Osu1101836555 PDF

A MATERIAL BASED APPROACH TO CREATING WEAR RESISTANT
SURFACES FOR HOT FORGING
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
By
Sailesh Babu, M. S.
*****
The Ohio State University

2004
Dissertation Committee: Approved by

R. Shivpuri, Adviser
S. L. Semiatin _______________________________
J. R. Brevick Adviser
Graduate Program in Industrial and Systems Engineering
ABSTRACT
Tools and dies used in metal forming are characterized by extremely high
temperatures at the interface, high local pressures and large metal to metal sliding. These
harsh conditions result in accelerated wear of tooling. Lubrication of tools, done to
improve metal flow drastically quenches the surface layers of the tools and compounds the
tool failure problem. This phenomenon becomes a serious issue when parts forged at
complex and are expected to meet tight tolerances. Unpredictable and hence uncontrolled
wear and degradation of tooling result in poor part quality and premature tool failure that
result in high scrap, shop downtime, poor efficiency and high cost.
The objective of this dissertation is to develop a computer-based methodology for
analyzing the requirements hot forging tooling to resist wear and plastic deformation and
wear and predicting life cycle of forge tooling. Development of such is a system is
complicated by the fact that wear and degradation of tooling is influenced by not only the
die material used but also numerous process controls like lubricant, dilution ratio, forging
temperature, equipment used, tool geometries among others. Phenomenological models
available in the literature give us a good thumb rule to selecting materials but do not
provide a way to evaluate pits performance in field. Once a material is chosen, there are no
proven approaches to create surfaces out of these materials. Coating approaches like PVD
ii
and CVD cannot generate thick coatings necessary to withstand the conditions under hot
forging. Welding cannot generate complex surfaces without several secondary operations
like heat treating and machining. If careful procedures are not followed, welds crack and
seldom survive forging loads. There is a strong need for an approach to selectively,
reliably and precisely deposit material of choice reliably on an existing surface which
exhibit not only good tribological properties but also good adhesion to the substrate.
Dissertation outlines development of a new cyclic contact test design to recreate
intermittent tempering seen in hot forging. This test has been used to validate the use of
tempering parameters in modeling of in-service softening of tool steel surfaces. The
dissertation also outlines an industrial case study, conducted at a forging company, to
validate the wear model. This dissertation also outlines efforts at Ohio State University, to
deposit Nickel Aluminide on AISI H13 substrate, using Laser Engineered Net Shaping
(LENS). Dissertation reports results from an array of experiments conducted using LENS
750 machine, at various power levels, table speeds and hatch spacing. Results pertaining
to bond quality, surface finish, compositional gradients and hardness are provided. Also, a
thermal – based finite element numerical model that was used to simulate the LENS
process is presented, along with some demonstrated results.
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Dedicated to my parents, Rekha and Rahul
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The success of this research has been due to the invaluable contributions of various
individuals. First and foremost, I would like to thank Prof. Shivpuri for his vision and
support. I am also thankful for his guidance over the years, which have helped me see the
forest and not get lost amongst the trees.
I would also like to thank Prof. Brevick and Dr. Semiatin for serving on my
dissertation committee and providing valuable suggestions and guidance.
My heartfelt acknowledgements go to the following individuals and organizations,
for their help that has been instrumental in me finishing this doctoral work
• Marion Forge (Larry Shump, David Kuhlmann, Steve Grimes and others) for
giving me the first break in forging industry and for supporting me with tools, time
and tuition over a period of several years
• Dr. Tang and Dr. Wu at SFTC for granting me license for use of DEFORM 2D
and 3D for several years
• Staff at SFTC (John, Dave, Pavan, Chris and Jeff) for their support and advice
v
• Jim Seavers and John Canfield at Eaton Corporation, South Bend, Indiana for
providing me worn forging dies and process data for validation of models
developed
• Mary Hartzler and her IWSE machine shop staff, for their help in fabricating tools,
several times at short notice
• Lloyd Barnhart (Material testing Lab) and LENS lab staff (Dr. Pete Collins and
others) of Material Science department for their help in running test campaigns
• Finkl, Uddeholm, Advanced Heat treat, Balzers and Wright Patterson AFB for
their material donations
• All my colleagues, especially Dr. Satish Kini, Dr. Dilmar Ribeiro and Yuanjie Wu
for their assistance
I am thankful for the continued support and encouragement I have received from
my parents and my extended family. Lastly, I would like to thank my wife Rekha for the
understanding, support and motivation she has provided over the last several years, that
has helped me focus on finishing this work.
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VITA
February 8, 1969 Born – Madras, India
April, 1990 B. Tech, Mechanical Engineering, Indian

Institute of Technology, Madras.
December, 1992 M.S., Industrial and Systems

Engineering, University of Florida
March 1993 – May 1995 Graduate Research Associate, Industrial

and Systems Engineering, The Ohio
State University.
May 1995 – December 1999 Engineer, Eaton Corporation, Forge

Division
December 1999 – November 2001 Engineering Manager, Dana

Corporation, Forge Division
November 2001 – January 2003 Senior Manufacturing Engineer, Velocys

– A Subsidiary of Battelle Laboratory
January 2003 – present Research Engineer, The Ohio State

University
PUBLICATIONS
1. Shivpuri, R., Babu, S., Kini, S., Pauskar, P. and Deshpande, A., “Recent Advances in
Cold and Warm Forging Process Modeling Techniques: Selected Examples”, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 46, No. 1-2, pp. 253-274, 1994.
vii
2. Babu, S., Tan, B., Osborne, T. and Yeralan, S., “Product Quality/Tool Reliability
Modeling of Complex Manufacturing Tools”, Turkish Journal of Industrial Engineering,
Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 3-11, 1995.
3. Babu, S., Tan, B. and Yeralan, S., “Computer Aided Reliability Modeling And
Applications In Semiconductor Manufacturing”, Computers & Industrial Engineering,
Vol. 23, No. 1-4, pp. 169-172, 1992.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Industrial and Systems Engineering

Specialization in Manufacturing Processes
Minor Fields: Mechanical Design and Physical Metallurgy
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................... ii
VITA ............................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... xxi
Chapters:
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Problem Statement................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Objective ................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Research Approach................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Research significance and system benefits .............................................................. 8
1.5 Dissertation outline................................................................................................ 9
FORGING DIE FAILURE: A FUNDAMENTAL OVERVIEW.................................... 12
2.1 Failure in Metal Forming – Selected Examples ..................................................... 12
2.2 Various Modes of Tool Failure ............................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Plastic Deformation....................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Abrasive wear ............................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Thermal Fatigue ............................................................................................ 23
ix
2.2.4. Mechanical Fatigue ...................................................................................... 25
2.3 Die Life Improvement Strategies.......................................................................... 28
2.3.1 Die Materials ................................................................................................ 29
2.3.2 Heat Treatment ............................................................................................. 36
2.3.3 Surface Engineering ...................................................................................... 41
2.3.4 Hard coatings and advanced materials ........................................................... 55
2.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 60
MODELING OF TEMPERING AND WEAR............................................................... 66
3.1 Overview of Past Studies in Modeling of Tempering, Wear and Die Life.............. 66
3.2. Characterization of Thermal Softening ................................................................ 76
3.3. Prior work in Wear Characterization................................................................... 78
FORMULATION FOR PREDICTING WEAR AND THERMAL SOFTENING .......... 87
4.1. Proposed Formulation for Thermal Softening and Wear of Hot Forging Tools .... 87
4.1.1 Intermittent Tempering Model Formulation................................................... 88
4.1.2 Architecture and Model Development ........................................................... 90
4.1.3. Formulation of Wear Model ......................................................................... 90
4.2. Demonstration of Thermal Softening Model........................................................ 93
4.2.1. Effect of lubricant heat ................................................................................. 94
4.2.2. Effect of Equipment ..................................................................................... 99
x
4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................... 101
VALIDATION OF WEAR AND OVER-TEMPERING.............................................. 102
5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 102
5.2 Thermal Softening Setup ................................................................................... 102
5.3 Thermal Softening Test Campaign ..................................................................... 109
5.4. Finite Element Modeling................................................................................... 113
5.5 Characterization................................................................................................. 117
5.6 Industrial Case Study......................................................................................... 119
INTEGRATED SYSTEM: FRAMEWORK AND APPLICATIONS........................... 131
6.1 Summary ........................................................................................................... 131
6.2 Future work....................................................................................................... 133
6.3 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 134
DEVELOPMENT OF LENS PROCESS MODELS .................................................... 136
A.1 Introduction TO LENS ..................................................................................... 136
A.2 Prior Modeling Efforts ...................................................................................... 137
A.2.1 Stage 1: Powder free-fall in laser zone........................................................ 138
A.2.1. Stage 2: Melting of Substrate and bead formation...................................... 144
A.2.3. Stage 3: Mixing of Substrate and Powder .................................................. 150
A.2.4. Stage 4: Solidification ............................................................................... 152
xi
A.3 Numerical Model Development ......................................................................... 152
A.4 Parametric Numerical Study of LENS Process .................................................. 155
A.5 Validation - Experimental Procedure................................................................. 162
A.6 Characterization and Results ............................................................................. 166
A.6.1. Effect on surface finish .............................................................................. 166
A.6.2. Coating Morphology ................................................................................. 170
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 178
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1. Typical precision forged gears with net teeth............................................................. 3
1.2. Approximate breakdown of costs due to tooling failure [Cser, et al., 1993]............... 4
1.3. Overview of iterative design approach ...................................................................... 8
1.4. Schematics of approach proposed in the dissertation ................................................. 9
2.1 Complex interaction of forging parameters and wear [Cser, et al., 1993] .................. 13
2.2. Example of abrasive wear in conventional closed die press forging – top blocker
punch, Finkl FX-2 dies after 2000 forging blows (courtesy - Dana Corp., Forge
Division, Marion, Ohio) ......................................................................................... 14
2.3. Example of wear and thermal fatigue (or heat checking) in upsetter inserts. Material is
FX-2 (courtesy - Dana Corp., Forge Division, Marion, Ohio)................................. 14
2.4. Wear marks typically found in forging of bevel gear dies (courtesy - Dana Corp.,
Forge Division, Marion, Ohio) ............................................................................... 15
2.5. Wear marks typically found in forging of bevel gear dies (courtesy - Dana Corp.,
Forge Division, Marion, Ohio) ............................................................................... 15
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2.6. Flattened root and wear grooves in the direction of material flow in a H-13 spur gear
die (courtesy - Dana Corp., Forge Division, Marion, Ohio) .................................... 16
2.7. Frequency and location of typical die failures in forging (Cser et al. 1993)............... 17
2.8. Examples of hot forging die surfaces plastically deformed [Summerville, et al., 1995]
.............................................................................................................................. 19
2.9. Examples of surface plastic deformation [Summerville, et al., 1995]........................ 20
2.10. Hot forging top blocker punch made form H13 [Summerville, et al., 1995] ........... 21
2.11. S-N curve with probability lines or S-N-P [Dieter, 1986] ...................................... 26
2.12. Illustration of the methods for estimating fatigue based in static properties [Manson,
1972]..................................................................................................................... 28
2.13. Some aspects of forging and process design that affect wear and fracture [Cser, et
al., 1993] ............................................................................................................... 29
2.14. Heat treatment cycle of hot working steels [Krauss, 1995] .................................... 38
2.15. Thickness of various coatings and surface treatments [Subramanian, et al., 1996].. 42
2.16. Comparison of wear amounts of surface treated upsetting tools after 1000 forging
cycles with lubricant (Deltaforge-31) [Doege, et al., 1996]..................................... 42
2.17. Results for hot work tool steels in the H13 group presented by Krishnadev
[Krishnadev and Jain, 1997] (a) Composition (b) toughness (c) hot hardness (d)
softening of the alloys 2-3 with and without nitriding e) Hardness achievable with
xiv
different coatings and the alloys chemical composition f) Charpy impact toughness of
H-13 and treated alloy No. 3.................................................................................. 49
2.18. Comparison of yield strength of IC-15 to those of other high temperature alloys. .. 60
3.1. Various process and material .................................................................................. 67
3.2. Variation of die temperatures during a hot forging cycle ......................................... 68
3.3. Effect of forging temperature on the wear depth after forging 4000 pieces [Netthofel,
1965]..................................................................................................................... 70
3.4. Variation of wear volume with die bulk temperature for lubricated and dry forging
[Singh, et al., 1973] ............................................................................................... 71
3.5. Drop in toughness of H-13 with secondary hardening. a) represents toughness in
Charpy V-notch energy, b) represents toughness in Kic [Pickering, 1987] .............. 74
3.6. Master tempering curve for premium H13 were: P= Larson-Miller parameter, T is
temperature (°F), t is time in seconds [Carpenter, 1999]......................................... 79
3.7 Typical cylinder tests used to characterize wear and resulting measurable wear pattern
[Singh, et al., 1973] ............................................................................................... 80
3.8. Experimental setup used by Tittagala and others [Tittagala, et al., 1982]................. 81
3.9. Punch designs used by Bariani [Bariani, et al., 1996]............................................... 83
3.10. Dies used by Silva and Dean for wear characterization [Silva and Dean, 1971]...... 83
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3.11 Extrusion – type tests conducted by Doege, Melching and Kowallick [Doege, 1978].
.............................................................................................................................. 84
3.12. Doege’s experimental setup [Doege, 1994]........................................................... 86
3.13. Test setup used by Netthofel [Netthofel, 1965] ..................................................... 86
4.1. Schematics of modeling in-process hardness loss of forging tools............................ 89
4.2. 2 stage gear blank forging sequence (Courtesy: Sypris Technologies) ..................... 95
4.3. Hardness distribution after 3000 and 5000 shots, heat transfer coefficient used = 12
KW/m2°C, press type: mechanical press ................................................................. 96
4.4. Hardness distribution after 3000 and 5000 shots, heat transfer coefficient used = 24
KW/m2°C, press type: mechanical press ................................................................. 96
4.5. Hardness loss of the top die nose and flash areas after 3000 and 5000 strokes,
assuming a heat transfer coefficient of 33 KW/m2°C............................................... 97
4.6. Hardness distribution at the surface, after 3000 and 5000 shots, heat transfer
coefficient used = 12 KW/m2°C, press type: mechanical press ................................ 98
4.7. Hardness distribution after 3000 and 5000 blows, with a slow hydraulic press (p2)
v=10 mm/sec, h = 6 KW/m2 °C, m=0.3................................................................. 100
4.8. Hardness loss after (a) 3000 and (b) 5000 blows, with forging on a hydraulic press
with ram speed v=20 mm/sec, h = 6 KW/m2 °C, m = 0.3 ...................................... 101
5.1 Typical thermal cycle in a hydraulic and hammer forging........................................ 104
xvi
5.2. Temperatures spike seen at the die surface, in a typical hot forging die. Simulation
was performed in DEFORM2D............................................................................ 105
5.3. Schematics of the test setup to recreate the thermal cycle...................................... 106
5.4. a) Waspaloy billet mounted to press top bed b) assembled instrumented test container
mounted to the press ram (bottom bed)................................................................ 107
5.5. Eight H13 die samples assembled in a container .................................................... 108
5.6. Test setup on Instron 1322 ................................................................................... 109
5.7. Velocity profile used in the tempering test trials, positive indicates motion of ram
towards billet and negative is away from billet...................................................... 110
5.8. Thermal history of 0.010” below surface during contact test campaign.................. 112
5.9. Recorded temperature at .010” below the surface (10 cycles)................................ 113
5.10. Predicted hardness loss at the surface after 800 cycles......................................... 116
5.11. Predicted hardness distribution at the surface, after 1200 pieces .......................... 116
5.12. Predicted hardness distribution at the surface, after 1600 pieces .......................... 117
5.13. Measured micro-hardness measurements from surface to the interior .................. 118
5.14. Measured value of hardness loss versus predicted hardness loss at different depths
from the contact surface....................................................................................... 119
5.15. Schematics of a) buster, b) blocker c) finisher d) end of stroke and e)gear blank
forging (courtesy: Eaton Corp., South bend, Indiana)........................................... 121
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5.16. (a) Worn blocker and finish dies (b) Close-up of blocker used in validation ......... 122
5.17. Predicted total wear profile in blocker die for the gear blank forging case study .. 124
5.18. Predicted total wear distribution from center to outside diameter, in blocker die.. 125
5.19. Corner wear predicted using modified Archard model......................................... 126
5.20. Worn die and Sheffield Cordax contact type CMM used to measure the profile of
the worn die......................................................................................................... 127
5.21. CAD approach used to compare the predicted and measured wear profile ........... 128
A.1. Microstructure v/s processing conditions for laser cladding (D = beam diameter in
mm, V is the table speed in mm/s)[Kathuria, 1997] .............................................. 143
A.2 Effect of travel speed on aspect ratio of the clad bead [Qian, et al., 1997] ............. 147
A.3. Variation of surface finish in powder-based cladding[Li and Ma, 1997] ................ 148
A.4. Effects of laser traverse speed on aspect ratio of bead and dilution [Ming, et al.,
1998]................................................................................................................... 150
A.5. Laser beam representation and thermal boundary condition modeled in FEM ....... 154
A.6. Typical thermal profile obtained from the simulation, used to obtain the length, width
and height of the melt pool................................................................................... 158
A.6. Typical thermal profile obtained from DEFORM-3D simulations of LENS process
(temperature in °C) .............................................................................................. 159
xviii
A.7. Simulated effect of absorbed power on weld superheat (table speed = 12.5 mm / sec,
preheat temperature = 20 °C, H13 substrate, laser beam diameter = 1 mm) .......... 160
A.8. Simulated effect of table speed on melt pool superheat (effective power = 120 watts,
preheat temperature = 20 °C, H13 substrate, laser beam diameter = 1 mm) .......... 161
A.9. Simulated effect of beam diameter on melt pool superheat (effective absorbed
power=120 watts, table speed = 12.5 mm/sec, preheat temperature =20 °C, H13
substrate)............................................................................................................. 161
A.10. LENS system a) schematic and b. experimental facility at the Ohio State University
[Banerjee, et al., 2002]......................................................................................... 164
A.11. Federal Surface Analyzer used in the surface measurement................................. 167
A.12. Profile – sample 2 (in microns) ........................................................................... 168
A.18. Optical images of coated surface at 50X for the samples 2-9. Note: samples 3, 5, 7,
and 9 were coated at higher power levels, samples 6,7,8 and 9 have .015 HS ....... 171
xix
A.19. SEM image showing cross section of sample 7, polished and bakelite mounted.
Sample was not etched a) 75X b)300X ................................................................ 173
A.20. SEM image of surface of NiAl coating on H-13 substrate showing random
appearance of partly melted powder. Image was taken at 75X and 381X.............. 173
A.21. SEM Image of sample 7, showing NiAl powder at different stages of melting.
Images are at a)150X b)1000X c) 1200X and b) 5000X....................................... 174
A.22. EDS analysis of a) Surface of sample 7 and b) NiAl powder ............................... 175
A.23. Variation of nickel, iron and chromium across the interface ................................ 177
xx
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1.1. AGMA Classification of gear quality for a typical automotive gear............................ 5
2.1. Class 510. Chromium die steel [Roberts, et al., 1998] ............................................. 31
2.2. Class 520. Chromium – Molybdenum die steels [Roberts, et al., 1998].................... 31
2.3. Class 530. Chromium – Tungsten die steels [Roberts, et al., 1998].......................... 32
2.4. Class 540. Tungsten die steels [Roberts, et al., 1998].............................................. 32
2.5 Composition of common maraging steels, VascoMax is a trade name of Teledyne, (*)
indicates maximum allowed content, (+) trademark of Crucible steel...................... 34
2.6. Hardening and tempering temperatures and procedures for tool steels [Roberts, et al.,
1998]..................................................................................................................... 39
2.7. Response of different tool steels to several surface engineering towards enhancement
of toughness, hot hardness, heat checking, temper resistance [Krishnadev and Jain,
1997]..................................................................................................................... 48
2.8. Average maximum wear depths (µm) on surface engineered dies after upsetting 500
AISI 1040 steel billets at 1070° C [Venkatesan, et al., 1998].................................. 52
4.1. Various wear models reported in the literature ........................................................ 92
xxi
5.1. Nominal composition of Waspaloy........................................................................ 107
5.2. Various heat transfer coefficients used in the model and corresponding maximum
temperatures at a depth of .010” from surface ...................................................... 114
5.3. Measured hardness loss at different depths from the surface. Measurement was made
using a microhardness tester under a load of 500 gms .......................................... 115
5.4. Hot hardness of H13............................................................................................. 123
5.5. Predicted, normalized and measured values of the wear in blocker die................... 129
A.1. Simulation matrix used for modeling LENS process in DEFORM-3D .................. 156
A.2. Simulated maximum melt pool superheat temperatures and melt pool sizes........... 157
A.3. Measured surface roughness and profile of LENS coated NiAl samples, powder size
used was 100-270 ASTM mesh............................................................................ 166
A.4. Measured surface roughness and profile of LENS coated NiAl samples................ 167
A.5. Compositional gradient (wt %) from surface to the bulk of substrate, obtained
through Energy Dispersive Spectrometric (EDS) analysis..................................... 176
xxii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement
Closed die forging at high temperatures is one of the oldest known manufacturing
methods that have the capability of producing near net shape parts. The first known closed
die forgings made using gravity-assisted hammers in early 1800s had liberal stock
allowances and large tolerances. At that time, hot forging process was a tremendous
improvement over machining parts from bar stock or castings. Towards the middle of 20th
century, the process was extended to forge aerospace materials, stainless steel, nickel and
titanium based alloys that have much lower formability and higher flow strength. In
addition, the shape of parts forged became increasingly complex. Slowly but steadily, the
demands placed on the die and the die material increased. With the eighties and nineties,
because of intense competition from other forge shops as well as from other competing
processes like die-casting and cold forging, hot forgers have started making forgings that
have lower stock allowances, better surface finish and tighter tolerances. Tolerances of +/-
.030” and scaly finishes have been replaced by scale-free surface requirements, low
1
machining stocks and tight tolerances of up to +/- .005”. Precision gear forgings and
flashless forgings typify this trend.
Precision near-net shape manufacturing processes are processes that produce
product shapes close to final desired shape. Flashless forgings with less than .030”
machining stock, spur gears, spiral bevel gears and splines with near net tooth with as little
as .005” grinding stock and net toothed bevel gears have become part of many forger’s
product line. Figure 1.1 shows some typical precision forged gears.
With such small machining allowances and tolerances, there is very little room for
error arising due to forging process variations, design and tooling failure. The forgers have
to reduce the variations in billet volumes, forging temperature, lubricant spray and
equipment characteristics and reduce die wear as much as possible, so as to make parts
that consistently meet or exceed the customer’s requirements economically. The
importance of process control has been well understood by aerospace material forgers. Of
late, this awareness of process - quality interaction is creeping into automotive steel
forgers too.
2
Figure 1.1. Typical precision forged gears with net teeth
Quality and process capability aside, cost is an important factor that impacts the
viability of a product line. One of the most important ingredients in the cost of forgings is
the cost of tooling. Die costs range from 10 to 15% of the cost of a forging [Doege, et al.,
1996]. This includes cost of die material, machining the dies and subsequent heat
treatment, if necessary. The indirect cost of dies is however, far more significant. If tooling
wears out or become unusable, the production has to be stopped to change dies. Setup
times can range anywhere from under 10 minutes to over 3-4 hours, depending on the
complexity of the setup, skill and practices used by the setup crew. This results in
additional direct wages in material handling, tool rework and other overhead costs. Also,
this may result in additional overtime premiums in the die shop and the forge shop, low
3
resource utilization and in some cases, result in missed delivery to customers. If quality
and inspection systems used to monitor part quality, breaks down and if dies are not
changed at the appropriate time, additional losses occur due to scrap. The effect of tooling
failure on setup costs is shown in (Figure 1.2). Though tooling cost is only 10 - 15% of a
forging cost, the indirect cost of tooling could be as high as 70% in short production runs.
The life of a forge tooling, hence, has great ramifications on the economic competitiveness
of a forging company. Identifying different modes of die failure and understanding
dominant mechanisms are essential first steps in the path to increasing die life.
Figure 1.2. Approximate breakdown of costs due to tooling failure [Cser, et al., 1993]
4
One of the part families where cost and quality of parts play a key role in the
viability of the process is precision forged gears. Typical run-out, profile errors, lead
errors and index errors in different AGMA class gears are shown in Table 1.1. In this
table, index error is the displacement of any tooth from its theoretical position, relative to
a datum tooth. Lead error or tooth alignment variation, is the difference between the
measured tooth alignment and the specified tooth alignment measured normal to the
specified tooth alignment and the tooth surface on the functional face width. Profile error
is the permissible amount of profile variation in the functional profile compared to the
datum. The run-out error is basically the same as concentricity of the I.D. to the pitch
diameter of the gear.
Table 1.1. AGMA Classification of gear quality for a typical automotive gear
Due to tool wear, process variations and general tolerances achievable in hot
forging, gears of class 8 and higher cannot be forged. The difficulty in forging higher class
gears (6 and higher) is well documented in the literature [Dean, 2000, Doege and Nagele,
5
1994, Douglas and Kuhlmann, 2000]. Class 6 and 7 gears can be manufactured by forging
followed by cold coining or ironing. This operation irons out low levels of imperfections
in the teeth profile caused by scaling, tool wear and handling. If the profile errors of gears
immediately after the forging operation are too high, secondary cold coining operation
cannot effectively improve the gear class. High degree of process control and tool
engineering are required in forging of these fine tooth gears to make this possible.
Current state of knowledge and technology makes forging of higher class fine
tooth gears economically and technically challenging. Understanding the die life problems
relevant to precision hot forging of net gears and help overcome premature die failure
through innovative solutions are keys to opening new forging markets in this area. This
dissertation provides a brief background into precision forged gears and different modes of
tool failure typical in hot precision forging. Possible recipes for reducing die failure are
discussed. Selected die life characterization approaches currently available along with their
pros and cons are discussed. A model-based approach to assess tool life in hot forging
process is described in detail. A framework for computer program is outlined. Results
from experiments to validate the model are provided along with selected case studies to
demonstrate its use.
1.2 Research Objective
The objective of this work is to come up with a scientific method to design and
build hot forging dies for extended die life. The integrated design approach proposed
6
combines a numerical model of forging process to predict failure of dies through wear and
thermal softening, with advanced die materials to assist in building forging dies that can
provide superior performance to conventional die designs.
1.3 Research Approach
The key elements of the approach proposed and tested in this work, are as follows:
1. Development of a numerical model of material over-tempering: This element builds
a numerical model of tool life taking into account the intermittent tempering of
tools. Hardness is the predominant material factor that affects tool life in hot
forging.
2. Development of numerical model of wear: Conventional models, as discussed
later, does not take into account the effect of process on hardness nor do they take
into account the slow degradation of material during a forging run. This element
models behavior of material that can later be used in a modified Archard’s wear
model to predict and model hot forging die life.
3. Calibration of developed models for application in hot forging: Numerical models
developed above require calibration. This element of the dissertation calibrates the
softening behavior and lays the ground work for industrial validation.
4. Validation of model for an industrial forging application: Validation of the tool life
model developed through industrial tools.
7
Figure 1.3. Overview of iterative design approach
1.4 Research significance and system benefits
The research work presented here, provides a method to correlate die wear, tool
failure and hence die life to the forging process conditions. Because this is done through
the use of numerical models, forgers may be able to come up with new processes or
redesign existing processes and tools, to reduce tool wear, improve quality and hence,
reduce part costs. This approach also allows forgers to access and compensate for the
severity of forging processes for new products like fine tooth net and near net spur, bevel
and spiral bevel gears that are AGMA Class 7 or higher.
8
Other Inputs Failure Criterion
Temperature
Dimension
Lubrication
Targets
Equipment
Cost Targets
Work piece
Die Life
Die Material
Tool Design Life

