Continuum mechanics

Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that ically, the continuum hypothesis/assumption hinges on
deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechan- the concepts of a representative volume element (RVE)
ical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass (sometimes called “representative elementary volume”)
rather than as discrete particles. The French mathemati- and separation of scales based on the Hill–Mandel con-
cian Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate dition. This condition provides a link between an experi-
such models in the 19th century. Research in the area mentalist’s and a theoretician’s viewpoint on constitutive
continues today. equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or cou-
pled fields) as well as a way of spatial and statistical aver-
aging of the microstructure.[1]
1 Explanation When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one
wants to establish a continuum of a finer resolution than
that of the RVE size, one employs a statistical volume el-
Modeling an object as a continuum assumes that the sub-
ement (SVE), which, in turn, leads to random continuum
stance of the object completely fills the space it occupies.
fields. The latter then provide a micromechanics basis for
Modeling objects in this way ignores the fact that mat-
stochastic finite elements (SFE). The levels of SVE and
ter is made of atoms, and so is not continuous; however,
RVE link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics.
on length scales much greater than that of inter-atomic
The RVE may be assessed only in a limited way via exper-
distances, such models are highly accurate. Fundamen-
imental testing: when the constitutive response becomes
tal physical laws such as the conservation of mass, the
spatially homogeneous.
conservation of momentum, and the conservation of en-
ergy may be applied to such models to derive differential Specifically for fluids, the Knudsen number is used to as-
equations describing the behavior of such objects, and sess to what extent the approximation of continuity can
some information about the particular material studied is be made.
added through constitutive relations.
Continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of
solids and fluids which are independent of any particu- 3 Car traffic is an introductory ex-
lar coordinate system in which they are observed. These
physical properties are then represented by tensors, which
ample
are mathematical objects that have the required property
of being independent of coordinate system. These ten- Consider car traffic on a highway---with just one lane
sors can be expressed in coordinate systems for compu- for simplicity. Somewhat surprisingly, and in a trib-
tational convenience. ute to its effectiveness, continuum mechanics effectively
models the movement of cars via a partial differential
equation (PDE) for the density of cars. The familiar-
ity of this situation empowers us to understand a little of
2 Concept of a continuum the continuum-discrete dichotomy underlying continuum
modelling in general.
Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are composed To start modelling define that: x measure distance (in km)
of molecules separated by “empty” space. On a micro- along the highway; t is time (in minutes); ρ(x, t) is the
scopic scale, materials have cracks and discontinuities. density of cars on the highway (in cars/km in the lane);
However, certain physical phenomena can be modeled and u(x, t) is the flow velocity (average velocity) of those
assuming the materials exist as a continuum, meaning the cars 'at' position x .
matter in the body is continuously distributed and fills the
entire region of space it occupies. A continuum is a body
that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal ele- 3.1 Conservation derives a PDE
ments with properties being those of the bulk material.
The validity of the continuum assumption may be veri- Cars do not appear and disappear. Consider any group
fied by a theoretical analysis, in which either some clear of cars: from the particular car at the back of the group
periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and located at x = a(t) to the particular car at the front lo-
ergodicity of the microstructure exists. More specif- cated at x = b(t) . The total number of cars in this group

1
2 5 FORMULATION OF MODELS

∫ b(t)
N = a(t) ρ(x, t) dx . Since cars are conserved (if there 5 Formulation of models
is overtaking, then the `car at the front \ back' may be-
come a different car) dN /dt = 0 . But via the funda-
mental theorem of calculus

dN d
∫ b(t)
= ρ(x, t) dx
dt
∫dtb a(t)

∂t dx + ρ(b, t) dt − ρ(a, t) dt
∂ρ db da
=
∫ab
∂t dx + ρ(b, t)u(b, t) − ρ(a, t)u(a, t)
∂ρ
=
∫ab ∂ρ ∂
= a ∂t + ∂x (ρu) dx

