 for all s ∈ S} is a Z-ideal.
For any s ∈ S, Ms = {g ∈ C(X)/g(s) = 0} is a maximal ideal of C(X);
hence a Z-ideal. Clearly I = ∩ Ms . We already saw that any intersection of
s∈S

17
a non empty family of Z-ideals in C(X) is a Z-ideal. If X is discrete, every
ideal I of C(X) is a Z-ideal. Let Z(f ) = Z(g) with g ∈ I. Let φ : X → R
f (x)
be defined by φ(x) = 0, for all x ∈ Z(g). φ(x) = g(x)
if x 6∈ Z(g). Since X is
discrete, φ is continuous . Clearly, f = φg ∈ I.

Theorem 4.1 Every Z-ideal in C(X) is an intersection of prime ideals.

Proof: For any n ∈ N and f ∈ C(X) we have Z(f n ) = Z(f ). If I is a Z-

ideal, f n ∈ I ⇒ f ∈ I, thus I is a radical ideal or I = ∩{P/P is Prime and
P ⊇ I}. A Z-ideal in C(X) need not be the intersection of maximal ideals.
Let Γ = {f ∈ C(R)/Z(f ) is a neighborhood of 0 in R}. (i.e., there exists an
 > 0 depending on f , with f (x) = 0 for all x satisfying − < x < ). If f, g
vanish on neighborhoods of 0,f − g vanishes on a neighborhood of 0. Hence
Γ is an ideal in C(R). Also φ, ψ in C(R),Z(φ) = Z(ψ), ψ ∈ Γ ⇒ φ ∈ Γ;
since φ vanishes on the same neighborhood of 0 where ψ vanishes. Thus Γ
is a Z-ideal. Suppose I is any ideal of C(R) with Γ ⊆ I, then Z[Γ] ⊆ Z[I];
thus for any φ ∈ I and f ∈ Γ we have Z(φ) ∩ Z(f ) 6= ∅. Given any δ > 0,
we can find an f ∈ Γ with Z(f ) ⊆ (−δ, δ). Thus Z(φ) ∩ (−δ, δ) 6= ∅ for any
δ > 0. It follows that φ(0) = 0. Hence φ ∈ M0 = {h ∈ C(R)/h(0) = 0}.
Thus any ideal I of C(R) with Γ ⊆ I satisfies I ⊆ M0 . It follows that M0
is the only maximal ideal of C(R) containing Γ; also Γ 6= M0 (i ∈ M0 and
i does not vanish on a neighborhood of zero). Thus Γ can not be expressed
as an intersection of maximal ideals of C(R). Since Γ is a Z-ideal in C(R)
it can be written as ∩{P/P is Prime and P ⊇ I}. since Γ 6= M0 , at least
one of these prime ideals P should be different from M0 , hence P will not be
maximal. 

Proposition 4.2 Let J, J 0 be any two ideals in a commutative ring R sat-

isfying the condition that neither contains the other. Then J ∩ J 0 is not a
prime ideal in R.

18
Proof: Let a ∈ J\J 0 and b ∈ J 0 \J. Then from a ∈ J we get ab ∈ J; from
b ∈ J 0 we get ab ∈ J 0 . Hence ab ∈ J ∩ J 0 . Also a 6∈ J 0 ⇒ a 6∈ J ∩ J 0
b 6∈ J ⇒ b 6∈ J ∩ J 0 . Thus J ∩ J 0 is not a prime ideal. 

Corollary 4.3 Let M 6= M 0 be maximal ideals in a commutative ring R.

Then M ∩ M 0 is not a prime ideal.

Theorem 4.4 Let I be a Z-ideal in C(X). Then the following are equiva-
lent:

(i) I is a prime ideal.

(ii) I contains a prime ideal.

(iii) For any g, h in C(X), gh = 0 ⇒ either g ∈ I or h ∈ I.

(iv) For any f ∈ C(X) there exists some φ ∈ I such that f does not change
sign on Z(φ).

Proof: (i) ⇒ (ii) : Trivial.