Geometry, Assessment
Compute
Coating type FEM Modeling Acceptable?
Wear life
Location
Toughness
Thickness
Die Material
Behavior
Changes to
Coating Material,
Thickness,
Location
Figure 1.4. Schematics of approach proposed in the dissertation
This will allow the design engineer to select and specify appropriate die material
for applications based on the process. Die manufacturing and repair also benefit a great
deal from novel repair approach that is proposed and tested in this work. By carefully
selecting process parameters that are used to repair the dies, one can reliably repair dies so
that properties obtained are acceptable.
1.5 Dissertation outline
Chapter 1 outlines the motivation behind this work along with the objectives and
research approach.
9
Chapter 2 presents technical hurdles along with an overview of die materials,
coatings and surface treatments of steels. Principles of tool failure through wear, thermal
fatigue and plastic deformation are presented.
Chapter 3 discusses the microstructural changes to the tools during the forging
process due to tempering and how it impacts wear. This chapter will also present various
research efforts reported in characterizing wear and life of hot forging tools.
Chapter 4 will go over the formulation of the numerical model, developed for
analyzing tool life during hot forging. Demonstration of the generated code is also
presented. Chapter 4 also presents some finite element results that demonstrate the effects
of process variables on tool wear.
Chapter 5 presents experimental work performed to calibrate the tempering and
wear model. This chapter also presents results of validation performed on an industrial hot
forging.
Chapter 6 summarizes the conclusions of this work and discusses the scope for
future work.
The appendix describes one of the promising techniques for tool and die repair:
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS). Advantages and disadvantages of the technique
are presented along with the underlying physics. The experimental and numerical models
developed for predicting weld parameters, the substrate hardening, weld dilution,
10
microstructure and mechanical properties of the clad layer. Appendix A also presents
results of deposition trials performed to validate and support the developed model.
11
CHAPTER 2
FORGING DIE FAILURE: A FUNDAMENTAL OVERVIEW
2.1 Failure in Metal Forming – Selected Examples
Several factors impact the physical underlying phenomena behind die failure -
pressures, sliding velocities, hot hardness and a variety of physical and mechanical
properties. From a process perspective, there are several variables that impact die wear
and tool failure. These include forging temperature, cycle times, use of protective
atmosphere during billet heating, lubricant spray and die preheating.
These factors interact in a very complex manner dictating the magnitude of wear
found in the forging process. For instance, increasing forging temperature reduces the
flow stress of the billet material but increases the heat transfer into the dies. While reduced
flow stress tends to reduce die pressure, the increased tool temperatures reduce the local
die hardness, reducing the wear resistance. Figure 2.1 illustrates some of the complex
interactions typically found in forging applications that impacts die failure. Several factors
like billet material grade, microstructure, equipment used and finish die geometry are not
controlled by the forger. However, judicious choice of lubricant application, die material
12
and coatings, forging temperature and other controllable factors could impact die life
positively. These choices impact the product cost immensely. Poor choices, in some cases,
like precision forged spur, bevel and spiral bevel gears of class 8 and higher, will make
forging an economically infeasible option.
Figure 2.1 Complex interaction of forging parameters and wear [Cser, et al., 1993]
13
Figure 2.2. Example of abrasive wear in conventional closed die press forging – top
blocker punch, Finkl FX-2 dies after 2000 forging blows (courtesy - Dana Corp., Forge
Division, Marion, Ohio)
Figure 2.3. Example of wear and thermal fatigue (or heat checking) in upsetter inserts.
Material is FX-2 (courtesy - Dana Corp., Forge Division, Marion, Ohio)
14
Wear
Figure 2.4. Wear marks typically found in forging of bevel gear dies (courtesy - Dana
Corp., Forge Division, Marion, Ohio)
Wear
Figure 2.5. Wear marks typically found in forging of bevel gear dies (courtesy - Dana
Corp., Forge Division, Marion, Ohio)
15
Flattening
Figure 2.6. Flattened root and wear grooves in the direction of material flow in a H-13
spur gear die (courtesy - Dana Corp., Forge Division, Marion, Ohio)
2.2 Various Modes of Tool Failure
It is clear that several modes of failure contribute to premature tool life in hot and
warm forgings. To increase tool life, there is a need to understand the different modes of
failure requiring a closer look at the underlying mechanisms. In hot forging, in general, the
main reasons for die failure are
• Abrasive, adhesive and oxidative wear of dies during production
• Mechanical fatigue and gross cracking of dies during production
• Thermal fatigue or heat checking
16
• Plastic deformation of corners and sharp edges
Figure 2.7. Frequency and location of typical die failures in forging (Cser et al. 1993)
Several of these could play a role in failure of forging dies. Figure 2.7 above,
illustrates the comparative severity of these mechanisms in hot forging. Obviously, wear is
the most dominant mechanism found in hot forging. Sharp corners that experience
extremely high pressures and temperature fluctuations during a forging cycle are features
that are most vulnerable to wear.
In several cases, two or more of these mechanisms act together to wear down the
die. In this chapter, various mechanisms of die failure are discussed briefly. Also, physical
and mechanical properties of die material that impact its resistance to the mechanisms of
17
failure are listed. These are essential to characterize and model the mode of die failure and
to find cures for its prevention.
2.2.1 Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation of die surface occurs at regions of the die that are subjected to
extreme pressure and temperatures and experience long contact times. This occurs when
the local stresses result in die stresses exceeding the local hot yield strength of the die
material. Typical areas of the die that are prone to plastic deformation are sharp corners of
the dies and thin protuberances that trap a lot of heat during the forging process. 2.8 and
Figure 2.9 show typical surfaces that are subjected to plastic deformation. Since extreme
pressures and temperatures cause this mode of failure, increased local forging stresses will
increase the chance of plastic deformation. Consequently, all design and process criterion
that impact stresses and die temperatures have an effect on the plastic deformation of dies.
Of these, the forging temperature, size and geometry of the forging, lubricant used,
forging cycle times, type of equipment used and the type of forging (whether it is
conventional or flashless) are the most important factors. These parameters either increase
local stresses or reduce the strength of the die by thermal softening or a combination of
both.
Storen and others [Tulsyan, et al., 1993] provide a good criterion, given in
Equation 2.1, to avoid plastic deformation in forging dies. They say that one can avoid
deformation related die failure if we follow the following criterion.
18
σ Z p 0.75 × H B (2.1)
where HB is the Brinell hardness of the die material at the maximum temperature, σ Z is
the local normal pressures. In hot or warm forgings, the hardness levels changes over the
course of a run because of tempering effects. Also, the roughness of the surface, to some
extent, affects the heat transfer coefficient, heating and hence the hardness.
Figure 2.8. Examples of hot forging die surfaces plastically deformed [Summerville, et al.,
1995]
19
Figure 2.9. Examples of surface plastic deformation [Summerville, et al., 1995]
2.2.2 Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear arises when a hard, rough surface slides against a softer surface,
digs into it, and plows a series of grooves in the softer surfaces. The material originally in
the groves is removed in the form of loose fragments, or forms ridges along each groove.
The material in the ridges is then vulnerable to subsequent complete removal from the
surface [Stachowiak, 1993]. In hot forging conditions, abrasive wear is compounded by
the presence of hard particles in the interface (three-body wear). These particles may be
hard oxides or scales, external-contaminating particles or other hard carbides dislodged
from the die surface. Figure 2.10 illustrates abrasive wear grooves on the top blocker in
hot forging.
20
Abrasive wear results in the removal of die material from the surface. This abrasion
is typically, either caused by the presence of hard particles between the die and the
deforming billet or protuberances embedded in the billet. The hardness of the particle that
causes the initial groove has to be equal to or greater than the hardness of the die.
Abrasive wear is a die failure phenomenon where die surface looses its definition over a
period of time due to constant abrasive action of material sliding across the die features
under high pressures.
Figure 2.10. Hot forging top blocker punch made form H13 [Summerville, et al., 1995]
Sometimes the sliding metal tends to dissolve the surface features of the die. This
phenomenon is called adhesive wear. Adhesive wear in hot forging may start as localized
21
welding since the interface temperatures can be as high as 1200 °C. This phenomenon is
generally manifested in the die picking up portions of the billet material and is accelerated
when nascent metallic die surface comes into contact with the hot billet. This probably
occurs in the following sequence of events:
• The lubricant layers and oxidation layers in both the die surface and billet surface have
been removed by abrasive wear
• The base metal of the billet makes contact with the base die steel and
• Sliding reduces but the interfacial pressure increases
The billet and die material pair having chemical affinity for each other (for example,
aluminum and die steel) form welds or joints
The part is ejected from the die. Either a portion of the die material is removed
with the billet or a portion of the billet material adheres to the die. This second possibility
is more common since the die material is generally several times stronger than the billet
material. Oxidation of the die surface tends to enhance both the abrasive and adhesive
wear rates by increasing the surface exposed.
Several works exists in the published literature that tries to characterize and model
wear in hot forging. Others are based on process variables such as forging area, weights
and energy while others have taken a more fundamental approach to modeling. With
advances in finite element models and computing, it is possible to use fundamental
material properties and process variables computed from FEM software, to model wear
22
more comprehensively. With the technological capabilities and data available, it is possible
to use Archard’s model provided in equation 2.2 to model wear as a function of thermo-
mechanical history of dies during a forging process and the changing hardness of the die
material due to continuous tempering.
p i × Vi
wear = k ∫ dt
Hi (2.2)
where p is normal pressure at a die location, V is the sliding velocity at any time, H is
the hardness of the die location and k is a constant dependent on several factors like billet
material and scale formation.
2.2.3 Thermal Fatigue
The appearance of a fine network of cracks in the hot and warm forging dies is
known as heat checking. The hot and warm forging processes have a typical cycle that
causes heating and cooling of the dies surfaces. The billet at high temperature is
compressed into the die cavity causing a drastic increase in the surface temperature. The
temperature increase at the surface of the die causes its expansion. At the same time, the
lower temperature of the die block constrains the expansion, generating compressive
stress. Next, the part is ejected from the die and the dies are lubricated. During the
lubricant spray the surface is rapidly cooled and the expansion is reversed causing tensile
stress. When cracks are formed by repetitive change in temperatures the phenomenon is
called thermal fatigue.
23
Thermal fatigue is caused due to non-uniform temperature distribution between the
surface of dies and the interior. Any temperature differences between the surface and
interior results in strain differentials due to varying thermal expansion. When the resulting
stress at the surface exceeds the hot strength of the material we have yielding of surface
layers. Extended cycling will result in crack initiation and subsequent growth of thermal
cracks. If the maximum and minimum temperatures at a die location are known, then low
cycle fatigue life can be calculated as follows.