This integral being zero holds for all groups, that is, for
all intervals [a, b] . The only way an integral can be zero
for all intervals is if the integrand is zero for all x . Con-
sequently, conservation derives the first order nonlinear
conservation PDE

Figure 1. Configuration of a continuum body

∂ρ ∂
+ (ρu) = 0
∂t ∂x
for all positions on the highway.
This conservation PDE applies not only to car traffic but
also to fluids, solids, crowds, animals, plants, bushfires,
financial traders, and so on.
3.2 Observation closes the problem
This PDE is one equation with two unknowns, so we need
another equation to form a well posed problem. Such an
extra equation is typically needed in continuum mechan-
ics and typically comes from experiments. For car traffic
it is well established that cars typically travel at a speed
depending upon density, u = V (ρ) for some experimen-
tally determined function V that is a decreasing function
of density. For example, experiments in the Lincoln Tun-
nel, New York, found that a good fit (except at low den-
sity) is obtained by u = V (ρ) = 27.5 ln(142/ρ) (km/hr
for density in cars/km).[2]
Thus the basic continuum model for car traffic is the PDE
∂ρ ∂ This function needs to have various properties so that the
+ [ρV (ρ)] = 0
∂t ∂x
for the car density ρ(x, t) on the highway.
4 Major areas of continuum me-
chanics
An additional area of continuum mechanics comprises
elastomeric foams, which exhibit a curious hyperbolic
stress-strain relationship. The elastomer is a true con-
tinuum, but a homogeneous distribution of voids gives it
unusual properties.[3]
Continuum mechanics models begin by assigning a re-
gion in three-dimensional Euclidean space to the mate-
rial body B being modeled. The points within this region
are called particles or material points. Different config-
urations or states of the body correspond to different re-
gions in Euclidean space. The region corresponding to
the body’s configuration at time t is labeled κt (B) .
A particular particle within the body in a particular
configuration is characterized by a position vector
∑
3
x= xi ei ,
i=1
where ei are the coordinate vectors in some frame of ref-
erence chosen for the problem (See figure 1). This vector
can be expressed as a function of the particle position X
in some reference configuration, for example the config-
uration at the initial time, so that
x = κt (X).
model makes physical sense. κt (·) needs to be:
• continuous in time, so that the body changes in a way
which is realistic,
• globally invertible at all times, so that the body can-
not intersect itself,
• orientation-preserving, as transformations which
produce mirror reflections are not possible in nature.
For the mathematical formulation of the model, κt (·) is
also assumed to be twice continuously differentiable, so
that differential equations describing the motion may be
formulated.
 3

6 Forces in a continuum experiences a contact force dFC arising from the contact
between both portions of the body on each side of S , and
See also: Stress (mechanics) and Cauchy stress tensor it is given by

Continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies, as dFC = T(n) dS

opposed to rigid bodies. A solid is a deformable body
that possesses shear strength, sc. a solid can support shear where T(n) is the surface traction,[7] also called stress vec-
forces (forces parallel to the material surface on which tor,[8] traction,[9] or traction vector.[10] The stress vector
they act). Fluids, on the other hand, do not sustain shear is a frame-indifferent vector (see Euler-Cauchy’s stress
forces. For the study of the mechanical behavior of solids principle).
and fluids these are assumed to be continuous bodies, The total contact force on the particular internal surface
which means that the matter fills the entire region of space S is then expressed as the sum (surface integral) of the
it occupies, despite the fact that matter is made of atoms, contact forces on all differential surfaces dS :
has voids, and is discrete. Therefore, when continuum
mechanics refers to a point or particle in a continuous
∫
body it does not describe a point in the interatomic space
FC = T(n) dS
or an atomic particle, rather an idealized part of the body S
occupying that point.
In continuum mechanics a body is considered stress-
Following the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler, free if the only forces present are those inter-atomic
the motion of a material body is produced by the action of forces (ionic, metallic, and van der Waals forces) re-
externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two quired to hold the body together and to keep its shape
kinds: surface forces FC and body forces FB .[4] Thus, in the absence of all external influences, including gravi-
the total force F applied to a body or to a portion of the tational attraction.[10][11] Stresses generated during man-
body can be expressed as: ufacture of the body to a specific configuration are also
excluded when considering stresses in a body. Therefore,
the stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only
F = FB + FC those produced by deformation of the body, sc. only rel-
Surface forces or contact forces, expressed as force per ative changes in stress are considered, not the absolute
unit area, can act either on the bounding surface of the values of stress.
body, as a result of mechanical contact with other bod- Body forces are forces originating from sources outside of
ies, or on imaginary internal surfaces that bound portions the body[12] that act on the volume (or mass) of the body.
of the body, as a result of the mechanical interaction be- Saying that body forces are due to outside sources implies
tween the parts of the body to either side of the surface that the interaction between different parts of the body
(Euler-Cauchy’s stress principle). When a body is acted (internal forces) are manifested through the contact forces
upon by external contact forces, internal contact forces alone.[7] These forces arise from the presence of the body
are then transmitted from point to point inside the body in force fields, e.g. gravitational field (gravitational forces)
to balance their action, according to Newton’s second or electromagnetic field (electromagnetic forces), or from
law of motion of conservation of linear momentum and inertial forces when bodies are in motion. As the mass
angular momentum (for continuous bodies these laws are of a continuous body is assumed to be continuously dis-
called the Euler’s equations of motion). The internal con- tributed, any force originating from the mass is also con-
tact forces are related to the body’s deformation through tinuously distributed. Thus, body forces are specified by
constitutive equations. The internal contact forces may vector fields which are assumed to be continuous over the
be mathematically described by how they relate to the entire volume of the body,[13] i.e. acting on every point
motion of the body, independent of the body’s material in it. Body forces are represented by a body force density
makeup.[5] b(x, t) (per unit of mass), which is a frame-indifferent
The distribution of internal contact forces throughout the vector field.
volume of the body is assumed to be continuous. There- In the case of gravitational forces, the intensity of the
fore, there exists a contact force density or Cauchy trac- force depends on, or is proportional to, the mass den-
tion field [4] T(n, x, t) that represents this distribution in sity ρ(x, t) of the material, and it is specified in terms
a particular configuration of the body at a given time t . of force per unit mass ( bi ) or per unit volume ( pi ).
It is not a vector field because it depends not only on the These two specifications are related through the material
position x of a particular material point, but also on the density by the equation ρbi = pi . Similarly, the inten-
local orientation of the surface element as defined by its sity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength
normal vector n .[6] (electric charge) of the electromagnetic field.
Any differential area dS with normal vector n of a given The total body force applied to a continuous body is ex-
internal surface area S , bounding a portion of the body, pressed as
4 7 KINEMATICS: DEFORMATION AND MOTION

∫ ∫
FB = b dm = ρb dV
V V

Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead

to corresponding moments of force (torques) relative to a
given point. Thus, the total applied torque M about the
origin is given by

