Professional Documents
Culture Documents
y Content theories are a second type of motivation
theory
y Content theories indicate the kinds of needs that
people want to satisfy
y People have different needs energizing and
motivating them toward different goals and
reinforcers
y The ways in which a person’s needs are met, or
not met, at work affect his or her behavior on the
job
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
y The need hierarchy
illustrates Maslow’s
conception of people
satisfying their needs
in a specified order
from bottom to top
Alderfer’s ERG theory
y This is a human needs theory developed by
Alderfer postulating that people have three basic
sets of needs which can operate simultaneously
y Existence needs are all material and physiological
desires
y Relatedness needs involve relationships with other
people
y Growth needs motivate people to productively or
creatively change themselves or their environment
McClelland’s needs
y McClelland states that the most I important needs for
managers are
y Achievement which is characterized by a strong
orientation toward accomplishment and an obsession
with success and goal attainment
y Affiliation which reflects a strong desire to be liked by
other people
y Power which is a desire to influence or control other
people
Motivating for performance
y Motivation refers to forces that energize, direct,
and sustain a person’s efforts
y Managers must motivate people to
y Join the organization
y Remain in the organization
y Come to work regularly
y Perform
y Exhibit good citizenship
Goal setting
y Goal setting is perhaps the most important, valid,
and useful single approach to motivating
performance
y Goal setting theory states that people have
conscious goals that energize them and direct
their thoughts and behaviors toward a particular
end
y Goal setting works for any job in which people
have control over their performance
Goals that motivate
y The most powerful goals are meaningful
y Goals for noble purposes, that appeal to people’s
‘higher’ values are extra motivating
y Goals should be acceptable to employees, that is
they do not conflict with personal values
y Goals should be challenging but attainable
Stretch goals
y Stretch goals are targets that are particularly
demanding, sometimes even though to be
impossible
y There are two types of stretch goals
y Vertical stretch goals are aligned with current activities
including productivity and financial resources
y Horizontal stretch goals involve people’s professional
development
y Stretch goals can generate a major shift away
from mediocrity and toward tremendous
achievement
Limitation of goal setting
y If people lack relevant ability and knowledge it
might be better to urge them to do their best or
set a goal to learn rather than a specific
performance level
y People focused on their own goals may not help
others attain their goals
y Goals can generate manipulative game‐playing
and unethical behavior
Reinforcing performance
y The law of effect states that behavior t that is
followed by positive consequences will likely be
repeated
y This concept led to countless investigations into
the effects of positive consequences called
reinforcers
y Reinforcers are positive consequences that motivate
behavior
Reinforcing performance
y Four key consequences of behavior either encourage or
discourage people’s behavior in the future
y Positive reinforcement is a consequence that increases
the likelihood that the person will repeat the behavior
y Negative reinforcement occurs when an undesirable
consequence is removed or withheld
y Punishment occurs when an aversive consequence is
administered
y Extinction occurs by withdrawing or failing to provide a
reinforcing consequence
Managing reward and punishment
y Managers must identify which kinds of
behaviors they will reinforce and which they
discourage
y The reward system has to support the firm’s
strategy, defining people’s performance in ways
that pursue strategic objectives
y Innovative managers use non‐monetary rewards
including: intellectual challenge, greater
responsibility, autonomy, recognition, etc
Managing mistakes
y Punishment is sometimes appropriate
especially when people violate the law,
ethical standards, etc
y Overuse of punishment, or using it
inappropriately, can create a climate of fear in
the workplace
y Recognize that everyone makes mistakes, and
that mistakes can be dealt with constructively
by discussing and learning from them
Providing feedback
y Most managers don’t provide enough useful feedback
and most people don’t receive or ask for feedback
enough
y Feedback can com e in many forms
y Customers feedback
y Statistics on the work performed
y Performance reviews
y Do not be afraid of receiving feedback; actively seek it
y Think: it’s up to me to get the feedback I need so that I
can improve my performance and my behavior
Performance‐related beliefs
y Expectancy theory states that people will behave
based on their perceived likelihood that their
effort will lead to a certain outcome and on how
highly they value that outcome
y People develop two important beliefs linking
these three events
y Expectancy, which links effort to performance
y Instrumentality, which links performance to outcomes
Performance‐related beliefs
y Expectancy is the employees’ perception of the
likelihood that their efforts will enable them to
attain their performance goals
y Instrumentality is the perceived likelihood that
performance will be followed by a particular
outcome
y Outcome is a consequence a person receives for his or