1−ν σ
 1 −ν σ
 
α T _ T  > 2  1  + 2  2

 2 1 E E
1 2 (2.3)
where α is the mean coefficient of thermal expansion, ν is the Poisson ratio, σ is the
stress, 1 and 2 indicate the maximum and minimum values of temperatures.
Crack initiation occurs when the following criterion (from Coffin-Manson,
equation 2.4) is met.
N n F ε p = Cε f
(2.4)
where N is the number of cycles to crack initiation, n is a material constant from 0 to 1,
ε p is the plastic strain range, C is a constant that is between 0 and 1, andε f is the true
deformation to fracture – a material property.
Crack growth occurs at a rate given by equation 2.5.
24
1−ν σ 1−ν σ
   
da = aρ ε q = aρ α T −T  −  1 1 −  2  2 ]
q
 p 
dN     2 1 E E
1 2 (2.5)
where a is the crack length, N is the number of cycles, ρ and q are positive constants
dependent on material.
Any physical or process factors that impact the strain difference, impacts heat
checking. It should be noted that in real life, all these different modes of failure occur -
one mode aiding or reducing the effects of another.
2.2.4. Mechanical Fatigue
Mechanical fatigue is caused by initiation and growth of cracks in the die due to
fluctuations in pressures and die stresses in certain regions of the die. Repeated loading
and unloading of dies result in the propagation of cracks. Figure 2.11 [Dieter, 1986]
illustrates a probabilistic S-N curve typically found in literature. S-N curves represents a
family of curves that can be used to predict the cycles to failure of a mechanical
component when the range of stress it is subjected to, is known.
25
Figure 2.11. S-N curve with probability lines or S-N-P [Dieter, 1986]
The predominant type of fatigue that is found in metal forming dies is low cycle
fatigue which is associated with high stresses and temperatures. Low cycle fatigue is
defined as mechanical fatigue failure that occurs after less than 1000 stress cycles. Low
cycle fatigue test results in general, are shown as plots of plastic strain range ∆εp against
number of cycles N. The plot of strain against number of cycles using a log scale for N
results in a straight line that is known as Coffin-Manson law. The relationship is shown in
equation 2.6.
The first model for strain controlled fatigue is known as Coffin-Manson law:
C −1 / 2
∆ε p = N f ∆ε p = = N f
−m
2 or (2.6)
26
where ∆ε p is the plastic strain, Nf is the number of cycles to failure, C and m are material
constants.
Manson later found a graphical method (universal slopes method) to evaluate
fatigue based on static tensile tests. The method uses relationship in equation 2.7 to model
the fatigue growth.
3.5σ u −1 / 2 − 0 .6
∆ε p = Nf + D 0 .6 N f
E (2.7)
where the first term is the elastic strain and the second term plastic strain. σ u is
conventional ultimate strength, E is the elastic modulus, Nf is the number of cycles to
failure and ε f (represented by D) is conventional logarithmic ductility
The graphical representation of this equation is shown in Figure 2.12, and it is a
very useful way to evaluate fatigue using static tensile test data.
27
Figure 2.12. Illustration of the methods for estimating fatigue based in static properties
[Manson, 1972]
2.3 Die Life Improvement Strategies
It is clear from the treatment above that die life improvement strategy should take
into account the process, the forged geometry and the predominant modes of failure.
Solutions to die life improvement revolve around selecting appropriate die materials,
surface treatments and coatings or clads. For instance, while H-13 and higher alloy tool
steels may help extend tool lives in hot forging operation performed in a mechanical press,
they are seldom used in hammer forgings. H-13 does not have the toughness to resist the
impact loads that are typical in hammer forging. The following section deals with various
strategies to improve die lives in hot and warm forging. Figure 2.13 shows the various
strategies that impact tool life in a concise form.
28
Figure 2.13. Some aspects of forging and process design that affect wear and fracture
[Cser, et al., 1993]
2.3.1 Die Materials
Die material selection is possibly the biggest factor that affects the life of dies in a
hot or warm forging operation. There is a large variety of tool steels available in the
market that can be used for hot and warm forging applications. These steels could be
categorized as low alloy tool steels (Groups 6G, 6F, 6H), air-hardening medium alloy tool
steels (A2, A7-A9), chromium hot work steel (H-10 – H-19), tungsten hot work steels
(H20-H26), and molybdenum hot work steels (H41-H43).
29
Selection of die material grade (steel composition and microstructure distribution)
and subsequent heat treatment play a key role in failure of dies. These properties
completely define the thermal and mechanical properties that affect the mode of failure and
the rate of tool failure. In this section, we will go over the main classifications of tool steel
grades and characteristics of incoming tool steel – alloying composition, physical and
mechanical properties. A short section will also discuss new non-steel based superalloys
available in the market.
A comprehensive classification of tool steels by the American Iron and Steel
Institute is provided by Roberts [Roberts, et al., 1998]. The groups are based on alloying
elements and applications. Steels that are not temperature resistant are generally not used
in making the forging dies. However, they used in other parts of the die set like the bolster
and spacers.
Hot work die steels are classified into 3 different categories [Roberts, et al., 1998]
based on their alloy content. These can be chromium based, tungsten or molybdenum
based or steels where tungsten and chromium are approximately in equal proportion. Most
hot work steels are low carbon steels with medium or high alloying elements.. Table 2.1
lists some of the common grades of chromium die steels. Table 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 lists some
common grades of Chromium – Molybdenum, Chromium-Tungsten, Tungsten and
Molybdenum hot work steels [Roberts, et al., 1998] In modeling, analyzing and predicting
30
die failure, the knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties is very important.
Knowledge of these properties is necessary to both understand the reasons for die failure.
Table AISI C Mn Si W Cr V Mo
510 .95 0.30 0.30 4.0
511 .95 0.30 0.30 4.0 0.50 0.50
512 .60 0.30 0.30 4.0 0.75 0.50
513 S7 .50 0.70 0.30 3.25 1.40
514 .50 0.30 0.90 3.25 0.25 1.40
Table 2.1. Class 510. Chromium die steel [Roberts, et al., 1998]
Type AISI C Mn Si Cr Ni V Mo W
520 H-11 0.35 0.30 1.00 5.00 0.40 1.50
521 H-13 0.35 0.30 1.00 5.00 1.00 1.50
522 H-12 0.35 0.30 1.00 5.00 0.40 1.50 1.50
523 0.40 0.60 1.00 3.50 1.00 1.00 1.25
524 H-10 0.40 0.55 1.00 3.25 0.40 2.50
525 0.35 0.30 1.00 5.00 2.00
Table 2.2. Class 520. Chromium – Molybdenum die steels [Roberts, et al., 1998]
31
Type AISI C Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co
530 H14 0.40 0.30 1.00 5.00 0.25 5.00 0.25 0.50
531 H19 0.40 0.30 0.30 4.25 2.00 4.25 0.40 4.25
532 0.45 0.75 1.00 5.00 0.50 3.75 1.00 0.50
533 0.35 0.60 1.50 7.25 7.25
534 0.45 0.60 1.50 7.25 7.25
535 H16 0.55 0.60 0.90 7.00 7.00
536 H23 0.30 0.30 0.50 12.00 1.00 12.00
Table 2.3. Class 530. Chromium – Tungsten die steels [Roberts, et al., 1998]
Type AISI C Mn Si Cr Ni V Co W Mo
540 H21 0.35 0.30 0.30 3.50 0.50 9.00
541 H20 0.35 0.30 0.30 2.00 0.50 9.00
542 0.30 0.30 0.30 2.75 1.75 0.30 10.00 0.25
543 H22 0.35 0.30 0.30 2.00 0.40 11.00
544 0.30 0.30 0.30 2.50 0.40 3.60 12.00
545 H25 0.25 0.30 0.30 4.00 1.00 15.00
546 0.40 0.30 0.30 3.50 0.40 14.00
547 H24 0.45 0.30 0.30 3.00 0.50 15.00
548 0.35 0.30 0.30 4.00 2.50 14.00 2.00
549 H26 0.50 0.30 0.30 4.00 1.00 18.00
550 H15 0.35 0.30 0.40 3.75 0.75 1.00 6.00
551 H15 0.40 0.30 0.50 5.00 0.75 1.00 5.00
552 H43 0.55 0.30 0.30 4.00 2.00 8.00
553 H42 0.65 0.30 0.30 4.00 2.00 6.40 5.00
554 H41 0.65 0.30 0.30 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.00
555 0.30 0.50 0.30 3.00 3.00
Table 2.4. Class 540. Tungsten die steels [Roberts, et al., 1998]
32
Apart from these, because of practical reasons, they need to possess good
machinability and resistance to warping during heat treatment. Die material’s resistance to
plastic deformation depends on how well it retains its hardness with temperature. It also
depends on its yield strength. Resistance to mechanical shock relies on the material having
good fracture toughness commonly measured in Charpy V-notch testing units. Resistance
to wear depends on tempering resistance with temperature indicated by hardness
measurements at elevated temperatures. Resistance to heat checking depends on the
material having high ductility, good tempering resistance, high yield strength and low
thermal expansion. High heat conductivity and low thermal expansion coefficient in die
materials is desirable because it reduces the temperature gradient or associated thermal
strains which is the cause of thermal fatigue and shock. It is also desirable that the steel
retains all its properties for an extended period under elevated temperatures. The
resistance of a die steel to thermal softening mainly depends on its alloying constituents
and its distribution. The tempering characteristics of these tool steels obtained under
laboratory condition represents very well the die material’s resistance to thermal softening.
Maraging steels are relatively new group of steels that was primarily developed for
aerospace applications. It has high nickel, cobalt and molybdenum content but very little
carbon. After austenitization and quenching the steel, the structure is soft nickel martensite
or similar soft structure with typical hardness of 30 – 40 Rc. Aging this matrix at
temperatures around 500° C results in dispersed precipitation of intermetallic phases. This
precipitation is not concentrated at the grain boundary alone. This dramatically increases
33
the strength without unduly affecting the toughness. Some examples of maraging steels
commercially available are shown in Table 2.5.
Type Ni Co Mo Ti Al C* Si* Mn* S* P*

I- 18.5 8.5 3.25 0.2 .1 .03 .10 .10 .01 .01
II- 18.5 7.5 4.8 0.4 .1 .03 .10 .10 .01 .01
III- 18.5 9 4.8 .6 .1 .03 .10 .10 .01 .01
IV- 18 11.8 4.6 1.35 .1 .03 .10 .10 .01 .01
HWM 2 11 7.5 - - .05 .10 .10 .01 .01
X2NiCo 12 8 8 .5 .5 .03 .10 .10 .01 .01
Marlock( 18.0 11.0 5.0 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.01 0.01
Table 2.5 Composition of common maraging steels, VascoMax is a trade name of
Teledyne, (*) indicates maximum allowed content, (+) trademark of Crucible steel
Its high resistance to thermal shock and high toughness makes Maraging steels
good candidates for dies where the mode of failure is heat checking. Maraging steels, used
in die casting industry, are not very common in forging industry.
Nickel, cobalt and iron based superalloys are another group of die materials that
has excellent potential in hot precision forging. This group of materials has extremely high
temperature strength and thermal softening. Like maraging steels, this group of materials
34
gets its strength from precipitation strengthening of intermetallic compounds like Ni3Al.
There are 4 primary groups of superalloys. They are:
Iron-based alloys. This group comprises of die steels like H-46 and Inconel 706 and
contains over 12% of Chromium. Small amounts of Molybdenum and Tungsten provide
the matrix with high temperature strength. Iron based superalloys also include austenitic
steels with high chromium and nickel content. This group can be used in applications
where dies could heat up to 1200°F.
Nickel-Iron based alloys. This group of alloy contains 24-27% nickel, 10-15% chromium
and 50-60% iron along with small quantities of Molybdenum, Titanium and Vanadium.
The carbon content in these alloys is very small, typically less than .1%.
Nickel based alloys. This group of alloys contains virtually no iron. The primary
constituent of these alloys are nickel (50-80%), chromium (20%) and combination of
molybdenum, aluminum, tungsten, cobalt and columbium. These grades again, get their
strength from solid solution strengthening and can be put to service at temperatures up to
2200° F. Example of nickel-based superalloys are Waspalloy, Udimet 500 and Inconel
718.
Cobalt based alloys.This group of alloys are more ductile than the other groups. Again,
these are age hardenable alloys whose primary constituents are Nickel, Iron, Chromium,
Tungsten and Cobalt. These can be used in applications where it could reach 1900° F.
35
2.3.2 Heat Treatment
Once a die material is purchased to specification and the die cavity manufactured,
the heat treatment it is subjected to has a dramatic effect on the properties of the die
material. Understanding the effects of various elements of heat-treatment should guide the
heat-treat specification on the die.
Before selection of a die material for an application, it is imperative to know what
a material is capable of and the performance levels we can aspire for. Alloying elements
like Chromium, Nickel, Vanadium and Molybdenum play a dramatic role in determining
the range of physical and mechanical properties one can expect from the material. If
properly heat-treated, high alloy die materials are capable of delivering high wear
resistance by retaining its hardness at higher temperatures. In general, if a lower alloy die
material is used, for similar toughness, the wear resistance that one can expect would be
lower. Any attempt to heat treat the material to a higher hardness could potentially lead to
catastrophic failure of dies by reducing the toughness. On the other hand, if we do not
make use of the wear resistance a die material is capable of by heat-treating it to high
toughness values, we may not be utilizing the full potential of the material.
Heat treatment of die steels involves the following steps:
1. After dies are made, it is heated to austenitizing temperature. Austenitizing
temperatures for hot work tool steels range anywhere from 1000° C - 1500° C.
36
During this phase, the structure of steel transforms from ferrite-pearlite structure
to austenite.
2. The dies are held at these temperatures for an extended period. This is the “soak”
or “hold” time. During this stage, the structure becomes uniformly austenitic.
Carbides of alloying elements go into solution.
3. After soaking, the dies are quenched in a quench medium to temperatures below
the transformation temperature. During this phase, based on the cooling rate
different regions of die experiences, transforms into different phases. Martensite is
the ideal final structure, however in practice lower bainite, upper bainite, pearlite
or retained austenite can be present in the structures, specially in blocks with big
section.
4. Tempering is the next stage of heat treatment. Here, martensite formed as a result
of quenching is tempered to a tougher structure. This could be done in more than
one step to maximize the toughness achieved, without sacrificing hardness. These
stages in heat treating a tool steel die are illustrated in Figure 2.14. Table 2.6
shows the hardening and tempering temperatures and procedures for various tool
steels.
37
Figure 2.14. Heat treatment cycle of hot working steels [Krauss, 1995]
38
Continued
Table 2.6. Hardening and tempering temperatures and procedures for tool steels [Roberts,
et al., 1998]
39
Table 2.6. continued
40
2.3.3 Surface Engineering
Surface-engineering of dies are techniques and processes used to induce, modify
and enhance the surfaces properties giving it more wear, corrosion and fatigue resistance.
These techniques do not modify the soft and tough interior of dies. Figure 2.15 shows the
typical surface depths of various surface treatments. Die coatings and surface treatments,
used in forging industry, primarily increase the abrasive wear resistance of dies by
increasing the hardness of the surface layers of the die. Figure 2.16 shows some results
from forging experiments that clearly illustrate the efficacy of surface treatments. These
results were obtained from forging trials performed eccentric crank press. This section lists
different surface treatments applicable to precision forging applications and issues one
need to be aware of that may affect the die performance.
Most surface treatments used in dies and tools are diffusion–based. These
processes rely on diffusion of chemicals into the surface, modifying the surface chemistry
and the mechanical properties of the surface layer. The thickness of the surface treated
layer in these types of diffusion processes rely on the time and temperature at which the
hardening is performed. The time-temperature dependence is of the form shown in
equation 2.8.
D=K t (2.8)
where D is the depth of the hardened case, K is a temperature dependent constant and t is
the time of exposure.
41
Figure 2.15. Thickness of various coatings and surface treatments [Subramanian, et al.,
1996]
Figure 2.16. Comparison of wear amounts of surface treated upsetting tools after 1000
forging cycles with lubricant (Deltaforge-31) [Doege, et al., 1996]
42
Different diffusion based surface hardening techniques which may be applicable to
forging dies are
• Carburizing and pack cementation
• Nitriding
• Carbo-nitriding and Nitro-carburizing
• Boriding
• Toyota Diffusion Process
• Thermo-reactive diffusion
Carburizing is the process of adding carbon to low carbon steels. Not typically
used for forging dies, the process relies on heating the parts to high austenitizing
temperatures of over 1500 °F and exposing the surface to a carbon rich atmosphere.
Carbon diffuses into the austenitic surface of the parts, which are then quenched to
provide a martensitic structure on the surface. As discussed before, martensite has
excellent wear resistance. Coupled with the soft and tough core, this surface treatment
gives the parts good resistance to mechanical shock as well as wear.
Case depths and hardness levels achievable are dependent on the time of exposure
and the richness of carbon at the surface. Prolonged exposure to carbon-rich atmosphere
results in a deep case. However, the surface may have excessive retained austenite and
free carbides, which in turn will result in excessive residual stresses.
Based on the medium used, carburizing can be any of the following.
43
• Gas carburizing
• Vacuum carburizing
• Plasma carburizing
• Salt bath carburizing
• Pack carburizing
Of these, gas carburizing is the most commonly used process because of ease of
process control and low equipment costs. Pack carburizing, the uses a solid carburizing
pack, is also widely used. Carburizing has limited application if precision forging dies
because, dies materials used are medium to high alloy steels. The process has advantages
of flexibility and low cost for low production. However, labor cost for cleaning and
environmental restrictions make the gas or liquid process cheaper. The gas and plasma
carburizing process are also more controllable.
Nitriding, similar to carburizing, is a process of hardening the surface by diffusing
nitrogen into the surface. Nitriding processes are performed at temperatures between 925
and 1050 °F (500 to 550 °C) [Asm, 1964] where the structure is still ferritic. The process
results in formation of and outer case of Fe3N and a inner layer that is strengthened by a
solid solution of N. In some cases, a white layer of Fe4N is formed. This layer, also called
the “white layer”, may easily spall during use and has to be avoided.
Steels nitrided are typically medium carbon steels with strong nitride-forming
elements like aluminum, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. It is important that
tempering of the die steel be performed at a temperature exceeding the nitriding
44
temperature prior to nitriding in order to optimize the property combination of the core
and the surface of the dies. Also, because of the low nitriding temperatures, there is
generally little distortion from this heat treating process.
Although the depth and hardness of the nitride case depends a great deal on the
nitriding time, these properties (particularly the hardness) are sharply dependent on the
composition of the steel as well. Die steels containing large amounts of strong nitride
formers such as chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum form shallow, very hard surface
layers. On the other hand, low-alloy chromium-containing die steels (such as 6G, 6F2)
form deeper surface layers which are tougher, but not as hard.
There are many techniques for nitriding: gas-nitriding, liquid-bath nitriding, ion-
nitriding, etc. Each of these will be discussed separately.
Gas Nitriding: Gas nitriding is a surface hardening process in which nitrogen is
introduced into the surface layers of ferrous materials by holding them in contact with a
nitrogen-containing gas, which is usually, ammonia. Because a brittle, nitrogen-rich layer
(the "white nitride layer") is produced by this process, the depth of the nitrided case is
usually kept small. Sometimes, a special two-stage gas-nitriding process, which minimizes
the depth of this layer, is employed [Weist and Westheide, 1986]
Liquid nitriding: Nitriding in a liquid salt bath, or liquid nitriding, is performed at
the same temperatures as gas nitriding, approximately 925 to 1050 °F (496 to 566 °C), but
typically requires less time than conventional single-stage gas nitriding. The salt baths
45
consist primarily of mixtures (in varying proportions) of sodium and potassium cyanide
(from which the nitrogen is released during nitriding) and sodium carbonate, potassium
carbonate, and potassium chloride. These baths result in cases containing both nitrogen
and carbon compounds. Modifications of this heat treating procedure include a process
involving aeration. [Asm, 1964] This leads to a less brittle case of Fe3N compared to gas
nitriding process which develops cases containing very brittle iron compounds richer in
nitrogen (e.g., Fe2N). Commercially, liquid bath nitriding processes such as Tufftriding
process have been used on metalworking tooling.
Ion-nitriding, also known as plasma nitriding and glow-discharge nitriding, is yet
another form and probably the most recently developed method of alloying the surface
layers of ferrous parts with nitrogen. [Taylor and Tookey, 1981], [Edenhofer, 1976]. In
this process, a part to be nitrided is placed in a reaction vessel into which an atmosphere
containing nitrogen and hydrogen are introduced. The part is electric resistance heated to
930 °F. It is made the cathode and the reaction vessel the anode in an electric circuit. A
glow discharge between the vessel and the part causes ionization of the gases, causing
nitrogen ions to impinge upon the surface of the part. Because these ions have much
greater energy than those in gas or liquid nitriding, penetration and thus surface nitriding is
much quicker in ion-nitriding. Among other advantages of this form of nitriding is the
ability to control and minimize the extent of brittle "white-layer" formation. In fact, with
proper atmosphere control, nitriding surfaces of Fe4N can be formed. This compound is
very ductile, and thus parts with hard, wear-resistant, and tough surfaces may be
46
produced. The major drawback of this method is the need for a special reaction vessel
whose size limits the size of parts that can be treated.
Nitriding can be used in conjunction with alloy selection to selectively enhance
resistance to certain modes of failure. In Table 2.7, Krishnadev [Krishnadev and Jain,
1997] presents efficiency of various surface treatments in increasing resistance to
mechanical failure, thermal softening, heat checking and wear.
Krishnadev [Krishnadev and Jain, 1997] also presents toughness, hot hardness and
softening characteristics of nitrided and non-nitrided of H-13 and alloys of similar
composition. Figures also show the different levels of hardness and toughness achievable
with different coatings and nitriding.
47
Table 2.7. Response of different tool steels to several surface engineering towards
enhancement of toughness, hot hardness, heat checking, temper resistance [Krishnadev
and Jain, 1997]
Efficacy of nitrided tools were tested by Dean and others [Dean and Sturgess,
1987] using extrusion type testing. Relative wear rates of nitrided and non-nitrided tool
steels in extrusion they obtained are shown in Figure 2.17. Dean indicates that nitriding
reduces wear as much as 50%.
48
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Continued
Figure 2.17. Results for hot work tool steels in the H13 group presented by Krishnadev
[Krishnadev and Jain, 1997] (a) Composition (b) toughness (c) hot hardness (d) softening
of the alloys 2-3 with and without nitriding e) Hardness achievable with different coatings
and the alloys chemical composition f) Charpy impact toughness of H-13 and treated alloy
No. 3
49
Figure 2.17. continued
(e)
(f)
Carbo-nitriding and nitro-carburizing are diffusion – based surface treatment
techniques that combine the effects of nitriding and carburizing. Carbo-nitriding relies on
hardening carburized austenitic surface layers using nitrogen as an agent. It is performed
at temperatures where austenite is stable. Nitrogen and carbon diffuses into the surface.
Carbon, on quenching, provides the superior hardness levels. Nitrogen increases the
hardenability of the surface, thus reducing the need for drastic cooling and subsequent
50
high distortion. It should be noted that nitrogen, like carbon is an austenite stabilizer.
Excessively rich carbo-nitriding medium and prolonged times may result in high nitrogen
concentrations at the surface that may result in high levels of retained austenite. Retained
austenite is detrimental to hardness and wear resistance.
Austenitic nitro-carburizing relies on formation of Fe3N (ε carbo-nitrides) at the
surface to improve the hardness levels. It is carried out at temperatures of 675 °C to 775
°C. Because the mechanism relies on the formation of carbo-nitrides and not carbon or
nitrogen trapped in surface matrix, there is no need for quenching. This process, hence,
results in low distortions.
Ferritic nitro-carburizing displays superior fatigue resistance and relies on both
formation of ε carbo-nitrides and diffusion of carbon and nitrogen into the substrate. The
process is carried out at temperatures where the surface is still ferritic – around 570 °C.
Diffused nitrogen is trapped in a solid solution by quenching in oil. The white layer of ε
carbo-nitrides improves the wear resistance while the diffused layer results in
improvements in fatigue strengths upto 120% [Asm, 1964]. The yield strength of the
substrate surface also increases. For this treatment to be effective, the surface layers need
to be clean of oxides, scales, oil or other contaminants. Vapor degreasing or grit blasting
with fine abrasives may be necessary steps to achieve the most out of ferritic nitro-
carburizing process. Various processes exist like Nitemper process, Alnat-N process and
51
black nitro-carburizing that rely on controlling the composition of white layer formed. For
details on this processes, refer to ASM handbook [Asm, 1964].
Venkatesan and others [Venkatesan, et al., 1998] have evaluated nitro-carburized
dies and compared its performance with quench and tempered H-13 and ASM 6F3,
Nitrided H-13, Borided and Vanadized (TD) H-13. Results obtained from their tests are
provided in Table 2.8. They found that nitro-carburized dies performed very well
compared to untreated H-13. Details of the process they used is unknown.
H13 Dies 6F3 Dies