M = MB + MC

In certain situations, not commonly considered in the

analysis of the mechanical behavior of materials, it be-
Figure 2. Motion of a continuum body.
comes necessary to include two other types of forces:
these are body moments and couple stresses[14][15] (surface
couples,[12] contact torques[13] ). Body moments, or body occupy different configurations at different times so that
couples, are moments per unit volume or per unit mass a particle occupies a series of points in space which de-
applied to the volume of the body. Couple stresses are scribe a pathline.
moments per unit area applied on a surface. Both are im-
portant in the analysis of stress for a polarized dielectric There is continuity during deformation or motion of a
solid under the action of an electric field, materials where continuum body in the sense that:
the molecular structure is taken into consideration (e.g.
bones), solids under the action of an external magnetic • The material points forming a closed curve at any
field, and the dislocation theory of metals.[8][9][12] instant will always form a closed curve at any subse-
Materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in quent time.
addition to moments produced exclusively by forces are • The material points forming a closed surface at any
called polar materials.[9][13] Non-polar materials are then instant will always form a closed surface at any sub-
those materials with only moments of forces. In the clas- sequent time and the matter within the closed sur-
sical branches of continuum mechanics the development face will always remain within.
of the theory of stresses is based on non-polar materials.
Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with re- It is convenient to identify a reference configuration or
spect to the origin of the coordinate system) in the body initial condition which all subsequent configurations are
can be given by referenced from. The reference configuration need not be
one that the body will ever occupy. Often, the configura-
∫ ∫ ∫ tion at t = 0 is considered the reference configuration,
F= a dm = T dS + ρb dV κ0 (B) . The components Xi of the position vector X of
V S V a particle, taken with respect to the reference configura-
∫ ∫ tion, are called the material or reference coordinates.
M= r × T dS + r × ρb dV
S V When analyzing the deformation or motion of solids, or
the flow of fluids, it is necessary to describe the sequence
or evolution of configurations throughout time. One de-
7 Kinematics: deformation and scription for motion is made in terms of the material or
motion referential coordinates, called material description or La-
grangian description.
A change in the configuration of a continuum body re-
sults in a displacement. The displacement of a body 7.1 Lagrangian description
has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a
deformation. A rigid-body displacement consists of a In the Lagrangian description the position and physical
simultaneous translation and rotation of the body with- properties of the particles are described in terms of the
out changing its shape or size. Deformation implies the material or referential coordinates and time. In this case
change in shape and/or size of the body from an initial the reference configuration is the configuration at
or undeformed configuration κ0 (B) to a current or de- t = 0 . An observer standing in the referential frame of
formed configuration κt (B) (Figure 2). reference observes the changes in the position and physi-
The motion of a continuum body is a continuous time se- cal properties as the material body moves in space as time
quence of displacements. Thus, the material body will progresses. The results obtained are independent of the
7.2 Eulerian description 5

choice of initial time and reference configuration, κ0 (B)the material points. All physical quantities characterizing
. This description is normally used in solid mechanics. the continuum are described this way. In this sense, the
In the Lagrangian description, the motion of a continuum function χ(·) and Pij... (·) are single-valued and continu-
body is expressed by the mapping function χ(·) (Figure ous, with continuous derivatives with respect to space and
2), time to whatever order is required, usually to the second
or third.

x = χ(X, t) 7.2 Eulerian description

which is a mapping of the initial configuration κ0 (B) onto Continuity allows for the inverse of χ(·) to trace back-
the current configuration κt (B) , giving a geometrical wards where the particle currently located at x was lo-
correspondence between them, i.e. giving the position cated in the initial or referenced configuration κ0 (B) . In
vector x = xi ei that a particle X , with a position this case the description of motion is made in terms of
vector X in the undeformed or reference configuration the spatial coordinates, in which case is called the spa-
κ0 (B) , will occupy in the current or deformed configu- tial description or Eulerian description, i.e. the current
ration κt (B) at time t . The components xi are called configuration is taken as the reference configuration.
the spatial coordinates.
The Eulerian description, introduced by d'Alembert, fo-
Physical and kinematic properties Pij... , i.e. thermo- cuses on the current configuration κt (B) , giving attention
dynamic properties and flow velocity, which describe or to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time pro-
characterize features of the material body, are expressed gresses, instead of giving attention to individual particles
as continuous functions of position and time, i.e. Pij... = as they move through space and time. This approach is
Pij... (X, t) . conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow where the
The material derivative of any property Pij... of a con- kinematic property of greatest interest is the rate at which
tinuum, which may be a scalar, vector, or tensor, is the change is taking place rather than the shape of the body
[16]
time rate of change of that property for a specific group of fluid at a reference time.
of particles of the moving continuum body. The mate- Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eu-
rial derivative is also known as the substantial derivative, lerian description is expressed by the mapping function
or comoving derivative, or convective derivative. It can be
thought as the rate at which the property changes when
measured by an observer traveling with that group of par- X = χ−1 (x, t)
ticles.
which provides a tracing of the particle which now occu-
In the Lagrangian description, the material derivative of
pies the position x in the current configuration κt (B) to
Pij... is simply the partial derivative with respect to time,
its original position X in the initial configuration κ0 (B) .
and the position vector X is held constant as it does not
change with time. Thus, we have A necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse func-
tion to exist is that the determinant of the Jacobian Ma-
trix, often referred to simply as the Jacobian, should be
d ∂ different from zero. Thus,
[Pij... (X, t)] = [Pij... (X, t)]
dt ∂t
   