(ii) ⇒ (iii) : Let I ⊇ P where P is a prime ideal of C(X). From gh = 0 we
get gh ∈ P . Hence either g ∈ P or h ∈ P . Since I ⊇ P we see that either
g ∈ I or h ∈ I.
(iii) ⇒ (iv) : For any f ∈ C(X) we have, (f ∨ 0)(f ∧ 0) = 0. Hence either
(f ∨ 0) ∈ I or (f ∧ 0) ∈ I. If (f ∨ 0) ∈ I, let φ = (f ∨ 0). Then for all
x ∈ Z(φ) we have f (x) ≤ 0. If (f ∧ 0) ∈ I, choosing θ = (f ∧ 0) we see that
for all x ∈ Z(θ), f (x) ≥ 0.
(iv) ⇒ (i) : Let g, h in C(X) satisfy gh ∈ I. Let α = |g| − |h| ∈ C(X). By
hypothesis, there exists some φ ∈ I with |g| − |h| not changing sign on Z(φ).
Thus one of the following alternatives is valid:

(a) For all x ∈ X with φ(x) = 0, |g|(x) ≥ |h|(x).

19
 (b) For all x ∈ X with φ(x) = 0, |g|(x) ≤ |h|(x)

In case (a) is valid, we have Z(h) = Z(|h|) ⊇ Z(|h|) ∩ Z(φ) ⊇ Z(|g||h|) ∩

Z(φ) = Z(φ) ∩ Z(gh). Since gh and φ are in I, we get Z(φ) ∩ Z(gh) ∈ Z[I].
So, Z(h) ∈ Z[I]. Since I is a Z-ideal, h ∈ I in this case. In case (b) is valid,
we have Z(g) = Z(|g|) ⊇ Z(|g|) ∩ Z(φ) ⊇ Z(|g||h|) ∩ Z(φ) = Z(φ) ∩ Z(gh) ∈
Z(I). Hence g ∈ I, in this case. Thus gh ∈ I implies either h ∈ I or g ∈ I.
Thus I is a prime ideal in C(X). 

Theorem 4.5 Every prime ideal in C(X) is contained in a unique maximal

ideal.

Proof: Let P be a prime ideal of C(X). We know that P is contained in

a maximal ideal of C(X). If possible let M 6= M 0 be two maximal ideals of
C(X) with P ⊆ M, P ⊆ M 0 . Then P ⊆ M ∩ M 0 and M ∩ M 0 , is a Z-ideal.
From Theorem 4.4 it follows that M ∩ M 0 is a prime ideal in C(X). This
contradicts corollary 4.3. A Z-filter F on X is a called a prime Z-filter if
Z1 , Z2 in Z(X), Z1 ∪ Z2 ∈ F ⇒ either Z1 ∈ F or Z2 ∈ F . 

Theorem 4.6 (a) If P is a prime ideal in C(X), then Z[P ] is a prime

Z-filter on X

(b) If F is a Z-filter on X, then Z −1 [F ] is a prime Z-ideal of C(X).

Proof: (a) Let Q = Z −1 [Z[P ]], then Z[Q] = Z[Z −1 [Z[P ]]] = Z[P ]. Q
is a Z-ideal containing the prime ideal P . By Theorem4.4, Q itself is a
prime ideal. Let Z(f ) ∪ Z(g) ∈ Z[P ]. This means Z(f g) ∈ Z[P ]. Hence
f g ∈ Z −1 [Z[P ]] = Q. Since Q is a prime ideal, either f ∈ Q or g ∈ Q. For
definiteness sake let us assume f ∈ Q. Then Z(f ) ∈ Z[Q] = Z[P ]. Hence
Z[P ] is a prime Z-filter.
(b) We know that P = Z −1 [F ] is a Z-ideal. Let f g ∈ P , then Z(f, g) ∈ F

20
or Z(f ) ∪ Z(g) ∈ F . Since F is a prime Z-filter at least one of Z(f ), Z(g)
is in F say Z(f ) ∈ F ,then f ∈ P . Hence P is a prime ideal. 
As a consequence of Theorem 4.5 we get the following: Every prime Z-
filter is a contained in a unique Z-ultrafilter. Let F be a prime Z-filter. We
know that there exists a Z-ultrafilter A ⊃ F . Let A1 , A2 be Z-ultrafilters
satisfying Ai ⊃ F for i = 1, 2. Let P = Z −1 [F ], Mi = Z −1 [Ai ] for i = 1, 2.
From Theorem 4.6(b), P is a prime ideal in C(X). Also Mi is a maximal ideal
in C(X).(Theorem 3.4(b)). satisfying P ⊆ Mi for i = 1, 2. From Theorem
4.5, M1 = M2 . From the last part of Theorem 3.4, Ai = Z[M1 ] = Z[M2 ] =
A2 .

21
 Reference

[1] L. Gillman, M. Jerison: Rings of continuous functions, Van Nostrand,

(1960).

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