Treatments Top Bottom Top Bottom
Q&T 46 110 156 236
Nitro-carburized 4 5 5 37
Nitrided 10 12 11 9
Borided 5 6 0 0
Vanadised 0 0 0 0
Table 2.8. Average maximum wear depths (µm) on surface engineered dies after upsetting
500 AISI 1040 steel billets at 1070° C [Venkatesan, et al., 1998]
Boriding or boronizing process relies on diffusion and subsequent absorption of
boron atoms in the metallic lattice and formation of interstitial boron compounds to harden
the structure. Diffusion treatment can be carried out in either a gas, molten salt, or pack
media at a temperature between 700 °C to 1000 °C, depending upon the process and the
52
material to be borided. Extremely hard-surface layers ranging from 11450 to 5000 HV
that has a low coefficient of friction are formed if the base metal forms borides. The
process does not require quenching. If the base material has to be heat treated, the heat
treatment can be done after boriding, although care is required to reduce quenching
stresses to prevent spalling of the borided layer. Borided layers resist thermal softening
better than nitrided layers. They also exhibit moderate to high resistance to oxidation.
However, boriding provides marginal increase in fatigue endurance limits.
Boriding of steels is also done electrolytically. Boron atoms are electro-deposited
onto the metal from a bath of molten salt containing fluorides of lithium, sodium,
potassium and boron. The dies are borided in the 1470 F (800 C) to 1650 F (900 C)
temperature range in an atmosphere of argon or a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Thickness of coating is from 0.0005 to 0.002 in (0.013 to 0.05 mm), and treatment lasts
15 minutes to 5 hours [Fiedler and Dobnar, 1972].
It has been stated that boriding results in undesirable interaction with alloying
elements of hot-work die steels (H series) and develops a soft layer [Burgreev and Dobar,
1972]. Porosity in the borided layer can develop for steels, which require post-boriding
heat treatment. For this reason, it is preferred to limit boriding to those alloys that do not
require further high-temperature treatment. For example, A6 (075 C, 20.0 Mn, 0.3 Si, 1.0
Cr, 1.35 Mo) air-hardening steel can be hardened from the boriding temperature by
cooling in air, and only requires tempering. This steel, therefore, can be safely borided.
53
Boriding process is also known to improve the wear resistance by forming borides
with the subsurface die steel. Shivpuri and Semiatin [Shivpuri and Semiatin, 1988] report
work by Vincze who borided dies at 900° C for 3 hours followed by quench and temper.
Vincze reported an increase in wear resistance of borided dies by 70% compared to
untreated dies. Burgreev and Dobnar [Burgreev and Dobar, 1972] also report large
increase in hammer die forging die life when boriding is used.
As reported earlier, Venkatesan and others [Venkatesan, et al., 1998] also report
enhanced wear resistance of borided tools compared to untreated dies. Boriding low alloy
steels result in a jagged boride layer that are deeper than boride layers formed in high alloy
steels. This is because, alloying elements reduce the diffusion of boron into the substrate.
This may explain results obtained by Venkatesan who found that performance levels of
borided H-13 are comparable to nitro-carburizing. However, they found that the efficacy
of boriding was higher with low alloy die steels like 6F3.
Thermo-reactive processes also called Toyota diffusion process (TD process) is
another diffusion type process that relies on forming hard carbides of V, Cr and Nb on the
surface of dies. The process is performed by placing preheated dies in a molten borax bath
at temperatures from 850 °C to 1050 °C for times ranging from ½ to 10 hours. The bath
also contains strong carbide forming elements like Niobium, Vanadium, Titanium, and
Chromium. Unlike other processes discussed earlier, TRD process results in buildup of
surface of carbides. Also, Vanadium and chromium diffuse into the steel substrate forming
iron-chromium and iron-vanadium solid solution layers beneath the carbide layer. After
54
treating, the die is quenched in air, salt or oil and tempered. Drastic quenching may cause
unacceptable distortion and needs to be avoided. To reduce distortion, it is preferable to
pre-machine and grind the dies before TRD processing. Best results are obtained for steels
with atleast .3% C.
Dies processed by this method have excellent wear resistance and resistance to
corrosion and oxidation. Arai [Arai, 1992, Arai, 1995, Arai, et al., 1995, Arai and Iwama,
1981, Arai and Komatsu, 1982, Tsuchiya, et al., 1997] has done a lot of work in validating
the use of TRD process in cold and hot forging. By coating 3” flashless dies made of SKD
62 with Cr Carbide using the TD process, he was able to double the life of dies. The life of
dies increased from 5000 to 10,600. Arai also reports that TD treated steels did not peel
or crack under repeated blows with a pointed hammer. Under similar conditions, TiC
coated by PVD or CVD cracked after 50,000 pieces and peeled after 1000,000 pieces.
Venkatesan and others [Venkatesan, et al., 1998] found that vandalized dies
showed the least wear of the tested specimen compared to nitro-carburizing and boriding.
They also noted that vanadized dies showed no traces of wear irrespective of the type of
substrate used. They also noted that nitro-carburizing and nitriding resulted in similar wear
rates for both types of die steels used in the study.
2.3.4 Hard coatings and advanced materials
The hardfacing is a coating process that applies a surface deposit that
metallurgically bonds to the base material. In the past, the process was used primarily for
55
repair and maintenance of dies and molds. Now, it is increasingly being used as an
inexpensive means for depositing a hard layer on localized wear-prone die areas. Nugent
[Nugent, 1986] reports in his study that weld deposits of Alloy 625 increased forging die
life by 400%.
Hardfacing or welding alloys are generally based on iron, cobalt and nickel metals.
Hard phases are formed by addition of carbon (in Fe) or boron (in Ni). The preferred
application methods for various alloys are: iron alloys deposited by surface weld methods,
cobalt alloys by welding and powder surfacing and hard nickel alloys in the form of
powder. The volume fraction for hard phase is very important for the wear resistance in
the weld deposit. Often there is no proportional dependence and the best wear resistance
is not achieved by the highest hard phase concentration.
Various ferrous alloys are used to repair steel dies or to lay down deposits of
better wear and heat resistance in the welded deposit. Often there is no proportional
dependence and the best wear resistance in not achieved by the highest hard phase
concentration. Different microstructural combinations are used to increase wear resistance
of tool steel, these include transformation behavior (bainite, eutectic) and the use of
carbide forming elements where chromium is used as alloying element. Austenitic and
austenitic-ferritic material is preferred for wear resistance under higher loads.
Hard-faced tool steels have to be heat treated before use. However, hyper-eutectic
cast or carbide sinter alloys are not suitable for heat treatment and the weldment from
56
carbide filler rods exhibit the required material properties directly after welding. In respect
of the economic importance, hard facing with iron base alloys predominates in comparison
with nickel and chromium alloys [Farmer, 1979]. This is more relevant with the increasing
automation of hard surfacing and the use of robots in welding systems.
Nickel- and cobalt-base alloys are the usual choices for hard-facing of dies.
Questions concerning the transformation or primary phase instability during hard surfacing
process can be considered of secondary importance in hard cobalt or nickel alloys. The
material properties are present after solidification from melt. Use of these alloys in
hardfacing offers a considerable saving over die blocks of these alloys. In a typical
hardfacing operation, one or two layer of alloy, each about 0.010 to 0.050 in. (0.25 +to
1.27 mm) thick are deposited in the die. If a very large amount of buildup is desired or
require, however, it is advisable to apply layers of stainless steel, high nickel alloy, or low-
alloy filler metal first rather than many layers of hardfacing material [Deevi and Sikka,
1996].
Hard nickel alloys are processed generally as metal powders (P/M) and to a lesser
extent as cast rod and electrode. Some nickel base alloys are applied as layers. With
several alloys, the hardening during loading is used to increase the wear strength, e.g. for
cladding cutting tools and die blocks for hot working.
The weld deposits used could be one of the following.
• Deposits of identical material onto a die block to repair it or to allow resinking
57
• Deposits of higher alloy steels (e.g., chromium hot-work steels) onto the die surface of
low-alloy steels to improve the service performance of the dies (e.g., wear and heat
resistance).
• Deposits of hard or high-temperature materials (usually cobalt or nickel-based alloys)
onto low-alloy or hot-work steels to improve the service performance of the dies.
Apart from conventional hardfacing alloys, weld material could come from one of
the many advanced materials, like ceramics and intermetallics. Ceramics are chemically
inert compounds that can retain its properties at high temperatures. These may be
potentially good candidates for applications where toughness is not an issues but hot
strength and resistance to oxidation is very critical. Hot pressed Silicon Nitride is a
ceramic that has extremely high hardness, high toughness and wear resistance. Currently it
is used in applications like nozzle rings, bearings, rotors and cam followers in internal
combustion engines. It also has good thermal shock resistance and good hot hardness and
maintains its temperature and oxidation resistance at 1200° C. Applications of Silicon
Nitride as a coating, is however, limited because of its poor adhesion with the substrate.
Silicon Aluminum Oxynitride (Sialon) is a new group of solid solution
compositions that also possesses excellent thermal shock resistance. Sialons have similar
properties as Silicon Nitride but Sialons have a superior resistance to oxidation at high
temperatures. Silicon Carbide with extremely high hardness is normally used in grinding
wheels as well as various internal combustion engine parts like valve seats and flame cans.
Several ceramics and carbides exist that have application in precision forging either as
58
inserts or as coatings. It should be realized that these compounds typically lack tensile
strength and needs to be constrained in a shrink ring. Also, they may not be applicable as
coatings because of their lack of adhesion to the substrate and their dissimilar thermal
expansion coefficients that may lead to cracking.
Nickel aluminides are relatively new intermetallic die materials that exhibit better
high temperature properties compared to conventional hot work steels and nickel based
superalloys like IN 718. Although this is a relatively new compound, it is the same
compound (γ’ compound) that gives superalloys like 718, its strength on aging.
The application of Nickel Aluminide in hot and warm forging is very new.
Although soft at room temperatures, nickel aluminides retain their yield strengths at higher
temperatures. Figure 2.18 shows typical yield strengths and tensile strengths of Nickel
Aluminides compared to hastealloy and stainless steel. . The yield strength of these
intermetallic compounds increases with temperature up to 500 °C beyond which the yield
strength drops. The relatively high hot hardness gives these intermetallics, very high wear
coefficients. Tests that have been done industries show up to 10X life increase for
preforming dies. The high yield strength also gives nickel aluminide relatively late crack
initiation as indicated.
59
Figure 2.18. Comparison of yield strength of IC-15 to those of other high temperature
alloys.
2.4 Conclusions
The yield strength of the die material at the surface, exposed to the high contact
temperatures, is one fundamental property influencing die failure. It affects the occurrence
of the following failures:
• Plastic deformation
• Thermal fatigue (crack initiation)
• Mechanical Fatigue (crack initiation)
60
• Wear
As the hot and warm forging dies reach high temperature during the working
cycles, it is necessary that the hot yield strength stays stable during the hot work. The yield
strength is the property that directly resists the working pressure, and keeps the dies
working in the elastic field macroscopically. This working condition will provide forged
pieces inside the geometrical tolerance range. However, critical regions of dies can be
subjected to high stresses that can lead to plastic deformation. The thermal stress-strain, or
the mechanical stress-strain state can cause thermal fatigue or mechanical fatigue,
respectively. As the amount of plastic strain is the driven cause for fatigue crack initiation,
high yield strength will reduce the amount of plastic strain, retarding or avoiding the crack
initiation. The wear resistance is direct proportional to the yield strength, represented in
the models by the hardness.
The ductility or plasticity of the hot work tool steel is other important property.
Although the dies should work in the elastic regime, localized plastic deformations can
occur. The plastic deformations from thermal origin are difficult to avoid, especially in
regions of high thermal load. In this case, the number of cycle to crack initiation will be
direct proportional to the ductility limit (area reduction in tensile test). Also, crack
propagation is believed to be controlled by plastic deformation in the low cycle fatigue
regimes typical in warm and hot forging.
The toughness or fracture toughness is the materials ability to resist crack growth.
This property will allow the dies to work at a higher stress-crack size without reach the
61
condition for fragile fracture that will leads to the die catastrophic failure. Low toughness
also increases the crack growth rate.
From the fundamentals of wear, we can safely say that apart from hardness and
subsequent softening of die materials, pressures and the amount of sliding also affect the
failure rates. As discussed in previous chapters, pressure is primarily dictated by forging
material, forging temperature, lubricant used and the geometry of the dies. It also depends
on the die closure, flash and the type of forging equipment used. The preform shape,
lubricant and flash, control sliding distances dies experience during forging. Surface
hardness depends on, apart from the alloy composition and microstructure, coating or
surface treatments used, lubricant, thermal cycling and to an extent, preheating.
Unfortunately, the interaction of the forging parameters and the wear and failure
rates is too complex to draw any direct correlation. For instance, forging temperature
reduces the wear resistance of the surface. Also, higher temperatures typically produce
thicker, but not necessarily more adherent, scale. Scales, if adherent, increases wear.
However, the loads felt by the die are lower because of the lower flow stress of the
material at high temperatures. Wear rates, here, would be controlled the relative
magnitudes of these effects and can be predicted only by analyzing all these factors
together.
It is also important to note that dwell times, heating times and cycle times also
have contrasting effects on wear of dies. Increased heating time would increase scale
62
formation. In a 2 or 3-step operation involving descaling, this would not be a big factor.
But process designs that employ single blows should pay special attention to heating times
and heating atmosphere. On a side note, thicker scales act as insulators and keep the billet
hotter. Sometimes, scales also act as lubricant, reducing loads. By increasing dwell time,
when the die is in contact with the billet, the lower dies experience substantial softening.
But this also cools the billet in contact with the lower die, reducing sliding. Preheating,
though effective in reducing the chance of catastrophic failure and thermal fatigue,
increases wear by reducing the hardness and wear resistance.
As we see, there are many controlling factors that affect wear and die failure. It is
important to evaluate wear as a cumulative result of all these process variables. There are
several models proposed in the literature that try to capture some of these relationships.
There are several interrelated parameters that affect the performance of forging
dies. In working to improve hot and warm forging dies performance the fundamental step
is to identify what is the dominant failure mechanism. Only with this information, it is
possible to improve the correct properties, and optimize the correct process parameters
that will result in better die performance. During this process, it should be noted that
solutions to reduce wear are different from those that reduce thermal fatigue and
mechanical fatigue. Use of computer simulations [Painter, et al., 1996, Tulsyan, et al.,
1993] could be a necessary first step to evaluate the conditions at the die-billet interface
before a good solution can be obtained.
63
Although there are several modes of die and tooling failure, because of safety
reasons, the main concern of a tool designer is catastrophic failure of dies. In very few
cases, designers employ predictive model to design tooling to avoid catastrophic failure.
The tendency, in forging industry, is to use material with low hardness and high toughness.
However, beyond a point, toughness does not bring any benefit to the die life. Because of
lock of good understanding of fatigue failure, the design and material choice is done very
conservatively.
Low hardness, because of lower alloying content, reduces the wear resistance. The
wear resistance is function of the tool steel hot hardness, and the carbides in the matrix
(amount, size, and hot hardness). However, generally these carbides reduce the ductility
and toughness. Carbides, necessary to resist wear, can be detrimental to resist die fracture
(toughness) and fatigue (ductility). The wear resistance needs the material to possess hot
yield strength. Thermal fatigue resistance is improved by both critical ductility is at room
temperature and hot hardness. The alloying contents command both hot hardness and
ductility. By carefully tailoring the microstructure and alloy content to the application, it is
possible to balance the different failure mechanisms such that the tool life is highest. The
alloying content in the matrix can be modified by the heat treatment that controls the
dissolved alloys in carbide form. However, higher the undissolved carbides, higher is the
wear resistance. But the thermal fatigue resistance reduces with higher amounts of
undissolved carbide. As can be seen, there is a complex inter-relation between failures
64
mechanisms and properties that need to be understood and applied correctly to improve
the life of the dies for hot and warm forging.
We understand that the wear needs a more detailed evaluation under the conditions
usually found in hot and warm forging, and the same is valid for the interactions between
wear and the thermal fatigue. Based in these needs we developed a new test for
applications to die forging at high temperature that can evaluate simultaneously the wear-
thermal fatigue failure mechanisms.
It is essential to understand the mechanisms of die failure completely before we can
attempt to increase die lives. As mentioned before, die wear is the major mechanism of die
failure in high temperature forging, followed by mechanical fatigue. We emphasize that the
wear failure initiation can caused or increased by thermal fatigue, as indicated by: micro
observation of the die cavity, and the higher wear rate in dies with more severe
temperature cycle. However, in most cases, several modes of failure act in conjunction. In
this section, we summarize the effect of various criterions on die failure.
65
CHAPTER 3
MODELING OF TEMPERING AND WEAR
3.1 Overview of Past Studies in Modeling of Tempering, Wear and Die Life
It is clear from the previous section that wear is the primary mode of failure in hot
forging. This section will go into the physical and metallurgical phenomena occurring at
the surface and list a few process issues that could positively or negatively impact wear.
Figure 3.1 shows various factors that control extent of abrasive wear in hot forging.
Abrasive wear in hot forging occurs due to the following series of events.
• The die surface is heated to extremely high temperatures either because of high
contact times or due to poor or no lubrication.
• Prolonged and repeated exposure to high temperatures results in oxidation of surface
and gradual loss of hardness at the die surface
At convex areas of the dies, metal slides past radii at pressures ranging from as low as the
flow stress of the metal (near the flash region) or as high as 5-8 times the flow stress of the
66
material near the centers. Hard particles in the forging material, scales and other hard
contaminants erode the soft shell of the dies gradually degrading the die surface.
Figure 3.1. Various process and material
Figure 3.2 clearly shows how the temperatures of dies vary during a forging
process for a hot forging performed in a hydraulic press and a hammer. In a hydraulic
press, the dies are exposed to hot billets for a longer period of time compared to hammer
67
forging. Subsequently, dies could get substantially hotter compared to hammer forging
dies. Also, it should be noted that because the lower dies experience higher temperatures
compared to the top die because the billets are in contact with the bottom die for a longer
period of time.
Figure 3.2. Variation of die temperatures during a hot forging cycle
68
Also, from the event progression, the following can be deduced
1. Higher preheat temperatures will result in higher overall die temperatures and
hence a higher hardness loss at the surface. For most tool steels, this translates into
a higher rate of wear (Figure 3.3). Die preheating also affects phase transformation
at die surface. In some cases, the phase at the surface transforms from martensite
to austenite during the heating followed by the transformation back to untempered
martensite [Okell and Wolstencroft, 1968]
2. Higher forging temperature typically increase the die surface temperatures and
possible oxidation of the die surface
3. Better lubrication reduces heat transfer into the dies and will reduce extent of
tempering that occurs at the surface. Also, typically, better lubrication also lowers
the local pressures on the tool surface that causes wear rates to increase (Figure
3.4)
69
Figure 3.3. Effect of forging temperature on the wear depth after forging 4000 pieces
[Netthofel, 1965]
70
Figure 3.4. Variation of wear volume with die bulk temperature for lubricated and dry
forging [Singh, et al., 1973]
Metallurgical changes on the die surface
While the bulk die temperature in hot forging is usually around 350°F, the dies
sub-surface temperature usually reaches 1100°F, although the peak temperature at surface
can reach as high as 1650°F in certain applications.
To understand the effect of tempering temperature and time on hardness, one
needs to understand the transformed microstructure of H-13 or other tool steels. Wear
resistance and resistance to plastic deformation and thermal fatigue depends directly on
the structure. The following section describes the changes that occur in tool steels during
71
the heat treatment process. It is necessary to understand the heat treatment process before
one understand what happens to tools exposure to prolonged high temperature during
service.
Quenched structure of any tool steel usually is a combination of untempered
martensite, retained austenite and carbides retained from austenitization. Typical hot
forging tool steels like H13 transforms into martensite completely if it is quenched to
300°C in 1000 seconds. Martensitic state is formed by sudden shear of parent austenite
because the rapid cooling that results in martensite does not provide any time for diffusion
of carbon atom from the austenitic lattice. Given the opportunity, carbon and other
elements will diffuse towards forming spherodized structures that represent lower energy
states.
Low alloy or plain carbon steels rapidly loose their hardness when tempered. This
is primarily due to rapid coarsening of cementite. For carbon steels, tempering occurs in
well documented 3 stages. These stages are
• Between 200-400 °F transition carbides are formed and the carbon content of
martensite is lowered to about .25%
• Between 400 and 575 °F retained austenite is transformed to more stable bainite,
ferrite and cementite. This usually results in substantial softening of the structure.
Above 500°F, the matrix slowly transforms to ferrite and cementite, which grows in size.
In tool steels, these mechanisms are slowed down due to the presence of alloy elements.
72
Here, the first stage of softening (2-6 Rockwell points) occurs from room
temperature to about 520 °F. In this stage, the martensite decomposes to tempered cubic
martensite accompanied by the rejection of carbon from the matrix. This forms finely
divided epsilon carbides, a transition phase that disappears as cementite forms between
570 °F to 750 °F. With time, cementite formed also starts growing in size. This growth is
however, much slower than plain carbon steel because of the slower rates of diffusion.
During the second stage of tempering, occurring between 750 °F and 1050 °F,
cementite partly goes into solution. This stage is accompanied by precipitation of
secondary alloy carbides. In H-13 and other medium to high alloy tool steels, diffusion of
carbon is substantially slowed by the presence of alloy elements. Alloy elements diffuse
substitutionally unlike carbon, which diffuse interstitially. As a result, these reactions
require substantially longer exposure to high temperatures. Because of precipitation of
metallic carbides, there is an accentuated reduction in toughness in the region of secondary
hardness peak. This is illustrated in Figure 3.5. For hot forging dies, it is important to
temper at a temperature that exceeds this critical point. Tempering at temperatures just
above the secondary peak gives the maximum hardness, desirable for good performance in
thermal fatigue and wear. However, if the dies experience extreme mechanical loads, an
increase in tempering temperature increases the toughness.
73
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5. Drop in toughness of H-13 with secondary hardening. a) represents toughness
in Charpy V-notch energy, b) represents toughness in Kic [Pickering, 1987]
The third stage of tempering occurs when retained austenite transforms to
secondary bainitic and martensitic structures resulting in marked increase in hardness. H-
13 is typically double tempered and higher alloy tool steels triple tempered to ensure
retained austenite content is reduced. When tools are put into service they have are usually
heat treated to a point beyond the secondary harness peak. This also ensures that the
toughness never gets any worse during service.
During service, subsequent exposure to elevated temperatures results in coarsening
of both secondary alloy carbides and cementite and the gradual depletion of carbon from
the martensitic matrix. This gradually moves the structure at the surface down the
hardness scale. However, the core properties do not deviate substantially from the initial
set of properties.
74
Alloying elements have a strong effect on the die’s resistance to thermal softening.
Higher carbon results in higher hardness achievable. However, hardenability is unaffected
by carbon content. As a result while the surface hardens due to quenching and tempering,
the core remains relatively soft. Also, more of the surface austenite transforms to
martensite, which is less dense than ferrite-pearlite mix. The phase differential causes
quench cracking. Also, carbon dominated hardness quickly tempers on exposure to high
temperatures as the diffusivity of carbon is very high.
Tool steels in hot work applications rely on strong carbide formers, like V, Mo, T,
Cr, etc. to provide hardenability and resistance to thermal softening. Not only do the alloy
carbides provide hard particles to resist wear, but the presence of alloy atoms in the crystal
structure slows down diffusion of carbon.
For example, .13% Vanadium has the ability to flatten the slope of a tempering
curve by 50%. This means that after 2 hours of tempering (after quenching or during hot
working), tool steel with .13% V will result in a drop of hardness of half the value
compared to a pure iron-carbon structure. However, in order for this to happen, these
elements have to be dissolved in the austenite during austenitization.
75
3.2. Characterization of Thermal Softening
Hardness of as-quenched martensite is a function of the carbon content. Tempering
of this structure improves the strength and toughness of the quenched die steel by stress
relieving and atomic rearrangement. Due to reasons discussed before, the tempering time
and temperatures have similar effects on the microstructure, and is heavily influenced by
the material structure. Modeling this phenomena through a phenomenological approach, is
hence extremely difficult and impractical. Hence manufacturers resort to empirical curves
to indicate the tempering characteristics of materials.
Usually, the tempering curves from steel producers provide variation of hardness
with tempering temperatures for a fixed time of one or two hours. Heat treaters use this
information to come up with charts and thumb-rules that relate the tempering times to the
bar or tool thickness and the hardness required. No fundamental models have been
reported that relates hardness measured to softening mechanisms that include time and
temperature.
To reveal the tempering effect, Shi [Shi and Liu, 2004] performed tensile tests at
elevated temperatures with various soaking times and heat treatment. He performed these
tests on hardened AISI 52100 steel. Shi found that at the same temperature level the flow
stress is smaller for the specimens that received stronger tempering, and the decrease of
strength due to tempering effect becomes more pronounced at high temperatures. He
76
modeled tempering effect and expressed it as a function of thermal history and material
hardness.
A better approach to specifying effect of tempering is using charts and functions
that track hardness with a combination of time and temperature. The first relationships
that relate time and temperature to the resulting hardness were proposed by Hollomon and
Jaffe. Several work followed this initial effort. Figure 3.6 shows the master tempering
curves for H-13 using parameters by Larson and Miller and Holloman and Jaffe.
These curves provide us a means for calculating the effects of short spurts of high
temperatures on the hardness, by giving us a method to compare and accumulate relative
effectiveness of various levels of temperatures and times. The Hollomon Jaffe parameter
(or an equivalent Larson Miller parameter) captures the dominant influence of temperature
in relation to time, using a model of the form given in parameter equation 3.1.
Master tempering parameter = T . (C + LOG (t)) (3.1)
where C is a material constant, T the temperature and t is the isothermal time at
temperature T. Plots of the master tempering parameter with the hardness serve as a
means Using these curves, we can predict what the resulting hardness will be if we temper
a steel block for a specific duration at a specified temperature. For steels, C is generally
between 10 and 15. For H13 tool steel, the tempering parameter is about 16.5 (and 20 if
Larson Miller relationship is used).
77
According to Oddy, the degree of tempering can be defined by a dimensionless
ratio in terms of material hardness change, as
H0 − H
φ= (3.2)
H0 − H∞
where, H(0) is the initial, as-quenched hardness of the work material, H(∞) is the fully
softened hardness value, H is the tempered hardness at moment t. While a simplified
linear relationship between the tempering parameter (Holloman Jaffe) and the hardness
works under most cases, Oddy [Oddy, 1996] proposed a exponential relationship
(Equation 3.3)
 Tempering.Parameter 
φ = A. exp  (3.3)
 B 
where A and B are material constants.
3.3. Prior work in Wear Characterization
There are several trends and thumb-rules that exist that describe the effect of
various process parameters like lubricant application and forging temperature on wear.
However, any trend found in the literature, derived from actual production setting, has to
be treated with caution. Information obtained from production source is “noisy” because
there is little control over forging process variables like temperature, forging cycle times,
lubricant spray duration and quantity. In addition, data and trend applicable to one part
78
family may not be applicable to a different part family. Differences in process conditions,
die and forging material may result in a completely different wear results.
Figure 3.6. Master tempering curve for premium H13 were: P= Larson-Miller parameter,
T is temperature (°F), t is time in seconds [Carpenter, 1999]
As discussed earlier, wear in hot and warm forging is directly proportional to the
interface pressure, sliding distance and inversely proportional to the die’s surface hardness.
If geometry of the die is complex, modeling and predicting the sliding distances and
pressures is difficult. Quantifying wear in such cases can also be tedious. Hence, several
researchers have resorted to using simple geometries for testing.
Controlled experiments to overcome the deficiencies of modeling with production
data have been performed with simple cylindrical work pieces [Aston and Barry, 1972,
79
Aston, et al., 1972, Batit, et al., 1983, Dennis and Mahmoud, 1987, Felder and Montagut,
1980, Felder and Montagut, 1980, Sharma and Arrowsmith, 1981, Thomas, 1970,
Tittagala, et al., 1982], extrusion type pieces [Doege, et al., 1996] and more complex
geometries[Dean, 1974, Dean, 1966, Silva and Dean, 1971]. A few of these pertaining to
precision forging are reviewed in this paper.
Wear evaluation performed by forging cylindrical test billets between flat dies
relies on measuring wear profiles using surface finish measuring machines. The test setup
used and typical profile obtained after substantial wear of the flat dies is shown in Figure
3.7.
Figure 3.7 Typical cylinder tests used to characterize wear and resulting measurable wear
pattern [Singh, et al., 1973]
80
Tittagala and Bramley [Tittagala, et al., 1982] recommended and performed pin-
on-disc type experiments to study wear of different die materials. The schematics of their
tests are shown in Figure 3.8. In this setup, they mount the die in a lathe spindle and the
heated workpiece in an eccentrically positioned tailstock. The setup has provisions to
exert an axial pressure on the die and intermittently heat the dies and the workpiece to
predetermined set points. However, Bramley and others conduct the test at an axial
pressure lower than the yield strength of the billet material. After the test setup was
validated, Bramley [Bramley, et al., 1989] conducted tests to study the effect of
workpiece temperature, die preheat temperature, load, contact duration, frequency of
lubrication and lubricant concentration on the wear.
Figure 3.8. Experimental setup used by Tittagala and others [Tittagala, et al., 1982]
81
More recently, researchers around the world are trying to combine FEM
techniques to design more complicated tooling for wear testing. Bariani and other
[Bariani, et al., 1996] have used a Gleeble 2000 testing machine to upset cylindrical steel
(DIN Ck40) billets between double acting punches made of X38CrMoV51 heat treated to
54 Rc. The punches had more complicated geometries (Figure 3.9). Using this setup, they
were able to observe and measure wear using a coordinate measuring machine after only
forging 50 pieces. Based on wear measurements, tool hardness measurements and
pressure and sliding velocities obtained from layered wax models and finite element
simulations, they were able to arrive at wear constants for different regions of the punch.
Silva and Dean [Silva and Dean, 1971] also conducted trials using dies that
resembled real production dies (Figure 3.10). They used cold rolled EN-8 billets induction
heated to 1040° C and forged on a Mk IID Petro-Forge hammer. The billets were not
descaled before forging. The dies were made of Uddeholm’s 5% Cr die steel, similar in
composition to H-13, heat treated to 46-48 Rc. Doege, Melching and Kowallick [Doege,
1978] used automated heading machine to forge 1045 steel disks into cups using an
extrusion type process (Figure 3.11). Die heaters were used to keep the temperature
within preset range. After every 300 pieces, Doege and coworkers used a surface-
measuring machine to measure the average distance between the worn and unworn profile.
They used this as a measure of wear.
82
Figure 3.9. Punch designs used by Bariani [Bariani, et al., 1996]
Figure 3.10. Dies used by Silva and Dean for wear characterization [Silva and Dean,
1971]
83
`
Figure 3.11 Extrusion – type tests conducted by Doege, Melching and Kowallick [Doege,
1978].
Doege, [Doege, 1994] also performed tests with forging dies that resembled dies
used in actual production. The press used in his tests was a Eumuco eccentric press. The
tests utilized dies made of H10, H12 and L6. The dies were preheated to 220° C and the
billets were inductively heated to 1120 °C. Lubricant used was a water based graphite
suspension (Delta 31). The objectives of his tests were to see the effect of temperature
84
and water cooling of dies on the wear. He measured wear as a geometric deviation at the
punch cone radius indicated in Figure 3.12.
Netthofel [Netthofel, 1965]used a friction screw press in his studies to evaluate
wear. His forging speeds were .5 m/sec. The forging stock he used was .53 percent carbon
steel (.53% C, .26% Si, .7% Mn, .02% P, .02& S). A gas flame heater controlled the die
temperatures to a set point. The forging cycle time was kept at 13 seconds. Round corner
square billets were heated to 1200° and de-scaled in a mechanical press before they are
forged in the screw press. The setup Netthofel used is shown in Figure 3.13. Netthofel
used sawdust as a lubricant that he applied before every blow. Die wear was measured in
the locations indicated in Figure 3.13. Netthofel employed pin shaped inserts that were 16
mm in diameter and made from different die materials. By drilling holes along the
circumference of the die, he was able to subject the pins to substantial sliding and
pressure.
Using these tests, researchers have been able to compare the wear resistance of
various die materials, surface treatments and coatings. However, extending these to
applications outside the domains the tests were done, does not give reliable results.
85
Figure 3.12. Doege’s experimental setup [Doege, 1994]
Figure 3.13. Test setup used by Netthofel [Netthofel, 1965]
86
CHAPTER 4
FORMULATION FOR PREDICTING WEAR AND THERMAL SOFTENING
4.1. Proposed Formulation for Thermal Softening and Wear of Hot Forging Tools
To overcome shortcomings of the existing wear and softening model and to
correlate the failure characteristics of tools to the process conditions, we need
fundamental / phenomenological models that captures
• Die softening or over tempering
• Abrasive and Oxidation wear
Thermal fatigue
These three mechanisms play crucial roles in failure of hot and warm forging
applications. This chapter presents the tempering model and wears model developed along
with methodology to integrate these into FEM.
87
4.1.1 Intermittent Tempering Model Formulation
As evident, the alloying elements have a strong effect on the dies resistance to
thermal softening. It is also obvious from the prior section that tempering of tool steels is a
complex diffusion controlled phenomena that is both time and temperature dependent.
A subroutine that calculates effective tempering that occurs during a forging cycle
has been designed and implemented. The subroutine works with DEFORM-2D, a explicit
special purpose finite element for modeling bulk deformation. DEFORM is widely used in
forging industry in US and is a suitable platform for application being tried out. A
schematic representation of the algorithm used in designing the subroutine is shown in
Figure 3.7. Calculations to be performed at the end of the computation step (after the die
temperatures have been calculated). All tempering temperatures have been normalized to
600 °C or 873 K.
88
nth time step
Initialize variables
mth node
Read in die
material
Tempering
Acquire Holloman
Material
Jaffe constants
database
from database
∆t(n),
Calculate effective T(m-1),
tempering in δt T(m),
T(ref)
Accumulate
tempering time
Calculate new HJ
parameter
Calculate hardness
Advance to next Advance to next