The instantaneous position x is a property of a particle,  ∂χi   ∂xi 
 = 
and its material derivative is the instantaneous flow veloc- J =  ∂XJ   ∂XJ  ̸= 0
ity v of the particle. Therefore, the flow velocity field of
the continuum is given by In the Eulerian description, the physical properties Pij...
are expressed as

dx ∂χ(X, t)
v = ẋ =
dt
=
∂t Pij... = Pij... (X, t) = Pij... [χ−1 (x, t), t] = pij... (x, t)

Similarly, the acceleration field is given by where the functional form of Pij... in the Lagrangian de-
scription is not the same as the form of pij... in the Eu-
lerian description.
d2 x ∂ 2 χ(X, t) The material derivative of pij... (x, t) , using the chain
a = v̇ = ẍ = =
dt2 ∂t2 rule, is then
Continuity in the Lagrangian description is expressed by
the spatial and temporal continuity of the mapping from d ∂ ∂ dxk
the reference configuration to the current configuration of [pij... (x, t)] = [pij... (x, t)]+ [pij... (x, t)]
dt ∂t ∂xk dt
6 8 GOVERNING EQUATIONS

The first term on the right-hand side of this equation gives It is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for
the local rate of change of the property pij... (x, t) occur- the undeformed and deformed configurations, which re-
ring at position x . The second term of the right-hand side sults in b = 0 , and the direction cosines become
is the convective rate of change and expresses the contri- Kronecker deltas, i.e.
bution of the particle changing position in space (motion).
Continuity in the Eulerian description is expressed by the
spatial and temporal continuity and continuous differen- EJ · ei = δJi = δiJ
tiability of the flow velocity field. All physical quantities
Thus, we have
are defined this way at each instant of time, in the current
configuration, as a function of the vector position x .
u(X, t) = x(X, t) − X or ui = xi − δiJ XJ
7.3 Displacement field or in terms of the spatial coordinates as

The vector joining the positions of a particle P in the

undeformed configuration and deformed configuration is U(x, t) = x − X(x, t) or UJ = δJi xi − XJ
called the displacement vector u(X, t) = ui ei , in the
Lagrangian description, or U(x, t) = UJ EJ , in the Eu-
lerian description.
8 Governing equations
A displacement field is a vector field of all displacement
vectors for all particles in the body, which relates the de-
Continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of mate-
formed configuration with the undeformed configuration.
rials that can be approximated as continuous for certain
It is convenient to do the analysis of deformation or mo-
length and time scales. The equations that govern the
tion of a continuum body in terms of the displacement
mechanics of such materials include the balance laws for
field, In general, the displacement field is expressed in
mass, momentum, and energy. Kinematic relations and
terms of the material coordinates as
constitutive equations are needed to complete the sys-
tem of governing equations. Physical restrictions on the
form of the constitutive relations can be applied by re-
u(X, t) = b+x(X, t)−X or ui = αiJ bJ +xi −αiJquiring
XJ that the second law of thermodynamics be sat-
isfied under all conditions. In the continuum mechanics
or in terms of the spatial coordinates as of solids, the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied
if the Clausius–Duhem form of the entropy inequality is
satisfied.
U(x, t) = b+x−X(x, t) or UJ = bJ +αJi xi −XJThe balance laws express the idea that the rate of change
of a quantity (mass, momentum, energy) in a volume
where αJi are the direction cosines between the material must arise from three causes:
and spatial coordinate systems with unit vectors EJ and
ei , respectively. Thus
1. the physical quantity itself flows through the surface
that bounds the volume,