her performance
y Valence is the value an outcome holds for the person
contemplating it
Implications of expectancy theory
for managers
y For motivation to be high, expectancy,
instrumentalities, and total valence of all outcomes
must all b high
y This leads to three management responses
y Increase expectancies – provide a work environment that
facilitates good performance, and set realistically
attainable performance goals
y Identify positively valiant outcomes – understand what
people want to get out of work
y Make performance instrumental toward positive
outcomes – follow good performance with positive
outcomes
Designing motivating jobs
y Managers should design their organizations
around both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators
that matter to the organizational members
y Extrinsic rewards are given to a person by the boss, the
company, or some other person
y Intrinsic rewards are derived directly from performing
the job itself
Job rotation, enlargement, and
enrichment
y Job rotation allows workers who spend all their
time in one routine task move from one task to
another
y Job enlargement is similar to job rotation in that
people are given different tasks to do; however
job enlargement means that the worker has
multiple tasks at the same time
y Job enrichment means that jobs are restructured
or redesigned by adding higher levels of
responsibility
Herzberg’s two factor theory
y The two factor theory distinguished between two
broad categories of factors that affect people
working on their jobs
y Hygiene factors are characteristics of the workplace
y Motivators describe the job itself, that is, what people
do at work
Herzberg’s two factor theory
y Herzberg was a pioneer in the area of job design
y This theory made several contributions
y Highlights the important distinction between extrinsic
rewards and intrinsic rewards
y Reminds managers not to count solely on extrinsic
rewards to motivate workers
y Set the stage for later theories
Hackman and Oldham model of job
design
y More complete model than Herzberg’s
y Well designed jobs lead to high motivation, high‐quality
performance, high satisfaction, and low absenteeism and
turnover
y The model is based on three psychological states
y People believe they are doing something meaningful
y People feel personally responsible for how they work
turns out
y People learn how well they performed their jobs
Hackman and Oldham model of job
design
y Jobs should be designed with the following five core job
dimensions in mind
y Skill variety – job activities involve several skills and
talents
y Task identity – completion of a whole, identifiable piece
of work
y Task significance – has an important, positive impact
on the lives of others
y Autonomy – independence and discretion in making
decisions
y Feedback – information about job performance is
provided
Empowerment
y Empowerment is the process of sharing power
with employees, thereby enhancing their
confidence in their ability to perform their jobs
and their belief that they are influential
contributors to the organization
y An empowering work environment provides
people with information necessary for them to
perform at their best, knowledge about how to
use the information and how to do their work,
power to make decisions that give them control
over their work, and the rewards they deserve for
the contributions they make
Achieving fairness
y One of the most important issues in motivation
surrounds how people view their contributions
to the organization and what they receive from
the organization
y Equity theory proposes that when people assess
how they are treated, they consider two key
factors
y Outcomes
y Inputs
Assessing equity
y People compare the ratio of their own outcomes
to inputs against the outcome‐to‐input ration of
some comparison person
y If the ratios are equivalent the relationship is
equitable, or fair
Restoring equity
y People who feel inequitably treated and
dissatisfied are motivated to do something to
resort equity; they:
y Can reduce their inputs by giving less effort
y Can attempt to increase their outcomes
y Can decrease other’s outcomes
y Can increase other’ inputs, particularly by changing
perceptions
Procedural justice
y Procedural Justice is a fair process in decision
making and making sure others know that the
process was as fair as possible
y When people perceive procedural fairness, they
are more likely to support the decisions and
decision makers
Job satisfaction
y If people feel fairly treated from the outcomes
they receive, or the processes used they will be
satisfied
y This is important because job dissatisfaction can
lead to:
y Higher turnover
y Higher absenteeism
y Less good citizenship among employees
y More grievances and lawsuits
y Strikes
y Stealing, sabotage and vandalism
y Poor customer service
Quality of work life
y Quality of work life (QWL) programs create a
workplace that enhances employee will being
and satisfaction
y QWL has eight categories
y Adequate and fair compensation
y Safe and healthy environment
y Jobs that develop human capacities
y Chance for personal growth and security
Quality of work life
y Eight categories continued
y Social environment that fosters personal identity,
freedom from prejudice, a sense of community, and
upward mobility
y Constitutionalism, or the rights of personal privacy,
dissent, and due process
y Work role that minimizes infringement on personal
leisure and family needs
y Socially responsible organizational actions
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