node node
Figure 4.1. Schematics of modeling in-process hardness loss of forging tools
89
4.1.2 Architecture and Model Development
The following model is used in calculating loss of hardness of dies during thermo-
mechanical processing of materials. The equations used are
  Ti (t ) + T f (t )  
T =    + 273
 (4.2)
 2  
T ( C + log δti )
( −C )
δt ET = 10 T ( ref )
(4.3)
TET = TET + δt ET (4.4)
H = 1273× (C + log(TET )) (4.5)
where δti is the incremental time step in seconds, Ti(t) is the temperature at the start of the
computational step in C, Tf(t) is the temperature at the end of the computation step in C,
T(ref) is the reference temperature in Kelvin, T is the average temperature (in Kelvin)
during the time step, C is a material constant (user input, material dependent) and H is the
Hollomon-Jaffe parameter. A look-up table is needed to translate this into hardness loss.
4.1.3. Formulation of Wear Model
As outlined before, several works exists in the literature that tries to characterize
and model wear in hot forging. Some of the earlier work focused on characterizing wear
as a function of process variables like forging area, weights and energy while some have
taken a more fundamental approach to modeling. These models are provided in Table 4.1.
With advances in finite element models and computing, it is possible to use fundamental
90
material properties and process variables derived from FEM software to model wear more
universally. With the technological capabilities in mind, and with available data, it is
possible to use Archard’s model provided in equation 4.3 to model wear as a function of
thermo-mechanical history of dies during a forging process and the working hardness of
the die material.
p i × Vi
wear = k ∫ dt
Hi (4.3)
where p is normal pressure at a die location, V is the sliding velocity at any time, H is
the hardness of the die location and k is a constant dependent on several factors like billet
material and scale formation.
Earlier models that relied on tests to characterize wear coefficients are not
fundamentally sound. Although these tests give a rough measure of wear resistance for the
specific class of forgings, these cannot be extended to forgings outside the class.
Phenomenological models like Archard’s model are far more extendable to other
applications, provided the mechanism of wear is similar. For instance, models developed
or calibrated for abrasive wear can be used for other abrasive wear applications. However,
these cannot be used where adhesive and oxidation wear dominates abrasive wear. Also,
Archard’s model does not take into account the varying softening behavior of different
materials, with exposure to high temperature. Low alloy/low carbon steels have a steep
drop-off in its strength/hardness with temperature compared to high alloy tool steels. In
fact, some materials (like intermetallics) get stronger at higher temperatures.
91
Aston and Hammer
Barry Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.00686 x forging area + 0.0272 hammer energy -
{Aston, 1972 0.1855 x forging wt1/3 + 0.335 x spread - 0.011 x flash land area +
#247} 0.129 x flash metal escape – 0.557
Aston and Hammer

Barry Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.000261 x forging area + 0.000763 hammer
{Aston, 1972 energy - 0.00265 x forging wt1/3 + 0.012 x spread ration - 0.000694 x
#247} flash land area – 0.00266
Aston and Press

Barry Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.0284 x forging weight – 0.062 x die material - +
{Aston, 1972 0.141 (83%)
#247}
Aston and Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.000164 forging area + 0.000712 x flash
Barry land/gap - 0.00431
{Aston, 1972
#247}
Archard’s pi × Vi
model wear = k ∫ dt for volume
Hi
k = constant,
p = normal pressure
V = velocity
H = hardness
−4
Budinski w = 0.23 × 10−2 e − 0.21 x10 A
{Budinski,
1980 #316} w = abrasion rate cm3/min
A = Structure parameter for a given tool steel (carbide size (µm) x volume
fraction x carbide hardness (kg/mm2))
Thomas R = 204 - (70 (%C) - 4 ( %Si) - 15 (%Cr)1/2 - 80 (Mo*)1/3