EJ · ei = αJi = αiJ 2. there is a source of the physical quantity on the sur-

face of the volume, or/and,
and the relationship between ui and UJ is then given by
3. there is a source of the physical quantity inside the
volume.

ui = αiJ UJ or UJ = αJi ui Let Ω be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space)
and let ∂Ω be its surface (the boundary of Ω ).
Knowing that
Let the motion of material points in the body be described
by the map
ei = αiJ EJ

then x = χ(X) = x(X)

where X is the position of a point in the initial configu-

ration and x is the location of the same point in the de-
u(X, t) = ui ei = ui (αiJ EJ ) = UJ EJ = U(x, t) formed configuration.
8.2 Clausius–Duhem inequality 7

The deformation gradient is given by In the above, P is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor,
and ρ0 is the mass density in the reference configuration.
The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the
∂x Cauchy stress tensor by
F = = ∇x .
∂X

8.1 Balance laws P = J σ · F −T where J = det(F )

Let f (x, t) be a physical quantity that is flowing through We can alternatively define the nominal stress tensor N
the body. Let g(x, t) be sources on the surface of the body which is the transpose of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress
and let h(x, t) be sources inside the body. Let n(x, t) be tensor such that
the outward unit normal to the surface ∂Ω . Let v(x, t)
be the flow velocity of the physical particles that carry
the physical quantity that is flowing. Also, let the speed N = P T = J F −1 · σ .
at which the bounding surface ∂Ω is moving be un (in the
direction n ). Then the balance laws become
Then, balance laws can be expressed in the general form
ρ det(F ) − ρ0 = 0 Mass of Balance
[∫ ] ∫ ∫ ρ ẍ − ∇ · N∫ − ρ b = 0 Momentum Linear of
d 0 ◦ 0
f (x, t) dV = f (x, t)[un (x, t)−v(x, t)·n(x, t)] dA+ g(x, t) dA+ h(x, t) dV . T
ΩF · N = N · F
T
dt Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω Momentum Angular o

Note that the functions f (x, t) , g(x, t) , and h(x, t) can ρ0 ė − N : Ḟ + ∇◦ · q − ρ0 s = 0 Energy. of Balance
be scalar valued, vector valued, or tensor valued - de-
The operators in the above equations are defined as such
pending on the physical quantity that the balance equation
that
deals with. If there are internal boundaries in the body,
jump discontinuities also need to be specified in the bal-
ance laws.
∑ 3
∂vi ∑3
∂vi ∑ 3
If we take the Eulerian point of view, it can be shown that ∇v = ei ⊗ej = vi,j ei ⊗ej ; ∇·v = = vi,i ; ∇·S =
∂xj ∂xi
the balance laws of mass, momentum, and energy for a i,j=1 i=1 i,j
solid can be written as (assuming the source term is zero
for the mass and angular momentum equations) where v is a vector field, S is a second-order tensor field,
and ei are the components of an orthonormal basis in the
current configuration. Also,
ρ̇ + ρ ∇ · v = 0 Mass of Balance
ρ v̇ − ∇ · σ − ρ b = 0 motion) of law first (Cauchy's Momentum Linear of Balance
∑ 3
∂vi ∑3
∂vi
σ=σ T ∇second
motion) of law i ⊗Ej = vi,jAngular
◦ v = (Cauchy'sEMomentum Ei ⊗Ej ;of∇Balance
◦ ·v = = vi,i ; ∇◦ ·S
∂Xj ∂Xi
ρ ė − σ : (∇v) + ∇ · q − ρ s = 0 Energy. of Balance i,j=1 i=1

where v is a vector field, S is a second-order tensor field,

In the above equations ρ(x, t) is the mass density (cur-
and Ei are the components of an orthonormal basis in the
rent), ρ̇ is the material time derivative of ρ , v(x, t) is
reference configuration.
the particle velocity, v̇ is the material time derivative of
v , σ(x, t) is the Cauchy stress tensor, b(x, t) is the body The inner product is defined as
force density, e(x, t) is the internal energy per unit mass,
ė is the material time derivative of e , q(x, t) is the heat
flux vector, and s(x, t) is an energy source per unit mass. ∑ 3
A:B= Aij Bij = trace(AB T ) .
With respect to the reference configuration (the La- i,j=1
grangian point of view), the balance laws can be written
as
8.2 Clausius–Duhem inequality
ρ det(F ) − ρ0 = 0 Mass of
TheBalance
Clausius–Duhem inequality can be used to express
ρ0 ẍ − ∇◦ · P T
− ρ0 b = 0 Momentum Linearlaw
the second of of thermodynamics for elastic-plastic ma-
Balance
terials. This inequality is a statement concerning the ir-
F · PT = P · FT Momentum Angular
reversibility ofof Balance
natural processes, especially when energy
ρ0 ė − P T : Ḟ + ∇◦ · q − ρ0 s = 0 Energy.dissipation
of Balanceis involved.
8 11 NOTES

Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we 9 Applications

assume that there is a flux of a quantity, a source of the
quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit • Mechanics
mass. The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy.
Thus, we assume that there is an entropy flux, an entropy • Solid mechanics
source, and an internal entropy density per unit mass ( η • Fluid mechanics
) in the region of interest.
• Engineering
Let Ω be such a region and let ∂Ω be its boundary. Then
the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of • Mechanical engineering
increase of η in this region is greater than or equal to • Chemical engineering
the sum of that supplied to Ω (as a flux or from internal
sources) and the change of the internal entropy density • Civil engineering
due to material flowing in and out of the region. • Aerospace engineering
Let ∂Ω move with a flow velocity un and let particles
inside Ω have velocities v . Let n be the unit outward
normal to the surface ∂Ω . Let ρ be the density of matter 10 See also
in the region, q̄ be the entropy flux at the surface, and r
be the entropy source per unit mass. Then the entropy • Bernoulli’s principle
inequality may be written as
• Cauchy elastic material

(∫ ) ∫ • Configurational mechanics
∫ ∫
d
ρ η dV ≥ ρ η (un −v·n) dA+ q̄ dA+ ρ r•dV.
Curvilinear coordinates
dt Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω Ω
• Equation of state
The scalar entropy flux can be related to the vector flux
at the surface by the relation q̄ = −ψ(x) · n . Under • Finite deformation tensors
the assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions,
• Finite strain theory
we have
• Hyperelastic material

q(x) s • Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow

ψ(x) = ; r= field
T T
• Movable cellular automaton
where q is the heat flux vector, s is an energy source per
unit mass, and T is the absolute temperature of a material • Peridynamics (a non-local continuum theory leading
point at x at time t . to integral equations)
We then have the Clausius–Duhem inequality in integral • Stress (physics)
form:
• Stress measures

(∫ ) ∫ ∫ • Tensor
∫ calculus
d q·n ρs
ρ η dV ≥ ρ η (un − v · n) dA − dA + dV.
dt Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω T • Tensor
Ω T
derivative (continuum mechanics)

We can show that the entropy inequality may be written • Theory of elasticity
in differential form as

11 Notes
( )
q ρs
ρ η̇ ≥ −∇ · + . [1] Ostoja-Starzewski, M. (2008). “7-10”. Microstructural
T T randomness and scaling in mechanics of materials. CRC
Press. ISBN 1-58488-417-7.
In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the
Clausius–Duhem inequality may be written as [2] A. J. Roberts, A one-dimensional introduction to contin-
uum mechanics, World Scientific, 1994