{Thomas, Mo* = %Mo + 0.5%V + 2%V + %Nb
1970 #321} R is the wear rate relative to H13 steel
(*) Model used by Bariani {Bariani, 1996 #342}, Batit {Batit, 1983 #314} includes an exponent to the
hardness Hm, Painter {Painter, 1996 #285} uses Archard model with computer simulation.
Table 4.1. Various wear models reported in the literature
92
Also, Archard’s model does not take into effect the in-service tempering behavior
of tool material. The surface hardness of dies exposed to prolonged high temperatures is
substantially lower that the core hardness. Also, surface also experiences decarburization.
These phenomena make the surface more vulnerable to wear – a mechanism not captured
by the simple Archard’s relationship suggested earlier.
With advent of robust FEM engines, one can now embed these mechanisms into
the simplified Archard’s model, to extend the model across various processes. Similar
effort is being carried out by Kang [Kang, et al., 1999, Kang, et al., 1999], Jeong[Jeong,
et al., 2001]and Saiki [Saiki, et al., 2001].
4.2. Demonstration of Thermal Softening Model
Tempering of the surface layers of the forging tools greatly affects the wear
resistance of the tool. Process parameters like the equipment choice, forging temperature,
lubricant quantity and grade and cycle times greatly affect the thermal history the dies are
subjected to. These are well known among the research community, and to some extent
understood by the forgers. However, the relative effects of these on the magnitude of
tempering and hence wear, have not been looked at, in its complexity. The following
section intends to demonstrate, through the use of the developed models, these effects, on
the dies used for hot forging a gear blank. Design of tools and process details have been
obtained from Sypris Technologies, Forge Division in Marion, OH.
93
The modeled process forges a gear blank from AISI 8620, 2” diameter and 4”
long. Parts are being forged on a 1600 ton mechanical press with a total stoke of 14” and
a speed of 60 spm. Forging temperature was 1100 °C and the forging cycle time was 15
seconds. Between successive parts, the dies are lubricated manually with Acheson’s
Deltaforge F-31, a fine water based colloidal graphite. The forging is being done in 2
passes: the first pass pancakes the billet to remove scale and oxide layer that is forms
during heating, the second pass forges the pancake to the finish size. Dies used were made
of H-13, quenched and double tempered to a hardness of 48 to 50 HRC (Rockwell C
scale). Before operation, these dies are typically preheated to 200 °C for better fracture
toughness. A schematic representation of the 2 pass forging is shown in Figure 4.2.
These conditions have been used to model the process to establish a benchmark for
prediction of material over-tempering and wear.
4.2.1. Effect of lubricant heat
To evaluate effectiveness of forging lubricants on tempering, wear and tool
degradation, several simulations were performed with varying heat transfer coefficients.
The values of heat transfer coefficients used in the computer simulation corresponds to the
values obtained and in some cases, extrapolated from the tests performed at the Ohio
State University by Sridhar and others. Values of the interface heat transfer coefficients
used were 12 KW/m2°C, 24 KW/m2°C and 33 KW/m2°C, corresponding to a water based
graphite lubricant diluted with 20 parts, 30 parts and 100 parts water (dilution ratio of
94
1:20, 1:30 and 1:100). The hardness distribution of the top die after 3000 and 5000 shots
for each of these dilution ratios, is given in Figures 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5. The hardness
distribution along the surface for a dilution ratio of 1:20, is shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.2. 2 stage gear blank forging sequence (Courtesy: Sypris Technologies)
95
Figure 4.3. Hardness distribution after 3000 and 5000 shots, heat transfer coefficient used
= 12 KW/m2°C, press type: mechanical press
Figure 4.4. Hardness distribution after 3000 and 5000 shots, heat transfer coefficient used
= 24 KW/m2°C, press type: mechanical press
96
Figure 4.5. Hardness loss of the top die nose and flash areas after 3000 and 5000 strokes,
assuming a heat transfer coefficient of 33 KW/m2°C
97
Figure 4.6. Hardness distribution at the surface, after 3000 and 5000 shots, heat transfer
coefficient used = 12 KW/m2°C, press type: mechanical press
From the above plots, the following conclusions can be made.
• Regions in the center are in general, exhibit a more prominent tempering and hardness
loss because these regions come in contact with the billet earliest
• As Figures 4.3 and 4.6 indicate, corners have a more pronounced hardness loss. This
may be due to the lower mass content in corners (higher surface to volume ratio) that
disproportionately increases the area through which heat is conducted in. Typically the
corners are the regions with the highest tangential or sliding velocities. Coupled with
the large hardness loss, corners towards the center of the part, could possibly wear the
fastest.
98
The fillets exhibit the least hardness drop because these are the last areas to fill and come
in touch with the hot work piece material
In these computer simulations, heat transfer coefficients are assumed to be
independent of pressure. However, some research exists, that show that the lubricant film
quality changes substantially with the local pressure and temperature. This in turn will
affect the local friction and heat transfer coefficients, which in turn will have a dramatic
effect on the local over tempering of the tool surfaces.
4.2.2. Effect of Equipment
To demonstrate the effect of equipment selected and contact time, several
simulations have been performed with mechanical press and hydraulic presses with various
ram speeds. By changing the press characteristics, we are able to change the duration in
which the tools are in contact with the workpiece. In these simulations, the heat transfer
coefficient has been kept constant in order to isolate the effect of equipment, on the
hardness drop.
Figure 4.7 and 4.8 show hardness distribution in the top punch, if these forgings
were made on hydraulic press at a forging speed of 10 mm/sec and 20 mm/sec. The
friction factor used in these simulations was 0.3 and the heat transfer coefficient used was
6 KW/m2°C.
99
Figure 4.7. Hardness distribution after 3000 and 5000 blows, with a slow hydraulic press
(p2) v=10 mm/sec, h = 6 KW/m2 °C, m=0.3
It was noted that the softened surface effect was much more predominant in a
hydraulic press compared to the mechanical press due to the longer contact times typically
found in hydraulic press forgings.
100
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8. Hardness loss after (a) 3000 and (b) 5000 blows, with forging on a hydraulic
press with ram speed v=20 mm/sec, h = 6 KW/m2 °C, m = 0.3
4.3 Summary
This chapter presented some background on tempering phenomena in dies used in
elevated temperature forging. It also presented the formulation of the finite element model
for non-isothermal simulation of die tempering processes. Empirical relationships used and
how these were integrated into the finite element code and its use demonstrated using a
industrial case study involving forging of a idler gear used in truck transmission.
101
CHAPTER 5
VALIDATION OF WEAR AND OVER-TEMPERING
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 4 outlined the algorithm developed to predict the effects of the thermal
cycling, sliding and pressures on the thermal softening of the die subsurface and wear. This
algorithm outlines the various inputs to the model and the model outputs. Inputs to the
thermal softening model are the tempering parameter of the tool material, the initial
hardness and the process information. Inputs to the wear model are the material hardness
(at room temperature and elevated temperatures) and the wear coefficient. Another
product based input is the tolerances acceptable. The outputs are the tempered layer
hardness profile, wear and tool life. The following section describes test setups that are
used to validate the thermal softening and wear models.
5.2 Thermal Softening Setup
The thermal softening algorithm described in the previous chapter employs finite
element approach to calculate effective tempering at various die locations based on
tempering parameters similar to ones proposed by Hollomon and Jaffe and modified by
102
Grange and Baughman. After the thermal profile is computed by the FEM engine, the
developed module uses the time step information to calculate the net tempering of the
various die location in the time step, using the relationship 4.3. During the simulation,
these incremental “tempering times” are added up to calculate the net tempering time the
different die locations are tempered for at a reference temperature.
Based on the characteristics of the die material, these effective tempering times are
translated to hardness loss. For most die materials, the tempering parameters outlined are
published. For instance, for H13, the Grange Baughman tempering parameter is 16.44. If
the tempering parameters are not easily available, one may be able to calculate these based
on isothermal tempering data available as part of the material data sheets.
The thermal tempering model was validated using a test setup that recreates a
intermittent thermal cycle seen in forging. During a hot forging cycle, the billet sits on the
lower die for duration of 2-3 seconds. This is followed by the forging blow. During this
period, the heat transfer into the dies goes up, because the tools come in intimate contact
with the hot billet. During this phase the subsurface temperatures could reach in excess of
500 °C, while the bulk of the die remains at the steady state temperature of 200-300 °C.
The surface and subsurface temperatures vary depending on the process, the type of press
used, the billet temperature, the die bulk temperature and other factors like the presence of
scale. Also, features in the die like sharp corners, gear and spline teeth and notches tend to
over heat resulting in hot spots. If not careful, die surface temperatures may even exceed
the steel transformation temperature. After forging, the part is ejected and removed and
103
lubricant sprayed. Surface cools down sharply, while the substrate remains at a relatively
high temperature (close to the steady state temperatures). The next billet is then placed on
the bottom die and the cycle continues. Typical thermal cycle found in a hydraulic press
and a hammer forging die is shown in Figure 5.1. The thermal spike typically seen at the
surface of these dies is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.1 Typical thermal cycle in a hydraulic and hammer forging
104
M ax T = 1000 - 1200 F
Distance from surface
Figure 5.2. Temperatures spike seen at the die surface, in a typical hot forging die.
Simulation was performed in DEFORM2D.
To study the effect of this thermal cycle on the subsurface hardness, a simple test
setup was used (schematic shown in Figure 5.3). The test relied on cyclically contacting
and retracting a die material test specimen onto and from a hot billet. By controlling the
contact time, the pressures at the interface and the time the sample cools, thermal cycles
very close to a hydraulic press forging was achieved.
For this test setup, the billet material was made of Waspaloy. This choice was
made so that the billet material did not deform during the forging cycle. Also, this choice
ensured that the billet does not oxidize over the duration of the test. These steps were
intended to reduce the variability between stroke to stroke, to the maximum extent
105
possible. The 4” diameter, 5” long waspaloy billet (Figure 5.4(a)) was heated to a steady
state temperature of 1400 °F or 760 °C during the test. Nominal composition of Waspaloy
is given in Table 5.1.
Figure 5.3. Schematics of the test setup to recreate the thermal cycle
106
(a) (b)
Figure 5.4. a) Waspaloy billet mounted to press top bed b) assembled instrumented test
container mounted to the press ram (bottom bed)
Table 5.1. Nominal composition of Waspaloy
107
The test die was made of H13 heat treated to a hardness of 55 Rockwell C. Heat
treatment was done by austenitizing at 1850 °F, followed by gas quenching and 2 cycles of
tempering at 1100 °F for 2 hours each. After heat treatment, these samples were wire
EDMed into 8 sections, ground to flatness and polished so that the samples are all at the
same height when assembled in a container. Photograph of one such sample and assembled
container are shown in Figure 5.4(b) and 5.5.
Figure 5.5. Eight H13 die samples assembled in a container
Assembled bottom die and the billet were mounted on an Instron 1322 material
tester that is capable of a maximum load of 25 tons and a maximum speed of 2” per
second. The billet was mounted such that it is in the hot zone of the inline Applied System
Series 3320 electric furnace. A 0.04” diameter hole was drilled on the test die to within
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.010” of the surface and a J-type thermocouple inserted. Once the thermocouple was
inserted, thermal cement was applied at the base of the die along the wire length, so that
the wire does not move during the campaign. Again, this was done to ensure quality of
data obtained is acceptable. The entire experimental setup is shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6. Test setup on Instron 1322
5.3 Thermal Softening Test Campaign
Once the billet reached the set temperature, displacement controlled cycle was
programmed so that the subsurface temperature reaches approximately 400-500 °C. The
programmed velocity profile is shown in Figure 5.7. For the trials, to ensure adequate
109
thermal contact, ram displacements were set so that the loads were approximately 5000
lbs (or a interface pressure of about 4000 psi).
Figure 5.7. Velocity profile used in the tempering test trials, positive indicates motion of
ram towards billet and negative is away from billet
The thermocouple leads were connected to a National Instrument DIN-rail
mounted terminal block that has 14 unconditioned temperature inputs with cold-junction
110
compensation and auto-zeroing. Data was logged using National Instruments Virtual
Bench data logger at maximum allowed logging speed.
Once the cycle was programmed, a campaign was started for a 400 piece run. The
cycle time was approximately 30 seconds. Between each cycle, the dies were air cooled
using pressurized wet shop air. No liquid lubricant spray was used in the test. The thermal
cycle from one of the campaign is shown in Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9. These two plots
show temperatures recorded at a depth of .010” from the surface. The bulk temperature,
also measured by a J-type thermocouple, was 300 °C and fluctuated very little. It was
noted that the temperature at the surface saw a larger swing in temperature. The swing in
the surface temperatures were much higher (of the order of 50 °C) at the start of the
campaign and dropped to les than 40°C at steady state because of the substrate heating.
Also at the surface, temperature measurements went up and down in a monotonic fashion,
during the cycle.
111
600
500
Temperature (in °C)

400
300 Temperature history
200
100
0
0:00:00 0:32:57 0:58:45 1:24:34 1:50:22 2:16:10 2:41:58
Tim e *in hrs
560
540
520
Tem perature (in °C)
500
480
460 Temperature history
440
420
2:41:58 3:07:46
Tim e
Figure 5.8. Thermal history of 0.010” below surface during contact test campaign
112
520
510
500
Tem perature (in °C)
490
480
470
Temperature history
460
450
440
2:41:58
Time
Figure 5.9. Recorded temperature at .010” below the surface (10 cycles)
The recorded temperature was then matched to numerical model to ensure the
correct heat transfer coefficient is used.
5.4. Finite Element Modeling
The second step in the validation was performing computer simulation of the
process. FEM simulation of the contact test was performed using a 2D explicit finite
element code DEFORM2D v 8.0. Input to the FEM simulation were thermal properties
and flow stress for Waspaloy and H13, interface conditions (heat transfer coefficient) and
process information (billet and ambient temperature, velocity profile (Figure 5.7) and
steady state die temperature). The billet temperature was set at 760 °C and ambient
113
temperature set to the measured 100 °C. Steady state die temperature was set at 250 °C.
It should be noted that the flow stress had no relevance to the simulation as both objects
were considered to be rigid. Apart from the standard forging simulation inputs, starting
hardness (48 HRc) and H13 tempering parameters (C=16.44) were also provided as
inputs. After simulation was run, the maximum temperature and peak to valley difference
in temperature at the surface was obtained. and matched to what was measured.
A series of simulations were performed with different values for the interface heat
transfer coefficient. The maximum temperatures were recorded at .010” below the surface.
The maximum subsurface temperatures for the various heat transfer coefficients are shown
in Table 5.2. Based on the series of simulation, a heat transfer coefficient of 12 was found
to be the most appropriate value, to be used in subsequent modeling.
Heat transfer coefficient Maximum

(N/sec/mm/C) temperature (.010”)
4 454 °C
6 464 °C
8 486 °C
10 494 °C
12 500 °C
Table 5.2. Various heat transfer coefficients used in the model and corresponding
maximum temperatures at a depth of .010” from surface
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Using this value for the interface heat transfer coefficient, for the given thermal
cycling, another computer simulation was performed to predict the level of tempering seen
at the surface. The algorithm was modified so as provide values for predicted softening
after 400, 800, 1200 and 1600 cycles. Table 5.3 show the hardness loss after 800, 1200
and 1600 cycles at different depths. Figure 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12 show the predicted thermal
softening of the surface layers after 800 pieces, 1200 and 1600 cycles respectively.
Depth of measured location Hardness loss after

from surface (in microns) 800 cycles 1200 cycles 1600 cycles
100 -2.5 -3.9 -4.4
200 -2.4 -2.2 -3.2
300 -2.1 -1.7 -2.8
400 -1.7 -2.0 -2.1
500 -1.2 -1.6 -1.8
600 -1.3 -1.4 -1.5
700 -0.7 -1.3 -1.9
800 -0.4 -1.0 -1.4
1000 -0.2 -0.7 -0.9
1300 -0.1 -0.4 -0.9
Table 5.3. Measured hardness loss at different depths from the surface. Measurement was
made using a microhardness tester under a load of 500 gms
115
Figure 5.10. Predicted hardness loss at the surface after 800 cycles
1 mm
Figure 5.11. Predicted hardness distribution at the surface, after 1200 pieces
116
Figure 5.12. Predicted hardness distribution at the surface, after 1600 pieces
It was noted that the hardness dropped by almost 4-5 Rockwell points after 1600
cycles at a depth of 100 microns.
5.5 Characterization
During the contact test campaign, one of the samples was replaced with a brand
new “sector” every 400 cycles. This approach was used so that one has a moving history
117
of hardness at increasing number of cycles. Figure 5.13 displays the hardness loss in
sample runs of 800, 1200 and 1600 cycles, at different depths from the surface. It should
be noted that at each depths atleast 3 hardness measurements were made. The values in
the table are average values of all hardness values made at the depth. Beyond a depth of 1-
1.2 mm, no distinguishable hardness gradient was observed. No hardness measurements
were made at locations closer than 100 microns because of the influence of free surface on
the hardness measurement. At distance, of at least twice the size of indentation (approx.
80 microns) was maintained above the indented location.
Hardness loss from surface to interior
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
-0.5
-1
Hardness loss (in Rockwell C)
-1.5
-2
-2.5 HRc Loss (400 cycles)

HRc Loss (1200 cycles)
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
Distance from surface (in mm)
Figure 5.13. Measured micro-hardness measurements from surface to the interior
118
Figure 5.14 compares hardness loss predicted by the model and the observed
hardness loss. A fourth degree polynomial was used to get a least square fit of the
measured hardness, which is being compared to the predicted hardness loss at the surface.
The model predicts the hardness loss within .5-.6 HRc.
Hardness loss after 1600 cycles from surface to interior (measured v/s predicted)
Distance from surface (in microns)
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
-1.0
Hardness loss (in Rockwell C)
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0 Measured
Poly. Least Square Fit
-6.0
Figure 5.14. Measured value of hardness loss versus predicted hardness loss at different
depths from the contact surface
5.6 Industrial Case Study
Wear model developed was tested out to predict the wear characteristics of a
blocker die used in flashless precision forging of a gear blank. The following section
presents the predicted wear and compares the predicted value to the measured values. The
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design of tooling and the process along with worn die set was obtained from Eaton
Corporation, Forge Division in Marion, OH.
The modeled process forges a gear blank from AISI 4140, 2” diameter and 4”
long. Parts are being forged on a 1600 ton mechanical press with a total stoke of 14.4”
and a fly wheel speed of 70 spm. Forging temperature was 1010 °C (1850 °F) and the
forging cycle time was 12 seconds. Between successive parts, the dies are lubricated
manually with fine water based colloidal graphite mix. The forging is being done in 3
passes: the first pass pancakes the billet to remove scale and oxide layer that is forms
during heating, the second pass or blocker creates a shape close to the finished part. The
finisher forges part to the final size. Dies used were made of H-13, quenched and double
tempered to a hardness of 48 to 50 HRC (Rockwell C scale). Before operation, these dies
are typically preheated to over 150 °C through the use of flame rings. A schematic
representation of the 3 pass forging of the gear blank is shown in Figure 5.15.
These conditions have been used to model the process to establish a benchmark for
prediction of wear. Figure 5.16(a) show the worn finish and blocker dies and Figure
5.16(b) shows a close-up of the blocker die after a run of 2400 pieces. Although the finish
dimensions are more critical, wear in blocker pass is considerably more. This is because,
blocker pass, in general, involves a substantial movement of metal. The finish pass is used
mainly to ensure the part is finished to the final dimensions. Because of this reason, for
validation of the wear model, the blocker stage forging was used.
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(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Figure 5.15. Schematics of a) buster, b) blocker c) finisher d) end of stroke and e)gear
blank forging (courtesy: Eaton Corp., South bend, Indiana)
121
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.16. (a) Worn blocker and finish dies (b) Close-up of blocker used in validation
122
Validation of the wear model involves computer modeling of and wear and
correlation of the predicted wear to the actual wear profile. Properties that are critical to
the use of prediction were the tempering parameter of H13, initial hardness of the dies and
the hot hardness of H13. A tempering parameter of 16.44 was used for the model. Starting
hardness of the dies ranged from 48-50 (per Eaton Corp). The hot hardness of H13 was
obtained from standard data sheet for H13 and sown in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4. Hot hardness of H13
Process information used in the computer simulation corresponded to what was
used in the actual forging. Due to lack of data, a standard heat transfer coefficient of 11
KW/m2 °C was used. This value is generally accepted as a standard heat transfer
coefficient where water based graphite is used. Figures 5.17, 5.18 and 5.19 show the wear
profile in the top blocker die predicted by the model.
123
Figure 5.17. Predicted total wear profile in blocker die for the gear blank forging case
study
124
Figure 5.18. Predicted total wear distribution from center to outside diameter, in blocker
die
125
Figure 5.19. Corner wear predicted using modified Archard model
Simultaneously, profile of the worn blocker die was measured using a Sheffield
Cordax coordinate measuring machine (CMM) with a 1 mm ruby tip (Figure 5.20). The
CMM has a rated linear accuracy of 0.0003”, a volumetric accuracy of 0.00043” and a
repeatability of 0.00012”. . To ensure consistency of data, measurements were made in 4
different radial directions. This also ensures that the effect of misalignment or mismatch
during forging (which is not part of the 2D finite element model) on wear gets smoothed
out, to some extent.
126
Figure 5.20. Worn die and Sheffield Cordax contact type CMM used to measure the
profile of the worn die
Once data was collected, the data was converted to a CAD format by converting
this data to a IGES file and importing this file into a CAD software Solidedge. This
process allowed comparison of the worn profile to the original CAD file. To be consistent,
the wear values reported was measured perpendicular to the surface of the die at the
measured location. It was assumed that the CAD profile used to evaluate the worn die was
a true representation of the shape of the original die. Figure 5.21 shows the graphical
approach used to measure wear.
127
Measured
wear
Figure 5.21. CAD approach used to compare the predicted and measured wear profile
Table 5.5 shows the results of the wear measured. The table also shows the values
obtained for the predicted wear in the blocker stage die. The predicted values have been
normalized so that the peak values of the predicted wear and the measured wear are the
128
same. This method, hence, only tests the validity of the wear model in predicting the
relative wear at different locations. However, it should also be noted that the absolute
values of the wear predicted can be compared across other similar forgings, with
reasonable confidence.
X (mm) Predicted Normalized Measured