[3] Dienes, J. K.; Solem, J. C. (1999). “Nonlinear behav-

q · ∇T ior of some hydrostatically stressed isotropic elastomeric
ρ (ė − T η̇) − σ : ∇v ≤ − . foams”. Acta Mechanica 138: 155–162.
T

[4] Smith & Truesdell p.97
[5] Slaughter
[6] Lubliner
[7] Liu
[8] Wu
[9] Fung
[10] Mase
[11] Atanackovic
[12] Irgens
[13] Chadwick
[14] Maxwell pointed out that nonvanishing body moments ex-
ist in a magnet in a magnetic field and in a dielectric ma-
terial in an electric field with different planes of polariza-
tion. Fung p.76.
[15] Couple stresses and body couples were first explored by
Voigt and Cosserat, and later reintroduced by Mindlin in
1960 on his work for Bell Labs on pure quartz crystals.
Richards p.55.
[16] Spencer, A.J.M. (1980). Continuum Mechanics. Long-
man Group Limited (London). p. 83. ISBN 0-582-
44282-6.
12 References
• Batra, R. C. (2006). Elements of Continuum Me-
chanics. Reston, VA: AIAA.
• Chandramouli, P.N (2014). Continuum Me-
chanics. Yes Dee Publishing Pvt Ltd. ISBN
9789380381398.
• Eringen, A. Cemal (1980). Mechanics of Continua
(2nd ed.). Krieger Pub Co. ISBN 0-88275-663-X.
• Chen, Youping; James D. Lee; Azim Eskandarian
(2009). Meshless Methods in Solid Mechanics (First
ed.). Springer New York. ISBN 1-4419-2148-6.
• Dill, Ellis Harold (2006). Continuum Mechanics:
Elasticity, Plasticity, Viscoelasticity. Germany: CRC
Press. ISBN 0-8493-9779-0.
• Dimitrienko, Yuriy (2011). Nonlinear Continuum
Mechanics and Large Inelastic Deformations. Ger-
many: Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-0033-8.
13 External links
• Hutter, Kolumban; Klaus Jöhnk (2004). Continuum
Methods of Physical Modeling. Germany: Springer.
ISBN 3-540-20619-1.
9
• Fung, Y. C. (1977). A First Course in Continuum
Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-
13-318311-4.
• Gurtin, M. E. (1981). An Introduction to Continuum
Mechanics. New York: Academic Press.
• Lai, W. Michael; David Rubin; Erhard Krempl
(1996). Introduction to Continuum Mechanics (3rd
ed.). Elsevier, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7506-2894-5.
• Lubarda, Vlado A. (2001). Elastoplasticity Theory.
CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1138-1.
• Lubliner, Jacob (2008). Plasticity Theory (Revised
Edition) (PDF). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-
46290-0.
• Malvern, Lawrence E. (1969). Introduction to the
mechanics of a continuous medium. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Mase, George E. (1970). Continuum Mechanics.
McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-040663-4.
• Mase, G. Thomas; George E. Mase (1999).
Continuum Mechanics for Engineers (Second ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1855-6.
• Maugin, G. A. (1999). The Thermomechanics of
Nonlinear Irreversible Behaviors: An Introduction.
Singapore: World Scientific.
• Nemat-Nasser, Sia (2006). Plasticity: A Treatise on
Finite Deformation of Heterogeneous Inelastic Ma-
terials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-83979-3.
• Ostoja-Starzewski, Martin (2008). Microstructural
Randomness and Scaling in Mechanics of Materi-
als. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-58488-417-0.
• Rees, David (2006). Basic Engineering Plasticity -
An Introduction with Engineering and Manufactur-
ing Applications. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-
7506-8025-3.
• Wright, T. W. (2002). The Physics and Mathematics
of Adiabatic Shear Bands. Cambridge, UK: Cam-
bridge University Press.
• www.continuummechanics.org
10 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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