5.34 293000 0.095 0.02
10.69 636000 0.205 0.14
17.37 1040000 0.336 0.28
24.05 1410000 0.455 0.44
26.73 1580000 0.510 0.5
30.74 2040000 0.659 0.68
33.38 2380000 0.768 0.75
34.65 2470000 0.797 0.82
35.86 2540000 0.820 0.75
37.01 2390000 0.772 0.69
38.08 2240000 0.723 0.6
39.06 1770000 0.571 0.57
40.69 975000 0.315 0.38
41.24 516000 0.167 0.3
41.85 196000 0.063 0.21
42.23 69900 0.023 0.1
42.49 43300 0.014 0
43.33 0 0.000 0
Table 5.5. Predicted, normalized and measured values of the wear in blocker die
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Wear Profile - Measured vs Predicted
0.900
0.800
Relative Wear (norm alized to peak)
0.700
0.600
0.500
Normalized
0.400
Measured
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50
-0.100
Distance from cente r (in m m)
Figure 5.22. Measured and predicted wear profile in blocker die of hot precision gear
blank forging case study
Maximum wear is seen at the punch nose radius. Predicted wear and measured
(Figure 5.22) values show a sharp drop beyond the midpoint of the radius. This is due to
the fact that outside the center of the nose radius, the pressures are lower. It was noted
that the model predicts the peak of the worn profile within 1 mm in the radial direction.
However, the model over predicts the wear near the center by a significant amount. The
plot only extends till the base of the central hub. Both the measured and predicted wear
beyond this region is negligible, as these regions are subjected to minimal sliding and
considerably lower normal pressures and temperatures compared to the center of the
punch.
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CHAPTER 6
INTEGRATED SYSTEM: FRAMEWORK AND APPLICATIONS
6.1 Summary
In this dissertation, an integrated approach to prediction of failure of forging tools
experiencing high temperatures, pressures and sliding is proposed, implemented and
verified. This work was done in two phases.
In the first phase, tempering parameters were used to predict the intermittent
tempering and loss of hardness of forging dies made of H13 tool steel. This model was
incorporated into DEFORM-2D finite element software as a module. Although the
program uses known values of tempering parameter published in the literature, an
approach to evaluating tempering parameter from data sheets has been outlined. The
approach was used to demonstrate the effect of various forging process parameters
(equipment selected, lubricant dilution ratio and cycle times) on the hardness loss at the
surface. These results clearly shows the varying needs of tools used in hydraulic press
forgings, as against a mechanical press.
131
A simple test that imposed a thermal cycle on the dies, which is commonly seen in
hot forging, was devised, designed and implemented. A controlled instrumented
experiment was performed and tools characterized to obtain hardness degradation. The
test was also modeled using DEFORM-2D, to predict the loss in hardness of the
temperature. The predicted results have been verified with the hardness loss measured in
the test specimen. Results show a reasonably good trend and accuracy of prediction.
The second phase of the program incorporated the results of the first phase, and
known relationships between the hardness and temperatures available in the literature, to
modify Archard’s existing model for prediction of wear. This module incorporates
softening behavior of the substrate and hardness loss associated with high temperatures to
predict the wear in forging dies. This approach has been verified on an industrial precision
gear blank forging application, with mixed results.
It is the belief of the author that, once calibrated for die material of interest, this
approach can be successfully used to predict life of forging tools for a given process
condition. Also, one can study the effect of die design (flash and gutter design, buster and
blocker geometry) as well as process selection (forging temperature, lubricant, equipment,
cycle times etc.) on the life of dies. Based on the model and program developed, one can
then modify the process or tool material to reduce forging equipment downtime. Also,
through development and/or application of new die materials, one can potentially forge
new product lines like fine pitched gears, that are currently technically challenging.
132
6.2 Future work
Preliminary validation performed on the industrial case study, for H13 die steel,
shows good promise. Results obtained are applicable to cases where there is published
information on physical and thermal properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat, CTE)
as well as phenomenological properties like flow stress and heat transfer.
But the next generation of forging dies for extended die lives probably will not use
conventional die materials. Approaches that the author foresees being used in the near
future, involve the use of advanced die materials like nickel based superalloys, stellites and
tungsten carbides as coatings or cladding. There is a dearth of literature on the thermal,
physical and phenomenological properties for these materials. Extensive work needs to be
done on both methods to apply these advanced materials on cheaper substrates as well as
characterizing the properties of the engineered surfaces. Functionally gradient material
(FGM) approaches involving these high performance die materials on relatively cheaper
substrates need to be developed and tested. Preliminary work on one of the newer
methods of application of these on conventional substrates, Laser Engineered Net Shaping
(LENS) is given in the Appendix.
To characterize the heat transfer coefficient, thermal conductivity and the specific
heats, a test setup similar to the one shown in Figure 4.20 can be used. However, because
there are more variables involved there needs to be more instrumented data available, to
inversely obtain the relevant thermal properties.
133
Also, once these coatings are deposited, the wear resistance of the surface needs to
be characterized and documented, so that these can be used by forgers with reduced risk.
A test setup is shown below (Figure 6.1), that has been designed to simultaneously
characterize wear resistance of several surfaces under controlled condition. This test dies
have been designed to run on a 350 ton hydraulic press (currently being installed at the
Ohio State University).
Figure 6.1. Proposed wear tests to simultaneously characterize several surfaces in a single
test run
6.3 Conclusions
Optimization of the forging process through the use of process modeling and
advanced materials will be a key for reducing costs associated with equipment down time,
134
die changes and quality. Selective incorporating functionally gradient materials to improve
performance of forging tools will also enable forging new class of products like fine tooth
splines and gears, which will immensely improve the competitiveness of forgers. US has
continued to lose hot forging to cheaper global competition, because these have now been
thought of as commodity products. The reverse this trend, changes will have to happen to
improve the value of the forging process. This dissertation outlines some of the effort
done at the Center for Excellence in Forging Technologies, towards these objectives.
135
APPENDIX A
DEVELOPMENT OF LENS PROCESS MODELS
A.1 Introduction TO LENS
To understanding the impact of various factors on the properties of the coating, a
process model based on underlying physics is necessary. LENS based deposition process
can be classified into 4 stages:
• Stage 1. Powder travel from the nozzle to the substrate surface: During this time
period, the powder is heated continuously.
• Stage 2. Melting of the substrate: Incident laser heats the surface and melts the skin.
There is a possibility of plasma formation that will affect the flow of powder.
• Stage 3. Mixing of semi-heated powder: During this stage, solid or semi-solid powder
material splashes on the heated substrate and mixes with the substrate forming a melt
pool. The melt pool is subjected to further heating by the laser beam. In some cases,
exothermic energy may be released by the powder that will also heat the pool.
• Stage 4. Solidification of the melt pool after it has left the laser zone: The last phase
occurs when the table moves away from the beam and energy flow into melt pool
136
stops. Melt pool created in the previous stage solidifies rapidly in the wake of the laser
beam path forming a dense adherent layer on top of the substrate.
To understand the effects the control variables will have on the properties of the
ensuing coating, underlying physics of the formation needs to be understood. The primary
physical phenomena involved in the laser deposition process are
• Heat transfer to powder
• Trajectory
• Plasma formation
• Laser heating of substrate
• Impact of heated powder on substrate and splat formation
• Chemical energy in mixing
• Physical mixing of semi-solid powder and substrate (convection)
Heat transfer to substrate mass - Solidification
A.2 Prior Modeling Efforts
Several researchers have either modeled Laser Engineered Net Shaping process or
similar processes or have used modeling techniques that can be used in modeling LENS
process. These involve the field of physics of materials, thermal analysis, fluid flow and
material science. The following section sums up the various work found in the literature in
modeling of the 4 stages.
137
A.2.1 Stage 1: Powder free-fall in laser zone
During this stage the particles fall through the laser focal area and are subjected to heating.
Heat infused into the powder depends on the time it spends in the laser zone, laser power
and the heat absorption. Also, it depends on the size and shape of the powder. The time
powder spends in the laser focus depends on the location of the nozzle with respect to the
Effect of control variables on powder pretreatment
Several researchers have attempted to predict the extent deposited powder heats
when it is falling in the laser zone. LENS parameters that influence the powder
temperature and distribution are
• Location and geometry of the nozzle
• Flow rate of the powder
• Heat absorptivity of the powder
• Size distribution of the powder
• Laser power, beam diameter and focus
Argon flow rate
Time the powder spends in the laser zone depends on the powder velocity,
distance and orientation of the nozzle, size of the powder, back pressure due to plasma
and recoil of shroud gas. The heat absorption depends on the absorptivity (a function of
laser wavelength and temperature), powder surface to volume ratio. The absorptivity of
the powder is temperature dependent and rises with increasing temperature. It also
138
increases with lower wavelengths and hence the higher efficiencies in use Nd-Yag as
against Co2 laser.
Fisher and others [Fischer, et al., 2002, Fischer, et al., 2003] have performed
numerical simulations in sintering of Ti powder using SLS process factoring in absorption
of radiation by metallic powder, plasma formation (function of average laser power,
pulsing rate, beam radius) and resulting recoil pressure, and the thermal properties of
powder and the binder medium. Numerical simulations were done develop process maps
that would help in establishing laser pulse frequency and laser power. Approximate
physics-based and empirical-models have been used for this purpose, to relate the laser
setting and powder size to temperature distribution in the substrate, plasma recoil pressure
and subsequent surface profile. The results have been validated using sintering
experiments on Ti powder performed using a 100W Nd-Yag pulsing laser with reasonable
results.
Equations used in the model are
P0
vp =
τ p πrb2 I p
(A.1)
P0 is the average power, τ p is the pulse duration, rb is the beam radius and I p is the
plasma threshold beyond which plasma can be expected,
I p = 4 x10 4 / τ
(A.2)
139
Prec = .54 p (Ts ) (A.3)
where P is the recoil pressure and p(Ts ) is the vapor pressure at temperature Ts
Maximum temperature at the surface of a powder is approximated by
2 AI 0 k thτ p
∆Tmax =
k π (A.4)
where A is the absorptivity, k is the thermal conductivity, kth is the heat diffusivity and I 0
is the intensity defined by
P0
I0 =
πrb v mτ p
2
(A.5)
Yevko and others from University of Toronto [Yevko, et al., 1998] have modeled
the temperature field in SLS process using FEM (IDEAS ) to solve generalized heat
transfer problem with prescribed boundary conditions. IDEAS allows laser power source
to be modeled as a heat flux that is a function of time. Yevko defines heat load as a
function of laser power and beam width and varies the load based on the scan speed. In
this exercise, the density and specific heat of the powder were calculated based on law of
mixture using properties of stainless steel and argon. The thermal conductivity was
calculated based on the assumption that all the powder particles are spherical and
compacted (Churchill’s work).
140
3φ
K =1+
1.306φ 10 / 3
1−φ − − .07296φ 14 / 3
1 − .4072φ 7 /3
(A.6)
where K is the conductivity, and φ is defined as
kd
−1
kc
φ=
kd
+2
kc x volume fraction of dispersed phase (A.7)
where kc is the thermal conductivity of continuous argon phase k d is the thermal
conductivity of the dispersed phase.
Yevko’s thermal simulations yielded temperature profiles that were used to
calculate the clad width. The clad height was calculated based on increase in density
because of associated melting and densification. It should be notes that this analysis
assumes no plasma formation and that the molten powder is spherical in shape. The results
of simulation was validated using measurements of weld shape performed using a 1kW
Nd-YAG pulsing laser.
Grujicic and others [Miller, et al., 2001] have come up with a simple model for
predicting the temperature of a single powder particle propelled through a laser focal
zone. Using simple geometric assumptions, they calculate the time a particle spends in the
laser t r as
t r = 2w0 / v p sin(θ )
(A.8)
141
where w0 is the radius of the laser beam, v p is the particle velocity and θ is the angle
between the trajectory and the laser incident angle. The energy absorbed E is
rp
Ep =α( ) 2 Pl t r
w0 (A.9)
where α is the energy absorption parameter, rp is the particle radius and Pl is the laser
power. The authors calculate the total energy required for melting of the powder by
summing the energy required to raise the powder temperature to melting temperature and
the energy needed to completely melt it. By incorporating empirical results by
Keicher[Grujicic, et al., 2001], authors were able to constrain the problem so that the
substrate did not melt. Keicher’s study suggests that for Inconel 625, substrate melting
does not take place if the laser irradiance is less than 1 W/m2. This can be represented in
equation form as
C l Pl
I 1 = w02 (A.10)
This equation is applicable if the laser beam is focused at the surface. If it is
focused at a distance h 0 above the surface,
C l Pl
I 1 = w0 + h 0 tan( β / 2) 2 (A.11)
The problem was solved as an optimization problem using MATLAB to maximize
the powder size for complete in-flight melting.
142
Fu and others[Fu, et al., 2002] have attempted to calculate the laser beam power
attenuation due to absorption of laser photons by the powder particles before it reaches
the surface. Their model explains loss of power by laser by taking into account the time
the powder particles spend in the laser beam focus, its size and number, its absorptivity
and the powder delivery angle. They have focused their efforts on the temperature
distribution of the powder particles because they believe that the primary driving force in
pool motion in laser cladding is the temperature gradients in the powder fed.
Kathuria and others [Kathuria, 1997] found that the interaction time of laser
(Figure A1) with the powder along with the cooling rates is critical in determining the
microstructure of the clad layer. They found that the longer the interaction time, the
mushier the microstructure is.
Figure A.1. Microstructure v/s processing conditions for laser cladding (D = beam
diameter in mm, V is the table speed in mm/s)[Kathuria, 1997]
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A.2.1. Stage 2: Melting of Substrate and bead formation
Typically, in LENS, the laser beam is focused at the surface. A fraction of the
radiant energy goes into melting of the surface and the remaining energy is used to preheat
the powder that falls through the focal region. It is believed that almost no melting of
powder occurs during this phase. The incident laser beam creates a molten pool of metal
on the substrate which captures the feed powder. The pool width could range anywhere
from ½ time to 5 times the beam diameter[Lewis and Schlienger, 2000]. The pool
geometry and pool superheat dictate the efficiency of the particle catchment, build rate and
the bead properties. Overheating increases dilution but flattens the bead by reducing the
surface tension.
Lewis and Schlienger [Lewis and Schlienger, 2000] indicate that the width of the
weld pool created by the laser beam is primarily dependent on the surface tension of the
molten material. Also, they indicate that the higher the heat sink is, the smaller is the melt
pool width. They indicate that increasing laser power, lowering traverse speed and using
thinner layers help achieve better finish.
With substrate melting as the primary variable, Grujicic [Miller, et al., 2001] and
others have solved a second order heat transfer differential equation to determine the
extend of the substrate melting. In their analysis, they have considered the radiative and
convective heat loss from the substrate surface and heat flux due to the laser beam, which
144
they have defined as a function of the beam diameter, laser velocity and the power levels.
They have defined the peak laser intensity I 0 of a gaussian beam as
4 Pl
I0 =
2πw0 (A.12)
where P is the laser power level and w is the laser beam width.
Gaussian beam power level P(r) at any point r from the center beam is given by
P0  r2 
Pr = exp − 2 
πw0 2  w0  (A.13)
For simplicity, molten material is not explicitly considered in their analysis. They
solved the thermal conservation equation through finite difference approach to find size of
the melt pool.
Vasinonta and others [Vasinonta, et al., 2000] used ABAQUS to model the
thermal distribution assuming a point source approximation. They also neglected the effect
of convection to air and convection within the melt pool, based on findings of Dobranich
and others. They used non-dimensionalized variables (Rosenthal) to model and predict the
temperature distribution and develop process maps for LENS. Using their model they
predicted melt pool length and compared these to actual lengths that were measured on a
LENS system. Their model predicted reasonably well, expected increase in melt pool
lengths with increasing power and decreasing velocity. Their model also suggests that
substrate preheating has a pronounced effect in reducing residual stress.
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Ki and Mazumder [Ki, et al., 2001] have modeled and solved the convective heat
and mass transfer that occurs in laser material removal process using level set method, to
compute the liquid-vapor interface. Their element based mass balance approach accounts
for evaporation, melting of substrate and convective flow in the liquid phase. Heat balance
in the element is achieved by balancing radiant and convective heat transfer, laser
radiation, heat loss in vaporization and heat lost to substrate by conduction. It should be
noted that their model is applicable to non-additive processes like laser melting or laser
machining. Adapting their model to LENS creates another dimension when one attempts
to incorporate powder heating, heat lost to powder and splatter.
Although Fu and others [Fu, et al., 2002] have not modeled substrate heating, they
have modeled powder heating. The attenuated laser beam power density given by their
calculations can now be used to model how the laser beam heats the substrate. To
calculate powder catchment efficiency and clad height in a V-groove of a edge joint, Lin
and others [Lin and Hwang, 2001] have performed simulations of the powder stream
without laser radiation using fluid dynamic computational software, FLUENT which is
based on a specific control-volume approach. Cladding experiments were performed for
mild steel substrates with thickness of 2 and 6 mm under 1 kW CO2 laser irradiation for
304L stainless steel powder. They have decoupled flow and heat transfer to first obtain a
powder flow distribution which was then transformed to clad height using heat transfer
equations. Qian and others [Qian, et al., 1997] have studied the effect of the translation
speed of the laser beam and the powder feed rate on the physical and microstructural
146
qualities of the clad layer. This study attempts to experimentally arrive at optimal cladding
parameters for maximum hardness.
Li and others [Li and Ma, 1997] studied surface finish of blown powder cladding
method theoretically and experimentally. Their approach to modeling surface finish was
primarily geometry-based. Although the model does not help in understanding the effect of
process parameters on surface finish, it gives us a general direction to any approach to
improving the texture of clad surfaces. They found that the surface roughness (turbulence)
of an overlapped cladding layer decreased with the increase of the overlapping ratio in an
oscillating manner (Figure A3). They have modeled each clad layer as a parabolic
approximation.
Figure A.2 Effect of travel speed on aspect ratio of the clad bead [Qian, et al., 1997]
147
Figure A.3. Variation of surface finish in powder-based cladding[Li and Ma, 1997]
Several empirical relationships have been suggested that relates the bead height
and width to the process variables. Boddu and others[Boddu, et al., 2001] refer to work
by Steen and others that relate bead width W to traverse speed v and laser sport size D.
W = D(1 − aν ) (A.14)
where a is a constant. Hu and others [Hu, et al., 1998] have also showed that the clad
geometry can be approximated by a parabola and that the clad height H(t) can be
approximated by
148
H = 3 A 2W
(A.15)
where A is the cross section area of the clad pass and W is the clad width. Hu and others
performed several experiments that showed that the clad height increases with increasing
powder flow rate, increasing power density or with decreasing traverse speeds.
The dilution of the clad layer into the substrate depends on several factors: the
thermal conductivity of the substrate material, the initial temperature of the substrate, the
reflectivity of the material, the powder flow rate, the interaction time of the powder in the
beam and laser power [Sexton, et al., 2002]. Sexton reports that, for low laser power
values, no fusion of the substrate occurred and the coating did not adhere to the substrate,
while for larger power values the substrate melted increasingly as the power levels
increased causing increased dilution.
Ming and others[Ming, et al., 1998] have experimentally verified the effects of
laser travel speed on dilution and bead aspect ratio predicted by other researchers. They
found that the aspect ratio (width to height) increased with increasing travel speed (Figure
A4) and powder feed rates. Also, the dilution increased with increasing speeds and
decreasing powder feed rates. It should be noted that the less the dilution, greater is the
wear and oxidation resistance of the coating.
149
Figure A.4. Effects of laser traverse speed on aspect ratio of bead and dilution [Ming, et
al., 1998]
A.2.3. Stage 3: Mixing of Substrate and Powder
The third stage of the process is mixing of the substrate and the powder captured.
The laser beam passing over the substrate or the prior deposit and melts a small region.
The size and the superheat of the melt pool controls how effectively the powder fed is
captured on to the surface. Higher the surface area, higher is the expected powder capture
efficiency. Also, higher the superheat, higher is the ability to melt the powder particles and
homogenize the weld matrix.
Mahrle and Schmidt [Mahrle and Schmidt, 2002] recognized temperature as the
key parameter in welding in affecting the weld properties and have modeled the laser weld
process using finite element approach. They have used steady state models and non-
150
dimensional numbers (Prandl, Peclet and Reynolds numbers) to predict flow induced heat
transfer, melt temperature, velocities and weld bead shapes.
In some cases, enthalpy plays a big role in the thermal behavior and the ensuing
structure. Dupont and others have worked on elemental blends of Nickel Aluminide.
However, control of the thermal phenomena, the microstructure and porosity becomes
more difficult because of the effect of the additional variable (the enthalpy of mixing).
Liu and Dupont [Liu and Huang, 2003] investigated in-situ layering of Nickel
Aluminide using Nickel and Aluminum powder and Ti-6-4 using elemental blends. Their
study revealed that NiAl produced by this method was rather brittle and exhibited porosity
that was attributable to the material as well as the high thermal stresses during the process.
Similar work has been done by Fraser and others [Collins, et al., 2003], [Banerjee,
et al., 2002, Collins, et al., 2003] that focused primarily on the reaction kinetics in creating
Ti and Mo alloys (like Ti-6Al-4V) both from elemental blends as well as premixed alloys.
Their study has revealed that it is possible to create alloys in-situ, however, control of
compositions is extremely challenging.
Kar and Mazumder [Kar and Mazumder, 1996] have analyzed the shape and
morphology, of Laser CVD process and have presented a model that allows one to select
the appropriate process parameters to obtain a good quality film. They have found that an
optimum condition is found to exist for depositing thin films by using the LCVD
technique.
151
A.2.4. Stage 4: Solidification
The last phase of deposition process is solidification. In this phase, the molten
substrate-powder mixture cools to form a rough layer. Modeling of the last phase involves
heat transfer, microstructure change and diffusion.
Researchers at Sandia Labs [Griffith, et al., 2000, J. A. Brooks, et al., 1999,
Schlienger, et al., 1999] have tried to model the thermal effects of the LENS process on
the microstructure of H-13 through application of the thermal histories extracted from
experiments and phenomenological models of hardening process. They have shown that
microstructure of the weld area as well as secondary hardening of the substrate close to
the weld can be controlled through the use of appropriate table speeds, power levels and
hatch spacing. They found that the peak temperature is the most critical process variable
that controls the hardness of the substrate.
A.3 Numerical Model Development
For success of coatings and surface engineered dies, properties that are most
critical are the wear, oxidation and thermal fatigue resistance of the clad layer, the
adhesion of the clad layer to the substrate and the geometrical integrity of the weld. Local
temperatures, weld pool shape, depth of melting and the powder feed rates have the
biggest impact on these parameters. Process models created need to address the physical
phenomena that affect these. Also, model created should have a way to relate these
152
variables to the control variables (laser power, table speed, laser path, powder size and
laser beam diameter), so that the tool developed can be used for design of the process.
One approach to modeling these phenomena is through finite element codes. FEM
is a robust approach that allows one to model non-linear processes more accurately, taking
into account irregular geometries, nonlinear material properties and coupled phenomena.
Also, FEM allows one to extract transient thermal and flow behavior, keys to predicting
weld properties.
For this application, it has been well documented that flow within the melt pool has
only a minor effect on the process variables that are of interest. With this assumption, a
numerical model of the LENS process has been developed using finite element code
DEFORM-3D. For modeling purposes, the physics of the process has been split into 2
phases:
• Heating and melting of the substrate by a laser beam
• Addition of heated powder to the melted weld pool
The first stage of the process is modeled as a heat transfer problem (Figure A5).
The power and laser beam absorption were combined into a single simulation control
variable called effective power (given by equation A.16). Effective power is defined as the
product of the laser power incident on the substrate and the effective absorption of the
substrate (A). Effective absorption, as defined above, is not only a function of the surface
153
condition, but also a function of the power absorbed by the powder as it drops through the
laser focus.
Convection+
Conduction
Figure A.5. Laser beam representation and thermal boundary condition modeled in FEM
Heating of the substrate by the laser beam has been modeled using a heat transfer
window that is exactly equal to the size of the laser beam.
Pe = A.Pl (A.16)
A preliminary simulation was conducted assuming a rectangular substrate of size
2”x2”x1”. The simulation revealed that the temperatures outside a region of
approximately 1” were almost room temperature. Based on the temperature profile
obtained from the simulation run, subsequent runs were modeled based on a smaller
154
specimen geometry This allows us to refine the mesh size even more for the same
computation times. Also, for reducing computation, one half of the substrate has been
modeled.
To develop the model, the following assumptions were made:
• Although the beam power intensity is gaussian in nature, it has been modeled as a
beam with uniform power intensity.
• The melt pool and the unmelted substrate is being modeled as a single phase. Thermo-
physical properties of melt pool (thermal conductivity, specific heat etc.) has been
incorporated in to the model as a temperature depended property
Effects of convection induced by surface tension, non-uniform densities etc. on local
temperature distribution is neglected
A.4 Parametric Numerical Study of LENS Process
To study the effect of the different process variables on the characteristics of the
weld bead (width and depth of the weld pool, superheat), several numerical simulations
were completed using a 3D explicit FEM code, DEFORM-3D.
The process of LENS was simulated as a purely thermal phenomenon, to study the
effect of the process variables on the bead width, bead depth and the post process cooling
rates. Process variables that have reportedly large effect on these are the laser power, the
powder absorption, table speed, the laser focus/beam diameter and the preheat of the
155
substrate. These have a large effect on the dilution in the weld pool as well as the
microstructure of the weldment. These 2 variables are the most critical aspects of the
weldment that affects its thermal and mechanical properties. Microstructure with finer
grain size results in a stronger structure. Low dilution in the weld pool will ensure the
properties of the clad layer are close to the engineered composition. The process variables
that were varied in the simulation were the absorbed power, the table speed and the laser
beam diameter. Simulation matrix used in this study is shown in Table A.1.
ID Elements Nodes V (mm/sec) H# Beam Dia. Max h

1 55772 12182 12.5 1 1 mm 2109
2 55772 12182 12.5 2 1 mm 1054
3 55772 12182 12.5 3 1 mm 527
4 55772 12182 12.5 4 1 mm 791
5 55772 12182 4 3 1 mm 527*
6 55772 12182 8 3 1 mm 527
7 55772 12182 16 3 1 mm 527
8 55772 12182 20 3 1 mm 527

9 57614 12419 12.5 3 .4 mm 527*
10 55772 12182 12.5 5 .6 mm 1465
11 55772 12182 12.5 3 .8 mm 527
12 55772 12182 12.5 2 .7 mm 1054
Table A.1. Simulation matrix used for modeling LENS process in DEFORM-3D
156
It should be noted that the absorbed power being modeled encompasses several
phenomena: laser power, absorptions, powder size and emissivity of the powder and the
time powder spends under the laser beam.
Simulation ID Melt Melt Melt Depth Max Temp ° C

width Length
1 1.5704 2.9058 .746 5910*
2 1.3807 1.7864 .5209 4780*
3 .98063 1.0547 .2369 2550
4 1.1831 1.4315 .4044 3690
5 2290
6 1.0763 1.1358 .29517 2720
7 .9441 1.0343 .20493 2400
8 .8355 .915 .1631 2270
9 Did not melt substrate 1180
10 .7869 .8783 .2714 4220
11 .6478 .6560 .12545 2130
12 .823 .9138 .254 3620
* Not applicable, outside of property domain
Table A.2. Simulated maximum melt pool superheat temperatures and melt pool sizes
Figure A.6. show typical plot obtained from the modeling run, showing the
isotherms in the substrate. Assuming a liquidus temperature of 1470 °C, melt pool
157
dimensions were calculated. Figure A.7 show the variation of temperature with time. Peak
temperatures are seen at locations directly under the laser beam.
Figure A.6. Typical thermal profile obtained from the simulation, used to obtain the
length, width and height of the melt pool
158
Also, it was noted that the temperature at locations behind the laser beam was
substantially higher than those ahead of the beam. Cooling rates at the wake of the melt
pool was of the order of 1000-1500 °C/sec.
Figure A.6. Typical thermal profile obtained from DEFORM-3D simulations of LENS
process (temperature in °C)
Simulations were performed at boundary conditions outlined above and the
dimensions of weld documented. Care was taken so that the element size was atleast 1/4th
of the laser beam diameter. The maximum temperature and the bead size were then plotted
with respect to absorbed power, table speed and laser beam diameter. It was seen that the
melt pool temperature, length of the melt pool and the depth increases with the power
159
absorbed. Of the three parameters, the melt pool depth was least sensitive to the power, as
indicated by the lower slope of the curve (Figure A.7).
6000 2
Temperature
1.8
5000 Length
Depth 1.6
Dimensions (in mm)

1.4
4000
1.2
3000 1
0.8
2000
0.6
0.4
1000
0.2
0 0
120 180 240
Power (in watts)
Figure A.7. Simulated effect of absorbed power on weld superheat (table speed = 12.5
mm / sec, preheat temperature = 20 °C, H13 substrate, laser beam diameter = 1 mm)
All three plotted weld properties decreased with table speed (Figure A8). When
the laser beam diameter was increased, for the same power, the superheat dropped.
However, the dimensions of the weld bead increased. These trends confirm what has been
reported in the literature. However, these need to be validated.
Temperatures observed in these simulations are too high, indicating model
deficiencies that do not take into account power lost to atmosphere, and power lost in
heating the argon stream. Also, it may indicate that latent heat of melting needs to be
modeled more accurately.
160
2800 1.2
2700
1
Dimensions (in mm)

2600

0.8
2500 Temperature
2400 Length 0.6
2300 Depth
0.4
2200
0.2
2100
2000 0
8 13 16 20
Table Speed (in mm/sec)
Figure A.8. Simulated effect of table speed on melt pool superheat (effective power = 120
watts, preheat temperature = 20 °C, H13 substrate, laser beam diameter = 1 mm)
4500 1.2
4000
1
3500
3000 0.8 Dimension (in mm)
Temperature
2500
0.6 Length
2000
Depth
1500 0.4
1000
0.2
500
0 0
1 0.707 0.6
Beam diameter (in mm)
Figure A.9. Simulated effect of beam diameter on melt pool superheat (effective absorbed
power=120 watts, table speed = 12.5 mm/sec, preheat temperature =20 °C, H13
substrate)
161
A.5 Validation - Experimental Procedure
There are four primary components of the LENS™ assembly: the laser system, the
powder delivery system, the controlled environment glove box, and the motion control
system. A 760 W Nd:YAG laser, which produced near-infrared laser radiation at a
wavelength of 1.064 mm, was used for all the depositions. The energy density used was in
the range of 30,000 to 100,000 W/cm2.
The basic LENS system 750 used in the tests below consists of a high power
Nd:YAG laser, a 3-axis computer controlled positioning system and multiple powder feed
units. The positioning stages are mounted inside an argon-filled glove box (nominal
oxygen level of 2-3 ppm), while the laser beam enters the glove box through a top
mounted window. A powder delivery nozzle is used to inject a metal powder stream
directly into the focused laser beam. The lens and powder delivery nozzle move as an
integral unit in the z-axis, while the part, positioned under the laser beam, is transitioned in
x and y.
Specifications of the LENS 750 system are as follows:
• Max. build Size: 300mm by 300mm by 300mm (12”x12”x12”)
• Preferred powder size: 75 microns ( - 100 / +325 mesh)
• Hatch width: .015”, build layer thickness: .010”
• Laser power: 270-370 W (1.064 MHz)
• Laser speed 10-50” / min
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• Powder feed units: 2 buckets
The various components of the LENS system (Figure A.10) are as follows:
• LENS 750 Glove Box and Dri-Train: Chamber where the deposition occurs. It
includes the Nd:YAG laser, optics, the motion controlled stage, the anti-chamber, the
powder feeders, and the atmosphere control systems
• LENS Workstation Control Console: LENS Workstation Control Console is the
interactive computer system for the control of the CAD, Slice, and DMC files, the
motion of the stage, and the atmosphere control of the Glove Box, Dri-Train, and
Ante-Chamber.
• US Laser Power Supply: The system is powered by US Laser Power Supply that
supplies and controls the power to the Nd:YAG laser on the 750 Glove Box and Dri-
Train assembly. The system also supplies cooling water to the laser and the laser
shutters. The laser used in this LENS system is a YAG-Nd solid-state type. These
lasers have a yttrium-aluminum-garnet crystal (YAG) doped with neodymium (Nd).
Instead of the usual 'flash-tube pumping', this new laser uses small semiconductor
diode lasers to excite the neodymium. This allows much greater efficiency - thus
smaller and more powerful lasers than before needed to melt
163
Figure A.10. LENS system a) schematic and b. experimental facility at the Ohio State
University [Banerjee, et al., 2002]
The table speed, the laser power and the hatch spacing the three primary controls
affecting the morphology of the coating and the surface finish. Hence a series of coating
trials were performed choosing 2 levels for each factor. It was felt that, increasing the
164
powder feed will have same effect as reducing the travel speed. Hence it was not factored
into the first series of experiments.
Several H-13 samples having identical geometry were machined. The samples were
heat treated to 46-48 HRC. The head geometry is shown below. To eliminate surface
condition from causing any variability, all samples were polished to similar roughness (~
0.1 microns). A fixture was also fabricated to securely hold the samples at predetermined
location. The fixture designed had several “pigeon-hole” type features that allowed the
pins top be securely located on to the surface. The plate itself was mounted onto the
LENS glove box for processing.
One of the powder reservoirs was loaded with Stellite’s Nistelle N13Al (a nickel
aluminide grade powder). Powder used was rated at -100/+270 Mesh. The substrate was
not preheated. Background oxygen level was kept at 3-4 ppm and the oxygen level during
deposition process and the Argon flow rate was kept at 6-8 l/min. Programmed layer
thickness was set at 0.008”. Powder density was measured to be approximately 7.3
gms/cc.
165
Hatch
Laser speed Current Powder Power Beam
# Spaci Ra (µm)
(mm/min) (amps) flow rate (watts) diameter
ng
1 875 34 .010” 2.5 rpm .1 310 1 mm
2 875 34 .010” 2.5 rpm .1 310 1 mm
3 875 38 .010” 2.5 rpm 0 380 1 mm
4 500 34 .010” 2.5 rpm .1 310 1 mm
5 500 38 .010” 2.5 rpm .1 380 1 mm
6 500 34 .015” 2.5 rpm .1 310 1 mm
7 500 38 .015” 2.5 rpm 0 380 1 mm
8 875 34 .015” 2.5 rpm 0 310 1 mm
9 875 38 .015 2.5 rpm .1 380 1 mm
Table A.3. Measured surface roughness and profile of LENS coated NiAl samples,
powder size used was 100-270 ASTM mesh
A.6 Characterization and Results
A.6.1. Effect on surface finish
Surface finish and profile of the coated samples were checked using a Federal
Surface Analyzer system 4000 (Figure A.11) – which is capable of measuring the
roughness, waviness, form and profile of surfaces. Table below (Table A.4) shows the
surface finish of samples 2 -9 (Figure A.12-A.17). It was noted that the surface was
extremely rough (with surface finish ranging from 5 – 15 microns). Surface roughness,
however, smoothed out the gross waviness typical in these type of processes because of
166
cyclical deposition of weld beads. For this reason, the surface profile might be a better
indicator of the surface condition.
Figure A.11. Federal Surface Analyzer used in the surface measurement
Speed Power Hatch Spacing

# (m/sec) (Watts) (inches) Pt (µm) Ra (µm)
2 0.875 310 0.01 101.4 7.3
3 0.875 380 0.01 102.6 10.5
4 0.5 310 0.01 185.5 14.6
5 0.5 380 0.01 183.9 9.7
6 0.5 310 0.015 150 13.3
7 0.5 380 0.015 186.5 14.3
8 0.875 310 0.015 72.9 8.5
9 0.875 380 0.015 98.5 7.2
Table A.4. Measured surface roughness and profile of LENS coated NiAl samples
167
Figure A.12. Profile – sample 2 (in microns)
168
169
The data obtained from the surface roughness measurements was regressed to obtain the
following equation. The R-Square value obtained was .965 and the adjusted R-Square
value was .94, indicating a good fit. All three variables have an equal effect on the surface
profile.
Equation regressed:
Pt = 251.5-220.3 * TS (in m/sec) +.22* Power (watts) - 3275 * Hatch Spacing (in
thousandths).
A.6.2. Coating Morphology
To see effect of the process on the microstructure and the interface, all samples
were observed under a light microscope at 50X magnification. Figure A.19 shows the
results of the optical microscopy. Figure A.20 shows that the bond obtained is relatively
pore free, indicating excellent interface quality. Figure A.20 and Figure A.21 shows the
SEM performed on sample 4, indicating presence of several partially melted nickel
aluminide particles. Further analysis is required to relate the microstructure, the surface
quality and bond interface to the process variables.
170
Sample 2 Sample 3
Sample 4 Sample 5
Continued
Figure A.18. Optical images of coated surface at 50X for the samples 2-9. Note: samples
3, 5, 7, and 9 were coated at higher power levels, samples 6,7,8 and 9 have .015 HS
171
Figure A18 continued
Sample 6 Sample 7
Sample 8 Sample 9
172
a) b)
Figure A.19. SEM image showing cross section of sample 7, polished and bakelite
mounted. Sample was not etched a) 75X b)300X
Figure A.20. SEM image of surface of NiAl coating on H-13 substrate showing random
appearance of partly melted powder. Image was taken at 75X and 381X
173
a) b)
c) d)
Figure A.21. SEM Image of sample 7, showing NiAl powder at different stages of
melting. Images are at a)150X b)1000X c) 1200X and b) 5000X
174
Figure A.22. EDS analysis of a) Surface of sample 7 and b) NiAl powder
Table A.5 and Figure A.23 indicate the compositional gradient (sample 4) across
the H13 /NiAl interface. SEM indicates that the interface is sharp possibly because the
extremely high cooling rates. This may restrict the diffusion of Ni and Al into the steel
substrate due to lack of time at higher temperatures where diffusion is easier. The dilution
in the melt pool, correlated to the depth of melt pool and the table speed, is seen to be
uniform in the clad region.
175
6
Index Location from Fe (%) Ni (%) Al (%) Pb (%) Cr (%)

surface(in µm)
Surface 46.31 35.86 7.2
1 15 51.07 32.66 5.49 3.81 3.94
2 30 50.85 33.64 5.4 4.3 3.97
3 45 51.17 32.46 5.24 4.42 3.37
4 60 48.56 32.76 12.42 6.34 3.55
5 90 54.22 33.17 5.26 0 4.51
6 125 51.58 34.09 5.78 3.09 3.78
7 155 83.98 1.19 1.14 2.74 6.1
8 187 83.6 1.17 1 0 7
Table A.5. Compositional gradient (wt %) from surface to the bulk of substrate, obtained
through Energy Dispersive Spectrometric (EDS) analysis
176
90
80
70
60
Weight %
Fe (%)
50
Ni (%)
40 Cr (%)
30
20
10
0
0 15 30 45 60 90 125 155 187
Location (in microns)
Figure A.23. Variation of nickel, iron and chromium across the interface
177
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A MATERIAL BASED APPROACH TO CREATING WEAR RESISTANT

SURFACES FOR HOT FORGING

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Ohio State University

Dissertation Committee: Approved by

harsh conditions result in accelerated wear of tooling. Lubrication of tools, done to

The objective of this dissertation is to develop a computer-based methodology for

temperature, equipment used, tool geometries among others. Phenomenological models

Dissertation outlines development of a new cyclic contact test design to recreate

tempering parameters in modeling of in-service softening of tool steel surfaces. The

dissertation also outlines an industrial case study, conducted at a forging company, to

process is presented, along with some demonstrated results.

forest and not get lost amongst the trees.

dissertation committee and providing valuable suggestions and guidance.

My heartfelt acknowledgements go to the following individuals and organizations,

and tuition over a period of several years

and 3D for several years

several times at short notice

their material donations

for their assistance

has helped me focus on finishing this work.

February 8, 1969 Born – Madras, India

April, 1990 B. Tech, Mechanical Engineering, Indian

December, 1992 M.S., Industrial and Systems

March 1993 – May 1995 Graduate Research Associate, Industrial

May 1995 – December 1999 Engineer, Eaton Corporation, Forge

December 1999 – November 2001 Engineering Manager, Dana

November 2001 – January 2003 Senior Manufacturing Engineer, Velocys

January 2003 – present Research Engineer, The Ohio State

Major Field: Industrial and Systems Engineering

Minor Fields: Mechanical Design and Physical Metallurgy

VITA ............................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... xxi

1.1 Problem Statement................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Research Objective ................................................................................................ 6

1.3 Research Approach................................................................................................ 7

1.4 Research significance and system benefits .............................................................. 8

1.5 Dissertation outline................................................................................................ 9

FORGING DIE FAILURE: A FUNDAMENTAL OVERVIEW.................................... 12

2.1 Failure in Metal Forming – Selected Examples ..................................................... 12

2.2 Various Modes of Tool Failure ............................................................................ 16

2.2.1 Plastic Deformation....................................................................................... 18

2.2.2 Abrasive wear ............................................................................................... 20

2.2.3 Thermal Fatigue ............................................................................................ 23

2.3 Die Life Improvement Strategies.......................................................................... 28

2.3.1 Die Materials ................................................................................................ 29

2.3.2 Heat Treatment ............................................................................................. 36

2.3.3 Surface Engineering ...................................................................................... 41

2.3.4 Hard coatings and advanced materials ........................................................... 55

2.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 60

MODELING OF TEMPERING AND WEAR............................................................... 66

3.2. Characterization of Thermal Softening ................................................................ 76

3.3. Prior work in Wear Characterization................................................................... 78

FORMULATION FOR PREDICTING WEAR AND THERMAL SOFTENING .......... 87

4.1.1 Intermittent Tempering Model Formulation................................................... 88

4.1.2 Architecture and Model Development ........................................................... 90

4.1.3. Formulation of Wear Model ......................................................................... 90

4.2. Demonstration of Thermal Softening Model........................................................ 93

4.2.1. Effect of lubricant heat ................................................................................. 94

4.2.2. Effect of Equipment ..................................................................................... 99

VALIDATION OF WEAR AND OVER-TEMPERING.............................................. 102

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 102